Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher, a

professor emeritus of psychology at San Jos State University. It is based on the coordination
of language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the
target language, and students respond with whole-body actions.

The method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. The

listening and responding (with actions) serves two purposes: It is a means of quickly
recognizing meaning in the language being learned, and a means of passively learning the
structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly, but can be learned from the
language input. TPR is a valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially idiomatic terms, e.g.,
phrasal verbs.

Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their
first language. He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form
of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child. Asher made three
hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening;
second, that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that
learning language should not involve any stress.

Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and techniques. It is popular
with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels
and all age groups.

2.2.8 Total Physical Response: Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching
method built around the coordination of speech and action. It attempts to teach language
through physical (motor) activity. It is developed by James Asher, Professor of Psychology at
San Jose University, California. It draws on developmental psychology, learning theory, and
humanistic pedagogy and also on language teaching procedures prepared by Harold and
Dorothy Palmer in 1925. The acquisition of second language by an adult is a parallel process
to a childs first language acquisition. A baby spends many months listening to the people
around it long before it even says a word. The child has the time to try to make sense out of
the sounds it hears. No one tells the baby that it must speak.

The child chooses to speak when it is ready to do so.

 Learners in Total Physical Response have the primary roles of listener and
performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to commands given by the
teacher. They are encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak that is, when a
sufficient basis in the language has been internalized. The teacher plays an active and
direct role in Total Physical Response. Teacher has to provide the raw material for the
cognitive map that the learners will construct in their own minds. Asher stressed that
TPR should be used in association with other methods and teachniques. Practitioners of
TPR agree that it is compatible with other approaches to teaching.

2.3.3 Content-Based Instruction: Krahnke defines content-Based Instruction (CBI) as

follows. It is the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with
little or no direct or explicit effort to teach the language itself separately from the content
being taught.
Content-Based approach has been widely used in a variety of different settings
since the 1980s. Besides applications in ESP (English for Social Purposes), EOP (English
for Occupational Purposes) it is widely used in K-12 programs for ESL (English as
second language) in university foreign language programs. It advocates claim that it leads
to more successful program outcomes than alternative language teaching approaches.
Critics say that most language teachers have been trained to teach language as a skill
rather than a content

subject.

2.3.5 Lexical Approach: A Lexical approach in language teaching is derived from the belief
that the building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar, functions,
notions but lexis that is words and word combinations. The role of lexical units has been
stressed in both first and second language research. These have been referred by many
different labels.

Materials and teaching resources to support lexical approaches in language teaching are of at
least four types.
 Type 1: It consists of complete course packages
including texts, tapes teachers manuals.

Type 2: This consists of collections of vocabulary teaching activities

Type 3:
This consists of printout versions of computer corpora collections
packaged in text format.

Type 4: These are computer concordancing programs and attached data sets
to allow students to set up and carry out their own analyses. These are
typically packaged in CD-ROM form or can be downloaded from the

internet.

The status of lexis in language teaching is enhanced by recognition of

multiword units in language learning and communication. However, it still lacks the full
characterization of an approach or method. It remains to be demonstrated how a lexically
based theory of language and language learning can be applied at the levels of design and
procedure in language teaching.

Part of teaching is assessment. Colleges offer entire courses on ways to assess

students of English. It is easy, however, for teachers to get stuck in a rut of
assessment.
If you are looking for a new way to assess your students or just want a
reminder of some oldies but goodies, read on for a look at ten of the most
popular ways to assess ESL students.

How to Assess Your Students: Top 10 Ways

1. 1

Oral Interview
You can do a one on one interview with each of your students to get a good
idea of their listening and speaking abilities. You can schedule these types of
interviews during class (perhaps take each student into the hall to have a
private discussion while the rest of the class does seat work) or schedule with
students individually. Asking questions that use grammatical structures and
vocabulary that your class has studied will help you know exactly what each
student has grasped. Do not penalize a student for not knowing content if he
or she can compose grammatically and situationally correct statements or
questions in response to your questions.

2. 2

Class Presentation
A presentation in class assesses a different aspect of spoken language.
When you ask a student to speak in front of the class, he is able to prepare
and practice what he wants to say. He can also research information on his
topic. In this case, the grade you give your student should be based on both
content and presentation.

