CHAPTER 11: SCHOOLS

INTRODUCTION

Compulsory education was instituted across the United States between 1890 and 1920 and
included intellectual, vocational, and citizenship curricula. Adding classes in areas such as music,
physical education, and sports broadened the curriculum across the years. Cross-cultural
comparisons indicate that most countries mandate school attendance to begin at 6 or 7 and to end
at 14 to 17 years of age. Countries place varying emphasis on basic and advanced academic
preparation, vocational training, and sports.
Educators follow numerous strategies to promote learning:

Direct instruction approachfounded in applied behavior analysis, teachers use

directed, mastery learning strategies;
Cognitive constructivist approachfollowing a Piagetian theoretical foundation,
teachers prompt students to take an active role in constructing a knowledge base;
Social constructivist approachbased on Vygotskys theoretical orientation,
students collaborate to construct a solid foundation of knowledge;
Learner-centered principlesbased on 14 learner-centered principles and
cognitive, motivational, social, and individual factors, students rather than teachers
are central figures.

The Carnegie Council proposed core social policy for improving adolescent education by
creating learning environments that promote learning communities, curriculum standards,
academic success, effective school personnel, student health, family involvement, and community-
wide resources.
Students making a transition from grade school to middle school, and then to senior high
have both stressful experiences and beneficial outcomes. Students experience the top-dog
phenomenon as they move from top to bottom positions between grade schools and middle
schools. School changes provide students with the opportunity to gradually shift toward personal
independence and responsibility. Fewer transitions, increased involvement in extracurricular
activities, high-quality friendships, and parent support are correlated with good student
adjustment and high self-esteem. Successful middle schools create settings that provide personal
attention, involve parents, support rigorous instruction, and promote student health.
Many high school graduates are ill prepared for college or the workplace. Educators believe that high
schools need a new mission to better prepare students.
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 Circumventing normal transition periods by dropping out of high school often leads to
poor employment opportunities. Graduation rates are as low as 10 percent for Native Americans
and 50 percent for minorities in cities. Adolescents drop out due to academic, economic, and
personal-social reasons. Reducing dropout rates depends on personalized guidance through
academic, social, cultural, and recreational activities throughout the school years.
The transition to college or employment may be less stressful due to improved
relationships with parents. The transition from high school to college can be facilitated best with
personalized assistance from high school counselors and college representatives.
The social context of school changes as children go from preschool to elementary school
to the secondary level. School characteristics appear to have both short- and long-term influences
on students:

Students in smaller schools demonstrate more prosocial behavior; large schools may
influence anonymity and reduce personal responsibility.
The authoritative strategy of classroom management encourages students to be
independent yet cooperative and cognizant of classroom expectations.
The authoritarian strategy of class management encourages compliant, passive
learners.
The permissive strategy of classroom management provides autonomy, but little
structure for students learning self-control and academic skills.
School climates that project self-efficacy and positive expectations for students
appear to have overall beneficial effects on academic performance and achievement.
The aptitude-treatment interaction between student characteristics and classroom
environments require adjustments to promote optimal learning.

Teachers influence learning with enthusiasm, organization, adaptability, and cognizance

of individual learners requirements. Parent and school cooperation must continue from grade
school and middle school through high school to ensure positive outcomes for students
academically and physically.
Students in middle school interact with many peers on a daily basis. Popular or accepted students are more
successful academically. Some children and adolescents are the victims of bullies. These children have several
characteristics in common including parent who are demanding and unresponsive and a tendency to internalize
problems. Victims of bullies can suffer short-term and long-term negative effects.
Socioeconomic status (SES) also has an enduring influence. Students from low-SES
neighborhoods attend schools with lower graduation rates; fewer students going to college; and
young, inexperienced teachers. Ethnicity and SES are often difficult to understand by themselves
because many minority group members experience poverty. Educational programs often reflect
attitudes of institutional racism. Strategies for resolving these difficulties are complicated.
Student relations in ethnically diverse classrooms may be achieved by creating jigsaw
classrooms, encouraging positive personal contact, advocating perspective taking, promoting
critical thinking and social problem solving, establishing cooperative school-community efforts,
and advocating for knowledge and respect of ethnic attitudes.

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 Cross-cultural comparisons of secondary schools have found several similarities such as
being divided into two or more levels but have uncovered many differences as well. College
attendance also differs with Canada having the largest enrollment.
Exceptional adolescents represent students who often require curriculum modifications
and adult support to reach their full potential. Students with a learning disability most often
have difficulties in reading, written language, and math. Students with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties focusing on relevant environmental stimuli
and show high levels of physical activity. About 90 percent take prescription medication for
behavior control. Adolescents with disabilities typically are included in regular education
classrooms, the least restrictive environment. Inclusion in regular education classrooms
ensures that all students have the same opportunities to learn both academically and socially.
Adolescents who are gifted demonstrate characteristics of precocity, independence in learning,
and internal motivation. Programs for gifted students include special classes, enriched regular
education settings, apprenticeship programs, and community internships. Educators and schools
are continuously challenged to support diverse learners within local educational settings.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE

Chapter 11: Schools

HEADING RESOURCE
I. APPROACHES TO EDUCATING STUDENTS Learning Goal: 1
Image Gallery: 113, 156, 160
Lecture Topic: 11.1
Research Project: 11.2
Essay Question: 1

Historical Aspects Lecture Topic: 11.1

In-Class Activity: 11.2
Short Scenario: 11.1
Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.2
Essay Question: 1
WWW: Ask ERIC; Phi Delta Kappa at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
WWW: National Education Research Centers; Pathways to School
Improvement; APAs Education Directorate at www.mhhe.com/
santrocka10

Contemporary Approaches Lecture Topics: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3

Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.2
Research Article: 11.1
WWW: Reinventing Schools; www.books.nap.edu/html/techgap/

The APAs Learner-Centered Principles Lecture Topic: 11.1

Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.2
WWW: Constructivist Teaching and Learning; APAs Learner-
Centered Psychological Principles at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

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 Social Policy Essay Question: 2
Video: School and Public Policy (VAD)

