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ROMULUS AND CAESAR IN LATE MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPTS OF FRANCESCO PETRARCA'S "DE

VIRIS ILLUSTRIBUS"
Author(s): Lilian Armstrong
Source: Source: Notes in the History of Art, Vol. 33, No. 3/4, SPECIAL ISSUE ON SECULAR ART
IN THE MIDDLE AGES (Spring 2014 Summer 2014), pp. 57-66
Published by: Ars Brevis Foundation Inc.
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 ROMULUS AND CAESAR IN LATE
OF FRANCESCO PETRARCA'S
Lilian Armstrong
De viris illustribus, the long historical text
written by Francesco Petrarca (13041374)
and his follower, Lombardo della Seta (died
1390), survives in more than fifteen manu-
scripts in Latin and in a slightly higher num-
ber in the Italian translation, the Libro degli
uomini famosi, made by Donato degli Alban-
zani (c. 1328-after 1411) by 1397.1 The most
prevalent form of the text in the surviving
manuscripts begins with the Lives of Romu-
lus and three other early kings of Rome, fol-
lowed by nineteen Lives of military figures
from the Republican era composed by Pe-
trarch himself, all Romans except for
Alexander, Pyrrhus, and Hannibal. In most
manuscripts, this sequence is followed by the
long Life of Caesar, De gestis Cesaris, orig-
inally conceived by Petrarch as an independ-
ent text. After Petrarch's death, Lombardo
della Seta added eight more Lives of Repub-
lican heroes and ended with four emperors
Augustus, Vespasian, Titus, and Trajan.
In 1379 and 1380, della Seta presented
splendid manuscripts of two different ver-
sions of the Latin text to Francesco il Vec-
chio da Carrara, lord of Padua (reigned
1350-1388), the last great patron of
Petrarch.2 Each of these has a handsome
frontispiece miniature attributed to Altichiero
of Verona (doc. 1369-1384): one is a repre-
sentation of the Triumph of Glory with
generic images of mounted military figures,
the other an Allegory of Padua Victorious
over Venice. Subsequently, only a few man-
uscripts of De viris illustribus or the Libro
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MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPTS
DE VIRISILLUSTRIBUS
degli uomini famosi were "illustrated" with
more than one or two images of the heroes,
This is somewhat surprising since a great
hall in the Carrara Palacethe Sala virorum
illustrium in the Reggia Carraresehad
been painted in the 1370s with a now-lost
fresco cycle of the thirty-six heroes, also at
tributed to Altichiero.3
In this note, I will emphasize images of
Romulus and Caesar, especially in three
little-known early fifteenth-century manu
scripts of Petrarch's text, and I will try to
suggest some reasons for the paucity of other
heroes. The prelude to the lesser-known
manuscripts begins with a third version of
De viris illustribus presented to Francesco
da Carrara sometime before 1388.4 In it, the
opening text page exhibits another miniature
of the Triumph of Glory, and a small portrait
of Petrarch in the incipit. The only other fig
ural component is an image of Caesar in the
initial at the beginning of De gestis Cesaris.
Posed frontally, wearing a crown, medieval
armor, and a golden tunic emblazoned with
the imperial eagle, this Caesar is the earliest
individual hero to be represented in any man
uscript of De viris illustribus.5 In her pio
neering article on manuscript portraits of
Caesar, Virginia Brown associates similar
attributes with patrons wishing to emphasize
Caesar as the "first emperor."6 Although
Brown only analyzes portraits in manuscripts
of the Commentaries, the Petrarchan Caesar
for the lord of Padua would fit her "imperial"
category.
