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MatheMatics
Matrix :-
If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix
Scalar Matrix is a Diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements are equal
Unitary Matrix is a scalar matrix with Diagonal element as 1 (AQ = (A )T = A1 )
If the product of 2 matrices are zero matrix then at least one of the matrix has det zero
Orthogonal Matrix if AAT = AT .A = I AT = A1
A = AT Symmetric
A = - AT Skew symmetric
Consistency of Equations :-
r(A, B) r(A) is consistent
r(A, B) = r(A) consistent &
if r(A) = no. of unknowns then unique solution
r(A) < no. of unknowns then solutions .
AT = A then Hermition
AT = A then Hermition
Diagonal elements of Skew Hermition Matrix must be purely imaginary or zero
Diagonal elements of Hermition matrix always real .
A real Hermition matrix is a symmetric matrix.
|KA| = K n |A|
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
KA K 1 , K 2 ..K n
Am 1m , m m
2 .. n .
A + KI 1 + k , 2 + k , .. n + k
(A KI)2 (1 k)2 , (n k)2
Complex Algebra :-
2i
c f(z)/(Z a)n+1 dz = n!
[ f n (a) ] if f(z) is analytic in region C & Z =a is single point
(zz0 ) (zz0 )2 (zz )n
f(z) = f(z0 ) + f (z0 ) + f (z0)
+ + f n (z0 ) n!0 + . Taylor Series
1! 2!
fn (z0 )
if z0 = 0 then it is called Mclauren Series f(z) = n
0 a n (z z0 ) ; when a n = n !
If f(z) analytic in closed curve C except @ finite no. of poles then
= (a) / (a)
1 1
= lim (1)! 1
((Z a)n f(z) )
Calculus :-
Rolles theorem :-
If f(x) is
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
(b) Differentiable in (a, b)
(c) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one value C (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 .
If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in (a, b)
f(b)f(a)
such that f (c) =
ba
f(b)f(a)
f (c) / g (c) =
g(b)g(a)
a a
a f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx f(x) is even
= 0 f(x) is odd
a a
0 f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx if f(x) = f(2a- x)
= 0 if f(x) = - f(2a x)
na a
0 f(x). dx = n 0 f(x)dx if f(x) = f(x + a)
b b
a f(x). dx = a f(a + b x). dx
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
a a a
0 x f(x). dx = 0 f(x). dx if f(a - x) = f(x)
2
/2 /2 (n1)(n3)(n5)2
0 sinn x = 0 cosn x = if n odd
n (n2)(n4).3
(n1)(n3)1
= . if n even
n (n2)(n4).2 2
Working Rule :-
(ii) Obtain Fx = 0, Fy = 0 , Fz = 0
Laplace Transform :-
L () = s n f(s) - s n1 f(0) - s n2 f (0) f n1 (0)
dn
L { t n f(t) } = (1)n dsn
f(s)
f(t)
s f(s) ds
t
t
0 f(u) du f(s) / s .
Inverse Transforms :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
s 1
2 2 2 = t sin at
(s +a ) 2a
s2 1
(s2 +a2 )2
= [ sin at + at cos at]
2a
1 1
= [ sin at - at cos at]
(s2 +a2 )2 2a3
s
= Cos hat
s 2 a2
a
= Sin hat
s 2 a2
T
0 est f(t)dt
Laplace Transform of periodic function : L { f(t) } = 1esT
Numerical Methods :-
Bisection Method :-
x1 +x2
(1) Take two values of x1 & x2 such that f(x1 ) is +ve & f(x2 ) is ve then x3 = find f(x3 ) if f(x3 )
2
+ve then root lies between x3 & x2 otherwise it lies between x1 & x3 .
Pi cards Method :-
x dy
yn+1 = y0 + x f(x, yn ) = f(x, y)
0 dx
dy (x x0 )2 (x x0 )n
= f(x, y) y = y0 + (x- x0 ) (y )0 + (y)
0 + . (y)n0
dx 2! n!
Eulers method :-
dy
y1 = y0 + h f(x0 , y0 ) = f(x, y
dx
(1) h
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0 + h, y1 )
2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
(2) h (1)
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0+h, y1 ) ]
2
y2 = y1 + h f(x0 + h, y1 )
(1) h
y2 = y0 + [f(x0 + h, y1 ) + f(x0 + 2h, y2 )
2
Runges Method :-
k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )
h k1 1
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 + ) finally compute K = (K1 + 4K 2 + K 3 )
2 2 6
k = h f(x0 +h , y0 + k1 )
k 3 = h ( f (x0 +h , y0 + k ))
h k2
k 3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + ) approximation vale y1 = y0 + K .
2 2
k 3 = h f (x0 +h , y0 + k 3 )
Trapezoidal Rule :-
x +nh h
x 0 f(x). dx =
2
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 2 (y1 + y2 + . yn1 )]
0
@ x0 , x1 , x2 ..
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
x +nh h
x 0 f(x). dx =
3
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + . yn1 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + . + yn2 )]
0
Differential Equations :-
dy dv
Sol : Put y = Vx =V+x & solve
dx dx
Reducible to Homogeneous :-
dy ax+by+c
General form =
dx a x+b y+c
a b
(i)
a b
a b
(ii) =
a b
a b 1
Sol : Let = =
a b m
dy ax+by+c
=
dx m(ax+by)+c
dy
Put ax + by = t = /b
dx
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
Then by variable & seperable solve the equation .
I.F = e p.dx
N f(x, y)
M N
If y
= x
then
( y constant )
1
= x eax if f (a) = 0
f (a)
1
= x2 eax if f (a) = 0
f (a)
1 1
sin (ax + b) = sin (ax + b) f(- a2 ) 0
f(b2 ) f(a2 )
1
= x sin (ax + b) f(- a2 ) = 0 Same applicable for cos (ax + b)
f (a2 )
1
= x2 sin (ax + b)
f (a2 )
1
x m = [f(D)]y x m
f(D)
1 1
eax f(x) = eax f(x)
f(D) f(D+a)
Vector Calculus :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Mathematics Formula Sheet
Greens Theorem :-
C ( dx + dy) = x y dx dy
This theorem converts a line integral around a closed curve into Double integral which is special case of
Stokes theorem .
Series expansion :-
Taylor Series :-
n(n1)
(1 + x)n = 1+ nx + x 2 + | nx| < 1
2
x2
ex = 1 + x + 2 ! + ..
x3 x5
Sin x = x - 3!
+ 5!
- ..
x2 x4
Cos x = 1 - 2!
+ 4 ! - ..
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
Electromagnetic Fields
Vector Calculus:-
A. (B C) = C. (A B) = B. (C A)
A(BC) = B(A.C) C(A.B) Bac Cab rule
(A.B)
Scalar component of A along B is AB = A Cos AB = A . aB =
|B|
(A.B) B
B = A Cos AB . aB =
Vector component of A along B is A
|B|2
Laplacian of scalars :-
A. ds = (.) Divergence theorem
L A.dI = ( ) Stokes theorem
2 A = ( .A) - A
.A = 0 solenoidal / Divergence loss ; .A > 0 source ; .A < 0 sink
A = 0 irrotational / conservative/potential.
2 A = 0 Harmonic .
Electrostatics :-
Q Qk (rrk ) Q Q
Force on charge Q located @ r F = N
k=1
12
; F12 = 41 R23 . R
40 |rrk |3 0
1 (rrk )
E @ point r due to charge located @
= N Q
40 K=1 |rrk 3 k
L
E due to line charge @ distance E = 2
. a (depends on distance)
0
E due to surface charge s is E = 2s an . an unit normal to surface (independent of distance)
0
For parallel plate capacitor @ point P b/w 2 plates of 2 opposite charges is
E = s an - s ( )
20 20
Q
E due to volume charge E = ar .
40 R2
Electric flux density D = 0 E D independent of medium
Flux = s D .ds
Gauss Law :-
Total flux coming out of any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed by surface .
= Q enclosed D . ds = Q enclosed = v . dv
v = . D
w B
Electric potential VAB = = - A E. dI (independent of path)
Q
B Q
VAB = - A ar . dr ar = VB - VA (for point charge )
40 r2
Potential @ any point (distance = r), where Q is located same where , whose position is vector @ r
Q
V= |rr |
40
Q
V(r) = + C . [ if C taken as ref potential ]
40 r
E = 0, E = - V
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
1 1
For monopole E 2 ; Dipole E 3 .
r r
1 1
V ; V 2
r r
Electric lines of force/ flux /direction of E always normal to equipotential lines .
1 1 1
Energy Density WE = N Q V = D. E dv = 0 E 2 dv
2 k=1 k k 2 2
v
Continuity Equation .J = - t
.
t/Tr
v = v 0 e where Tr = Relaxation / regeneration time = / (less for good conductor )
2
B1n = B2n H1n = H2n
1
Maxwells Equations :-
d
faraday law Vemf = E. dI = - B. ds
dt
B B
Transformer emf = E. dI = - ds E = -
t t
s
D
H=J+
t
2
= 1 + 1
2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
2
= 1 + + 1
2
E(z, t) = E0 ez cos(t z) ; H0 = E0 / .
j
= | | <
+j
/
|| = 1/4 tan 2 = /.
2
1+
= + j attenuation constant Neper /m . | Np | = 20 log10 = 8.686 dB
For loss less medium = 0; = 0.
phase shift/length ; = / ; = 2/ .
Js
Jd
= = / = tan loss tanjent = 2
E
If tan is very small ( < < ) good (lossless) dielectric
If tan is very large ( >> ) good conductor
Complex permittivity C = 1 = - j .
Tan =
= .
Free space :- ( = 0, = 0 , = 0 )
= 0 , = 0 0 ; u = 1/ 0 0 , = 2/ ; = 0 /0 < 0 = 120 0
Here also E & H in phase .