Schools Changing Social Developmental Contexts Learning Goal: 2

II. TRANSITIONS IN SCHOOLING Learning Goal: 2

Image Gallery: 160
Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.1
Short Scenario: 11.2
WWW: Educating Young Adolescents for a Changing World at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

Transition to Middle or Junior High School Essay Question: 3

Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Hoping a Pill Will Be Invented to
Get You Through School

What Makes a Successful Middle School? Lecture Topic: 11.2

Research Project: 11.2
Essay Question: 4
WWW: First Days of Middle School; Resources for Middle School;
Teachers; Middle School Issues; Middle School Programs at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

The American High School Learning Goal: 2

High School Dropouts and Noncollege Youth Image Gallery: 112

High School Dropout Rates
The Causes of Dropping Out
Reducing the Dropout Rate and Improving
the Lives of Noncollege Youth
Lecture Topic: 11.2
Short Scenario: 11.1
Essay Question: 5
WWW: Issues in Dropping Out of School; High School Dropouts
and Ethnicity; Raising Achievement and Reducing Dropout Rates
at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Adolescents Who Hate School

Transition from High School to College Learning Goal: 2

Transition from College to Work Image Gallery: 156
Short Scenario: 11.2
Essay Question: 3
WWW: High Schools; Friendship and the Transition to College at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

III. THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF SCHOOLS Learning Goal: 3

Lecture Topic: 11.1
In-Class Activity: 11.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.1
Research Article: 11.2

Changing Social Developmental Context Research Project: 11.2

Discussion Topic: 11.3
Research Articles: 11.1, 11.2
Research Project: 11.1

Size and Climate of Schools Discussion Topic: 11.3

Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.3

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 Short Scenario: 11.1
Research Article: 11.2
Research Project: 11.2

School Size and Classroom Size Critical Thinking Exercises: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3
WWW: The Metamorphosis of Classroom Management; Managing
Todays Classroom at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

Classroom Climate Discussion Topic: 11.3

In-Class Activity: 11.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.3
Short Scenario: 11.3
Research Article: 11.2
Essay Question: 6

Person-Environment Fit Lecture Topic: 11.2

Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.1

Teachers and Parents Lecture Topic: 11.3

Discussion Topic: 11.2
Short Scenario: 11.1
Research Article: 11.1
Essay Question: 7
WWW: Publications for Parents: www.ed.gov/searchResults.html

Interactions with Teachers Lecture Topic: 11.3

Discussion Topic: 11.2
WWW: Teaching Resources at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10

Parents and Schools Lecture Topic: 11.3

Discussion Topic: 11.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.1
Essay Question: 7
Careers in Adolescent Development: Jimmy Furlow, Secondary
School Teacher
WWW: Parent Involvement in Schools at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Peers Learning Goal: 3
Structure of Middle School Research Article: 11.1
Peer Statuses
Bullying
Friendship
Crowds

Culture Learning Goal: 3

Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity
Socioeconomic Status
Ethnicity
Short Scenario: 11.1
Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.2
Essay Question: 8
WWW: Poverty and Learning; Interview with Jonathan Kozol at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
WWW: Exploring Multicultural Education; Multicultural Education
Resources; Multicultural Pavilion at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
WWW: Cooperative Learning at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Careers in Adolescent Development: James Comer, Psychiatrist

Cross-Cultural Comparisons Lecture Topic: 11.3

Secondary Schools
Colleges

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IV. ADOLESCENTS WHO ARE EXCEPTONAL Learning Goal: 4
Short Scenario: 11.3
Research Article: 11.1
Essay Question: 9

Who Are Adolescents with Disabilities? Learning Goal: 4

Learning Disabilities WWW: Learning Disabilities Association; Learning Disabilities

Resources; ADHD Resources at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Educational Issues Involving Adolescents with WWW: Special Education Resources; The Council for Exceptional
Disabilities Children; Legal Issues and Disabilities Inclusion at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

Adolescents Who are Gifted Learning Goal: 4

Essay Question: 10
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Youth Who Are Gifted Speak
WWW: Gifted and Talented Resources; Gifted Education at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Careers in Adolescent Development: Sterling Jones, Supervisor of
Gifted and Talented Education

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS

Topic 11.1Effective Educational Strategies

The major goal of education may be to prepare adolescents for the next stage of development,
either secondary education or employment; to prepare students for a life-long learning process,
or to establish and maintain a cooperative democratic society. Whatever the purpose, schools and
teachers have the opportunity to profoundly impact students lives. Effective instructional
strategies help teachers increase educational effectiveness and provide opportunities for students
to achieve these goals. Assessment helps students and teachers determine whether instructional
strategies really are effective. Regularly alternating assessment and intervention procedures
keeps both teachers and students on track. An effective educational sequence looks something
like this:

Assess students prior knowledge acquisition

Clarify educational goals and expectations
Promote awareness of learning styles through self-assessment
Provide instruction about learning and memory strategies
Ask students to monitor their study time and daily productivity
Begin instruction by connecting students current knowledge and new information
Ask students to write down the most important thing they learned that day/week
Provide repetition to establish factual information and theories or principles
Promote a community of learners with students teaching and learning with peers
Assess accuracy of new knowledge through discussion and application exercises
Reintroduce previous information relevant to current topicsask questions or reintro-
duce key terms
Query student understanding of material and instructional effectiveness through
Muddiest Point (e.g., What was the muddiest point in this session? Angelo & Cross,
1993, p. 152)
Demonstrate how information applies to students lives
Discuss students perspective and their confidence at using the information
Assess students ability to apply the information to their own lives
Assess students overall performance
Ask students to assess teachers performance

Angelo and Cross (1993) suggest that students establish a thorough understanding of
material when teachers encourage and support them to be competent learners by:

becoming actively engaged;

establishing realistic, high goals;
using regular feedback;
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 recognizing preconceived ideas, and revising them when necessary;
recognizing personal learning styles, and improving them;
applying new information to current experiences;
understanding assessment criteria and procedures; and
working consistently and prolifically with their peers and teachers.