 58
The next surviving illustrated manuscript
would lead one to think that a tradition of
representing one hero for each Life would
evolve. Presently in the Escorial, this man-
uscript is dated 1394 and contains the Latin
text of Petrarch's own twenty-three Lives
plus his De gestis Cesaris.1 The twenty-four
heroes appear as half-length figures in the
initials at the beginning of each Life, illu-
minated by Nicolo di Giacomo da Bologna
(doc. 1349-1403). They are vigorous figures
but not highly differentiated; most wear red
tunics over medieval armor and carry swords
or clubs. The largest is Romulus, who is rep-
resented as a white-bearded king, crowned
and enthroned, wearing an ermine-trimmed
cloak, and carrying a sword and an open
book. Caesar is also crowned and holds the
same attributes. Otherwise, only Horatius
Codes is shown with a visual clue to his
identity: the curving form of the Sublician
bridge from which he famously defended
Rome.
The problem of "illustrating" De viris il-
lustribus begins to emerge. Petrarch's text
is largely drawn from his intense study of
Livy and is dominated by repetitious battles
and deeds of "heroes." Many of the heroes
Publius Decius Mus, Manius Curius Denta-
tus, Lucius Papirius Cursor, Fabricius Lu-
ciniuswould not have been familiar even
to cultured readers of the late trecento and
early quattrocento. And even if their names
were recognized, only a few of them had
"deeds" that had a well-established iconog-
raphy. Failure to imagine activities for Ro-
mans fighting in the Samnite and Punic Wars
is suggested by the truncated iconographie
program of the next known illustrated man-
uscript, a Libro degli uomini famosi of
around 1400 containing all thirty-six Lives,
now in Darmstadt.8 Its frontispiece shows
yet a third version of the Triumph of Glory
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and no image of Romulus. The next seven
Lives were illuminated with historiated ini
tials, but none thereafter. The tiny initials
include a few attributes: Numa Pompilius,
second king of Rome, holds a book, signi
fying that he brought the rule of law to
Rome; Junius Brutus struggles with Tar
quinius Superbus; Camillus rides in a chariot
to signal that he is the first triumphator; and
Codes wields a sword by the Sublician
bridge. As if to compensate for the lack of
historiated initials, a slightly later miniaturist
added narrative scenes in grisaille in the
lower margins of twenty-four pages. These
scenes do show detailed knowledge of Ro
man Republican history, but, oddly, they are
not synchronized with Petrarch's Lives. Ex
emplary deeds for many heroes are absent,
while five episodes are devoted to Romulus,
five to Alexander, and none later than
Scipio.9
The miniaturist and patron of a Libro degli
uomini famosi now in the Morgan Library
more specifically linked imagery to events
in the Lives.10 The initials painted around
1405-1406 by the Venetian miniaturist
Cristoforo Crtese (active 1390s-1445) in
elude the swaddled Romulus and Remus
drifting in the river. But the other images al
lude to tragic or inglorious episodes in the
Lives of Hannibal, Scipio Africanus, Caesar,
Pompey, and Augustus, while other heroes
are ignored. Caesar appears twice: in one,
he appears on horseback; in a second com
plex scene, he is assassinated and then laid
on a flaming bier.
Patrons of three other early fifteenth-cen
tury manuscripts accepted retreat to repre
sentations only of Romulus and Caesar,
surely the best known of Petrarch's person
ages. An illuminated manuscript of the Latin
text, now in the Vatican Library and dated
1418, again only contains the twenty-three