Good Conductor :-
> > / = = 0 ; = 0 r
W
= = f ; u = 2/ ; = 2 / ; = 450
Skin depth = 1/
1 1+j
= 2 ej/4 =
1 f
Skin resistance R s = =
Rs .l
R ac =
w
l
R dc = .
s
Poynting Vector :-
1
(E H) ds = - [ E 2 + H 2 ] dv E 2 dv
dt 2
S v
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
1 E20 2z
ave (z) = e cos az
2 ||
Total time avge power crossing given area Pavge = Pave (s) ds
S
Direction of propagation :- ( )
ak aE = aH
aE aH = ak
Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
n n1
1 Zmin = n Zmin = =
1 2
H1 min occurs when there is |t1 |max
|E | |H | 1+|| s1
S = |E1 |max = |H1 |max = ;||=
1 min 1 min 1|| s+1
Since || < 1 1
Transmission Lines :-
Supports only TEM mode
LC = ; G/C = / .
d2 Vs d2 Is
dz2
- r 2 Vs = 0 ; dz2
- r 2 Is = 0
= (R + jL)(G + jC) = + j
V(z, t) = V0+ ez cos (t- z) + V0 ez cos (t + z)
V R+jL R+jL
Z0 = I0 = = =
0 G+jC G+jC
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
= + j = jLC ; = 0, = w LC ; = 1/ f LC , u = 1/ LC
Z0 = L/C
i/p impedance :-
+ Z tan hl
Zin = Z0 + Z 0 tan hl for lossless line = j tan hjl = j tan l
0 L
+ Z0 tan l
Zin = Z0 + Z tan l
0 L
Z Z
VSWR = L = ZL+Z0
L 0
CSWR = - L
Transmission coefficient S = 1 +
V I 1+| L | Z Z0
SWR = Vmax = Imax = = ZL =
min min | 1|L 0 ZL
(ZL > Z0 ) (ZL < Z0 )
Vmax
|Zin |max = Imin
= SZ0
Vmin
|Zin |min = = Z0 /S
Imax
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
Behaviour of Transmission Line for Different lengths :-
=
l = /4 =0
impedance inverter @ l = /4
=0
l = /2 : Zin = Z0 =
impedance reflector @ l = /2
Wave Guides :-
TM modes : (Hz = 0)
Ez = E0 sin x sin y enz
m 2 n 2
h2 = k 2x + k 2y = + 2 where k =
a b
m no. of half cycle variation in X-direction
n no. of half cycle variation in Y- direction .
1 2 2
Cut off frequency C = m + n = 0; = 0 =
a b
m 2 n 2
k2 < + Evanscent mode ; =; =0
a b
m 2 n 2
k2 > + Propegation mode = j = 0
a b
m 2 n 2
= k 2
a b
up 2 2
fc = m + n up = phase velocity = 1
is lossless dielectric medium
2 a b
2
c = u /fc = m n
( a )2 +(b)2
f 2
= 1 c = / W = phase constant in dielectric medium.
f
E E f 2
TM = Hx = - Hy = = 1 fc
y x
f 2
TM = 1 fc impedance of UPW in medium
TE Modes :- ( = 0)
Hz = H0 cos cos enz
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
w f 2
TE = = / 1 fc
TE > TM
Antennas :-
jI dl
Hertzian Dipole :- Hs = 0 sin ej Es = Hs
4r
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
1 T 1
Power of a signal P = lim T |x(t)|2 dt = lim N
n=N |x[n]|
2
2 2+1
x1 (t) P1 ; x2 (t) P2
x1 (t) + x2 (t) P1 + P2 iff x1 (t) & x2 (t) orthogonal
Shifting & Time scaling wont effect power . Frequency content doesnt effect power.
x(at +b) = y(t) x(t) = y
t
Step response s(t) = h(t) * u(t) = h(t)dt S (t) = h(t)
S[n] = =0 [] h[n] = s[n] s[n-1]
1
eat u(t) * ebt u(t) = [ eat - ebt ] u(t) .
ba
A1 Rect (t / 2T1 ) * A2 Rect(t / 2T2 ) = 2 A1 A2 min (T1 , T2 ) trapezoid (T1 , T2 )
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
Laplace Transform :-
1 +j
x(t) = X(s) est ds
2j j
X(s) = x(t) est ds
x( 0+ ) = lim ()
x() = lim ()
0
Properties of ROC :-
3. x(t) finite duration & absolutely integrable then ROC entire s-plane
4. x(t) Right sided then ROC right side of right most pole excluding pole s =
5. x(t) left sided ROC left side of left most pole excluding s= -
Z-transform :-
1
x[n] =
2j
x(z) z n1 dz
X(z) =
n= x[n] z
n
Properties of ROC :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
CDF :-
Cumulative Distribution function Fx (x) = P { X x }
Properties of CDF :
Fx () = P { X } = 1
Fx (- ) = 0
Fx (x1 X x2 ) = Fx (x2 ) - Fx (x1 )
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
Its Non decreasing function
P{ X > x} = 1 P { X x} = 1- Fx (x)
PDF :-
d
Pdf = fx (x) = Fx (x)
dx
Pmf = fx (x) =
i= P{X = xi } (x = xi )
Properties:-
fx (x) 0
x
Fx (x) = fx (x) * u(x) = fx (x) dx
Fx () = fx (x) dx =1 so, area under PDF = 1
x
P { x1 < X x2 } = x 2 fx (x)dx
1
Variance 2 = E { (X x )2 } = E {x 2 } - 2x
E{g(x)} = g(x) fx (x) dx
1 ; >
Fx (x) = ; < <
0 ;
a+b
Mean =
2
a2 + ab+ b2
Variance = (b a)2 / 12 E{ x 2 } = 3
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
1 2 2
fx (x) = 2
e(x) /2
2
X ~ N (1 2)
1 2 /22
Mean = x e(x) dx =
22
1 2 /22
Variance =
22
x 2 e(x) dx = 2
Exponential Distribution :-
fx (x) = ex u(x)
Fx (x) = ( 1- ex ) u(x)
Laplacian Distribution :-
fx (x) = e |x|
2
FXY (x , y) = P { X x , Y y }
FXY (x , ) = P { X x } = Fx (x) ; Fxy ( , y) = P { Y < y } = FY (y)
Fxy (-, y) = Fxy (x, - ) = Fxy (-, -) = 0
fx (x) = fxy (x, y) dy ; fY (y) = fxy (x, y) dx
fxy (x,y)
fY/X (y/x) = fx (x)
Independence :-
X & Y are said to be independent if FXY (x , y) = FX (x) FY (y)
fXY (x, y) = fX (x) . fX (y) P { X x, Y y} = P { X x} . P{Y y}
Correlation:
Corr{ XY} = E {XY} = fxy (x, y). xy. dx dy
If E { XY} = 0 then X & Y are orthogonal .
Uncorrelated :-
Covariance = Cov {XY} = E { (X - x ) (Y- y }
= E {xy} E {x} E{y}.
If covariance = 0 E{xy} = E{x} E{y}
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
Independence uncorrelated but converse is not true.
Random Process:-
Take 2 random process X(t) & Y(t) and sampled @ t1 , t 2
R x (0) = E { x 2 }
R x () = R x (-) even
| R x () | R x (0)
Cross Correlation
R xy() = R yx(-)
R2xy() R x (0) . R y (0)
2 | R xy()| R x (0) + R y (0)
1
R x () = (j)ej d
2
2
Sy (j) = Sx (j) |H(j)|
1
Power = R x (0) = (j) d
2
R x () = k () white process
Properties :
Sx (j) even
Sx (j) 0
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
DC MACHINES : -
S = No of commutator segments
P = No of poles
2C
U = No of coil sides / No of poles = S
C = No of coils on the rotor
A = No of armature parallel paths
Ia = Armature current
ZI pole arc
AT (Compensating Winding) = 2AP
a
* pole pitch
B
AT(Inter pole) = ATa + i lgi
0
Where Bi = Flux density in inter pole airgap
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
lgi = length of inter pole airgap , 0 = 4 107
AT(Inter pole)
No of turns in each interpole , Ninterpole = Ia
Z pole arc
The no of compensating conductor per pole, Ncw /pole = 2 A P (pole pitch )
The Mechanical power that is converted is given by Pconv = Tind m
Where T = Induced torque
Shunt Generator:
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Series Generator:
For a series generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - ( IaRa + IaR f )= Ea - Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Differentially compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
V
(c) Isf = Rx = shunt field current
f
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Nse Armature reaction MMF
Isf =Isf - Ia - ( )
Nf Nf
Shunt Motor:
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
PZ
Where K = 2A
Series Motor :
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Losses:
constant losses (P k) = Pw f + Pi o
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Temperature Rise:
R1 / (1 - 0) = R2 / (2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / (2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = (1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
.Copper Windings:
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
Aluminium Windings:
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
The value of 0 for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = (1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle between VC and V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan
The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle between VR and V:
cos = VR / V
so that and are related by:
+ = 90
TRANSFORMERS:
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area
of insulation material.
Hence for all calculations, net cross sectional area is taken since (flux) majorly
flows in magnetic material.
= BAn
t
Weight of
Specific weight of t/f = f
t
KVA rating of
f
E
Emf per turn in Iry = N1 = 4.44 Bmax An f
1
ry E2
Emf per turn in II = = 4.44 Bmax An f
N2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
N2
N1
1
Turns ratio = K = N1 N2
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across N1 primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary
turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across (N1 + N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing
across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2
For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated
primary current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2,
the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
E1 V1
Bm
f f
V1
Bmax = constant = constant
f
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
N1 N2
I0
Iw I
V1 R0 X0 E1 E2
I22 R 2 = I12 R 21
I 2
R 21 = R 2 I2
1
R
= 22
K
1 R
R 2 = K22
From to :-
I12 R1 = I22 . R11
I12
R11 = I22
. R1
R11 = R1 . K 2
ry
P. U resistance drop ref to I =
I1 R01 I1
or E1 I1
P. U resistance ref to Iry
I12 R01
= E1 I1
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
P.U Resistance drop = P.U FL cu loss
1. Hysteresis loss :
Steinmetz formula :-
x
Wh = Bmax . f . v Area under one hysteresis loop.
Where
= stienmetz coefficient
Bmax = max. flux density in transformer core.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(We ) R ce Ie2
As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.
2
We = K. Bmax f 2. t2
thickness of laminations.
Supply freq
Constant
(it is a function of )
During operation of transformer :-
V1
Bm f
V1
Case (i) :- f
= constant, Bmax = const.
we f 2
we = B f 2
Const.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
V1
Case (ii) :- f
constant, Bm const.
V 2
we f1 . f 2
we V1 2
wi = wh + we
A V11.6
wi = f0.6
+ BV1 2
As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.
O.C test :-
V1 rated Wi
S.C test :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to VSC and stray load
losses are neglected the wattmeter reading in S.C test can be approximately taken as F.L
Cu losses in the transformer.
