ELECTROSTATIC

PRECIPITATORS

J RUSHWORTH
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE MECHANISM OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

2.1 Corona Formation

2.2 Electrode Size
2.3 Particle Charging

3. DUST RESISTMTY

4. MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

4.1 General Arrangement

4.2 Electrode Alignment
4.3 Electrode Rapping
4.4 Dust Extraction
4.5 Gas Distribution
4.6 Inleaking Air

5. RECTIFIER SETs

6. THEORETICAL PRECIPITATOR EFFICIENCY

7. GAS CONDITIONING

7.1 Conditioning Tower Sizing

8. CONTINUOUS DUST MONITORS

9. SUITABLE APPLICATIONS FOR PRECIPITATORS

10. MAINTENANCE

11. IMPROVEMENTS IN CONTROLLERS AND T/R SETS

12. suMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION

An electrostatic precipitator utilises electric forces to separate solid particles, or liquid

droplets, from the gas in which they are suspended. The process- gas, bearing
particulate, is forced in the precipitator to pass over the discharge electrodes between
a number of channels formed by collector electrode sheets suspended vertically.
Electrostatic forces cause particulate to migrate towards these collector electrodes,
whilst being borne through the length of the precipitator. Much of the particulate
material adheres to the collector electrodes, leaving the carrier gas relatively clean.
From time to time, both the discharge and the collector electrodes have to be
mechanically rapped in order to dislodge accumulated particulate material, which then
falls into a hopper and is conveyed away. Figure 1 shows a typical electrostatic
precipitator with a cut away view showing the internals. The removal of dust or liquid
droplets from the gas stream is dependent on the combination of five separate processes
(refer to Figure 2). These are:

a) The imposition, by means of a corona discharge, of an electric charge on each

dust particle, the polarity of which must be opposite to the polarity of the
collector electrodes.

b) The formation of an electric field which will react with the charged dust
particles so that they are caused to move towards the collector electrodes.

c) The deposition of the dust particles on the collector electrodes, their loss of
charge, and subsequent agglomeration.

d) The removal of the agglomerated dust particles from the collector electrodes
into the dust hopper.

e) The extraction of the dust from the dust hopper.

A deficiency in any one of these processes will cause a loss of collection efficiency, and
this will result in increased dust emissions. In order to optimise the performance of a
precipitator it is necessary to be cognisant of all five actions and to relate to them the
mechanical and electrical qualities of the precipitator as well as the nature of the gas
and dust being treated.

1
FIGURE 1
 COLLECTOR
ELECTRODE

ELECTRON

DISCHARGE -&
/H -
ELEcTRoDE
,0 \\\ DUST PARTICLES
\

,
I --L.+---
8

NEUTRAL IONISED
GAS MOLECULES

o
H.T. SET
8

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

FIGURE 2

3
 /\~ ~//w
1
4 4 \
\\\, \\\
1 //,
\\ H; //~,
/ \\\\ I////
\\\\ I////
i \\\\ l//,/,/
\\\\ ill/
/ \\ \ 1 H,///
N,,

I
\\\ I 1///
+$\I 1/)//
+&q
!,;:,
~4t ,;,:?
DISCHARGE ELECTRODE
~:.o;!!
AT NEGATIVE POLARITY.
,q~{$y..,
COLLECTOR ELECTRODES
x.,
AT EARTH POTENTIAL /,4 t! \\\\ \
/// I I (\Y\ \\
////1 \\\\
//l/ i \\\\ \ \
// f\ l\\\\
////;\\\\\
oH~\\\w\
/,0/1 i \\\\\ \
/,j~p \\,
/, p\\\\\
\
,/,;;~
/ \

PASSIVE ZONE (cONTAINtNG CORONA GLOW (ACTIV~

NEGATIVE IONS MOVING ZONE CONTAINING
TOWARDS THE COLLECTOR POSITIVE IONS AND
ELECTRODES) FREE Electrons

DIAGRAM OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ZONES

OF THE CORONA DISCHARGE.

FIGURE 3
2. THE MECHANISM OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

2.1 Corona Formation

Particle charging occurs naturally but these charges are too small for effective
precipitation. The most effective method of charging is by high voltage direct current
corona. The corona is established between barbed or wire discharge electrodes
maintained at a high negative voltage and plate or tube electrodes at ground potential.
The negative corona may be visualized as consisting of two zones (see Figure 3). The
active zone occurs around each discharge electrode where there is electrical breakdown
of the gas and electrons are emitted which ionise the gas. The passive zone is the
region between the active zones and the collector electrodes. This zone contains a
dense cloud of rapidly moving gaseous ions of the same polarity as the discharge
electrodes. These gaseous ions are repelled by the discharge electrodes and are
attracted towards the positively charged collecting electrodes.

2.2 Electrode Size and Electric Field Distribution

Establishment of the corona depends upon the electric field distribution in the inter-
electrode space being non-uniform. This in turn is dependent on the dimensional
difference of the electrodes. Similar size and shape electrodes would result in a
uniform field existing and no corona would be formed. The field intensity varies from
high at the discharge electrode to low at the collecting electrode (refer to
Figure 4). When too high a voltage is applied to the discharge electrodes there is a
complete breakdown of the gas and a flash-over occurs. If this were allowed to persist
a short circuit would occur between the electrodes and precipitation efficiency would
be reduced greatly. For maximum efficiency the electrode voltage should be
maintained at a level necessary to achieve a controlled rate of sparking of typically 50
sparks per minute.

2.3 Particle Char@rig and Collection

Within the passive zone a small proportion of the dense cloud of rapidly moving ionised
gas molecules collide with and attach themselves to dust particles. These dust particles
thus become negatively charged and are attracted towards the collecting plates. They
adhere to the plates and then give up their charge.

5
DISCHARGE COLLECTOR
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
I

INTER ELECTRODE SPACE

-

DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC FIELD DISTRIBUTION

BETWEEN DISCHARGE AND COLLECTDR ELECTRODES.