Lives and the De gestis Cesaris by Petrarch
himself.11 It opens with a richly decorated
first text page on which Petrarch is repre-
sented standing full length; he is bearded
and crowned with an oversized green laurel
wreath, a departure from his usual portraits
in which he is clean-shaven and wears a
close-fitting cap under a hood. Surrounding
the page is a wildly vigorous border con-
sisting of purple-pink and green coiling
acanthus leaves inhabited by birds with long
orange legs and beaks. Unfortunately,
heraldic markings have been effaced from
the lower border.
Only two of Petrarch's heroes appear else-
where in the manuscript. The Life of Ro-
mulus is initiated with a large pink capital
R (Romulus) composed of acanthus-leaf pat-
terns and surrounded by gold ground. Within
the initial, Romulus is portrayed as a three-
quarter-length generic military figure, wear-
ing silver armor (now oxidized black) and a
red tunic. No effort is made to include further
attributes; Romulus's identity is only indi-
cated by his gesture, as he points with his
right forefinger to his name in the text.
A similar pink-on-gold-ground initial G
(Gaius) appears the beginning of the Life of
Caesar, from which acanthus extensions curl
toward a large orange bird in the lower mar-
gin (Fig. 1). Compressed into the initial G
is the image of Caesar riding a white horse
with red trappings. Like Romulus, Caesar
wears silver armor and a red tunic; he has a
dark beard, wears a crown, and carries a
small gold shield. It is possible that the pa-
tron or miniaturist knew of Caesar's fond-
ness for horses, especially one that had
hooves like human toes.12 As I have pointed
out elsewhere, the fresco of Caesar in the
Sala virorum illustrium might have repre-
sented him on horseback and have proved a
powerful model for some subsequent
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59
sentations.13 However, Federica Toniolo co
gently argues that because the Vatican Pe
trarch was illuminated in the Emilian area,
making for comparisons to manuscripts from
Ferrara and Bologna, the artist of the Vatican
De viris illustribus may not have been fa
miliar with the Paduan fresco.14
A second Petrarchan equestrian hero ap
pears in a Latin manuscript of Petrarch's
own twenty-three Lives and the De gestis
Cesaris, now in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana
and also not well known.15 A crowned rider
on a white doll-like horse appears in a full
page miniature opposite the beginning of
the Life of Romulus (Fig. 2). The king is
dressed in a stylish padded purple tunic em
broidered with gold patterns and in bright
orange tights; his large crown is gold, as are
his spurs. He carries a slender scepter (?)
that terminates in a curiously flat gold disk,
The landscape, with its International Gothic
style features, is charmingly nave, the
ground sprinkled with delicate flowers re
sembling a millefleur tapestry, and behind
the king is an area of even more abstract
floral patterns on red ground surrounded by
pale soft cliffs.
The Ambrosiana manuscript and its minia
ture present several problems. The colophon
indicates that it was written in Rome in 1426,
and yet the style of the miniature is distinctly
Lombard.16 For example, its resemblance to
the similarly doll-like figures and horses in
the full-page miniature of a Trait de
fauconnerie et vnerie illuminated for
Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1459 is
striking.17 It is thus likely that a Lombard
miniaturist was active in Rome, where curial
patrons often favored artists from their own
home areas. The intended identity of the
king has also been questioned, and two writ
ers went so far as to call him Charlemagne,
repre- without further explanation.18 No specifically
 60