Friedman and Fisher (1998) explain how effective teachers complete the instructional
process.
Individuals and groups of students rarely present exactly the same challenges. Teachers
effectiveness depends on quickly determining and responding to the effectiveness of any given
approach. Thus, successful instruction requires that teachers regularly assess and instruct to
recognize how well teaching strategies fit the students with whom they are working.

References
Angelo. T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers
(2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Friedman, M. I., & Fisher, S. P. (1998). Handbook on effective instructional strategies: Evidence for
decision making. Columbia, SC: The Institute for Evidence-Based Decision-Making Education, Inc.

Topic 11.2Teaching at the Appropriate Cognitive Level

Is it developmentally appropriate to assume that adolescents are capable of abstract reasoning
and formal logic when designing teaching materials and strategies for junior high (middle)
school, high school, and college students? One researcher, John Renner, says definitely notand
provides solid data to document the actual incidence of formal operations and to demonstrate the
influence of courses that have assumed those abilities on the part of adolescents.
It may be helpful to obtain a copy of the book by Renner and his associates (1976) and
study the data of the incidence of formal operations. Generally, Renner et al. found that less than
25 percent of high school students think at the formal-operational or transitional level. Over 70
percent of high school students are thinking at a fully concrete level. In order to solve
complicated problems, students must be able to interact with objects, events, and situations that
permit logical thought to develop. Renner et al. suggest physical science experiments including
the conservation of solid amount, conservation of volume, reciprocal implications, elimination of
contradictions, separation of variables, and exclusion. Summarize, from the text, strategies used
in introductory physical science classrooms that assume students are formal operational thinkers
versus those that assume students are concrete operational thinkers. Renner et al. also
documented the changes in the incidence of formal operations associated with learning in each
type of class.
Combine with your presentation of Renners research any additional information you
have about the success of science teaching in America today. Is Renners proposal the answer? If
so, why are other nations so successful at teaching science to their teenagers? Determine, if you
can, whether science teaching in other countries conforms to Renners suggestions.

Reference

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Renner, J. W.; Stafford, D. G.; Lawson, A.E.; McKinnon, J. W.; Friot, F. E., & Kellogg, D. H. (1976).
Research, teaching, and learning with the Piaget model. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

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Topic 11.3American vs. Japanese Schools
In Japan, everyone is able to read, 94 percent of adolescents graduate from high school, and
34 percent earn college degrees (Chance, 1987). How do Japanese youth achieve such high
educational standards?

First, the Japanese place importance on education in homes. Many Japanese mothers
devote their entire lives to assisting their children with their schoolwork. Japanese
mothers play educational games, read to them, and lavish praise on their children as
they master skills.
Second, formal education begins early for most Japanese children. Preschool
environments in Japan are more controlled, formal, and skill-oriented than preschools
in America. Japanese preschoolers learn three alphabets, learn to cooperatively
manage daily living tasks, and begin the foundations of traditional school curriculum.
Third, school-age Japanese children themselves show greater self-control over their
school behaviors than do American schoolchildren. They spend an hour more each
day and 63 more days each year in school than do American children, and many
Japanese children attend a juku, where they receive private lessons after school. Then
they go home and do a few hours of homework for their regular school.
Finally, by high school, serious Japanese students do little but study and attend
school. They dedicate their lives to studying for extensive comprehensive college
entrance exams that will determine their educational and career futures.

The first nine years of education are compulsory public schooling. After that, many
Japanese children attend a yobiko, a sophisticated private high school. A yobiko holds classes 5-
1/2 days a week, 210 days a year (Walsh, 1987). Their educational obsession may pay off with
acceptance into Tokyo or Kyoto universities, the most prestigious Japanese colleges.

Cultural Expectations
Should Americans adopt many of the features of the Japanese school system? Many parents think
that the stress of so much schooling would lead to violence or depression! Yet, there are more
assaults on teachers in New York City schools than in all of Japan, and the suicide rate among
teenagers is higher in the United States than it is in Japan (Chance, 1987).
Adoption of the Japanese system in the United States might be unsuccessful for several
reasons. First, Americans are accustomed to local control of school systems and seem to value
diversity from one school system to the next. The Japanese model features excessive
centralization and lack of diversity. Many Japanese believe that this aspect of their system needs
to be changed (Walsh, 1987).
Next, to imitate the Japanese educational system, an American parent would have to be
willing to sacrifice their careers to thoroughly supervise and tutor their children (Chance, 1987).
Few Americans would make this choice; however, if they did abandon their careers, business and
industry would be shaken by the loss of strong, effective workers.
Japanese parents also spend thousands of dollars on their childrens elementary and
secondary school education to make them competitive for college (Walsh, 1987). To do this in
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the American culture would increase the differences in the education of the middle and upper
classes and the education of the lower classes. A basic American tenet is to make educational
opportunities available for all. In fact, not all Japanese families can afford good education for
their children. About 29 percent of Japanese high school graduates go on to undergraduate
college programs (another 12 percent enter special training schools); in America, about 55
percent of high school graduates go on to 2- and 4-year colleges. About 3 percent of Japanese
college enrollment is in graduate college programs; in America it is about 11 percent (Walsh,
1987).

Differences in Educational Climate and Student Outcome

Stevenson and colleagues have studied extensively to identify differences in educational
outcomes for Japanese, Chinese, and American children. After administering cognitive tests of
verbal and performance ability, the children were given achievement tests to determine current
levels of accomplishment. The results showed that at the first grade level, American students
scored higher on the cognitive tasks than the other two groups. At the fifth grade level, students
demonstrated similar cognitive abilities across the three groups; Japanese and Chinese students
had gained on the American students. Also at fifth grade, achievement scores were very different
across the three groups: Chinese students did best in reading; Japanese students were best in
math; American students, already behind the others academically in first grade, were far behind
the other two groups in fifth grade. The explanation may have something to do with the
following: First, in addition to increased hours (1 per day) and days (60 to 65 per year) in school
experienced by Asian children, a greater percentage of the school day is spent on academics (10
percent to 25 percent more time). Second, Asian students commit two to three times as many
hours on homework each week.
Interestingly, Japanese college years are as lax as the earlier schooling was intense and
competitive. Many Japanese college students spend much of their time during college cutting
classes, partying, getting drunk, and doing club activities (Walsh, 1987). Most American students
study little through high school and then study much harder in college; Japanese students study
very hard through high school and then do little studying in college. Although the average
Japanese high school student knows more than the average American high school student,
Japanese college students do little research and may achieve less creative thinking than their
American counterparts (Walsh, 1987; Chance, 1987a).
What aspects of the American school system would be beneficial additions to the
Japanese school system? Should American children attend juku? What aspects of the Japanese
school system would be good to adapt to the American school system? Would yobiko be better
than the average public high school? Should the school year be lengthened to 210 days? Should
school be held on Saturday mornings? Should the American college system be more lenient on
issues such as cutting classes and partying?