FIGURE 4
3. DUST RESISTMTY

A key factor in determining whether or not a dust may be separated from a gas stream
is the electrical resistivity of the dust. This is defined as the resistance to current flow
of a one centimetre cube of dust, when a potential is applied uniformly over opposite
faces of the cube. Resistivity is measured in units of ohm.cm. The resistivity of a dust
is significantly affected by the gas conditions under which it is measured. When
measuring dust resistivity it is necessary to simulate the actual or predicted conditions
within the precipitator. It would be necessary to inform the laboratory performing the
resistivity tests of the actual operating temperature and gas humidity. For a preheater
or precalciner kiln plant it would be necessary to give the gas conditions for both when
the raw mill is operating and when it is stopped. Dusts with resistivities that fall
between 106 and 1011 ohm.cm are unlikely to give rise to precipitation problems. Dusts
with resistivities less than 106 ohrn.cm lose their charge so rapidly that they are
repelled back into the gas stream by the collector electrodes. This re-entrainment
results in increased dust emissions.

Many dusts in the cement industry have resistivities higher than 10 11 ohrn.cm (refer to
Figure 5). Such particles once charged, are reluctant to lose their charge to the
collector and thus adhere strongly and resist dislodgement. The resulting layer of
negatively charged particles on the surface of the collecting electrodes repels the
approaching charged particles and thus reduces the rate of precipitation. The dust layer
on the collector also impedes the flow of current which results in a voltage drop across
the layer. This in turn reduces the voltage drop between the discharge electrode and
the surf ace of the dust (the precipitating voltage), which again reduces the rate of
precipitation. If the voltage drop across the dust layer is greater than the breakdown
voltage, then a reverse ionisation condition will exist. This results from a positive
corona discharge at the point of breakdown of the dust. Precipitation efficiency is
reduced by the lowering of the flash-over voltage and by producing positive ions which
decrease the rate of particle charging.

When operating conditions are around 300C the resistivity of a dust is dependent on the
composition of the dust itself. Below 200C resistivity is more dependent on the
adsorbed film on the particle surface. Figure 6 illustrates the effect of adsorbed
moisture on the resistivity of a dust. From Figure 5 it can be seen that peak
resistivities occur between about 200C and 300C.

In general, it maybe said, that for gas temperatures below about 300C, the greater the
difference between the temperature of a gas and its water dew-point temperature, the
more difficult will be the process of electrostatic precipitation.

A relationship has been found between dust resistivity and the content of water soluble
alkalies in the dust. The higher the soluble alkali content of the dust, generally the
lower the dust resistivity. Alkalies occur in the raw materials fed into the kiln and
from the fuels burnt.

In wet and long dry kilns, alkalies are condensed on the kiln feed at the back-end of the
kiln. A portion of this material is picked up by the kiln exhaust gases and is carried to

7
 ld3

102

\
I
10

100
o 100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE C;

RESISTIVITYOF DUST FROM PREHEA~R CEMENT KILNS

AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AT
VARIOUS DEW POINT TEMPERATURES.
FIGURE 5

8
 I 05

I 04

.
>
i-
u) o
G
w 0
a ~

.
v
--- ---
I 50 300 450
TEMPERATURE OC

CHANGE IN RESISTIVITY OF A DRY DUST DUE
TO THE EFFECT OF ABSORBED MOISTURE
FIGURE 6
 CONE INLET

DOWN SPLASH INLET

1
1

SETTLING CHAMBER INLET

EXAMPLES OF INLET TRANSITION PIECES .

FIGURE 7
the precipitator. Some cement works analyse the alkali content of dust collected in
each field of the precipitator. Using this information they can then decide if the dust
from particular fields can be returned to the kiln, diverted to the cement mill section,
or other associated plants. ,

In preheater and precalciner kilns the alkalies condense on the kiln feed material in the
preheater and are re-evaporated at the back-end of the kiln. This sets up an internal
alkali cycle in the preheater which results in a relatively low alkali content in the dust
passed to the precipitator. This along with the high temperature and low moisture
content of the gas is the reason for high dust resistivity.

4. MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

4.1 General Arrangement

Figure 1 shows a typical arrangement for an electrostatic precipitator. Precipitators

come in a variety of configurations generally dependent on the duties they have been
designed for. Typically a precipitator has 2 to 4 fields with a separate
transformer/rectifier set per field, however some precipitators have split fields with a
separate t/r set for each half.

Precipitator casings are usually constructed from 5 to 6 mm mild steel plate, the plate
thickness employed, however, depends upon the suction to be applied to the precipitator.
For corrosive environments stainless steels (3CR12 or 18/8) are often used. Older
precipitators on Lepol kilns had casings constructed from concrete, lined with acid
resistant bricks to resist attack from the kiln gases.

Hoppers under the precipitator can either be longitudinal, transverse or pyramidal. The
precipitator application determines the arrangement required. Dust collected in the
hoppers is continuously extracted by screw or drag chain conveyors.

Various arrangements for the inlet transition to the precipitator are shown in Figure 7.
The choice of inlet is usually determined by the space available in front of the
precipitator, the configuration of the ducting from the upstream equipment and the dust
concentration of the gases.

Gas distribution is carried out by profiled steel plates or angles and perforated plates
or grids in the precipitator inlet. Their function is to distribute evenly the gas across
the total cross section of the precipitator.

Collector electrodes with surfaces fully exposed to the gas stream would have poor
particle retention. Modern collector electrode designs provide aerodynamic shielding
for the collection zones (refer to Figure 8). This profiling of the plates contributes
significantly to their mechanical stiffness. Maximum recommended collector plate
length is 15m constructed usually from 1.2 to 1.5rnm thick plate. For long collector
plates location pieces are normally used at 1/3 and 2/3 the plate length to prevent

11
 1,

CATCH SPACE

OPZEL

,,

1 I I I

PROFILED

COLLECTOR ELECTRODES

12
deflection. Collector plates are usually fabricated from mild steel with stainless steel
being used for corrosive environments. The plates are fastened to frame elements and
spacers to maintain the constancy of the spacing between them. They are all connected
to an efficient electrical earth.