Wse F.L Cu loss
ISC2 . R 01
WSC
R 01 = 2
ISC
Efficiency :-
output power
Efficiency of transformer is given by =
input power
output power
=
output power+losses
E2 I2 cos 2
=E
2 I2 cos 2 + F.L cu losses+Iron losses
E2 I2 cos 2
F.L =
E2 I2 cos 2 + I22 R02 + Wi
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2
x of F.L =
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2 + x 2 (I2 2 R 02 ) + Wi
KVA cos
Transformer efficiency =
KVA cos + wi + Cu losses
x MVA Pf
Efficiency = =
x MVA Pf + wcu x2 + wi
1
Total losses in transformer = 1 output
Iron loss
KVA corresponding to max = F.L KVA
F.L culoss
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Output energy in kwh
Input energy in kwh
all day = 24
hrs
I R02 I X02
=2 cos 2 2 sin 2
V1 V1
P.U resistance P.U reactance
% Regulation = (P. U R) cos 2 + (P. U X) sin 2 100
X
At maximum regulation 2 = Tan1 RL
L
X
= Tan1 R02
02
XL X02
RL
= R02
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Condition for zero regulation :-
If the voltage regulation in the t/f is zero, the t/f voltages are maintained at their nominal
values even under load condition
% Regn = (% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2
For zero regulation occurs at leading p.fs
(% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2 = 0
%R
Tan 2 =
%X
%R R
2 = Tan1 % X = Tan1 X02
02
leading.
X R02
At zero regulation condition : 2 = Tan1 C = Tan1
RL X02
XC R02
RL
= X02
= x F.L regn
Regulation at U.P.F:-
Regulation at UPF = % R
= % F.L Cu loss
Scott Connection:
ia
Ia 86.6%
A 0.866
3
V1 0.866
0.577 V1 2 Va
N :
1
0.289 IA
IA
IB 2 M 2
B
Vb
V1 IBC ib
IC
C
VAM = 0.866 V1
V
VAN = 31 = 0.577 V1
VMN = 0.866 V1 0.577 V1 = 0.289 V1
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
VAN VMN = 0.577 V1 0.289 V1
=2:1
If a neutral pt is located on 3 side, such that, voltage between any terminal to that neutral
point is 0.577 V1 then such neutral point divides the primary of teaser transformer in the ratio
of 2 : 1
2
Location of neutral point from top = 0.866 N1
3
1
Location of neutral point from bottom = 0.866 N1
3
Operation of Scott Connection with 2 balanced load at UPF :-
Teaser t/f :-
Ia N2
ia
= 0.866 N1
N2
Ia = ia
0.866 N1
Let N1 N2 = 1 1
IA = 1.15 ia
Main t/f
IBC N
ib
= N2
1
N2
IBC = ib
N1
Let N1 : N2 = 1 1
IBC = ib
IB = IBC IA IC = IBC IA
2 2
Capacity of Scott Connection :-
(KVA)Scott = 3 VL IL
V2 = V1 IL = I1
Vol. rating of 1 t/f Current rating of 1 t/f
(KVA)Scotf = 3 V1 I1
(KVA)Scott = 3 (KVA)1
(KVA)
Utilization factor = availableScott
KVA
3 V1 I1
= 2V1 I1
= 0.866
Utilization factor of Scott connection with 2 identical 1 t/fs is 86.6%
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Primary applied voltage, Vab = Secondary voltage V2 referred to primary + primary leakage impedance
drop + secondary leakage impedance drop ref. to primary.
N1 N2 N1 N2
Vab = N2
V2 + I1 (r1 + jx1 ) + (I2 I1 )(r2 + j x2 ) N2
LV
K of auto transformer =
HV
(KVA)induction = (V1 V2 ) I1
I/P KVA = V1 I1
(KVA)induction (V1 V2 ) I1
i/p KVA
= V1 I1
LV
=1
HV
=1K
(KVA) induction = (1 K) i/p KVA
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:
Principle of operation :-
Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor
Coil span () :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180 e = slots / pole.
P
elec = mech
2
Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
P(180)
For a machine with P poles and s no. of slots, the slot angle = = d
180
= s
p
2E cos/2
KP =
2E
K p = cos /2
180
chording angle to eliminate nth harmonics ()=
n
n1
coil spam to eliminate nth harmonics ,() = 180
n
Distribution factor | spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor(kd) :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
m
sin
2
Kd =
m sin
2
The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is
mr
sim
kd4 = mr
2
2 180
mn
sin
For nth harmonic, kdn = 2
n
m sin
2
360
To eliminate nth harmonics ,phase spread (m) =
n
Generally, KVA rating, power output kd and Eph (induce emf) k d . Tph .
60
KVA60 (3 ) Pout60 (3 ) kd60 sin m120 sin 30 120
= = = 2
120 = = 1.15
KVA120 (3 ) Pout120 (3) kd120 sin m60 sin 60 60
2
60
KVA60 (3) Pout60 (3) kd60 sin 90
KVA90 (2)
= Pout90 (2)
= kd90
= 2
90 = 1.06
sin 60
2
60
KVA60 (3) Pout60 (3) kd60 sin 180
= = = 2
180 = 1.5
KVA180 (1) Pout180 (1 ) kd180 sin 60
2
1
Speed of space harmonics of order (6k 1) is (6k . Ns
1)
120 f
where Ns = synchronous speed =
p
2S
The order of slot harmonics is 1
P
Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
m
sin
Is kd1 = 2
i.e., same that of fundamental
m sin
2
2s
Pith factor for slot harmonics, k p 1 = k p1 = cos 2
p
The synchronous speed Ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p pole
pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
s = 2fs / p
NS N
Slip S =
NS
120 f
Where NS = = synchronous speed
p
The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is Ea = 2 Nc f = K
Where K = constant
Pm = sTm
Synchronous Generator:
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
E = (V cos + Ia R a )2 + (V sin Ia Xs )2
+ lag p.f
leading p.f.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Synchronous Motor:
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
Voltage regulation :
|E| |V|
% regulation = |V|
100
E V = Ia Zs
EV
% regulation =
V
Ia Zs
= 100
V
regulation Zs
As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.
Ia Zs
Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, Cos ( + ) = 2V
Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, =
Ifm 1 1
Short circuit ratio (SCR) = = =
Ifa Zs (adjusted)|unit Xs (adjusted)|unit
1 1
SCR
Xa Armature reaction
armature mmf
a =
reluctance
armature mmf
a =
airgap
1
a
Air gap length
1
Armature reaction a
Airgap length
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
1
SCR Airgap length
Armature reaction
1
P SCR
Xs
Power SCR
Large value of SCR represent more power output.
Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor Psy is given as
dp d EV
Psy = = sin
d d Xs
EV
= cos
Xs
Psy is a measure of stability
stability Psy
1
But Psy SCR
Xs
Stability SCR
Stability SCR Air gap length
When the stator mmf is aligned with the d axis of field poles then flux d perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X d .
When the stator mmf is aligned with the q axis of field poles then flux q per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X q.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Cylindrical rotor Synchronous machine ,
Ef Vt
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by P = Xs
sin
Ef Vt Vt2 1 1
P= Xd
sin + 2
X sin 2
q Xd
dp
For salient pole synchronous machine :- =0
d
Vt Ef 1 1
cos + Vt 2 cos 2 =0
Xd Xq Xd
2
Ef Xq 1 E Xq
+ 4V
f
Cos = 4V
t Xd Xq 2 X t d Xq
EV V2
Where Active power flow (P) = cos( ) cos ;
Zs Zs
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
EV V2
Reactive power flow (Q) = sin( ) sin ;
Z2 Zs
Condition for max. power output :-
EV V2
P= cos( ) cos
Zs Z2
dp
= 0 for max power condition
d
ie = 0
=
EV V2
Pmax = Zs
Z cos
s
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
NN.L NF.L
Speed regulation = 100
NF.L
N N
= S S 100 = 0%
NS
NS N NS NS
Slip S = = N = 0%
NS S
120 f
NS =
p
The speed can be controlled by varying the frequency
V
f
v
ratio control is preferred for rated torque operation
F
:
If R a = 0 ; ZS = X S ; 90
EV V
Pin = X sin Q = X [V E cos ]
S S
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
V2 EV
Pin = cos cos( + )
Z2 ZS
d Pin EV
d
= 0 0 + sin( + ) = 0
ZS
Sin ( + ) = 0 = sin 180
= 180 0
V2 EV
Pmax = ZS
cos + ZS
This is the expression for the mechanical power developed interms of load angle and the
internal machine angle , for constant voltage Vph and constant E i.e., excitation
Pm
Gross Torque =
w
Pm
= 2 Ns
60
Ns = synchronous speed in r.p.m
60 Pm
Tg = .
2 NS
9.55 Pm
Tg = Ns
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
The corresponding value of max. power is
V2 V2
Pmax = 2R 4Ra
a
Tg = Pin
2 Ns
60
Ia Xq cos + Ra sin
tan = V
t + Ia Xq sin Ra cos
INDUCTION MACHINES:
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Power i/p to stator
Rotor i/p power Mechanical power
from mains
= airgap power Pg developed, Pm
Power of
rotor shaft
ns nr
The slip of induction machine is (S) = ns
Ns Nr
= Ns
Where Ns is synchronous speed in rpm
ns is synchronous speed in rps
Nr = Ns (1 s)
Ns Nr = SNs
P . SNs PNs
Rotor frequency, f2 = =S = Sf1
120 120
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a
gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
K wr = Rotor winding factor
But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed Nr
P(Ns Nr ) P SNs
120
= 120
= Sf1
fr = Sf1
Emf under running conditions is
E = 2 fr Kw2 Nphr 1
= SE2
= sx2
= r22 + x22
= r22 + (sx2 )2
E
=
r22 + x22
The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle 2 given by
sx
2 = tan1 r 2
2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Per phase power input to rotor is
Pg = F2 I2 cos 2
Per phase rotor resistance
cos 2 =
Per phase rotor impedance
r2 /s
=
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
r2 /s
Pg = E2 I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
`
E2 r2
= I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2 s
r2
= I22 s
Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore Pg is called air
gap power
r
Pg = I22 s2
1S
= I22 r2 + I22 r2
S
1S
Pm = (1 S) Pg = I22 r2
S
S
Rotor ohmic loss = Pm = SPg
1S
Pm (1S)Pg Pg
Te = r
= (1S)s
= s
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is
1
Ir2 R 2 /s : Ir2 R 2 : Ir2 R 2 1
s
1 : S : (1 S)
Rotor copper losses = S Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 S) Rotor input.
S
Rotor copper losses = (Gross Mechanical output)
1S
Efficiency of the rotor is approximately
Gross mechanical power output
Equal to rotor =
Rotor input
(1S) Rotor input
=
Rotor input
=1S
NS N
=1
NS
N
=
Ns
N
rotor Ns
Total torque is
m Ve2 r2
Te = r2 2
Nm
s Re + + (x2 + Xe )2 s
s
m is the number of stator phases.