References
Chance, P. (1987). Asian studies. Psychology Today, July, 80.
Chen, C.; Lee, S., & Stevenson, H. W. (1996). Long-term prediction of academic achievement of
American, Chinese, and Japanese adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 18, 750759.

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Stevenson, H. W., & Lee, S. (1990). Contexts of achievement: A study of American, Chinese, and
Japanese children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 55.

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Stevenson, H. W.; Lee, S., & Stigler, J. W. (1986). Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and
American children. Science, 231, 693699.
Stevenson, H. W.; Stigler, J. W.; Leen, S.; Lucker, G. W.; Kitamura, S., & Hsu, C. (1985). Cognitive
performance and academic achievement of Japanese, Chinese and American children. Child
Development, 56, 718734.
Walsh, J. (1987). U.S.-Japan study aim is education reform. Science, 235, 274275.

CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES

Discussion Topics

Discussion 11.1Why School Reform Has Failed

Robert Steinberg (1996) suggests that one of the biggest problems we face with adolescents
today is their lack of interest in education. Examples of active resistance to education include the
school walkout in Hershey, Pennsylvania (Hershey Chronicle, April 7, 1994), in response to an
announcement that the school year would be extended to make up for storm days; or blank
stares, sleeping students, and active disengagement during class discussions. Steinberg suggests
that educators cannot create a program that will engage students as long as student peer groups
and parents themselves remain disengaged. The following solutions are worth discussion:

Refocus the discussionrecognize the issue as one that goes beyond the schools and
only changing schools will not help.
Establish academic excellence as a national priorityclarify that education is the
most important task of childhood and adolescence.
Increase parental effectivenessbe willing to discuss the high rate of parent irre-
sponsibility or dysfunctional family environments in the United States.
Increase parental involvement in schoolinsist that parents be actively and
meaningfully involved with schools and educational communities.
Make school performance really countestablish the importance of academic
competence as a means of entering subsequent educational programs.
Adopt a system of national standards and examinationsmake students and schools
accountable for providing diplomas.
Develop uniform national standards for transcriptsuse universally recognized meas-
urement tools to document competence.
Eliminate remedial education at four-year colleges and universitiesrequire college
level competencies to enter and remain in college.
Support appropriate school-sponsored extracurricular activitiesmake sure educa-
tional programs are devoting more time to academic instruction than extracurricular
activities.
Limit youngsters time in after-school jobsprevent students from putting their
energy into jobs over education; limit jobs to 20 hours per week.

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 Steinberg concludes that if we want to change what is happening in schools, we must
change the context in which educators do their jobs.

Reference
Steinberg, L. (1996). Beyond the classroom: Why school reform has failed and what parents need to do.
New York: Simon & Schuster.

Discussion 11.2The Hidden Curriculum

School climate often appears as a point of discussion especially when students demonstrate poor
academic achievement, lack of involvement, and antisocial behavior. Factors that can be
measured objectively and are believed to influence school climate include clearly stated
educational goals and objectives, and efficient management of programs and budget. David Wren
argues that institutional culture and climate are influenced by less conspicuous factors such as
the dynamics in human relationships and the traditions or activities that the organization
supports. The following implied messages might influence the hidden curriculum:

students and educators understanding of administrative expectations;

school spirit transmitted through traditional activities, mottoes, or mascots;
school emphasis on athletic versus academic achievement;
expectations for daily patterns of behavior (compliant or chaotic);
parental involvement and expectations for students, teachers, and administrators;
educators implicit goals and objectives incorporated into school curriculum;
academic expectations based on anticipated post-secondary education or success;
academic expectations for students from low and middle SES;
academic expectations for male versus female students;
religious affiliation that guides expectations in many aspects of life.

Ask students to identify the types of hidden curriculum that operated at their high
schools. How many different implied messages influenced their school climate? Have individual
students identify which message seemed most important. How did each student make that
decision? Did implied messages contradict explicit information provided by teachers,
administrators, or parents?

Reference
Wren, D. J. (1999). School culture: Exploring the hidden curriculum. Adolescence, 34, 593596.

In-Class Activities

Activity 11.1Taking Sides on National Education Standards

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The issue of national educational standards continues to be a difficult one on which to establish
agreement. The National Commission on Excellence in Education, in A Nation at Risk (1983),
recommended that students complete basic high school requirements in order to be prepared for
post-secondary activities. Their recommendations were that students should have four years of
English, three years each of mathematics, science, and social studies; and a semester of computer
science. Two years of a foreign language were recommended for any student going to college.
The number of students who accomplished these recommendations was about 17 percent in
1990.
Ask students to debate the issue about the value or importance of national standards
versus state determined or local school governance over secondary education program
requirements. Assign students to a group representing a particular position. Ask students to
prepare by studying the recommendations for national standards, their own state requirements,
and requirements of colleges identified as Tier 1 (e.g., Princeton, Stanford), Tier 2 (e.g., George
Washington University, University of Kansas) Tier 3 (e.g., Mississippi State University, Oregon
State University) and Tier 4 (e.g., University of North Texas, University of South Dakota)
schools (U.S. News & World Report, 2002). Also look for academic reviews, popular press
articles, and professional publications that discuss the issues. After students prepare to take a
stand on the issues they represent, ask them to engage in an in-class debate.