Modern discharge electrodes are usually of the rigid mast design (refer to Figure 9).
The discharge electrodes are suspended, between the collector plates, from a framework
which is supported upon ceramic electrical insulators. The precipitating voltage is
applied to this frame. Beneath the collector plates the discharge electrodes are located
by another insulated frame. Discharge electrodes may consist of wires (see Figure 10)
which are maintained in tension by cast iron weights. The breakage of a single such
wire can put a whole section of the precipitator out of use, so modern discharge
electrodes are designed to be more robust. They are usually made from rolled sheet
metal incorporating a number of sharp edges or spikes, which provide the seats of the
generation of the corona discharge.

Wire electrodes are able to be replaced with the rigid mast design as and when suitable
opportunities occur. Discharge electrodes are normally made from alurninium quenched
mild steel; stainless steel should be used for corrosive gases.

All precipitators have an external layer of insulation material to reduce gas cooling
occurring on the inside walls of the precipitator. This lagging is protected from
weathering by a cladding of sheet alurninium. For cold and wet climates, such as in the
U. K., an insulation thickness of 150mm is recommended, using insulation with a density
of 90 kg/m3. Warmer or dryer climate countries can use an insulation thickness of
100mm with an insulation density of 60 kg/m3.

4.2 EIeclrode Ali frnment

The rate of charging of the dust particles and their movement towards the collector
electrodes is a function of the voltage applied to the electrode system. The higher the
voltage, the higher the collection efficiency should be. The magnitude of the voltage
that can be applied to a given electrode system is largely dependent on the alignment
of the electrodes and their surface condition.

Collector electrodes must be evenly spaced, truly vertical, without bows, dents or any
other form of distortion. There must be no sharp projections, cracks or holes which
could give rise to the formation of a localised corona discharge.

Every wire type of discharge electrode must be properly tensioned and should be
positioned exactly on the centreline between adjacent collector plates, or in the case
of tube collectors, exactly on the centre line of its tube. Rigid mast types of discharge
electrode must be straight and securely located.

It is inevitable that the normal manufacturing tolerances resulting from the forming of
plate and tube collectors will prevent precise alignment, but every effort must be made
to achieve the highest possible standard, with particular attention being paid to the

13
 ,,

,,

UNBREAKABLE DISCHARGE ELECTRODE

FIGURE 9
 o

o 13
SQUARE SAW TOOTH BARBED
TWISTED STRI P WIRE

EXAMPLES OF DISCHARGE ELECTRODES.

positioning and alignment of the electrode suspension points, and any location devices
or guide systems that may be provided.

Typically, precipitator manufacturers specify a collector electrode straightness better

than L/1000 where L = the collector length. This provides a guide to the alignment
tolerance that should be aimed at.

Thus, for a precipitator with collector electrodes 10 metres high, the distance between
the discharge electrodes and the collector electrodes should be within half the collector
spacing +/- 1Omm.

This alignment tolerance relates to plate or tube collectors with spring or weight
tensioned thin wire discharge electrodes. Where rigid or semi-rigid discharge electrodes
are used, manufacturing tolerances similar to those of the collector electrodes can be
expected. This makes alignment more difficult, since the manufacturing tolerances can
summate. For 10 metre high collector electrodes, the minimum distance between the
discharge electrodes and the collector electrodes can, therefore, be half the collector
spacing minus +/- 20mm, or twice the tolerance that can be achieved with thin wire
electrodes. In practice, it is quite common for bowed electrodes to be matched in order
to minimise the alignment error, although this can be tedious if a large number is
involved.

The prime objective is to achieve a uniform discharge electrode to collector electrode

spacing throughout the precipitator, since this will permit the highest voltage to be
applied. If a precipitator contains electrodes which are excessively bowed, causing the
discharge electrode to collector electrode spacing to be exceptionally small, the bowed
electrodes must either be replaced or, if the number is small, the discharge electrodes
must be removed from the damaged areas. In a plate type precipitator, the removal of
a small number of discharge electrodes will have an insignificant effect on the
performance of the precipitator, whereas the presence of just one discharge electrode
with a reduced spacing will be very detrimental. In a tube type precipitator, it is
essential that every tube from which a discharge electrode has been removed, is blanked
off to prevent the passage to atmosphere of untreated gas.

To maintain the alignment of the electrode system against the influence of the gas
flow, electrostatic forces, etc, the top and bottom discharge electrode support frames
must be cross-braced to provide a rigid box structure and the bottom frame must be
equipped with insulated tie bars or stabilisers attached to the precipitator casing and
carefully adjusted to prevent movement.

Maximum collection efficiency requires the application of maximum voltage, which is

usually accompanied by some measure of sparking. Indeed, random sparking is
considered to be a sign of a healthy precipitator. It is important however, that this
sparking be confined to the body of the electrode system and, adequate electrical
clearanc~ must therefore be maintained throughout the connection between the
rectifier set and the discharge electrode system.

16
4.3 Electrode Ra~~ing

Vibrator type rapping devices must be firmly mounted and rigidly connected to the
electrode systems. Every effort must be made to achieve maximum energy transfer to
the electrodes with no losses due, for example, to contact of connecting rods with the
precipitator casing. Correct adjustment of the vibrators is essential and particularly
applies to the armature gaps of the electro-magnetic types.

The hammers of drop and tumble hammer rappers should be free falling and the hammer
anvils should be securely fixed to the electrodes. The lift of the drop hammers should
be checked and any worn lifting mechanism parts replaced.

The timing device must operate correctly and provide the facility to adjust the interval
between successive raps and the duration of each rap.