Torque equation can be written as
m r
Te = I22 s2
s
m
Te = rotor input per phase.
s
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Thus the slip SmT at which maximum torque occurs is given by
r2
SmT =
Re2 + X2
Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
m Ve2
Tem = s
2Re + Re2 + X22
r2
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to r2 /s then s
=x2
Nm = Ns (1 Sm )
Nm = Ns (1 R 2 /x2 )
Starting torque:-
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by
m Ve2 r2
Test = (Re + r2 )2 + X2
s
Since r1 or Re is neglected
Te 2X r2
Tem
= r 2
s
2 + X2
s
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
2Tem
Te = SmT S
+
S SmT
In order to get maximum power output from an induction generator, the rotor must be deiven
at a speed given by
r2
ns 1 +
(R e + r2 )2 + X 2 + r2
Ph f and Pe f 2
Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant
v
const const
f
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
Ph = K h f Bm1.6 Pe = K e f 2 Bm
2
Ph v1.6 f 0.6 Pe v 2
v 1.6
= Kh f
f
Ph v1.6 Pe v12
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
GD Psc 3 Isc2 r1
=
GF 3 Isc2 r1
Wound rotor
GD I22 r2 r2 I 2
= I12 r1
= I2
GF r1 1
I 2
= I2 st Sfl
2 fl
The above equation valids of rotor resistance remains constant.
Te.st I 2
Te.fl
= Ist Sfl
fl
T I 2
Test = Isc Sfl .
esf fl
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Power systems:
Power Systems Generation and Distribution and Concepts of HVDC:
WQH
Metric output = (H.P)
75
1H.P = 75 kg-m/sec
WQH
Metric output in watt = 735.5
75
WQH
Output = kw
102
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
overall
Engine efficiency engines = alt
engine
Thermal efficiency they = mech. of englnd
Heat produced by fuel per day = coal consumption / day caloritic value
1. Connected load :-
It is the sum of ratings in kilo watts of equipment installed in the consumers premises
2. Demand :-
It is the load or power drawn from the source of supply at the receiving end averaged over a
specified period.
3. Maximum Demand :-
Maximum demand (M.D) of a power station is the maximum load on the power station in a given
period.
4. Average load:-
If the number of KWH supplied by a station in one day is divided by 24 hours, then the value so
obtained is known as daily average load.
KWH deliverd in one day
Daily average load =
24
KWH delivered in one month
Monthly average load =
30 24
KWH delivered in one year
Yearly average load =
365 24
5. Plant capacity :-
It is the capacity or power for which a plant or station is designed. It should be slightly more than
M.D. it is equal to sum of the ratings of all the generators in a power station.
6. Firm Power :-
It is the power which should be always be available even under emergency
7. Prime Power :-
It is the maximum power (may be thermal or hydraulic or mechanical) continuously available for
conversion into electrical power.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
8. Dump power :-
This is the term usually used in hydro electric plants and it represents the power in excess of the
load requirements. It is made available by surplus water.
9. Spill Power :-
Is that power which is produced during floods in a hydro power station.
10. Cold reserve :-
Is that reserve generating capacity which is not in operation but can be made available for service.
11. Hot reserve :-
It that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service
12. Spinning reserve :-
Is that reserve generating capacity which is connected to bus-bars and is ready to take the load.
Load factor :-
It is defined as the ratio of number of units actually generated in a given period to the number
of units that could have been generated with maximum demand.
Average load or Average Demand
Load factor =
Maximum Demand.
Diversity Factor :-
Diversity factor may be defined as the sum of individual maximum demand to the station
to the maximum demand on the power station.
Sum of individual consumers maximum demand
Diversity factor =
Maximum demand on the station.
Its value will be always greater than one (> 1)
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Capacity Factor or plant capacity factor or capability factor :-
It is defined as the ratio of average demand on the station to the maximum installed capacity.
Coincidence factor:-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
r = R, the total resistance of the distributor.
x dx
A B
C
V C
i i i i i
ir
Voltage drop upto point C = (x x 2 ).
2
1
Max. voltage drop = IR
8
IR
Min. voltage =V volts
8
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages :-
The point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance x meters from the feeding point A.
irx2
Voltage drop in section AC = volts.
2
x - x
C
A B
VA VB
i i i i i
VA VB
x= ir
+
2
The area of cross section of neutral is half the cross section of outers in 3 wire system.
If the neutral has the same cross section as the outer, then.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
volume of w for 3wire system 3 1 3
= a = =5
volume of w for 2wire system 4 2a 8
= 37.5%
Transmission Lines:
3P
The empirical formula for the economical voltage line to line is V = 5.5 +
1.6 100
where V = line pressure in KV, l = distance of transmission in KM,
P = estimated max.KW per phase to be delivered over one pole or tower line
Performance of Lines
Vr Vr
% regulation = Vr
100
Where Vr is the receiving end voltage under no load condition and Vr the
Receiving end voltage under full load condition.
S. No Line Description R L XL C XC
1. Length Increases Increases Increases Increases Increases Decreases
2. Distance of separation No change Increases Increases Decreases Increases
increases
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
3. Radius of conductor Decreases Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
increases
4. Symmetrical spacing. Does not Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
depend
5. Unsymmetrical spacing. Does not Increases Increases Decreases Increases
depend.
6. Effect of earth is taken No change No change No change Increases Decreases
into account
7. Height of the conductor No change No change No change Decreases Increases.
increases
2 0
C= F/metre
ln 2hr
Daa
a b
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
P
L L
r
h
1 transmission line
0
C= 2
F/metre.
h h
+ 2
r r
L 0
C= = F/metre.
V ln hr
Vertical Spacing:-
h
a c c b b a
d g
b f b a a c c
c a b c a b
1 2 3
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
For Vertical Spacing conductors, The capacitance C per phase of the system is
4 0
C= 2 F/metre/phase.
3 d g 3
ln 2
r f
20
C = Va = 3D
F/metre/coloumb
a ln
2
Bundled conductors:-
For a two conductor bundle, the equation for maximum gradient at the surface of a
sub-conductor is
2r
V1+
s
g= d
2r ln
rs
where s is the seperation between the sub conductors.
Let the equivalent radius or geometric mean radius be P0 then for two conductors
1 1 1
P0 = (rd) 2 = r 2 d 2
When there are 3 conductors
1
1 1 2 3 3
P0 = (r d d ) 3 = r 3 d 3
4
For 4 conductors
1 1
d d 4 1 3 1 4
P0 = r . d = r 4 d 4 .
2 2 2
5 1
1 d 6 1 d 5 6
For six conductors , P0 = r 6 6 6 = 6r
2 2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
h
a c c b b a
d g
b f b a a c c
c a b c a b
1 2 3
Transposed double circuit line.
Inductance per phase =
1 1
1 d 2 g 3
2 107 ln 2 6 1 H/metre/phase
r f
A B
A
The m2 th root of m2 distances i.e., the distance of the various strands from one of the strands
and the radius of the same strand, the distances of such m groupings constitute m2 terms
in the denominator, is called the geometric mean radius (GMR) of self GMD and is denoted
as Ds .
Dm
LA = 2 107 ln Ds
Henry/metre.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Composite Conductors,
b c
Ic a Ib
3 transmission with
Unsymmetrical spacing
La + Lb + Lc
L=
3
3
abc
= 2 107 ln R
Henry/metre.
The equivalent circuit and vector diagram for a short transmission line are shown in fig.
Vr 2Ir R cos r 2Ir X sin r Ir2
VS = 1 + + + (R2 + X 2 )
Vr Vr Vr2
In practice the last term under the square root sign is generally negligible; therefore.
1
2Ir R 2Ir X 2
VS = Vr 1 + cos r + sin r
Vr Vr
R + JX
vS
Ir jIrX
IS
vS vr
vr IrR
r a
Ir
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
The terms within the simple brackets is small as compared to unity. Using binomial expansion and
limiting only to second term,
Vs Vr + Ir Rcos r + Ir X sin r
The receiving end voltage under no load Vr is the same as the sending end voltage under full
load condition.
VS Vr
%regulation = Vr
100
I R I X
= r cos r + r sin r 100
Vr Vr
Ir R Ir X
Regulation per unit = cos r + sin r
Vr Vr
= Vr cos r + Vx sin r
Where Vr and Vx are the per unit values of resistance and reactance of the line.
Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr
V
A = Vs Ir = 0
r
This means A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when
receiving end is open. It is dimensionless.
Vs
B= Vr = 0
Ir
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end to have one ampere at the short circuited receiving
end. This is known as transfer impedence in network theory.
I
C = Vs Ir = 0
r
C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on the open circuited receiving end. It
has the dimension of admittance.
I
D = s Vr = 0
I r
D is the current at the sending end for one ampere of current at the short circuited receiving end
.
The constants A, B, C, and D are related for a passive network as follows
AD BC = 1
The sending end voltage and current can be written from the equivalent network as,
Vs = Vr + Ir Z
Is = I r
The constants for short transmission lines are,
A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
VS Vr
% regulation = A
Vr
100
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Power received at the receiving end
%= 100
Power received at the receiving end+losses
Where R is the resistance per phase of the line.
Nominal T
vS
X
jIS 2
vc
R
IS 2
vr
jIr X/2
IS
IC
Ir
j
|VS |
Vr = R jX
wc
j
+
2 2 wc
Vr Vr
% of regulation = Vr
100
P
%= R 100
P+3 I 2 + I52
2 r
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
IS Z = R + jx I Ir vS
IC & IC
IC2 jIX
IC1
Y jwc Y jwc vr
vS = = vr IS
2 2 2 2 IR
I
Ir
2j
|VS |
Vr = C
j
R+jX C
2
Vr LVr
% regulation = 100
Vr
P
%= 100
P+3 I2 R
A, B, C, D constants for nominal
Y
A=1+
2
B=Z
YZ
C = Y 1 +
4
YZ
D = 1 +
2
Long Transmission Lines:-
In case the lines are more than 160 km long
I + I I V + V1 I + I ZX
V1 I
vS V + V V vr YX
CX
X X X
Let Z = series impedence per unit length
Y = shunt admittance per unit length
= length of line
Z = zl = total series impedence
Y = yl = total shunt admittance.