References
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for
educational reform: A report to the nation and the Secretary of Education, United States Department
to Education, Washington, DC.: Author
U.S. News and World Report (2004, February). Americas Best Colleges 2004.
http://www.usnews.com/usnews/rankguide/rghome.htm

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Activity 11.2Mission and Policy
Invite an administrator and program director from two school systems or from a middle school
and high school program as guests in your class to describe their programs. Ask administrators to
specifically discuss their schools mission statements, goals, philosophy, school climate, parent
participation, and community involvement. Ask the program directors to discuss the school
curriculum, and any schoolwide programs for discipline, motivation, mentoring, etc. Following
the presentations, ask students to comment on the consistency between philosophy and
implemented programs and the advantages or disadvantages of each schools approach.

Critical Thinking Exercises

Exercise 11.1Developmental Issues in Education

Review Chapter 1 of Adolescence discussing several issues concerning the nature of
development. Some of the topics of Chapter 11 are paired with a developmental issue. Determine
which pair represents the best match. Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the
best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.

A. transitions in schooling: early experience

B. school and classroom size: nurture

C. aptitude-treament interaction: biological processes

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D. interactions with teachers: periods of development

E. parents and schools: discontinuity

Exercise 11.2Aptitude-Treatment Interaction

An important, though challenging, concept presented in Chapter 11 is aptitude-treatment
interaction. Santrock addresses this idea specifically in a section of its own, but material
elsewhere in the chapter also illustrates this. Listed below are several other topics contained in
Chapter 11. Which one of them best illustrates the idea of aptitude-treatment interaction? Circle
the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other
answers is not as appropriate.

A. the back-to-basics movement D. the I Have a Dream Program

B. the shopping mall high school E. small classroom size
C. effective middle schools

Exercise 11.3School Size and Climate

Santrock discusses the effects of size and climate of schools on the affective and cognitive
education of adolescents. In order to accept the findings, we must assume that one of the
following statements is true. Which one of them is the crucial assumption, as opposed to an
inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best
answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.

A. More prosocial and possibly less antisocial behavior occurs in small schools.

B. Low-response schools have higher crime rates than high-response schools.

C. Standardized tests are valid measures of student achievement.

D. The greatest gains in achievement occur when the class size is 20 or fewer students.

E. An authoritative strategy will benefit students more than authoritarian or permissive

strategy.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises

Exercise 11.1
A. This is not the best answer. The material lacks a discussion about how early childhood
experiences influence adolescents adaptations to secondary schools. A possible exception
is the treatment of the top-dog-phenomenon. Strictly speaking, however, this is not an
example of the early experience issue.
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B. This is the best answer. This section of text is clearly concerned with how variations in
school environment correlate with variations in student achievement.

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C. This is not the best answer. Although biological needs could be among the student
requirements, schools need to address in aptitude-treatment interactions, no biological
process is mentioned in the text, nor cited as a mechanism relevant to this interaction.

D. This is not the best answer. This section does not address the issue of different tactics
teachers might use with various age groups, but it does recognize that teachers knowledge
of developmental characteristics is one of several influential factors considered by
successful teachers.

E. This is not the best answer. There may be discontinuity between parents and schools based
on points discussed in the material, but that is not the point of discontinuity as it is
discussed in Chapter 1. There is no discussion about how parents involvement in schools
relates to discontinuities in development.

Exercise 11.2
A. This is not the best answer. In fact, the back-to-basics movement seems to be a reaction
against ideas, such as aptitude-treatment interaction. The movement focuses on a
curriculum that all students should take and is not concerned with alternative classes.

B. This is not the best answer. Santrock points out that this type of high school encourages
individualization, but at the possible cost of anonymity and increased numbers of
unspecial students.

C. This is the best answer. A direct quote says it all: The most striking feature was their
willingness and ability to adapt all school practices to the individual differences in
physical, cognitive, and social development of their students.

D. This is not the best answer. The I Have a Dream Program is designed primarily for
dropout prevention and noncollege bound youth.

E. This is not the best answer. The material in the text suggests that small classes can best
achieve aptitude-treatment interactions, focusing on achievement contrasts between
students learning in small and large classrooms, and without discussing the mechanisms
related to learning or adjustment.

Exercise 11.3
A. This is not the best answer. This is an inference, although there is no clear evidence that
school size and academic achievement are related.

B. This is not the best answer. This is an observation. This point has been demonstrated
statistically in comparisons of low- and high-responsive schools.

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C. This is the best answer. This is a point one must acknowledge in order to accept the
comparisons Santrock cites. There is no discussion of this point, but it is somewhat
controversial.

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D. This is not the best answer. It is an observation, a statement of the correlation between
classes of 20 or fewer students demonstrating the highest levels of achievement.

E. This is not the best answer. This is an inference based on arguments about the authoritative,
authoritarian, and permissive strategies of classroom management.

Short Scenarios

Scenario 11.1
Loveland High has a history of incorporating innovative educational change. Student success has
improved dramatically since educational staff, parents, and other community members decided to
build an effective program. But it wasnt always so. Loveland is in the poorest section of the city
and students often do not get adequate amounts of food, sleep, or family support for getting to
school and being ready to learn. Before the joint effort began, students reached high school with
a history of failure and their educational experience was a nightmare. Students demonstrated
typical outcomes.
Some local pastors and parents decided that it was time to change the outcomes of their
children by taking the lead in instituting a school-wide intervention. They talked to the school
administrators about contacting some educators at a nearby university. One recommendation was
to take out walls to prevent dead ends and blind spots and increasing the use of hall monitors to
reduce the potential for student violence. Other educational researchers were interested in trying
some strategies such as preparing parents as classroom assistants in lower grades. Schools
instituted peer tutoring and jigsaw classroom strategies as well as age-differentiated tutoring for
students, and instituting cooperative learning. University and community members also worked
together to set up a schoolwide discipline program. After the discipline program was in place,
they started talking with other community and business leaders to get them hooked up with
health services, recreation activities, and academic assistance after school and in the evening.
Gradually, the whole community began to expect their youngsters to behave appropriately and to
achieve academic success. Now the school district is recognized statewide for its
accomplishments.