Adjustment of the rapping gear (amplitude, duration of rapping and interval between
successive raps) is largely a matter for experimentation. There are three main rapping
systems:-

Electrostatic vibrator or out-of-balance electric motor type.

Tumble hammers mounted on a drive shaft spanning the width of the precipitator
casing.

Motorised cam operated devices.

For the collectors, the objective is to find the optimum between rapping too frequently,
thus promoting re-entrainment, and not rapping frequently enough, which will lead to
an excessive build-up of dust on the collecting surfaces and a reduction in precipitator
efficiency. It should be noted that a thin layer of dust is always present under normal
operating conditions. For the discharge electrodes, the object is to maintain the
electrodes in as clean a condition as possible, since any buildup in excess of a film will
tend to suppress the corona, and again, reduce the efficiency of the precipitator.

In a precipitator with a number of fields in series it will be necessary to grade the

rapping of the collector electrodes, with the frequency of rapping being highest on the
inlet field and decreasing towards the outlet. It is also a requirement that the rapping
sequence be adjusted to prevent the collector electrodes in all of the fields being rapped
simultaneously.

The type of rapping device and the rapping force required is largely a function of the
nature of the dust being collected. Chloride bearing dusts tend to be sticky and thus
require a higher rapping force for effective removal. Collector plate hammer design
should be adequate to give 200 G at the point of impact and 80 G at the farthest point.

17
4.4 Dust Extraction and Tranmort

Dust collected in the precipitator dust hoppers must be continuously extracted and the
hoppers must not be used as storage vessels. If dust is allowed to build up in a hopper
and comes into contact with the electrode system the rectifier set will be short
circuited and precipitation will cease. More importantly, if the dust rises up the
electrode system to any significant depth there is the risk that its subsequent removal
will impose uneven sideways forces on the electrodes, causing distortion and alignment
problems that will be difficult to correct.

As mentioned in Section 4.1, there are three main hopper arrangements - longitudinal,
transverse and pyramidal. The longitudinal arrangement is often preferred because the
number of extraction conveyors can be reduced. For, applications where it is a
requirement to separate dust collected by different fields (on wet process kilns)
transverse, or pyramidal arrangements are the preferred options. These two
arrangements also offer the ability to carry out maintenance on conveyors under
individual fields during kiln operation. Hoppers must be designed for the types of dust
they are likely to handle in the future. If you intend to use a fuel in the future with a
relatively high chloride content (4Y0 Cl), then this will have an effect of the flowability
of the dust to be collected. Chloride dusts require hoppers with steeply sloped sides.
It is normal for hoppers to have heaters to stop moisture condensing during the heating
up and cooling down cycles of the kiln. Excessive condensation would lead to corrosion
of the hoppers, as well as blockages.

Typically screw conveyors or drag chains are employed to transport the dust from the
dust hoppers back either to the kiln or raw mill circuit or to a dust collection silo.
Rotary air seals are incorporated in the dust transport circuit to prevent air leaks into
the precipitator. It is common to use screw pumps to transport precipitator dusts over
long distances to other plant sections, however a variety of dust transport syste~ is
employed.

4.5 Gas Distribution

In an installation where two or more similar precipitators are operated in parallel,

control dampers must be fitted and adjusted so that the gas flow is equally divided
between them, although it should be noted that this does not imply an equal division of
the dust load. Gas flow measuring devices are not usually employed, but where each
precipitator is equipped with a separate ID fan, a check on the gas balance can often
be obtained from the fan motor ammeter readings.

The gas distribution within individual precipitators is usually determined by model tests
made before construction of the precipitator, followed by on-site measurements and
fine adjustments at the time of commissioning. Ordinarily, no further adjustments need
to be made, although it is, of course, essential that the gas distribution devices be
maintained in a good state of repair. If it is suspected that the gas distribution is poor,
it will be necessary to make a gas velocity survey of the precipitator and this work
would probably best be carried out by the manufacturer of the precipitator who can

18
then also make any adjustments that may be necessary. Typically, variations in gas
velocity of * 25 to 30% of the average gas velocity are acceptable.

Apart from the need to ensure that the gas flow through the precipitator is reasonably
evenly distributed and that there are no areas of excessively high or excessively low gas
velocity, there is also the need to control the gas stream so that all of the gas passes
through the electrode system to ensure complete treatment. There must be no short
circuiting of gas under, over, or around the electrode system. In the case of a tube type
precipitator, it is only necessary to ensure that the tube plate f orrns a gas tight seal
between the tubes and the precipitator casing. In the case of a plate type precipitator,
a system of gas baffles is employed to guide the gas flow and these must be maintained
in a sound condition. Side baffles are used to prevent the passage of gas through the
space between the outer collector plates and the precipitator casing and top baffles,
sometimes making use of the roof beams, are used to prevent the passage of gas over
the top of the electrode system. Gas baffles at the bottom of the precipitator are
usually unnecessary when pyramid or transverse trough hoppers are used. With
longitudinal trough hoppers, however, baffles are essential. These must be positioned
between the field systems and extend upwards to a level just above the bottom of the
collector electrodes and downwards to within about 450mm of the dust extraction
device. The edges of the baffles must be sealed to the hopper walls by welding or some
other positive means.

The pressure drop across a precipitator largely depends on the design of the gas
distribution internals and also the inlet and outlet ducting arrangement. Typically the
pressure drop is 20 to 30 mmwg but extremes can be as high as 150 mmwg.

4.6 Inleakimz Air

The efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is inversely proportional to the gas flow

rate therefore all sources of air inleaks should be reduced to a minimum. Inleaks to the
precipitator casing are particularly damaging to performance, since they can distort the
gas flow through the precipitator and lower the flash-over voltage, causing localised
sparking. If they occur in the area of the dust hopper, especially at the dust extraction
points, dust which has already been precipitated will be picked up and carried out of the
precipitator, substantially increasing the emission level. In addition, localised cooling
due to air leakage can cause rapid and severe corrosion of the casing. Precipitator
cladding should be inspected during kiln shut downs. Damaged cladding could result in
loss of the insulation material. Localised cooling would then occur resulting in casing
corrosion and inleaking air.