3. 3

Role Play
Another way to assess your students speaking abilities is by having them
perform role-plays in front of the class. By giving them a situation and roles to
play, you can see how creatively your students are able to use language with
one another. Be listening for content and grammar as with any oral
assessment, but you can also be attuned to how your students are making
creative use of their language to communicate with one another. Even if they
show grammatical imperfection, are your students able to understand each
other? Are they able to use the language skills they possess to get their point
across to their partner? These are important skills and ones you should foster
in your students.

4. 4

Cloze Exam
A cloze exam is an atypical way to test the understanding your students have
of grammar. To write a cloze exam, write an original paragraph or take one
that your students have used in their studies. Then replace every fifth or sixth
word with a blank. Ask your students to fill in the blanks with words they think
would be most logical and grammatical. You will see a variety of answers
among your students, but as long as the answers are grammatically and
logically correct, the student should receive full credit.

5. 5
Fill in the Blank
A fill in the blank test may seem similar to a cloze exam, but this type of test
is used to test a specific grammatical structure or set of vocabulary. You can
write individual sentences or an entire paragraph for your students, but it is
probably best to provide a word bank in either case. You may choose to
supply more words than will be necessary to fill in the blanks to make the test
more challenging. This will force your students to choose the best answers
rather than matching ten words with ten blanks.

6. 6

Writing Sample
Having your students give you a writing sample is another good way to
assess their proficiency with grammar. If you have them write something for
homework, you run the risk that someone other than your student will do the
writing. Often friends or native speakers will correct a nonnative speakers
writing with the intention of helping, but this will not give you an accurate
picture of your students writing. To avoid this, have your students do a
periodic in class writing. Give them an adequate amount of time to write
about a subject that you assign. You will then get an accurate look at their
grammatical and writing proficiency. Follow up your assessment with some
mini-lessons on common grammatical pitfalls that the class exhibited.

7. 7

Portfolio
To expand the material you base your students grades on, why not assign
each person to assemble a portfolio. A portfolio is a collection of work
samples that cover several aspects of the assignments your students have
completed. This is an especially effective way to assess your students if you
have the same class for reading, writing, listening, speaking and grammar.
Ask each student to compile a collection of ten works for you to grade. You
can include specific assignments on the list, but you can also give a category
and ask your students to present their best work. Ask for a grammar
homework assignment, a writing sample and a vocabulary exercise, for
example. Your students can then choose the work that they are most proud of.
They may feel more encouraged to be graded on their strengths rather than
their weaknesses.

8. 8

Online Quiz
You do not have to spend as much of your class time assessing your students
as was often necessary in the past. With the extensive collection of online
resources for ESL students, you can require your students to spend time at
home or in a language lab period working on exercises and quizzes
available online. Have your students print out their final scores or e-mail
them to you. In so doing, your students will still get feedback on their work and
knowledge, but you will not have to give up valuable class time for it to
happen.

9. 9

Multiple Choice Exam

Sometimes the classics are often the way to go when assessing your
students. If you choose to give a multiple-choice exam, keep these pointers
in mind when writing the questions. Make sure all the answers are
grammatically correct. Your students should not be able to eliminate an
answer based on grammar alone (unless, of course, that is what you are
trying to test). Also, try to keep all the answer choices around the same length.
If you choose to include the options all of the above or none of the above,
make sure they are options for additional questions. If you keep these tips in
mind when you write your multiple-choice quiz, you will get better results from
your students.

10. 10

True/False Quiz
The true/false quiz is also a classic that is used by most teachers. When you
use this type of test, do not give trick questions that focus on minor
details. Even more important, have your students correct the questions that
they say are false. If they are making the corrections rather than just
identifying the mistakes, you will make sure they are answering from what
they know rather than making lucky guesses. You can assign one point to
each answer and another point to each correction on the test.
 A. NOTE-TAKING AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION

International students often report issues with note-taking and listening comprehension. The
consequence partly contributes to discomfort speaking up in class.

Pedagogical Suggestions

If using PowerPoint, consider making them available to students as a handout or online; when
lecturing from PowerPoint, information can go much more quickly than in chalk-n-talk mode,
and students may have a difficult time processing information and getting it down in notes.
Monitor student understanding with brief check-ins, such as formative assessments. Many
students will nod their heads while listening to a lecture for various reasons, but they might
not clearly understand what you are saying and will hesitate to ask.
When possible, make information visual.
If you make reference to something from US pop culture (e.g. products, ads and slogans, TV
shows, slang) to explain a concept, or provide an example/reference to the class, explain the
concept additionally with a universally relevant reference.
When possible, give students study guides and/or vocabulary lists to guide them when they
do class reading.

