Lecture 2 - Physicl and Mechanical Properties of Materials (Compatibility Mode)

10/18/2010
Physical And Mechanical Properties in Manufacturing.

I-Physical Properties
Important in manufacturing because they often

influence process performance
Examples:
In machining, thermal properties of the work
material determine the cutting temperature,
which affects tool life
In microelectronics, electrical properties of
ssilicon
co aand
d how
o tthese
ese p
properties
ope t es ca
can be
altered by chemical and physical processes
is the basis of semiconductor manufacturing
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Density and Specific Gravity Defined

Density = weight per unit volume
Typical
yp g/cm3 ((lb/in3)
units are g
Specific gravity = density of a material relative
to density of water and is a ratio with no units
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Why Density is Important

Important consideration in material selection for
a given application, but it is generally not the
only property of interest
Strength is also important, and the two
properties are often related in a
strength-to-weight ratio, which is tensile
strength divided by density
Useful ratio in comparing materials for
structural applications in aircraft,
automobiles, and other products where
weight and energy are concerns
Thermal Expansion
Density of a material is a function of
temperature
In general, density decreases with
increasing temperature
Volume per unit weight increases with
increasing temperature
Thermal expansion is the name for this
effect
e ect of
o te
temperature
pe atu e oon de
density
s ty
Measured by coefficient of thermal
expansion
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Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Change in length per degree of temperature,
such as mm/mm/C (in/in/F)
Length ratio rather than volume ratio
because this is easier to measure and apply
Change in length for a given temperature
change is:
L2 - L1 = L1 (T2 - T1)
where = coefficient of thermal expansion;
L1 and L2 are lengths corresponding
respectively to temperatures T1 and T2
Thermal Expansion in Manufacturing

Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and
expansion fit assemblies
Part is heated to increase size or cooled to
decrease size to permit insertion into
another part
When part returns to ambient temperature,
a tightly-fitted assembly is obtained
Thermal
e a e expansion
pa s o cacan be a pproblem
ob e in heat
eat
treatment and welding due to thermal stresses
that develop in material during these processes
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Melting Characteristics for Elements

Melting point Tm of a pure element =
temperature at which it transforms from solid to
liquid state
The reverse transformation occurs at the
same temperature and is called the freezing
point
Heat of fusion = heat energy required at Tm to
accomplish transformation from solid to liquid
Importance of Melting in Manufacturing

Metal casting - the metal is melted and then
poured into a mold cavity
Metals with lower melting points are
generally easier to cast
Plastic molding - melting characteristics of
polymers are important in nearly all polymer
shaping processes
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Thermal Properties
Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion
are thermal properties because temperature
determines the thermal energy level of the
atoms, leading to the changes in materials
Additional thermal properties:
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
These properties relate to the storage and
flow of heat within a substance
Electrical Properties
Engineering materials exhibit a great variation
in their capability to conduct electricity
Flow of electrical current involves movement of
charge carriers - infinitesimally small particles
possessing an electrical charge
In solids, these charge carriers are electrons
In a liquid solution, charge carriers are
positive
pos t eaandd negative
egat e ions
o s
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10/18/2010
Electrical Properties
Movement of charge carriers is driven by the
presence of electric voltage
And resisted by the inherent characteristics of
the material, such as atomic structure and
bonding between atoms and molecules
E
Ohm's law: I =
R
where I = current, A, E = voltage, V, and R =

electrical resistance,
Materials and Electrical Properties

Metals are the best conductors of electricity,
because of their metallic bonding
Most ceramics and polymers, whose electrons
are tightly bound by covalent and/or ionic
bonding, are poor conductors
Many of these materials are used as insulators
because they possess high resistivities
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10/18/2010
Electrical Properties in Manufacturing

The important welding processes, such as arc
welding and resistance spot welding, use
electrical energy to melt the joint metal
Mechanical Properties in
Design and Manufacturing
Mechanical properties determine a materials
behavior when subjected to mechanical stresses
Properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
hardness, and various measures of strength
Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the
designer, such as high strength, usually make
manufacturing more difficult
The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the
design viewpoint
And the designer should be aware of the
manufacturing viewpoint
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10/18/2010
Stress-Strain Relationships
Three types of static stresses to which materials
can be subjected:
1. Tensile - tend to stretch the material
2. Compressive - tend to squeeze it
3. Shear - tend to cause adjacent portions of
material to slide against each other
Stress-strain curve - basic relationship that
describes mechanical properties for all three
types
Tensile Test
Most common test for
studying stress-strain
relationship, especially
metals
In the test, a force pulls the
material, elongating it and
reducing its diameter
Figure 3.1 Tensile test: (a) tensile

force applied in (1) and (2)
resulting elongation of material
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10/18/2010
Tensile Test Sequence