19
 70

60

>
x
I 50

40

30

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

ELECTRODE CURRENT-m A.

ELECTRODE VOLTAGE /ELECTRODE CURRENT

STILL AIR CHARACTERISTIC.

FIGURE 11
20
5.0 TRANSFORMER/RECITFTER SETS

The rating of the rectifier set must be adequate to meet the demand of the
precipitator. If either the current or voltage rating is too low, the performance of the
precipitator will be limited. As an approximate guide, the voltage rating, based on the
mean value into a precipitator load, should be equivalent to 4 kilovolts per centimetre
of the discharge electrode to collector electrode spacing. The current rating, on the
same basis, should be equivalent to 0.5 milliamps per square metre of collector
electrode area for a plate type precipitator and 1 milliamp per square metre for a tube
type precipitator. In addition, the set must have the facility for the output to be varied
from a minimum to a maximum value, both by manual adjustment and by an automatic
control device.

With the electrode system correctly aligned and the rectifier set in proper working
order, the system should be verified by carrying out a still air load test. This is done
by energizing the electrode system under still, ambient air conditions. Under these con-
ditions the maximum rated current output of the rectifier set should be reached without
the onset of sparking. This test provides a useful reference if the output of the
rectifier set is increased in steps, with the voltage and current being noted at each step.
The readings thus obtained may then be used to draw the electrical characteristic.
Figure 11 shows the electrical characteristic of a still air load test on one field of a
clinker cooler precipitator.

Should sparking occur during the still air load test, the flash-over point should be
located and the electrode system closely examined to identify the cause. Remedial
action can then be taken and the still air test repeated until satisfactory results are
obtained.

When the precipitator is on stream, a gas load test may be carried out in a similar
manner to the still air test and this may be used to check the operation of the
auto-control system. An example of this is shown in Figure 12. The working point when
under auto-control is indicated and it can be seen that, immediately beyond this point
sparking occurs, indicating satisfactory operation of the auto-control device.

A direct relationship exists between the maximum electrode voltage and the onset of
sparking and for maximum efficiency, the electrode voltage should be maintained at the
level necessary to achieve a controlled rate of sparking, say about 50 sparks per minute.
However, under certain gas conditions the electrical characteristic may be extremely
flat and the power required to achieve this state would then be excessive. The current
rating of the rectifier set then limits the power input, but since the voltage is virtually
constant under these conditions (see Figure 13) the efficiency of the precipitator is
unaffected. In such a case, a continuous automatic dust monitor could be used to
control the precipitator current in order to prevent power waste.

21
 70

I
60

50
pECTIFIER SET RATING -50 KV at 500 mA.

I I SPAFiKING

40

UTO CONTROL POINT

30

20

10

0
o 100 200 300 400 500

ELECTRODE CURRENT mA.

ELECTRODE VOLTAGE / ELECTRODE CURRENT

CHARACTERISTIC FOR A PLATE TYPE PRECIPITATOR
- RECTIFIER EQUIPMENT ADEQUATELY RATED-

FIGURE 12
 70

60
lECTIF ERSE RATING -60 KV at 65(
A n * n n w

> i
x I
, 50

T
+
I
I I I

t--l- I
I
.-
I
I
I

.
+

01
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
ELECTRODE CURRENT -mA.

ELECTRODE VOLTAGE /ELECTRODE CURRENT

CHARACTERISTIC FOR GAS CONDITIONS
NOT CONDUSIVE TO SPARKING.
6.0 THEORETICAL PRECIPITATOR EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of separation of a precipitator is a parameter which is of considerable

interest both to the designer and the user, since from a knowledge of the separation
efficiency for similar plants the designer can determine the size of precipitator
necessary to meet a required duty, and the user can decide whether his particular
precipitator is attaining the best performance which can be expected, or to see whether
the performance has deteriorated for some reason, such as a change in the properties
of the dust or in the operating conditions.

The efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is usually defined as:

Weight of dust collected by the precipitator

Eficiency =
Weight of dust entering the precipitator

The question of the efficiency of a precipitator may be approached from a theoretical

or an experimental direction. The theoretical approach consists of the development of
equations in which the efficiency is expressed in terms of the properties of the dust, the
field strength, the velocity of the gas stream, properties of the gas and the dimensions
of the precipitator. The experimental approach consists of measurement of the quantity
of dust entering and leaving the precipitator and relating these measurements to the
different variables associated with the condition.

Ideally, the efficiencies obtained by the two methods should agree within limits, but in
practice the divergence between the results is considerable and the conclusion must be
that the present state of the theory of the subject is unsatisfactory. However, it should
be noted that the experimental determination of the efficiency includes effects arising
from the re-entrainment by the gas stream of particl~ which have reached the
collector surf aces; of the transport into the gas stream of aggregates which have
become detached from the deposited dust layer and of experimental errors. The
efficiency deduced theoretically however, is based upon the rate of deposition of the
dust on the collector surfaces and does not include such incalculable effects.

Nevertheless, a link must exist between the theoretical and experimental determination
of precipitator efficiency and this becomm evident on examination of the fundamental
efficiency equation theoretically deduced by Deutsch in the early 19201s, and universally
known as the Deutsch Equation.