B. SECOND LANGUAGE SELF-CONFIDENCE IMPACT ON SPEAKING IN CLASS

International students can lack confidence in their English oral communication skills. The
result is a reluctance to speak because they question their ability to:

1. express themselves clearly,

2. formulate ideas in English, and
3. to respond quickly in a discussion.

Additionally, many international students come to Berkeley never having been encouraged to
volunteer information or ask questions in class. Recognize and address the significant shift in
the learning role they are being asked to undertake in a very short timeframe.

Pedagogical Suggestions
 Allow for longer wait time to formulate ideas and lower the stakes of speaking up by utilizing
peer to peer brainstorming and then report out as a group versus an individual.
Give examples of and praise the kinds of student participation you seek. Explain to the class
why participation, and this kind of participation, is so important.
Help to ensure productive group work with some guiding practices groups should follow. For
example: include everyone in discussions, check for understanding within the group, elicit the
opinions of those who have not spoken up, etc.
Try to avoid comprehension questions, such as do you understand? You will likely receive
head nods regardless of actual comprehension--anything else could be viewed as challenging
your competence or authority as the professor. Instead, ask What were the main ideas
covered so far?, or What more can I tell you about X?
Provide opportunities for students to engage in class participation gradually. Many
international students have always been taught that it would be disrespectful to ask a question
of the professor, let alone question or critique an idea. Begin by peppering in some questions
that elicit short answers or facts, shortly after add follow-up questions, and finally include
opinion or evaluative questions. Be sure to give students feedback that validates their
contribution.

C. ACADEMIC DISCOURSE PATTERNS AND FACULTY EXPECTATIONS

Unclear and conflicting expectations between instructors and international students may
cause confusion and misunderstanding. Many international students have prior educational
experiences and expectations that do not always align with our expectations of them and
experiences designed for them.

Pedagogical Suggestions

Discuss your expectations of students engagement and participation in the classroom.

Be explicit about student performance expectations in your syllabus and orally during the
first week of class (attendance, class participation, assignment requirements, grading policies,
reading textbooks in advance, cheating and plagiarism, etc.). Remind students throughout the
term.
Explain your teaching methods and give reasons for your plans for the class (e.g., we value
discussion and exploration of ideas, critical thinking, and not necessarily the final idea or the
right answer).
 Provide specific and clear instructions about classroom activities both in writing and orally.
Encourage students to teach each other, and you, about the educational culture they
experienced previously. (e.g., in some cultures, it is not okay to answer twice in a row
because it might be seen as showing off, but that may not be the case in many of our
classrooms.)

D. EVALUATING STUDENT LEARNING

International students face several cultural divides when it comes to the evaluation of student
learning. On an in-class exam, international students will probably read more slowly and
write more slowly than native English speakers because they are processing the information
in a second language. When assigning a written exercise, it is misleading to equate students'
writing skills with their intellectual ability. Students have varying degrees of experience with
"academic" writing, and face cultural differences in writing styles as well. Recognize that
many standards apply to the evaluation of good writing. Regarding academic integrity, in
many cultures, helping a friend may be of higher value than avoiding cheating; also, different
cultures have very different ideas about appropriate citation and documentation of source
material. Thus, what we would call cheating and plagiarism may occur when the international
student has no real intention of being dishonest.

Pedagogical Suggestions

Be explicit about what is expected in student writing and share examples of good writing
done by other students. Alert students early on of their need to improve their writing and
suggest resources to them.
If a specific type of writing is expected for a given class, it may be useful to assign a short,
ungraded assignment early in the term to identify students who may need additional
assistance in meeting that particular writing standard.
Depending on the subject matter of an exam and your own beliefs about fair examinations,
you may wish to allow international students to ask you the meanings of words that are not
explicitly being tested.
Consider allowing international students to use dictionaries or electronic translators during
exams, but whether this is appropriate for your exam will depend on the nature of the exam
and course.
 Recommend students take advantage of campus resources in preparing for any type of
assessment.

Regarding Academic Integrity

Clearly explain the university's academic integrity policy (in the Berkeley Student Code of
Conduct) and any specific expectations for your course. In some countries, knowledge is in
the public domain to be shared by all (even during an exam) or, if the students have been
taught that only the experts opinion is authoritative, students may present that instead of
developing their own ideas.