V = Aerx + Berx
I
I= (Aerx Berx )
ZC
V +I Z V I Z
V = r 2 r c erx + r 2r C erx
1 V +I Z V I Z
I = r 2 r C erx r 2 r C erx
ZC
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
z r+jL
ZC = y = g+jC
The propagation constant r = + j ; the real part is known as attenuation constant and the
quadrature component the phase constant and is measured in radians per unit length.
Vr + Ir ZC Vr Ir ZC
V= 2
ex . ejx + 2
ex . ejx
Vs = Vr cos hrl + Ir Zc sin hrl
sin hrl
IS = Vr + Ir cos hrl
Zc
A = cosh rl
B = Zc sinh rl
sinh rl
C=
Zc
D = cosh rl
Z sinhr
Z1 =
r
y1 y1 y Tanhr/2
VS =
2 2 2 r/2
Z Z Tanhr/2
=
2 2 r/2
IS
sinh r
VS Y1 = Y r
Vr
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
IS I Ir
A1 , B1 A2 , B2
vS V vr
C1 , D1 C 2 , D2
A B A B1 A2 B2
equivalent = 1
C D C1 D1 C2 D2
vS vr
IS 2
A2 , B2
C 3 , D2
A1 B2 + A2 B1
A=
B1 + B2
Equivalent B .B
B = B 1+ B2
Single 1 2
Network A1 B2 + A2 B1 D1 B2 + D2 B1
A=D= B1 + B2
= B1 + B2
Parameters
(A1 A2 )(D2 D1 )
C = C1 + C2 +
B1 + B2
dielectric occurs
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
The final expression for the critical disruptive voltage after taking into account
the atmospheric conditions and the surface of the conductor is given by
d
V = rg 0 m0 ln kV
r
Where m0 = average value for the ratio of breakdown voltage and smooth conductor
Polished wires 1
Roughened or weathered wires 0.98 to 0.93
Seven strand cable 0.87 to 0.83
Large cables with more then seven strands 0.90 approx
The distance between g v and g 0 is called energy distance. According to peek this distance
is equal to (r + 0.301r) for coaxial conductors.
0.3
g v = g 0 1 + kv/cm for two wires in parallel
r
0.3 d
vv = rg 0 1 + ln kV
r r
In case the irregularity factor is taken into account,
0.3 d
Vv = 21.1 mv r 1 + ln r kV rms
r
Where r is the radius in cms.
The irregularity factor mv has the following values:
mv = 1.0 for polished wires
= 0.98 to 0.93 for rough conductor exposed to atmospheric severities
= 0.72 for local corona on stranded conductors.
Peek made a number of experiments to study the effect of various parameters on the
corona loss and he deduced an empirical relation
(f+25) r 2
P = 241 105
d Vp V0 kw/km/phase
Where f = frequency of supply
= The air density correction factor
Vp = The operating voltage in kV
V0 = the critical disruptive voltage
wl2
When the Supports are at the Same Level , Sag = s = 2T
Where w = weight in kg/m run
= half the span length in metre
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
T = Tension in kg
Effect of wind and ice
Wl2
Sag = m
2T
Factor of Safety
Max. Stress
factor of safety =
permissible stress
Vertical sag = S cos
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
most economical conductor diameter is
D
d=
2.718
2V
and the value of g max under this condition is g max = volts/m
d
If Pi and Q i are scheduled electrical generation, PDi and Q Di are the respective load demands,
Pi PDi P = Mi = 0
Q i Q Di Q = Ni = 0 where
Mi and Ni represent the power residuals at bus i and P and Q the power flow to the neighbouring
system given by
P = Nj=1 Vi Vj Yij cosij ij
Q = N
j=1 Vi Vj Yij ij ij
For proper operation, each generator should have a minimum and maximum permissible output
and the unit production should be constrained to ensure that
Pimin Pi Pimax , i = 1, 2, , NP
Q imin Q i Q imax , i = 1, 2, , Na
Np and NQ being total number of real and reactive sources in the system
The incremental production cost of a given plant over a limited range is represented by
dFn
dPn
= Fnn Pn + fn
Where Fnn = slope of incremental production cost curve.
fn = intercept of incremental production cost curve.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
d Fn PL
d Pn
+ Pn
=
PL
Here the term Pn
is known as the incremental transmission loss at plant n and is
known as the incremental cost of received power in RS per MW
PL d Fn
Pn
= 2 m Bmn Pm also d Pn
= Fnn Pn + fn
then the
1 2
1 1
1 = & L2 =
PL
1 1
1 P2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
FAULTS:
Percentage reactance % = 100 I=full load current
V= phase voltage
Alternatively percentage reactance (%X) (an also be expressed in terms of KVA and KV
under
()
%X=
10()2
If X is the only reactance element in the circuit then short circuit currenr is given by
100
Isc= = I ( )
%
i.e short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by 100/%X
100
Short- circuit KVA=Base KVA
%
= 1 +2 +0
=
1 +2 +0
=
1 +2 +0
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Zero phase sequence currents (
0 , 0 , &0 )
The operator ais one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 1200
in the anticlockwise direction.
A=-0.5+j 0.866 ; a2=-0.5- j 0.866
a3=1
Properties of operator a:
1+a+a2=0
a-a2=j 3
Positive sequence current
1 in phase B leads 1 by 120 and therefore 1 = 1
0
= 2
1 + 2 + 0 = a 1 + 2 + 0
2
= a 1 + a 1 + 0 = 0 +1 +2
1
= 3
1
R1 = = [ 2
+a +a ]
3
Negative sequence current:-
2
+a +a = 1 (1+a +a ) + 2 (1+a +a ) + 0 (1+a +a)
4 2 3 3 2
2
= 3
1
R2 = [ 2
+a +a ]
3
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Single Line to Ground Fault:-
The sequence currents in the red phase in terms of line currents shall be :-
3
Fault current:- Fault current,
=3 0 =+
0 1 +
2
Since the generated emf system is of positive sequence only ,the sequence
The sequence voltage at the fault for R-phase are: This is ecpected because R-phase is
shorted to ground.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
The condition created by this fault lead to:
Again taking R-phase as the reference, we have
Also,
Fault current:
Phase voltages: - since the generated emf system is of positive phase sequence only,the
sequence components of emf in R-phase are:
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
The phase voltages at the fault are:
Also,
Fault current:-
Now
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
1. D.C sources
a) Resistance only: - As soon as switch is closed, the current in the circuit will be
determined according to ohms law.
=
b) Inductance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit will be given by
() 1 1
() = = . = .
() 2
() = t
c) Capacitance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given
()
I(s) = = .CS =VC
()
Which is an impulse of strength (magnitude)VC
d) R-L circuit: when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
() 1 1/
I(s) = = . = .
() + +/
1 1
= .
+/
1 1
=
+/
() = 1
e) R-L circuit: After the switch s is closed, current in the circuit is given by
() 1
I(s) = = .
() +1/
1
1
= = .
+1/ +1/
i (t)= . /
R-L-C circuit: - After the switch S is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
1
Type equation here. I(s) =
++1
1
I(s) = .(+)(++)
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
()+ (+)
i(t) =
2
2 1
where = a and = b; then
2 42
2 1 2 1
i(t) = 2 + 42 + 2 42
2 1
2 2 .
4
Now at b=0
i (t) = = (/2)
2 1
= .2 sin 42 + t
2 1
2 2
4
A.C source:
R-L circuit: when switch is is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
() 1
I (s) = = 2 + 2 +
() 2+ 2+
1
=
2+2
+ 2 +/
2+
Where = 1
The value of resistor required to be connected across the breaker contacts which will
give no transient oscillations, is R= 0.5
Where L,C are the inductance and capacitance upto the circuit breaker
2Vr
The average RRRV =
Lc
Where wn = 2fn ,
1 1
Natural frequency of oscillations, fn =
2 LC
Where L , C are the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker
1 1 1
Frequency of demand oscillations, f = 2 2
2 LC 4R C
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Breaking capacity:
Is the rated service line voltage in volts, then for 3-phae circuit? Breaking capacity = 3
V I 106 MVA
Making capacity :-
impedance relays :
From the universal torque equation putting 3 = 0 and giving negative sign to voltage term,
it becomes
T = K1 I 2 K 2 V 2 (Neglecting spring torque)
For the operation of the relay the operating toque should be greater than the
restraining torque i.e
K1 I 2 > K 2 V 2
Here V and I are the voltage and current quantities fed to the relay.
V2 K
I2 < 1K
2
K1
Z< K
2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
Z < constant (design impedance)
This means that the impedance relay will operate only if the impedance seen by the relay
is less than a pre-specified value (design impedance). At threshold condition,
K1
Z= K
2
Reactance Relay:
The directional element is so designed that its maximum torque angle is 900
i.e. in the universal torque equation.
T = K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( )
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( 90)
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI sin
For the operation of the relay
KI 2 > K 3 VI sin
VI
sin < K1 /K 3
I2
K
Z sin < 1K
3
K1
X < K
3
In the relay the operating torque is obtained by the V I element and restraining torque due
tot the voltage elemen
T = K 3 VI cos( ) K 2 V 2
For relay to operate
K 3 VI cos ( ) > K 2 V 2
V2 K
< 3K cos( )
VI 2
K3
Z < K cos( )
2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Systems Formula Sheet
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Control Systems Formula Sheet
Control Systems
Step i/P :
e n t 12
C(t) = 1- (sin n 1 2 t tan1 )
12
e n t 12
e(t) = sin tan1
12
e n t 12
ess = lim sin tan1
12
e n t 12
C(t) = 1- = Sin tan1
12
= 0 (un damped) :-
c(t) = 1- cos n t
= 1 (Critically damped ) :-
C(t) = 1 - en t (1 + n t)
e
C(t) = 1 -
2
1
T=
n
Tundamped > Toverdamped > Tunderdamped > Tcriticaldamp
12
Rise time t r = = tan1
n 12
n
Peak time t p =
d
2
Max over shoot % Mp = en/1 100
Settling time t s = 3T 5% tolerance
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Control Systems Formula Sheet
= 4T 2% tolerance
1+0.7
Delay time t d =
n
(ln Mp )2
Damping factor 2 2 = 2 + (ln Mp )2
2
Time period of oscillations T =
d
t t
No of oscillations = s = s d
2/d 2
t r 1.5 t d t r = 2.2 T
1 >
Resonant peak Mr = ; r = n 1 22 r < n < b
212 >
Bandwidth b = n (1 22 + 4 4 4 2 + 2)1/2
()
Step i/p : ess = lim () = lim () = lim
t 0 0 1+
1
ess = (positional error) K p = lim () ()
1+KP 0
1
Ramp i/p (t) : ess = K v = lim ()()
Kv 0
A/A
Sensitivity S = sensitivity of A w.r.to K.