Cooperative programs included administrators, teachers, and parents

Early educational experiences had a negative impact of later educational experiences.
Low SES students have poor educational outcomes due to academic failure, economic
strain, and personal-social concerns.
Typically, low SES students have graduation rates of 50 percent or lower, high drug
use, high incidences of pregnancy, and poor job prospects.
They created a safe and effective teaching environment.
Establishing parent, educator, and community cooperation was probably a key aspect
of changing the expected outcomes for students attending Loveland.

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 Parental involvement and expectations are an influential factor in altering student
retention and success in school.
One aspect of the educational environment that was not addressed was the importance
of personalized counseling services and teacher training.

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Scenario 11.2
Eric is getting ready to attend the job fair and college recruitment function at the high school
with his son Ty. Ty has almost finalized his decision about college, but he wants to talk to one
more school representative who will be present this evening. Ty will probably go to a small
private school on the west coast. Recruiters have telephoned to encourage his attendance, help
him find out about the majors he is considering, and schedule a summer orientation session. Eric
reflects on the changes in education that have occurred over the past four generations for his
family. Erics grandfather, Sylis, completed a professional degree in engineering before
homesteading in the early 1900s, but Erics father, Lloyd, quit school by the eighth grade. There
simply were no high schools to attend within 50 miles of his home in Montana. Roads and
transportation were not reliable enough to travel every day. Although some of Lloyds friends
lived in town during the school months, Sylis needed Lloyd to help on the ranch. By the time
Eric was in high school, reliable cars and snowplows made it possible for Eric to attend school
through most of the winter. Many families now live in town during much of the winter so their
children can regularly attend school and participate in extra activities. Current distance education
opportunities like interactive video networks and online courses help students access the
advanced placement classes they need to enter college. Rural education certainly isnt what it
used to be.

Ty is making the transition to college and will meet personally with a college
recruiter.
The high school is demonstrating some responsibility by holding the futures planning
event.
The small west-coast college has demonstrated a great deal of support for Ty to enroll
and prepare for attendance in the fall.
The transition from a rural area to the small school is facilitated by the personal
approach taken by college staff members.
Eric and Lloyd attended school before education was universally mandated across the
U.S.
Ty has had the academic support he needs to prepare for college through distance
education.

Scenario 11.3
Mrs. Johnson is the head teacher for an eighth grade classroom of 20 students. Seventeen of the
students are typical adolescents experiencing success as members of the oldest age group at the
middle school and the anticipation of going to high school. Three of the students demonstrate
very diverse abilities and learning styles in addition to their early adolescent challenges. Fortu-
nately, Mrs. Johnson and the students have a full-time teaching aide to assist them.
Monica, one of the students targeted for special services, is very persistent in her studies,
but is particularly so in math and science. She joins a high school science class every day to
satisfy her quest or information and a challenge. Danny is a special student that requires teacher
attention to keep him on track both socially and academically. He has difficulties paying

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attention to class activities whether he is in physical education or history. He often blurts out
irrelevant questions and is preoccupied with his own agenda. Sam requires some special attention
as he demonstrates grade appropriate skills in math, but has trouble comprehending and
completing reading assignments.
In response to the various demands of her regular and special students, Mrs. Johnson
structures her classroom activities very carefully, making sure that classroom rules and perform-
ance expectations are reviewed weekly; and that lessons are presented with some lecture and
discussion, demonstrations, and games, such as Jeopardy.

Mrs. Johnson has an inclusive classroom with a reasonable number of students.

The special students place an added burden on the teacher, making it necessary that a
teachers aide help support an effective educational environment.
Monica is probably a gifted student, Danny is ADHD, and Sam is learning disabled.
Mrs. Johnson provides clear expectations for classroom performance.
Mrs. Johnson is including a variety of instructional activities to suit the needs of
diverse learners.
Lecture and discussion is appropriate for the higher level students and abstract
thinkers.
Demonstrations are designed for the benefit of most students at this age, capitalizing
on hands-on activities to establish concepts for concrete thinkers.
Jeopardy is a format that students enjoy, but essentially uses as drill and practice
approach similar to the direct instruction strategy.

CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES

Article 11.1School-Based Prevention and Resilience

Research previously focused on anti-social behavior was associated with (a) personality
characteristics of the individual, (b) parenting practices experienced by adolescent delinquents,
(c) antisocial behavior that develops as a result of peer group pressure, and (d) early childhood
antisocial behavior that continues to escalate through childhood and adolescence. Programs
designed to respond to these children and youth in an effort to reduce inappropriate behavior
have intervened in response to inadequate parenting practices, social-cognitive deficits, and
school discipline issues. Unfortunately, programs that focus on a single context for behavior
change often have limited positive effects.
Miller et al. (1998) reviewed multi-element school-based prevention programs that
emphasized conditions that promote student resilience. Prevention programs are designed to
reduce the chances for students to continue antisocial behavior patterns and to build patterns that
increase social competencies for coping with life. A consistently identified goal of these
programs is to interrupt the events that often lead students to continue or to accelerate the use of
antisocial strategies. A well-recognized point of disruption for students occurs as they make
transitions from one education context to another (e.g., grade school to middle school). Students
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with academic and social deficits experience similar problems on a daily or hourly basis
throughout the day. The ability to cope with transitions depends greatly on the students ability to
respond to new and changing academic and social demands.

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 Responding to student requirements and interrupting the pattern of antisocial behavior
depends on the following compensatory and protective resources:

individual instruction to improve academic, social-cognitive, and self-management

skills;
parent instruction to establish prosocial parenting strategies and strengthen positive
family relationships; and
school-based programs that incorporate positive expectations between peers, adults,
and instructional goals.