According to Deutsch, the efficiency of a precipitator is given by:

Efficiency = 1-F

where F = e (-2JVL/VR) for a tube precipitator

24
 or F = ~ (-WL/VR) for a plate precipitator

or F = ~ (-WA/Q) for both types

where F = relative dust loss

w = effective migration velocity (m/s)
L = total length of the collecting electrodes in the
direction of the gas flow (m)
v = gas velocity through the precipitator (m/s)
R = distance between the discharge and collecting
electrodes (m)
A = total collecting area of the collecting electrodes
(m2)
Q = treated gas quantity per unit time (wet basis, Am3/s)

It can be seen that the Deutsch equation expresses the efficiency in terms of three
basic quantities, namely, the rate of passage of the gas through the precipitator, the
dimensions of the collecting surfaces and the effective migration velocity. The first
two quantities may be arrived at without difficulty and it is apparent that their
contribution, if any, to the difference that exists between the theoretical and
experimental determination of the efficiency of a precipitator is insignificant and thus
this difference must result from differences between the theoretical and experimental
determination of the effective migration velocity.

The effective migration velocity (W), or drift velocity as it is sometimes called, is the
velocity component of the dust particles perpendicular to the collector plates and is
given by:

w = (P Ec Ep a)/(6np)

where Ec = charging field strength

Ep = precipitating field strength
a = particle radius
k = gas viscosity
and P varies between 1.5 and 3.0 depending on the conductivity of the
particle.

It is a direct measure of the rate of precipitation of the particles since, for example,
if a precipitator is de-energised, W and hence the efficiency, due to electrostatic
effects, will reduce to zero. On the other hand, if W is doubled, the precipitator size
may be reduced to half its initial value. Thus W may be interpreted as a generalised
perf orrnance parameter for the precipitation process.

While the equation clearly indicates that W is proportional to the product of the electric
fields and the conductivity and size of the particles, and inversely proportional to the

25
gas viscosity, it is apparent
and other disturbing factors,
are not taken into account.
are invariably greater than
Deutsch equation, typically
efficiency of a precipitator
theoretical reasoning alone.
that other factors such as re-entrainment due to rapping
which would be included in an experimental determination,
Thus effective migration velocities computed theoretically
those obtained by substitution of measured values in the
by a factor of about 2. It follows, therefore, that the true
is in all cases lower than would be expected from

The basis of most precipitator designs is the substitution in the Deutsch equation of an
effective migration velocity which has been found by experience to apply to the
particular electrode arrangement to be used and to the nature of the dust to be
collected.

Thus the steps would be:

i) Carry out efficiency tests on existing precipitators, on plants similar to the plant
for which the new precipitator is to be designed, and calculate the effective
migration velocity by substitution of the measured results in the Deutsch
equation, which may be rewritten in the form:

ii) Calculate the collecting surface area that the new precipitator will have to
contain in order to achieve the required collection efficiency at the anticipated
gas flow rate, by substituting the value of W derived experimentally in the
equation:

iii) Select the size and number of collectors required to give this area and arrange
them in a casing in successive groups such that the cross-sectional area
presented to the gas flow will produce the desired gas velocity, typically about
1 metre per second.

This method is said to be not entirely satisfactory, but in fact, owing to the uncertain
state of precipitator theory, it is the most convenient available at present. Each
precipitator manufacturer has its own methods and variants of the above. They, of,,
course, possess enormous sets of records of designs and performances to use in their
predictions.

,,

26

When a precipitator has been designed and erected, the only factors over which the user
has any control are the gas flow rate and thus the effective migration velocity.
Therefore, for an existing precipitator:

Efficiency cc W/V or WIQ

Typically, the effective migration velocity will increase with an increase in gas velocity
to a maximum value after which the force exerted on the dust particles by the gas
stream will dominate and the effective migration velocity will decrease and approach
zero (see Figure 14).

When W and V are both increasing, there is a balancing effect which tends to prop up
the efficiency curve, but as the rate of increase in W falls off, and particularly when
an increase in V results in a reduction in W, a pronounced drop in efficiency occurs.

Where a precipitator is required to operate at a higher gas flow rate than that for which
it was designed, the W/V relationship is of prime importance and must be carefully
monitored to ensure that the working point does not lie in, or beyond, the turnover
region of the W/V curve, where small changes in V will result in disproportionately large
changes in efficiency.

Ideally, the W/V working point should fall on the near-level portion of the curve
preceding the turnover point, where normal fluctuations in the gas flow rate will not
significantly affect the efficiency.

The manufacturers of electrostatic precipitators are not in complete agreement on the

question of the values of W to be used in the design of precipitators for the various
cement making processes and thus, in order to obtain comparable tenders in response
to an enquiry, and to ensure that the precipitator is adequately sized to enable it to
cope with the inevitable process variations etc, it is necessary for the value of W to be
included in the specification. At the present time, the following values are considered
to be appropriate, for precipitators with plate to plate spacing of 300rnm.

Wet Process Kilns 0.09 m/s

Semi-Dry Process Kilns 0.085 m/s

Dry Process Kilns 0.08 m/s under direct operation

Kiln Bypasses 0.06 m/s

-_____

27
 I

99

97

96

95

0 94
025 0:5 075 190 1 25 150 I 75 :
GAS VELOCITY mhc.

,,

EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVE MIGRATION VELOCITY

RELATED TO GAS VELOCITY
These migration velocities all apply to collector plate spacings of 300 mm. Larger or
smaller spacings change the migration velocity pro-rata, e.g. wet process at 400mm,
W = 0.12 m/s. It should be noted that these values of W are anticipatory and if, when
operating a precipitator at the design gas velocity and inlet dust concentration, the
specified value of W is not attained the efficiency will be reduced accordingly, and
theoretically, the precipitator would need to be increased in size to make up the
deficiency.

It is therefore important that realistic gas flow rates and effective migration velocities
are used when specifying new precipitators and that the design specifications of existing
precipitators are referred to and compared with actual performance data so that steps
may be taken, where necessary, to extend or replace them before the gas cleaning
requirements exceed their capabilities.