K/K
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t forward path T/F G(s) :
Open loop: S =1
1
Closed loop : S=
1+G(s)H(s)
Stability
RH Criterion :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Control Systems Formula Sheet
If char. Equation contains either only odd/even terms indicates roots have no real part & posses only
imag parts there fore sustained oscillations in response.
Row of all zeroes occur if
(a) Equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal image but opposite sign
(b) has one or more pair of imaginary roots
(c) has pair of complex conjugate roots forming symmetry about origin.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Measurements:
Derived Units:
Area m2 L2 MMF A I
Volume m3 L3 Frequency Hz T 1
Density Kg/ m3 L3 M Velocity m/sec LT 1
Angular rad / sec [L]0 T 1 Acceleration m/sec 2 LT 2
Velocity
Angular rad / sec 2 [L]0 T 2 Force Kg m/sec 2 LMT 2
Acceleration
Pressure, Kg/m/sec 2 L1 MT 2 Luminous flux lm(cd Sr)
stress
Luminance cd/m2 Illumination lm/m2
2 2
Work , Joule L MT Power Watt L2 MT3
Energy (Nm) (J/sec)
Charge Coulomb TI EMF Volt (W/A) L2 MT 3 I1
Electric field V/m LMT 3 I 1 Resistance V/A L2 MT 3 I2
strength
Capacitance (AS/v) L2 M1 T 4 I2 Magnetic flux Vs L2 MT 2 I1
Magnetic Wb / m2 MT 2 I 1 Inductance Vs / A L2 MT 2 I2
flux density
Static error:-
Static error is defined as the difference b/w the measured value and the true value of
the quantity.
A = 0 = Am At
where Am = measured value of quantity
A
= = A0
At t
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Static correction :- It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity
c = Am At = - A
Sensitivity :
A measurement system is considered to be linear if the output is linearly proportional to the input .
n
Xi
Mean : Arithmetic Mean = = i=1
n
The root mean square value is the standard deviation .
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
2 2 2 2
d1 + d2 +dn n
i=1 di
S.D , = =
n n
Where d1 = xi x, d2 = x2 x, etc the deviation from the mean of the individual readings
2
n
i=1 di
If the number of readings is less than 20, then S.D, = n1
Variance = 2
Where I is the current through fixed coil and moving coil (connected in series) and
L is the inductance.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Linearization of scale:
.(dL/d)=K.
Vdc
d.c supply Im = R
m +RL
a.c supply V = Vrms voltage of source.
Vdc = (Vm /)
Im = (2V) / ((R L + R m ))
= (0.45 V)/(R m + R L )
= (2 V)/()
In half wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.45 times that of d.c.
2Vm
a.c supply Im = (R
m +RL )
0.9 V
=
Rm +RL
In full wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.9 times that of d.c.
Thermal instruments :
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Hot wire type:
b is a constant (1 to 2 v / 0C )
r
Vad = Vam +Vmd =I2 R + I2 p+q+r
P
P qr
R= S.Q p+q+r
2.Measurement of Medium Resistance:
(a)Voltmeter-Ammeter method:
VR +Va
Measured value of resistance, R ml = IR
Where R is the true value of the resistance.
of resistance.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
(b)Ammeter-Voltmeter Method:
VR
Measured value of resistance, R m2 = I
V V
Where I= IR = IV = RR + RR
1 v
R
Which gives R m2 = R
1+
Rv
R
Error = R m2 -R = R m2 R
v
Rm2 R
% error = Rv
Rv
In this method, the measured value of resistance is always less than the true value
of resistance.
This method is suitable for measurement of low resistance among the range.
The resistance where both the methods give same error is obtained by equating the
two errors.
Ra R
=R ,
R v
R = R a R v
Wheatstone Bridge:
P R
Balanced condition Q = S
Q S
=
P R
P R
=
P+Q R+S
Sensitivity of the galvanometer, Sv = e
Where = deflection of the galvanometer
= Vb - Vd
= (E - Vab )- (E - Vad )
= Vad - Vab
(R+R) E.P
= E
R+R+S P+Q
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
S
e = E. 2 (R+S)
(R+S)2
Sensitivity of galvanometer, Sv = .
E.S.
E.SR
Or = Sv .
(R+S)2
Sensitivity of the Bridge = SB = R
R
E E
SB = Sv . R S = Sv = P Q
+2+ +2+
S R Q P
Sv .E
SBmax =
4
P R
When Q
=S=1
(a) Selecting the galvanometer with which the given unbalance can be observed.
(b) Determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.
0.434 t
R=
C log10 (V/v)
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
The general ac bridge circuit
EBA = EBC = I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
Z1 Z4 (Q1+Q 4 ) = Z2 Z3 (Q 2+Q 3 )
Z1 Z4 =Z2 Z3
(Q1+Q 4 ) = (Q 2 +Q 3 )
self-inductance.
At balance condition,
L1 = R 3 L2 /R 4 ; R1 = R 3 (R 2 +r2 )/R 4
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
2.Maxwells Inductance-Capacitance Bridge:
variable capacitance.
At balance conditions,
R1 = R 2 R 3 /R 4 ; L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
3.Hays Bridge:-
C4 = standard capacitor
At balance conditions,
R R C 2 R2 R3 R4 C24
L1 = 1+W22 +C
3 4
2 +R2 ; R 1 =
4 4 1+2 C24 R24
4.Andersons Bridge:-
At balance conditions,
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
R1 =(R 2 R 3 /R 4 ) r1 ; L1 = CR 3 [r(R 4 + R 2 ) + R 2 R 4 ]/R 4
5.Owens Bridge:-
This bridge may be used for the measurement of an inductance in terms of capacitance.
L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
C
R 1 = R 3 C4
2
Measurement of Capacitance:-
1. De Sautys Bridge
2. Modified De Sautys Bridge
3. Schering Bridge.
1.De Sautys Bridge :- This bridge is the simplest method of comparing two capacitances.
C R +r R
At balance condition, C1 = R2 +r2 =R4
2 1 1 3
D2 = tan 2 = c2 r2
1 4
D1 - D2 = c2 2
3
3.Scherings Bridge :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
C1 = C2 (R 4 /R 3 )
The following bridges are used for the measurement of mutual inductance:
Ammeter Shunts:
measuring capacity
Im R m = Ish R sh
m R
= m1
Series Multipliers:
These are used for increasing the voltage measuring capacity of basic met
V V
Rse + Rm
=R
m
R se = R m (m-1)
Where m is the multiplying power of voltmeter.
Multi Range Ammeter: A range of current settings can be obtained using different shunts.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
R I
R sh1 = m m1 , m1 = I 1
1 m
R I
R sh2 = m m1 , m2 = I 2
2 m
R I
R sh3 = m m1 , m3 = I 3
3 m
Im R m = (I1 - Im ) R1
R I1
R1 = m m1 , m1 = Im
1
R I2
R 2 = m m1 , m2 = Im
2
R I3
R 3 = m m1 , m3 = Im
3
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Where V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current and cos is the power factor of the
load.
Many watt meters are compensated for errors caused by inductance of pressure coil
by means of a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of multiplier.
Capacitance C = (L/r 2 )
In present case of wattmeter , i1 is the load current and is the current flowing
through pressure coil.
Td = iP iC (dM/d)
Td VI cos (dM/d)
At balance condition, Td = TC
K1 VI cos (dM/d) = k
VI cos
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
power if (dM/d) is constant.
cos
True power for lagging pf loads = cos cos() actual wattmeter reading
cos
True power for leading pf loads = cos cos(+) actual wattmeter reading
= tan1 (X P/R P )
In the three wattmeter method to determine the power in 3-, 4 wire system.
P= V1 i1 +V2 i2+V3 i3
Hence the summation of readings of three watt meters gives the total power of load.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
(b)Two wattmeter Method:
In a 3-, three wire system we required 3 elements. But if we make the common
points of pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require only (n-1
l =2) elements.
Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter (P1 ) = i1 (V1 - V3 )
= V1 i1 - V3 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 i2
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (i1 +i2 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (-i3 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3
Hence, the sum of two watt meter readings is equal to power consumed by load.
Let the load be balanced, V1 , V2 , V3 be the rms value of phase voltage and I1 , I2 , I3 be the rms
values of phase currents.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Phase currents I1 = I2 = I3 = I (say)
Line currents I1 = I2 = I3 = I
Wattmeter reading = current through wattmeter current coil * voltage across its
pressure coil * cos( phase angle between this current and voltage).
= 3 VI cos
= 3 VI sin
= 3 (P1 - P2 )
3 (P1 P2 )
Power factor cos = cos tan1 P1 +P2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
With unity power factor, cos =1 (or) = 00
P1 = P2 = 3 VI cos (00 ) = (3/2)VI
The readings of two watt meters are equal , each watt meter reads half of the total power.
P1 = (3/2) VI, P2 =0
When power factor is 0.5 , one of the watt meter reads zero and the other reads total power.
= 3 VI sin
Measurement of Energy:
Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval, that is.
Energy = Power time
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
These two fluxes will be produced by two currents which are described earlier.
At steady speed the driving torque must equal to the breaking torque.
k 4N= k 3 VI sin (-)
= K VI cos
= k x(power)
The values of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same value of
current
at normal frequency (i.e) R = L
Deflecting torque acting on coil B is: TB = KVI Mmax cos (900 -) sin (900 +)
= KVI Mmax sin cos
At equilibrium , TA = TB =
Therefore the deflection of the instrument is a measure of phase angle of the circuit.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
Q-Meter:
L 1 IX
Q= = = IRL = =
R CR
So the voltage across the capacitor or coil is Q times the applied voltage
) :
1 2
=
1 2
1 1 2 2
=
1 2 1 2
(1 2 )1 2
= =
1 1 2 2
b) :
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
, ,
.
,
1 C1 1
RP
= = RQ
Q2 1
1
XP = (C
2 C1 )
Rp (C1 C2 )Q1 Q2
Qx = X =
p Q1 C1 Q2 C2
C1 C1 C2
Cd = 3
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
1 2dEa
Deflection factor G is G= S = , V/m
Lld
lLB e
Magnetic Deflection D = 2m , m
Va
Va - acceleration potential
D e
Magnetic Deflection Sensitivity is B = IL 2mV , m
a
Oscilloscope Specifications:
1.Sensitivity:
It means the vertical sensitivity . It refers to smallest deflection factor G = (1/S) and
expressed as mv/div. The alternator of the vertical amplifier is calibrated in mv/div.