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Fig. 1 Ferrarese, Julius Caesar, in Francesco Petrarca, De viris illustribus. 1418. Biblioteca Apos
tlica Vaticana, MS Ross. 526, fol. 93r (per concessione della Biblioteca Apostlica Vaticana, ogni
diritto riservato)

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 61

> > .-v ;

;

Fig. 2 Lombard, Romulus, in Francesco Petrarca, De viris illustribus. 1428. Milan,

Biblioteca Ambrosiana, MS R 49 sup., fol. 2v

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

equestrian exploit is discussed by Petrarch
in the Life of Romulus, which might justify
a chivalric characterization of Romulus. Im-
ages of Romulus on horseback are absent
even in the several miniatures illustrating
his life in the Darmstadt manuscript, noted
earlier.19 What is true, however, is that the
king is the only hero represented in the Am-
brosiana manuscript, underlining the absence
of any effort to illustrate other Petrarchan
heroes.
A third late Gothic manuscript of De viris
illustribus, now in the Biblioteca Histrica
of the Universitat de Valncia, moves us fur-
ther afield.20 To my knowledge, it is the only
example with miniatures in a French style,
rather than Italian, although its Aragonese
provenance links it to Naples. The Latin text
is an abbreviated version of all thirty-six
Lives, known as the Compendium, that was
begun by Petrarch at therequest
Francesco il Vecchio da Carrara and intended
in some way to accompany the fresco cycle
projected for the Reggia Carrarese.21 Three
miniatures enhance the text, two of which
are generic battle scenes. Preceding the Life
of Alexander, two groups of heavily armed
knights on richly caparisoned horses charge
each other. Almost all wear closed helmets
except for the blond-bearded Alexander, who
wears the crown of a Holy Roman emperor
(fol. 23v). In the second battle scene, a black-
bearded Trajan and his mounted companions
attack Jewish foot soldiers, identified by Se-
mitic facial features and a scorpion standard
held aloft (Fig. 4; fol. 59v).22
The unusual feature of the manuscript, at
least compared to the Italian manuscripts
discussed so far, is a narrative miniature de-
picting many episodes in the life of Romulus
(Fig. 3). The brilliantly colored half-page
miniature appears on the opening folio sur-
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62
rounded with ivy-vine borders typical of
French illumination around 1400. In the
lower left, Romulus oversees stoneworkers
who are building the new city of Rome. He
is splendidly garbed in red and blue robes
with golden embroideries, but not yet
crowned. Farther back on the left is a promi
nent gold statue of a nude female on a
pedestal within a vaulted niche. She holds a
spear and a shield, attributes that might sug
gest Minerva. The founding of temples is
mentioned in Petrarch's text, but they are
dedicated to Jupiter rather than to a goddess,
In the upper right, the coronation of Romulus
is depicted. He sits frontally amid a crowd
of courtiers, two of whom place a crown on
his head, all of this taking place within a
delightful pink pavilion behind a formidable
crenellated wall. Finally, in the lower right
is an equestrian encounter between knights
of in heavy armor, including two with gold
crowns encircling their helmets. A decapi
tated body and a gory severed head lie on
the ground below the charging horses. The
most prominent battle mentioned in Pe
trarch's text is one between Romulus's forces
and the king of the Sabines, which may ex
plain the two crowned knights,
The ivy-leaved borders with birds are al
most identical to those of a Parisian Guil
laume de Digulleville, Plerinage de vie hu
maine of 1394,23 but the type persists, as can
be seen in a Histoire ancienne jusqu ' Csar
dating from 1400-1405.24 The narrative
complexity of the Romulus miniature sug
gests the later date for the Valencia manu
script. Appearing in the same Histoire anci
enne is a battle outside a walled city in which
are buildings sheltering a king and women
worshipping an idol; and a similar gold nude
statue in a "temple" appears in a miniature
of the Assassination of Priam in the Temple
 63

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^Xmnrn nmuuuttitm
top.
Fig. 3 French (Paris), Events in the Life of Romulus, in Francesco Petrarca, De viris illustrious ( Com
pendium). 1400-1410. Valncia, Universitat de Valncia, Biblioteca Histrica, MS 26 (formerly MS
786), fol. 4r

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 64

-J

U
{r 2

Fig. 4 French (Paris), Trajan Attacking Hebrews, in Francesco Petrarca, De viris illustribus (Com
pendium). 1400-1410. Valncia, Universitat de Valncia, Biblioteca Histrica, MS 26 (formerly MS
786), fol. 59v

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 65

of Jupiter in a Boccaccio De cas des noble The "illustration" of Francesco Petrarca's

homes et femmes also from Paris around De viris illustribus in the early fifteenth cen
1420.25 Multiple episodes separated by ar- tury presents a fitful picture. Because of the
chitectural features can be found in the fa- unfamiliarity of many heroes to whom Pe
mous presentation miniature in the Dia- trarch dedicated separate biographical treat
logues de Pierre Salmon of 1409, which also ments or because of the lack of firsthand
includes figures whose costumes indicate knowledge of the one great fresco cycle in
different levels of society.26 The battle scenes which all of them were represented, patrons
resemble those depicted in a Parisian Histo- and miniaturists restricted their efforts to a
rie ancienne dating from just before 1402, very few well-known heroes. Romulus and
with similar charging horses and decapitated Caesar were sure to be recognized by name
corpses attributed to Jean de Nizires (?).27 and could both be adapted to contemporary
Collectively, the comparisons locate the pro- notions of military heroes and rulers, even
duction of the Valncia Petrarch to Paris in if their images lacked the Romanit that
the first decade of the fifteenth century. Petrarch would himself have appreciated.