Programs reviewed included those that had been successfully replicated across several
schools or districts, and valid measurement and design procedures had been used to document
student outcome.
Three classroom approaches included the I Can Problem-Solve program, the Improving
Social Awareness & Social Problem-Solving program, and the Second Step program. The focus
of these programs is to strengthen social-cognitive or emotion regulation skills associated with
appropriate social interaction of popular children or antisocial behavior of rejected children. The
programs introduce successively more difficult hypothetical and real-life situations that the
students must solve. The exercise requires interaction between participants to establish
confidence to apply the strategies at the right time and place. Research using control groups
showed improvement that continued over a 2-year period. Longitudinal research showed both
social and academic improvement in low SES minority children, lower rates of behavior
disorders, and improved reading scores compared to same-aged peers.
School-wide approaches to prevention included restructuring the school environment,
culture, and climate to avoid conditions that often led to frustration, alienation, and antisocial
behavior. Three school-wide programs were reviewed and included Project Achieve, Positive
Action Through Holistic Education (PATHE), and the School Transitional Environment Project
(STEP). Project Achieve prepares staff through in-service programs, PATHE promotes school
reorganization at middle and high schools, and STEP support reorganization to counteract the
effects of transitions in middle and high school. The common elements to these three programs
are behavior management systems, increased contact between students and adults, and mastery-
oriented learning. They each have a component designed to increase home-school connections,
and academic and social competence. Elements of the programs include:

constructing teams of parents, staff members, and administrators;

involving nonacademic staff in program implementation;
revising discipline and classroom management systems;
changing group structure to promote access to responsive adults and model peers;
creating student teams for learning communities;
recruiting parental support;
monitoring student progress and computer tracking of referrals.

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 Longitudinal studies showed lowered levels of referrals for behavior difficulties,
improved academic performance, higher self-esteem, improved attendance, lower stress levels,
and better self-reports on adjustment.
The review of three multi-setting approaches included the Child Development Program, the
Families and Schools Together program, and the Seattle Social Development Program. These
programs include family services to improve child management skills, communication, and general
family relations. Parents receive information about normal child and adolescent development as well
as personal coping strategies. Teachers are provided training and ongoing consultation on classroom
management strategies. Results showed decreased delinquency and drug use as well as improved
community affiliation, positive responses about school, and increased respect for teachers.
The results of these programs suggest that students, teachers, parents, and administrators can
establish positive changes in school settings with their active participation. The combined strategies
that establish student competence, increase parent involvement, and prepare teachers and
administrators to maintain consistent and supportive school environments appear to be the required
elements of sustained, effective school change.

Reference
Miller, G. W.; Brehm K., & Whitehouse, S. (1998). Reconceptualizing school-based prevention for
antisocial behavior with a resiliency framework. School Psychology Review, 27, 364379.

Article 11.2Academic Dishonesty

Survey techniques have generally been used to collect information about teachers perceptions of
cheating. This research suggests that questionnaires may not provide realistic explanations of the
behavior and judgments in which students are currently engaged.
Four focus groups were used to collect information from these discussions about student
perceptions on cheating. Students demonstrated very little concern about the information they
were providing during the discussions. High school students demonstrated much less concern about
describing their behavior than did college students. The authors questioned whether nonchalance
toward cheating suggests the types of attitudes that soon will be evident on college campuses.
Although the definitions of cheating may differ between settings and conditions, the climate
on the school campus, attitudes implied by teachers, and expectations expressed by friends influence
academic dishonesty. Phrases like, cheating is just a daily kind of thing, or it was a lot stricter for
our parents suggest that attitudes of students have limited influence by ethical thought. One student
reported, Everyone looks at everyone elses paper, and teachers dont care. They let it happen . . .
(p. 683).
The availability of information over the Internet has made cheating and plagiarism an
especially difficult issue in relation to academic dishonesty. Most students do not believe their teachers
are familiar enough with the technology to recognize what they are doing. Others have no guidelines
from instructors, thus using the information without properly referencing the resource. In addition to
the ready access of papers from Internet sources, local students create paper mills by cutting and
pasting papers together that fit assignments and the cognitive ability of the purchaser.

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 Students reported that there is little discussion about cheating by academic staff at
schools. Some schools have written policies, but few seem to be enforcing them. Students
reported that policies have little impact on cheating, and punishment for plagiarizing is not
enforced. Some students reported uneasiness at cheating on assignments graded on a curve. None
of the students in the focus groups indicated a willingness to report classmates who they knew
were cheating.
Contextual variables do appear to influence cheating. Students believe that it is easier to cheat
on factual material such as math and science than on tests for social sciences because answers are less
clear cut. High school students believe that the most important factor is teacher attitude. Most students
do not believe that teachers care whether students cheat. One student reported, I think part of it is
motivated by how much respect you have for the teacher (p. 685).
Individuals from the focus groups suggest students believe cheating is a normal part of student
life. Further, students believe it is difficult to be caught and that there is little teachers can or will do
about it. Students did not see an end to cheating. While students suggested that cheating must be
addressed at the societal level, the answer appears to lie within the fundamental ethics of individual
students.
Reference
McCabe, D. L. (1999). Academic dishonesty among high school students. Adolescence, 34, 681687.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS

Research Project 11.1Building SchoolCommunity Relationships

Objective. This project is designed to identify constructive strategies for or barriers to
establishing effective relationships between middle and high school programs and community
members.

Type/Length of Activity. Small-group, out-of-class activity; variable.

Directions. The project will require students to construct a survey that can be administered to
community members in business, industry, and public service. The purpose will be to determine
the type of contact that these members have with the school system and the possibility of
establishing different types of relationships in the future.
The survey should include at least four sections. First, ask respondents to explain the type
of relationship they currently have with the high school(s). Second, ask respondents to identify
any additional activities in which they would like to participate. Third, ask respondents to
suggest activities that school programs and/or students might do. Fourth, ask respondents to
propose any new programs that might benefit both adolescents and the community.
Possible responses for current involvement include:

Child or grandchild attends school

Attends competitive sporting, musical, or academic events
Attends productions or shows by students
Donates money to a club or team
Participates in mentoring program
Participates in school fund-raising activities
Has a high school student intern/work-study
Has student volunteer
Generate questions that are appropriate to the community in which the survey will be
administered.
Following completion of the survey, you should compile a quantitative and qualitative
analysis of the responses. Some questions that might be answered include the following: What types
of relationships do schools have with community members? Were responses to questions consistent
across respondents? What patterns emerged? If responses are generally positive, determine the types
of relationship building activities that occurred. Explain in order of their importance those that have
benefited the school, community, and adolescents. Ask students to suggest how the effective system
was established. If responses were somewhat negative, what suggestions do students have to improve
school and community relationships? What potential benefits might result from change? What
behavior must community members and adolescents engage in for change to occur?