2.Band width:
3.Rise Time:
Rise time is the time taken by the pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its amplitude.
1
BW = 2RC BW = band width in MHz
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Measurements Formula Sheet
1 2.2 0.35
BW = 2RC = 2RC = Tr
, Tr = rise time in seconds.
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
EDC & Analog
EDC
dp dn
Diffusion current densities Jp = - q Dp Jn = - q Dn
dx dx
Drift current Densities = q(p p + nn )E
p , n decrease with increasing doping concentration .
Dn Dp
= = KT/q 25 mv @ 300 K
n p
Carrier concentration in N-type silicon nn0 = ND ; pn0 = n2i / ND
Carrier concentration in P-type silicon pp0 = NA ; np0 = n2i / NA
Junction built in voltage V0 = VT ln 2
2s 1 1
Width of Depletion region Wdep = xp + xn = + (V0 + VR )
q NA ND
2
* = 12.93
xn N
= A
xp ND
q.NA ND
Charge stored in depletion region qJ = NA +ND
. A . Wdep
s A s A
Depletion capacitance Cj = ; Cj0 =
Wdep Wdep / VR =0
VR m
Cj = Cj0 /1 +
V0
Cj = 2Cj0 (for forward Bias)
Dp
Forward current I = Ip + In ; Ip = Aq n2i L / 1
p ND
Dn
In = Aq n2i L / 1
n NA
Dp Dn
Saturation Current Is = Aq n2i L +L
p ND n NA
Minority carrier life time p = L2p / Dp ; n = L2n / Dn
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
Minority carrier charge storage Qp = p Ip , Q n = p In
Q = Q p + Q n = T I T = mean transist time
Diffusion capacitance Cd = I = .g Cd I.
carrier life time , g = conductance = I /
I02 = 2(T2 T1 )/10 I01
Junction Barrier Voltage Vj = VB = Vr (open condition)
= Vr - V (forward Bias)
= Vr + V (Reverse Bias)
1
Probability of filled states above E f(E) = (EEf )/KT 1+e
Drift velocity of e d 107 cm/sec
d2 V v nq dv nqx
Poisson equation = = =E=
dx2 dx
Transistor :-
IE = IDE + InE
IC = ICo IE Active region
IC = IE + ICo (1- eVC /VT )
Common Emitter :-
IC = (1+ ) ICo + IB =
1
I
Co
ICEO = 1 Collector current when base open
ICBO Collector current when IE = 0 ICBO > ICo .
0 V
VBE,sat or VBC,sat - 2.5 mv / C ; VCE,sat BE,sat
10
= - 0.25 mv /0 C
IC ICBo
Large signal Current gain = IB + ICBo
IC
D.C current gain dc = = hFE
IB
(dc = hFE ) when IB > ICBo
I hFE
Small signal current gain = IC = hfe = h
R VCE 1(ICBo + IB ) FE
IC
active
Over drive factor = IC sat = forced IB sat
forced under saturation
Conversion formula :-
CC CE
hic = hie ; hrc = 1 ; hfc = - (1+ hfe ) ; hoc = hoe
CB CE
h hie hoe h hoe
hib = 1+hie ; hib = 1+h - hre ; hfb = 1+hfe ; hob = 1+h
fe fe fe fe
Specifications of An amplifier :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
hf Av .Zi AI .ZL AIs .ZL
AI = Zi = hi + hr AI ZL Avs = = =
1+h0 ZL Zi +Rs Zi +Rs Rs
I I IC
For S = I C S = V C S = V
Co VB0, BE IC0, BE,ICo
IC = S. ICo + S VBE + S
1+
For fixed bias S = dI =1+
1 B
dIC
1+ 1+
Collector to Base bias S = RC 0 < s < 1+ = RC + RE
1+ 1+
RC +RB RC + RE + RB
1+ Rth
Self bias S = RE 1+ R E > 10 R 2
1+ Re
RE +Rth
Vcc Rth V R
R1 = Vth
; R 2 = V ccVth
cc th
VCC
For thermal stability [ Vcc - 2Ic (R C + R E )] [ 0.07 Ico . S] < 1/ ; VCE <
2
g m = |IC | / VT
rb e = hfe / g m
rb b = hie - rb e
rb c = rb e / hre
g ce = hoe - (1+ hfe ) g b c
For CE :-
g gm
f = 2(Cb +e C =
e c) hfe 2(Ce + Cc )
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
1 gbe
fT = hfe f ; fH = = 2C C = Ce + Cc (1 + g m R L )
C 2 rbe
fT = S.C current gain Bandwidth product
fH = Upper cutoff frequency
For CC :-
1+gm RL gm fT Ce gm + gbe
fH = = =
2CL RL 2CL CL 2(CL + Ce )
For CB:-
1+ hfe
f = 2r = (1 + hfe ) f = (1 + ) f
b e (CC + Ce )
fT = f f > fT > f
1+
I ICo = N IEo
Multistage Amplifiers :-
fL
fH * = fH 21/n 1 ; fL =
21/n 1
0.35 0.35
Rise time t r = =
fH B.W
t r = 1.1 2 2
t r1 + t r2 +
1 1 1
= 1.1 2 + +
fH f H1 f2H2
Differential Amplifier :-
0 |IEE | I
gm = = 4VC = g m of BJT/4 0 DC value of
4VT T
h R
CMRR = R fe+he ; R e , Zi , Ad & CMRR
s ie
Darlington Pair :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
AI = (1 + 1 ) (1 + 2 ) ; Av 1 ( < 1)
(1+hfe )2 Re2
Zi = 1+h [ if Q1 & Q 2 have same type ] = AI R e2
fe hoc Re2
R 2h
R o = (1+hs 2 + 1+hie
fe ) fe
g m = (1 + 2 ) g m1
B.W = f0 /Q
BW
fL = f 0 -
2
BW
fH = f0 +
2
For double tuned amplifier 2 tank circuits with same f0 used . f0 = fL fH .
2 1
iD = K n [ (VGS - Vt ) VDS - VDS ] triode region ( VDS < VGS - Vt )
2
K n = n Cox
1 2
iD = K n [ VDS ] saturation
2
1
rDS = Drain to source resistance in triode region
Kn (VGS Vt )
PMOS :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
Device operates in similar manner except VGS , VDS, Vt are ve
iD enters @ source terminal & leaves through Drain .
2 1
iD = K p [(VGS Vt )2 - VDS ] K p = p Cox
2
NMOS PMOS
1
IDSS = K n Vt2 .
2
MOSFET as Amplifier :-
d
gs
= - gm RD
gm
Unity gain frequency fT = 2(C
gs +Cgd )
JFET :-
VGS Vp iD = 0 Cut off
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
Vp VGS 0, VDS VGS - Vp
2
iD = IDSS 2 1
Triode
2
I
iD = IDSS 1 VGS = Vp 1
I DSS
2IDSS 2I I
Saturation
gm = 1 = DSS
|Vp | |V | I
p DSS
Zener Regulators :-
Vi Vz
For satisfactory operation Rs
IZmin + ILmax
Vsmin Vz0 IZmin rz
R Smax = IZmin + ILmax
For finding min R L take Vs min & Vzk , Izk (knee values (min)) calculate according to that .
1
V0 = Vi dt LPF acts as integrator ;
RC
R L dvi
V0 = i dt ; V0 = (HPF)
L R dt
1 dvi
For Op-amp integrator V0 = i dt ; Differentiator V0 = -
dt
V0 V0 Vi Vi
Slew rate SR = t
= t
. t
= A. t
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
V0 = - VT ln I
0
V0 = - VBE
= - VT ln I
0
1
Error in differential % error = 100 %
CMRR
Power Amplifiers :-
B 2 B21
Fundamental power delivered to load P1 = 21 R L = RL
2
12 22
Total Harmonic power delivered to load PT = 2 + 2
+ . .
2 2
= P1 1 + 2 + 3 +
1 1
= [ 1+ D2 ] P1
B
Where D = +D22 + . . +D2n Dn = Bn
1
D = total harmonic Distortion .
Class A operation :-
o/p IC flows for entire 3600
Q point located @ centre of DC load line i.e., Vce = Vcc / 2 ; = 25 %
Min Distortion , min noise interference , eliminates thermal run way
Lowest power conversion efficiency & introduce power drain
PT = IC VCE - ic Vce if ic = 0, it will consume more power
PT is dissipated in single transistors only (single ended)
Class B:-
Class AB operation :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
Class C operation :-
IC flows for < 180 ; Q located just below cutoff ; = 87.5%
Very rich in Distortion ; noise interference is high .
Oscillators :-
1 29
For RC-phase shift oscillator f = hfe 4k + 23 + where k = R c /R
2RC 6+4K k
1
f= > 29
2RC6
1
For op-amp RC oscillator f = | Af | 29 R f 29 R1
2RC6
Hartley Oscillator :-
1 L
f= |hfe | L2
2(L1 +L2 )C 1
L
| | L2
1
L2
|A|
L1
Rf
R1
Colpits Oscillator :-
1 C
f= C C
|hfe | C1
2L 1 2 2
C1 +C2
C
| | C1
2
C
| A | C1
2
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Digital Electronics Formula Sheet
Digital Electronics
IOH IOL
Fan out of a logic gate = IIH
or IIL
Noise margin : VOH - VIH or VOL - VIL
I +I
Power Dissipation PD = Vcc Icc = Vcc I Ic when o/p low
2
I Ic when o/p high .
TTL , ECL & CMOS are used for MSI or SSI
Logic swing : VOH - VOL
RTL , DTL , TTL saturated logic ECL Un saturated logic
Advantages of Active pullup ; increased speed of operation , less power consumption .
For TTL floating i/p considered as logic 1 & for ECL it is logic 0 .
MOS mainly used for LSI & VLSI . fan out is too high
ECL is fastest gate & consumes more power .
CMOS is slowest gate & less power consumption
NMOS is faster than CMOS .
Gates with open collector o/p can be used for wired AND operation (TTL)
Gates with open emitter o/p can be used for wired OR operation (ECL)
ROM is nothing but combination of encoder & decoder . This is non volatile memory .
SRAM : stores binary information interms of voltage uses FF.
DRAM : infor stored in terms of charge on capacitor . Used Transistors & Capacitors .
SRAM consumes more power & faster than DRAM .
CCD , RAM are volatile memories .