NOTES

I wish to thankCarla Lord for inviting me to con dena: Franco Cosimo Panini, 1999), p. 138, no. 46; p.
tribute to this special issue of SOURCE. I remain 140, no. 48 (entries by Marie-Thrse Gousset).
grateful to the memory of J. B. Trapp, without whose 3. Theodor E. Mommsen, "Petrarch and the Deco
encouragement I would never have ventured so far ration of the SalaVirorum Illustrium in Padua," Art
into Petrarch studies. I also acknowledge with thanks Bulletin 34, no. 2 (June 1952):95116; John Richards,
Franois Avril and Federica Toniolo, colleagues who Altichiero: An Artist and His Patrons in the Italian Tre
have assisted me with various aspects of this material. cento (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000);
My research on Petrarch's De viris illustribus has been Lilian Armstrong, "Copie di miniature del Libro degli
generously supported by Wellesley College and espe Uomini Famosi,Poiano 1476, di Francesco Petrarca,
cially by my Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Emeritus e il ciclo perduto di affreschi nella Reggia Carrarese
Fellowship, for which I am most grateful. di Padova," in La miniatura a Padova, pp. 513-522
(and Eng. trans.: "Miniatures in Copies of Francesco
1. No complete census has been published. For the Petrarca, Libro degli Uomini Famosi, Poiano, 1476,
Latin manuscripts, see Francesco Petrarca, De vins il and the Lost Fresco Cycle in the Reggia Carrarese of
lustribus, ed. Guido Martellotti, Edizione Nazionale Padua," in Lilian Armstrong, Studies of Renaissance
delle Opere di Francesco Petrarca, 2, pt. 1 (Florence: Miniaturists in Venice, 2 vols. [London: Pindar, 2003],
Sansoni, 1964); for the Italian, see Giuliana Crevatin, I, pp. 175-212).
De vins illustribus, in Codici latini del Petrarca nelle 4. Paris, BnF, MS lat. 60691. La miniatura a
Biblioteche Florentine, ed. Michele Feo, exh. cat. Padova, p. 139, no. 47 (entry by Gousset).
(Florence: Le Lettere, 1991), pp. 245-268, nos. 186 5. Paris, BnF, MS lat. 60691, fol. 84. Lilian Arm
203; pp. 439-443, PP De viris illustribus, with exten strong, "A Manuscript of Francesco Petrarca's Libro
sive bibliography. degli uomini famosi Illuminated by Cristoforo Crtese
2. Paris, Bibliothque nationale de France (hereafter in Early Quattrocento Venice," Artibus et Historiae 34,
BnF), MSS lat. 6069F, 6069G. For discussion and il no. 67 (2013):73100, esp. 75-76 and fig. 1.
lustrations, see La miniatura a Padova: dal medioevo 6. Virginia Brown, "Portraits of Julius Caesar in
al settecento, ed. Giovanna Baldissin Molli, Giordana Latin Manuscripts of the Commentaries," Viator 12
Canova Mariani, and Federica Toniolo, exh. cat. (Mo (1981):319353. The Caesar portrait in BnF MS lat.

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 66

60691 is earlier in date than any of the images dis il De viris illustribus di Francesco Petrarca: Milano,
cussed by Brown. Biblioteca Ambrosiana, R 49 sup.," in Francesco Pe
7. Escorial, Real Biblioteca, MS d.III.9. Lilian trarca: Manoscritti e libri a stampa della Biblioteca

Armstrong, "Un poco noto manoscritto del De viris Ambrosiana, ed. Marco Ballarini, Giuseppe Frasso,
illustribus di Francesco Petrarca miniato da Nicol di and Carla Maria Monti (Milan: Libri Scheiwiller,
Giacomo da Bologna," in Petrarca e il suo tempo, ed. 2004), pp. 59-62.
Gilda P. Mantovani, exh. cat. (Milan: Skira, 2006), pp. 19. Mommsen, "Petrarch and the Decoration," figs.
81-86 and figs. 1-4. 8-12.
8. Darmstadt, Hessische Universitts- und Landes 20. Valncia, Universitat de Valncia, Biblioteca
bibliothek, MS 101. Agostino Sottili, I codici del Pe Histrica, MS 26 (formerly MS 786). Tammaro De
trarca nella Germania Occidentale, I (Padua: Marinis, La Biblioteca napolitana dei Re d'Aragona,
Antenore, 1971), pp. 458-460; Mommsen, figs. 34 6 vols. (Milan: Hoepli, 1947-1969), I, p. 178; II, pp.
39; La miniatura a Padova, pp. 179-181, no. 64 (entry 126-127, 197, 217, no. 445; IV, pis. 190-191; Mila