7. GAS CONDITIONING

Dust precipitation depends on a number of factors but generally better precipitation can
be achieved if the resistivity of the particles lies within the range 106 to 1011 ohm.cm.
As previously mentioned resistivity varies with temperature and gas humidity as shown
in Figure 5. For preheater or precalciner kilns, gas normally leaves the preheater at
about 350C and 5% moisture content. With the raw mill operating part or all of the
gas is used for drying of the raw materials. It therefore may be necessary for part of
the kiln gases to be conditioned during raw mill operation, and all the kiln gases during
a raw mill stop.

At Hope Works gas conditioning is carried out by spraying water under high pressure
(2000 kN/m2) into the riser duct between Stage II and Stage I, spraying downwards at
a position just above where, the raw meal enters. This reduces the thermal efficiency
of Stage I and thus increases the overall kiln fuel consumption. Water is also injected
under high pressure into the downcomer fed by the two outlet ducts from stage I
cyclones. Water injection, at this point, is currently limited by the capacity of the
particular dust handling equipment down stream. It is planned in the future to add all
the conditioning water at this point and stop the addition between stage I and 11
cyclones.

The above is a reasonable compromise, but for completely satisfactory treatment, to

achieve a gas temperature of 150C into the precipitator, a gas conditioning tower is
necessary. A typical conditioning tower construction is shown in Figure 15. There are
several possible combinations of gas inlet and spray nozzle positions that may be
employed. Towers that operate concurrently with gas entry and spray nozzles located
at the top, have been proved to operate the best in practice.

Spill-back nozzles are commonly used in which the flow of water is controlled by
regulating a valve controlling the water flow returning from the nozzle. This method
ensures water pressure at the sprays is not reduced prior to the sprays, which would
cause poor atomization at low flow rates. Typically a water pressure of 33 bar at the
sprays is necessary for efficient operation. The pressure at the pump delivery needs to

29
FIGURE 15 TYPICAL GAS CONDITIONING TOWER

GASINLE
DUCT

WATERSPRAY

f F NOZZLES

1,

i=kl
GAS OUTLET- ~
DUCT
L

~ORAG CHAIN
CONVEYOR

J
I
I

1 1
I

_ PREHEATER
FAN
be 33 bar plus the pressure drop in the pipeline to the sprays. For preheater and
precalciner operations it is best practice to have two separate feed systems to the spray
nozzles for direct and indirect kiln operation (raw mill off and raw mill running). The
optimum water flow rate is determined for these two conditions and the appropriate
number of spray nozzles is selected for each condition. This ensures that efficient
operation of the spray nozzles is maintained for both kiln operating conditions.

Inleaking air across the conditioning tower circuit should be minimal. Oxygen content
in gas leaving the tower should be less than 1% higher than the oxygen content in the
gas at the preheater fan exit. If a higher inleak is measured the source should be
identified and the ducts and tower should be inspected for signs of corrosion.

With any conditioning tower there is the risk of spray malfunction leading to sludge
formation. Safe access should be provided above the hopper base for cleaning
blockages. Lorry access should also be provided under the tower to facilitate cleaning
after a blockage. Drag chains are preferred to screw conveyors for dust transportation
due to their ability to handle surges. The extractor may be reversible, allowing the
dumping of dust which contains excessive moisture, before it can block the dust
transport system.

7.1 Conditionirw Tower Sizing

The following notes are presented as a guide to the basic requirements regarding the
dimensions of a tower and assume that the nozzles will be of the spill-back type. These
are:-

About 0.6 gramme of water is required per normal cubic metre of gas in order
to reduce its temperature by 1C.

For an outlet gas temperature of 150C the minimum active tower volume
required can be calculated on the basis that the water will evaporate at the rate
of 18.25 kg per hour per cubic metre when the inlet gas temperature is 350C.

The active height/diarneter ratio should not be less than 2.5:1 or greater than
4.5:1. Typically h/d = 3.0 to 3.3:1.

The residence time should be approximately 10 to 13 seconds relative to the

average gas flow rate, i.e.:-

Infet Am3/h + Outlet Am3/h

2

Water sprays should be located approximately 1 metre below the top of the
cylindrical section of the tower. This must be taken into account when sizing
the effective volume of the GCT.

31
 The water pump capacity should be over sized by 33%. The maximum water
capacity should be determined for maximum kiln production at expected inlet
temperature and for direct kiln operation. ,

When calculating the effective volume of the GCT only the cylindrical section should
be calculated and not the inlet and outlet areas of the tower. In particular, the volume
used should be that between the level of the spray system and the centre line of the
tower outlet port. The evaporation rates indicated above apply for conventional spray
nozzles. The rate of evaporation can be significantly increased by the use of sonic
spray nozzles. These nozzles use compressed air to create a standing sonic shock wave
which shatters the water into a fine mist. Typical water droplet size from sonic sprays
is 100 microns which compares to 150 microns for spillback nozzles. Sonic nozzles can
achieve up to 30kg per hour per cubic metre of tower volume, with exit temperatures
between 140 to 145C. There is, however, a significant additional power cost involved
in the use of sonic sprays due to the use of compressed air for atomization which is
typically in the region of 3 kWh/t of clinker. Usually the height: diameter ratio of a
GCT with sonic nozzles may be up to around 6:1.

8. CONTINUOUS DUST MONITORS

With a continuous automatic dust monitor, the performance of a precipitator can be

checked continuously on a measured basis, providing an ,irnmediate indication, of the
effect of any change that has been made. It is therefore both a useful process
instrument and an invaluable aid to performance optimisation. If a precipitator is not
equipped with a monitor, its performance on a day-to-day basis and the effect of any
changes that are made either to the process or to the mechanical and electrical
condition of the precipitator can only be judged in subjective terms.

A dust monitor may be used, in conjunction with a microprocessor system or a PLC,,

to control the operation of an electrostatic precipitator.

The equipment exists for a dust monitor to record, into a computer system, all events
when dust emissions exceed the statutory limit, for how long and by how much. In
certain states (Lander) of Germany, this information is down loaded by the Inspector and
used to calculate penalties.