1024 8 memory can be obtained by using 1024 2 memories
No. of memory ICs of capacity 1k 4 required to construct memory of capacity 8k 8 are 16
DAC ADC
1
FSV = VR 1 * LSB = Voltage range / 2n
2
step size VR /2n 1 FSV
Resolution = = 1 = 100% * Resolution =
FSV VR 1 n 2n 1 2n 1
2
1 1 V
Accuracy = LSB = n+1 * Quantisation error = 2nR %
2 2
Analog o/p = K. digital o/p
AND OR
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Digital Electronics Formula Sheet
Flash Type ADC : 2n1 comparators
2n resistors
2n n Encoder
Fastest ADC :-
Flip Flops :-
a(n+1) = S + R Q
=D
= JQ + K Q
= TQ + T Q
Excitation tables :-
S R J K D T
0 0 0 x 0 0 0 x 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 x 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 x 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 x 0 1 1 x 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
Combinational Circuits :-
Multiplexer :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Digital Electronics Formula Sheet
2n i/ps ; 1 o/p & n select lines.
It can be used to implement Boolean function by selecting select lines as Boolean variables
For implementing n variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX is enough .
For implementing n + 1 variable Boolean 2n 1 MUX + NOT gate is required .
For implementing n + 2 variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX + Combinational Ckt is
required
If you want to design 2m 1 MUX using 2n 1 MUX . You need 2mn 2n 1 MUXes
Decoder :-
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Microprocessors Formula Sheet
Microprocessors
1
Clock frequency = crystal frequency
2
Hardware interrupts
TRAP (RST 4.5) 0024H both edge level
RST 7.5 Edge triggered 003CH
RST 6.5 0034 H
RST 5.5 level triggered 002C
INTR Non vectored
0 0 Halt
0 1 write
1 0 Read
1 1 fetch
HOLD & HLDA used for Direct Memory Access . Which has highest priority over all interrupts .
Flag Registers :-
S Z X AC X P X CY
Sign flag :- After arthematic operation MSB is resolved for sign flag . S = 1 -ve result
If Z = 1 Result = 0
AC : Carry from one stage to other stage is there then AC = 1
P : P =1 even no. of ones in result .
CY : if arthematic operation Results in carry then CY = 1
For INX & DCX no flags effected
In memory mapped I/O ; I/O Devices are treated as memory locations . You can connect max of
65536 devices in this technique .
In I/O mapped I/O , I/O devices are identified by separate 8-bit address . same address can be used
to identify i/p & o/p device .
Max of 256 i/p & 256 o/p devices can be connected .
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Microprocessors Formula Sheet
8155 programmable peripheral Interface with 256 bytes RAM & 16-bit counter
8255 Programmable Interface adaptor
8253 Programmable Interval timer
8251 programmable Communication interfacing Device (USART)
8257 Programmable DMA controller (4 channel)
8259 Programmable Interrupt controller
8272 Programmable floppy Disk controller
CRT controller
Key board & Display interfacing Device
RAL :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes CY & CY becomes D0 .
When CALL executes , p automatically stores * Programmer use PUSH to save the contents
16 bit address of instruction next to CALL on the rp on stack
Stack
CALL executed , SP decremented by 2 * PUSH executes SP decremented by 2 .
RET transfers contents of top 2 of SP to PC * same here but to specific rp .
RET executes SP incremented by 2 * same here
CALL Instruction
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Microprocessors Formula Sheet
CZ Call on Zero ; CNZ call on non zero
CP Call on +ve
RET : - 10 T
RC : - 6/ 12 T states
Jump Instructions :-
JMP 10 T
JZ Jump on zero
JP Jump on Positive
JM Jump on Minus
PCHL : Move HL to PC 6T
PUSH : 12 T ; POP : 10 T
SHLD : address : store HL directly to address 16 T
SPHL : Move HL to SP 6T
STAX : R p store A in memory 7T
STC : set carry 4T
XCHG : exchange DE with HL 4T
A = Reg/mem : Z 1 & CY 0 .
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Microprocessors Formula Sheet
DAD Add HL + RP (10T) fetching , busidle , busidle
DCX , INX wont effect any flags . (6T)
DCR, INR effects all flags except carry flag . Cy wont be modified
LHLD load HL pair directly
RST 12T states
SPHL , RZ, RNZ ., PUSH, PCHL, INX , DCX, CALL fetching has 6T states
PUSH 12 T ; POP 10T
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Power electronics:
3.SERIES OPERATION:
V1 + V2
String efficiency s = =
. , voltage rating of each SCR 2 V1
C C
T1 T2
Static equalizing Resistance Rs = (1)
(n1) Q
Dynamic equalizing capacitance C =
n VbmVs
I1 + I2
String efficiency S = =
. , current rating of each SCR 2 I1
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
V0
Average output current, I0 =
V2or / R Vor
pf= p.f =
Vs Is Vs
3. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R.L load and free wheeling Diode:
m V
Average output voltageV0 = 2 [ 1 + ]
1
1
r.m.s output voltageVor = Vm / (2 ) + (sin 2)2
2
2 +1
Circuit turn off time, t c = , 1 = Sin1 (/ ) and 2 = 1800 - 1
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
1
Average Output currentI0 = [ ( ) ( )]
2
I2 or R + I0 E
Supply power factor, pf = Vs Ior
Circuit turn off time t c =
2Vm cos
Average output voltage , V0 =
2Vm cos
Average output voltage , V0 =
Vm
Average output voltage V0 =
[1+cos ]
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
1
1 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = Vs / ( ) + (sin 2)
2
3 33
Average output voltage V0 = Vml cos = Vmp cos
2 2
3
voltage V0 Average output = Vml cos
1
3 3 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = VML + 2 (cos 2)
2 3
=
3
voltage V0 Average output = Vml (1+cos )
2
1
VML 3 2 3 2
r.m.s output voltageVor = + (1 + cos 2)
2 3 2
11. For a 3- converter , The inductance of source results in an lesser value of voltage
36 3Ls
V0 =
Vph cos -
I0
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
CHOPPERS:
a.STEP UP CHOPPER:
T
Duty cycle, = on (T = (Ton / T)
on + Toff )
VS
Average output voltage across load ,V0 = 1
(Imin +Imax )
Energy supplied by inductor = Wout = (0 ) 2
x ToFF
T
Duty cycle,= on (T = (Ton / T)
on + Toff )
VS
Average output current through load,0 = R
Vs
Rms value of thyristor current = R
R
Effective input resistence of chopper=
Ton
Vs /R [e Ta 1]
Imn = T - (E/R)
[e Ta 1]
Ton Toff
1e Ta 1e Ta
Vs
Ripple I = R
T
[1e Ta ]
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
T (1)T
1e Ta 1e Ta
Per unit Ripple = T
[1e Ta ]
A.C.ripple voltage 1
Ripple factor = = 1
D.C voltage
Cvs (vs )
The output current , I0 =
2tc
I0 tc V 2
where C = , L S C
vs I0
t1 = LC
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
INVERTERS:
2Vs
V0 =
n=1,3 sin nt
n
2Vs
i0 =
n=1,3 Sin(nt n )
nZn
4Vs
V0 =
n=1,3 n
sin nt
4Vs
i0 =
n=1,3 sin (nt - n )
nZn
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
1 nL1/nc
n = tan
R
V2or V21
=
V1
Vn
Distortion factor of nth harmonic is defined as V 2
1 .n
4Vs n
Vab =
n=1,3 Cos Sin n(t + /6)
n 6
4Vs n
Vbc =
n=1,3 Cos Sin n(t - /2)
n 6
4Vs n
Vca =
n=1,3 Cos Sin n(t + 5/6)
n 6
0.8165 Vs
Vph = = 0.4714 Vs
3
2Vs n
Va0 =
n=1,3 n
Cos Sin n(t+ )
6 6
2Vs n
Vb0 =
n=1,3 n
Cos Sin n(t - )
6 2
2Vs n 5
Vc0 =
n=1,3 n
Cos Sin n(t+ )
6 6
1 2/3 Vs 2
Vph = 0 2 d(t) = Vs 1/6
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Vor = Vs 2d/
4V
V0 = s
n=1,3( n Sin n/2. sin nd) sin(nt)
Maximum value of nth harmonic
To eliminate nth harmonic , nd =
i.e., width of the pulse = 2d = 2/n
Vor = 2 d/
8Vs nd
V0 = n=1,3 n sin n sin sin (nt)
2
AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:
VC =
n=1,3,5 An sin nt + n=1,3,5 Bn cos nt d(t)
Vm sin(+1) sin(1)
Where An =
(+1) (1)
Vm cos(+1)1 sin(+1)1
Bn =
(+1)
(1)
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Vm 1 1/2
Vor = ( ) + 2 sin 2
2
Vor
Ior = R
2 V2or V2
m
P = Ior R= R
= 2R (-) + sin 2
V2 1
= Rs ( ) + sin 2
2
Real power V2 /R V
Power factor = = Vor /R = Vor
Apparent power Vs or s
1/2
1 1
= ( ) + sin 2
2
Vm Vm
i0 = 2
sin (t - ) - 2
sin ( - ). exp ( )
DC & AC DRIVES
DC Motor equations :
ZN
Ea = N rpm
60
P
= Zn n rps
A
If m = 2n
Ea = Z- 2m
=
1 P
Torque T = Z Ia
2 A
Z P
= Ia
2 A
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
T = K a Ia k a = Newton meter / wb amper
Ia , = c I a
Ea = k a c Ia m
volt sec
Ea = k1 Ia m k1 motor constant
rad.amp
Te = k a Ia
= k a c Ia2
Te = k1 Ia2 k1 Nm /Amp2
Vm
Vf =
(1+cos 2 )
1 2
Is rms = I d(t)
2 a
1
= Ia ( )
2
Is rms = Ia [( )/2]1/2
IF.D.R = Ia [( + )/2]1/2
Ea Ia +I2a ra
= Vs Isr
Ia [Ea +Ia ra ]
=
Vs Isr
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Vm
v0 = vt =
[1+ cos 1 ]
Vm
Vf =
[1+cos 2 ]
Isr = Ia ( )/
Ifdr = Ia 2/2 = Ia /
ITr = Ia ( )/2 = I0r
VI
Input supply pf = V tI a
s sr
2Vm
V0 = Vt =
cos 1
2V
Vf = m cos 2
Isr = Ia
ITr = Ia /2 = Ia /2
Pf = Vt Ia / Vs Isr
36
V0 = Vt = Vph cos
36
V0 = Vt = V (1 + cos )
2 ph
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Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Static Rotor Resistance Control:
Toff
R eff = R
= R (T-Ton )/T
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