by Giordana Canova Mariani). gros Villar Rubio, Cdices petrarquescos en Espaa

9. Mommsen, figs. 8-31. (Padua: Antinore, 1995), pp. 339-341; Jess
10. Armstrong, "A Manuscript," passim. Domnguez Bordona, Manuscritos con pinturas:
11. Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostlica Vaticana, notas para un inventario de los conservados en colec
MS Ross. 526. Theodor E. Mommsen, "Un'antica raf ciones pblicas y particulares de Espaa, 2 vols.
figurazione del Petrarca poeta laureato," Studi Pe (Madrid: Blass, 1933), II, p. 312, no. 2066.
trarcheschi 2 ( 1949): 101105, fig. 1; Federica 21. Guido Martellotti, "Epitome e compendio: note
Toniolo, in Catalogo dei manoscritti Rossiana: Bib intorno al De viris illustribus di F. Petrarca," Orienta
lioteca Apostlica Vaticana (Vatican City: 2014), pp. menti culturali nos. 46 (1946):205216.
844-849, with earlier bibliography (forthcoming). 22. I am grateful to the late J. B. Trapp for identi
12. For Caesar's horse, see Suetonius, De vita Cae fying the Trajanic encounter. Marcel Bulard, Le scor
sarum LXI.l 12-113. Brown (338, no. 7; and 342, no. pion, symbole du peuple juif dans l'art religieux des
12) notes only two Italian images of Caesar on Horse XlVe, XVe, XVle sicles (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1935).
back, both from the 1460s, but makes no special Domnguez Bordona also illustrates this miniature,
iconographie suggestion for this type. wrongly identified as belonging to a Virgil manuscript
13. "A Manuscript,"
Armstrong, 88-90 and fig. 12. (II, fig.727).
14. Toniolo, pp. 847-849. 23. Paris, BnF, MS Fr. 823, fol. 1 .Paris 1400: Les
15. Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, MS R 49 sup. arts sous Charles VI, ed. E. Taburet-Delahaye, exh.
Cesare Foligno, "I codici petrarcheschi delle bib cat. (Paris: Fayard, 2004), pp. 54-55, no. 14 (entry by
lioteche milanesi pubbliche e private: Biblioteca Am Gousset).
brosiana," in Ambrogio Annoni, F. Petrarca e la 24. London, British Library, MS Stowe 54. Paris
Lombardia (Milan: Hoepli, 1904), pp. 363-365. 1400, p. 268, no. 164 (entry by Franois Avril).
16. Pietro Toesca, La pittura e la miniatura nella 25. Paris, BnF MS fr. 16995. Paris 1400, pp. 149
Lombardia, dai pi artichi monumenti alla meta del 151, no. 75 (entry by Marie-Hlne Tesnire).
quattrocento (Milan: Hoepli, 1912), p. 370; Renata Ci 26. Paris, BnF, MS fr. 23279, fol. 53. Paris 1400,
priani, Codici miniad dell'Ambrosiana (Vicenza: N. pp. 120-123, no. 51 (entry by Ins Villela-Petit).
Pozza, 1968), p. 112. 27. Paris, BnF, MS fr. 301, fols. 62, 68. Ins Vil
17.
Chantilly, Muse Cond, MS
368 (XVIB). En lela-Petit, "Palettes compares:
Quelques rflexions sur
luminures italiennes: Chefs-d'oeuvre du Muse les pigments employs par les enlumineurs parisiens
Cond, ed. Teresa D'Urso et al, exh. cat. (Chantilly: au dbut du XVe sicle," in Quand la peinture tait
Muse Cond, 2000), pp. 28-30, no. 6 (entry by Pier dan les livres: Mlanges en l'honneur de Franois
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