The use of approved continuous automatic dust monitors on kilns and coolers is
mandatory in most countries of the EU and most states of the USA.

32
9. SUITABLE APPLICATIONS FOR PRECIPITATORS

Wet and semi-dry process kilns, because of the low temperatures and high moisture
content in the exit gases, are well suited to electrostatic precipitation. The exception
would be very small wet process kilns with high back-end temperatures. Cladding and
thermal insulation must be well maintained on these precipitators to reduce the rate of
corrosion of the precipitator casing. To combat corrosion, precipitator casings were
constructed from reinforced concrete lined with acid resistant tiles. Examples of these
precipitators can be found on many semi-dry kiln plants.

For most other cement works applications some form of gas conditioning is required to
lower the temperature of the gases to be cleaned and to increase their water content.

Dry process heat exchanger kilns make use of the gases in the milling and drying circuit
which automatically produces conditions which are conducive to electrostatic
precipitation. When the kiln is operating as an independent unit however, water must
be evaporated in the gases, preferably by means of a purpose designed gas conditioning
tower, to both cool and humidify the gases. The requirement is that sufficient water
be evaporated in the gases to achieve a final gas temperature of 150C and that the
evaporation is complete.

Precipitators are commonly used on kiln bypass streams. Typical bypass gas
temperatures are 1050C and this is reduced to about 350C by bleeding in ambient air.
The gas is then usually cooled further to 150C in a conditioning tower, although some
hot gas precipitators do exist. The particle size of bypass dust tends to be very small
making it difficult to collect. The dusts also tend to be sticky in nature due to their
high alkali or chloride content, making dust handling very difficult.

Gas conditioning is usually required for long dry process kilns, although some older
plants operate with hot gas precipitators. These are operated at gas temperatures of
around of 400C, with the temperature being controlled by the addition of ambient air
and sometimes a quantity of water sprayed into the back-end of the kiln.

Electrostatic precipitators have been used for many years to de-dust waste gas from
clinker coolers. Their operation tends to be inconsistent due to the large variations in
gas conditions brought about by kiln flushes, etc. The gas is generally at a high
temperature, has a low moisture content and the dust has a high resistivity. Water
sprays are often used to condition the gas to improve precipitator operation. Most
modern cooler installations use fabric filters down stream of a heat exchanger to de-
dust the cooler exhaust.

For open circuit cement milling, and older generation closed circuit milling, water is
usually injected into the mill for cooling and this is usually sufficient to condition the
dust for effective precipitation. For effective operation the water dewpoint
temperature of the air at the inlet to the precipitator must be in excess of 45C.
Modern closed circuit cement mills have separate mill ventilation and fresh feed is
partially cooled by the coarse returns from the separator. This reduces the need for

33

-
cooling with water injection and results in higher resistivity dust in the gas streams.
The trend for recent cement mill installations is that they are dedusted by bag filters.

Precipitators have been employed on indirect fired coal milling circuitS however this
is not common and fabric filters are the preferred de-dusting equipment.
,,

10. MAINTENANCE

For reliable and optimum precipitator performance it is necessary to have a

preventative maintenance programme. This programme must incorporate short term
reliability to reduce the likelihood of breakdowns and unnecessary plant down time. It
must also look at long term aspects which could result in gradual loss of collecting
efficiency and lifetime of equipment with special emphasis on corrosion and wear.

11. IMPROVEMENTS IN CONTROLLERS AND TRANSFORMER/RECTIFIER SETS

Improved precipitator performance has been achieved on many plants by installing

microprocessor based automatic controllers. These controllers offer features such W;

Back corona detection, to set optimum currents for operating conditions with
high resistivity dust.

Rapping with reduced current level and/or increased current. level in a down
stream field.

Quick power ramping after a flashover.

Energy management controlled by a signal from the dust monitor.

Pulse energisation has been used for many years to improve precipitator operation on
high resistivity dusts. These devices enable current to be applied in pulses to the field
systems and these can be controlled in amplitude and frequency. The equipment is
expensive and unlikely to be applicable to cement works dusts. An increase in
precipitator size, costing the same, is likely to be much more successful.

A Variovolt system has been marketed over the past few years to improve existing
precipitator performance. This is a transformer-rectifi~ set which applies secondary
current at a frequency between 1000 to 2000 Hz to the field. The increased current,
frequency results in a near straight line wave form which enables the applied kV to be
very close to the flashover kV. This enables a higher kV to be applied to the field and
therefore an improvement in collection efficiency.

34
12. SUMMARY

To obtain the best performance from an electrostatic precipitator the two most
important requirements are first that the electrode system be correct~y aligned and
have the ability to accept a voltage of the magnitude necessary for the precipitation
process to take place efficiently and secondly that each rectifier set be adequately
rated to produce that voltage. Questions of gas distribution, gas conditioning,
effectiveness of rapping, etc, can all be deferred until these two basic requirements are
met.

When it has ~been established that the electrode systems and the rectifier sets are
without fault, the question of precipitation proper can be considered.

For those applications where the gases to be treated require conditioning by the
introduction of water (hot and/or dry gases), the water spray system must be effectively
maintained and operated so that the condition of the gases at the inlet to the
precipitator complies with the design specification with regard to temperature and
humidity.

All possible measures should be taken to reduce the amount of gas that a precipitator
has to handle, and in particular, air inleak must be reduced to a minimum. Air inleak
can also cause dust pick-up and gas flow distortion.

The frequency of operation of the rapping gear must be optimised to avoid re-
entrainment or excessive accumulation of dust on the electrodes, which could adversely
affect precipitator efficiency.

Dust collected in the hoppers should be continuously extracted to prevent any possibility
of a build-up contacting the electrode system.

To provide immediate indication of the effect of any changes made to the process or
the precipitator and to aid performance optimisation a continuous dust monitor is
necessary. In many countries it is now a legal requirement to monitor compliance with
environmental legislation.

35