Wrap-Up. After completing the research report, be prepared to give a class report, write a brief article
for the newspaper, or meet with school or chamber of commerce officials to explain their findings.

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Research Project 11.2Best Practices in Education
Objective. The project is designed to prepare students to objectively assess the quality of middle
school and high school programs.

Type/Length of Activity. Approximately 3 hours.

Directions. Based on the information provided in Chapter 11, design a checklist of best practice
strategies to improve and transform adolescent education in middle and high school grades. The
checklist should include questions or measures that address factors discussed in the report Turning
Points by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989) and influential variables identified
by other researchers such as Joan Lipsitz (1984). Next, use the checklist to evaluate three web sites
that present best practice guidelines to the public. Web sites that you might assess include the
following:

Annenberg Institute for School Reform at Brown University, Box 1985, Providence,
Rhode Island, 02912 at http://www.annenberginstitute.org/
Blue Ribbon Schools Program, U.S. Department of Education, Office of
Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs, 400 Maryland Avenue SW, 5E205,
Washington, DC 20202-3521 at
http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/BlueRibbonSchools/
High Schools that Work of the Southern Regional Education Board, 592 10th Street
N.W., Atlanta, Georgia 30318 at
http://www.sreb.org/programs/hstw/hstwindex.asp

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 Determine how well the websites sustain the standards presented in the text. Make any
changes to the checklist you think are necessary.
Identify two schools in your state or community you would like to assess. You may be
able to obtain a recent plan or report that explains the mission, goals, and activities followed by
school administration and staff. School or district web sites may suggest that the schools are
following educational principles of best practice. Based on the information you are able to
gather, determine how well each web site explains or promotes goals and activities that satisfy
the recommendations made by Santrock, the Carnegie Council, or the Annenberg Institute.
Write a three-page paper describing the results of your assessment. Be sure to include a
copy of the assessment tool you designed.
Wrap-Up. Be prepared to distribute copies of your assessment guidelines, to explain the results of the
investigation, and to discuss your quantitative and qualitative assessment of best practices in schools
with the members of your class. Finally, decide whether the collective evaluations made by class
members concur or disagree with the criticisms made by the Carnegie Council in 1989.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS

Provide students with the guidelines for Answering Essay Questions before they respond to
these questions. Their answers to these types of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend
and apply ideas discussed in the chapter.

1. Compare and contrast the approaches followed in the back-to-basics movement and in
contemporary educational strategies in schools.

2. Compare the historical aspects of education discussed at the beginning of the chapter with
current social policy as discussed in the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
3. Describe the time periods during which transitions occur for students and explain the
pattern of behavior that leads to both improved and lowered self-esteem.

4. Explain why middle schools are important and what makes them successful in educating
early adolescents.

5. Why do youths drop out of school and what strategies provide required community support
to prepare youths for employment?

6. List and define three classroom management styles and describe the type of student
behavior that is likely to result from each style.

7. What are the six strategies that Joyce Epstein suggests for increasing and improving parent
involvement in schools.

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8. How do socioeconomic status and ethnicity influence educational outcomes for adolescents?

9. List and define the two most common disabilities adolescents encounter in their classmates.

10. Explain the characteristics of gifted adolescents and explain how school programs can be
structured to support their educational requirements.

References
Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving
schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Kozol, J. (1992). Savage inequalities: Children in Americas schools. New York: HarperPerennial.
McGregor, G., & Vogelsberg, R. T. (1999). Inclusive schooling practices: Pedagogical and research
foundations: A synthesis of the literature that informs best practices about inclusive schools.
Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

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VIDEO

Schools and Public Policy (VAD)

Overview
Dr. Jacquelynne Eccles of the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan describes
how her research on gender and school transitions has influenced public policy.

Pre-Test
1. Which classroom strategy is the most effective at creating a positive classroom environment?
a. authoritarian classroom management
Incorrect. This style is restrictive and punitive. Students in this type of classroom tend to be
passive and have poor communication skills.
b. permissive classroom management.
Incorrect. This style provides little support for developing learning skills or managing behavior.
c. authoritative classroom management.
Correct. This style encourages independent thinking while teacher still monitor behavior.

Post-Test
1. How has Dr. Eccles research affected girls involvement in math, science, and engineering?
a. As a result of Dr. Eccles research, new curricula has been developed in math, science
and engineering that is designed to keep the interest of girls as well as boys.
Correct. Her research resulted in new ways to teach math, science, and engineering.
b. As a result of Dr. Eccles research, girls and boys are now put in separate classrooms to
learn about these topics.
Incorrect. Girls and boys do not need to be in separate classes to learn effectively.
c. Dr. Eccles research has not had an effect on girls involvement in math, science, and
engineering.
Incorrect. The results Dr. Eccles research had been successful at getting girls involved in these
subjects.
d. As a result of Dr. Eccles research, girls are not encouraged to pursue these topics until
they get to college.
Incorrect. Her research has affected the way these topics are taught in high school.

2. There is a decrease in interest in school for both boys and girls once they enter junior high
school. What changes have been made in social policy to combat this?
a. Teachers have been instructed to be more controlling and less intimate with their
students.
Incorrect. According to Dr. Eccles, one reason for the decrease in interest in school is that
students feel less connected to their junior high school teachers.
b. Increased class size.
Incorrect. Larger class sizes results in students feeling less connected to their school.
c. Smaller class sizes and an increased connection between students and teachers.
Correct. These factors make adolescents feel more connected to their school.
d. Making sure parents are not involved in the adolescents schooling.
Incorrect. Parental involvement in school is important to adolescents.

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