Figure 3.2 Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of
test, no load; (2) uniform elongation and reduction of
cross-sectional area; (3) continued elongation, maximum
load reached; (4) necking begins, load begins to decrease;
and (5) fracture. If pieces are put back together as in (6),
final length can be measured.
Engineering Stress
Defined as force divided by original area:
F
e
Ao
where e = engineering stress, F = applied

force, and Ao = original area of test specimen
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10/18/2010
Engineering Strain
Defined at any point in the test as
L Lo
e
Lo
where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

point during elongation; and Lo = original gage
length
Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot
Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile

test of a metal.
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10/18/2010
Two Regions of Stress-Strain Curve

The two regions indicate two distinct forms of
behavior:
1. Elastic region prior to yielding of the material
2. Plastic region after yielding of the material
Elastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve

Relationship between stress and strain is
linear
Material returns to its original length when
stress is removed
Hooke's Law: e = E e
where E = modulus of elasticity
E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a
material
t i l
Its value differs for different materials
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10/18/2010
Yield Point in Stress-Strain Curve

As stress increases, a point in the linear
relationship is finally reached when the
material begins to yield
Yield point Y can be identified by the change in
slope at the upper end of the linear region
Y = a strength property
Other names for yield point = yield strength,
yield stress, and elastic limit
Plastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve

Yield point marks the beginning of plastic
deformation
The stress-strain relationship is no longer
guided by Hooke's Law
As load is increased beyond Y, elongation
proceeds at a much faster rate than before,
causing the slope of the curve to change
dramatically
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10/18/2010
Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve

Elongation is accompanied by a uniform
reduction in cross-sectional area, consistent
with maintaining constant volume
Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum
value, and engineering stress at this point is
called the tensile strength TS (a.k.a. ultimate
tensile strength)
Fmax
TS =
Ao
Ductility in Tensile Test

Ability of a material to plastically strain without
fracture
Ductility measure = elongation EL
Lf Lo
EL
Lo
where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length

at fracture; and Lo = original specimen length
Lf is measured as the distance between gage
marks after two pieces of specimen are put
back together
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10/18/2010
True Stress
Stress value obtained by dividing the
instantaneous area into applied load
F

A
where = true stress; F = force; and A =

actual (instantaneous) area resisting the
load
True Strain
Provides a more realistic assessment of
"instantaneous" elongation per unit length
L
dL L
ln
L L Lo
o
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10/18/2010
True Stress-Strain Curve

Figure 3.4 - True stress-strain curve for the previous
engineering stress-strain plot in Figure 3.3.
Hardness
Resistance to permanent indentation
Good hardness g generally
y means material is
resistant to scratching and wear
Most tooling used in manufacturing must be
hard for scratch and wear resistance
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10/18/2010
Effect of Temperature on Properties
Figure 3.15 General effect of temperature on strength and ductility.
16

Lecture 2 - Physicl and Mechanical Properties of Materials (Compatibility Mode)

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10/18/2010

Physical And Mechanical Properties in Manufacturing.

Important in manufacturing because they often

Density and Specific Gravity Defined

Why Density is Important

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion in Manufacturing

Melting Characteristics for Elements

Importance of Melting in Manufacturing

where I = current, A, E = voltage, V, and R =

Materials and Electrical Properties

Electrical Properties in Manufacturing

Figure 3.1 Tensile test: (a) tensile

Tensile Test Sequence

where e = engineering stress, F = applied

where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot

Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile

Two Regions of Stress-Strain Curve

Elastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve

Yield Point in Stress-Strain Curve

Plastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve

Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve

Ductility in Tensile Test

where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length

where = true stress; F = force; and A =

True Stress-Strain Curve

Effect of Temperature on Properties

Figure 3.15 General effect of temperature on strength and ductility.

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