Cassava Flour

The Centre de coopration internationale en recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement
(CIRAD) is a French research organization that specializes in agriculture in the tropics

and subtropics. It is a state-owned body and it was established in 1984 following the
consolidation of French agricultural, veterinary, forestry, and food technology research
organizations for the tropics and subtropics.
CIRADs mission is to contribute to the economic development of these regions

through research, experiments, training, and dissemination of scientific and technical
information.
The Centre employs 1800 persons, including 900 senior staff, who work in about
50 countries. Its budget amounts to approximately 1 billion French francs, more than
half of which is derived from public funds.
CIRAD is made up of seven departments: CIRAD-CA (annual crops), CIRAD-CP (tree

crops), CIRAD-FLHOR (fruit and horticultural crops), CIRAD-EMVT (livestock production
and veterinary medicine), CIRAD-Fret (forestry), CIRAD-SAR (food technology and rural
systems), and CIRAD-GERDAT (management, common services and laboratories,
documentation). CIRAD operates through its own research centres, national agricultural
research systems, or development projects.
The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT, its Spanish acronym) is
dedicated to the alleviation of hunger and poverty in developing countries of the tropics.
CIAT applies science to agriculture to increase food production while sustaining the
natural resource base.
CIAT is one of 16 international agricultural research centers sponsored by the

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
The Centers core budget is financed by 27 donor countries, international and

regional development organizations, and private foundations. In 1996, the donor
countries include Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Denmark,
France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. Donor organizations include the
European Union (EU), the Ford Foundation, the Inter-American Development Bank
(IDB), the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD), the Nippon Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation,
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank.
Information and conclusions reported in this document do not necessarily reflect the
position of any donor agency.
Cassava Flour and Starch: Progress in Research and Development
Centre de coopration internationale en recherche

agronomique pour le dveloppement,
Dpartement des systmes agroalimentaires et ruraux
73, avenue Jean-Franois Breton
BP 5035
34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, France
Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

International Center for Tropical Agriculture
Apartado Areo 6713
Cali, Colombia
CIAT Publication No. 271

ISBN 958-9439-88-8
Press run: 1,000
Printed in Colombia
December 1996
Cassava flour and starch : progress in research and development / D. Dufour,

G.M. OBrien, Rupert Best. -- Montpellier, France : Centre de Coopration
Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dveloppement,
Dpartement des Systmes Agroalimentaires et Ruraux ; Cali, Colombia :
Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, 1996.
409 p. -- (CIAT publication ; no. 271)
ISBN 958-9439-88-8
1. Cassava -- Flour. 2. Cassava -- Starch. 3. Cassava -- Cassava as food. 4. Cassava --

Research. 5. Cassava -- Action research. I. OBrien, G.M. II. Best, Rupert. III. Centre de
Coopration Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dveloppement. IV. Centro
Internacional de Agricultura Tropical.
Copyright CIAT 2002. All rights reserved
CIAT encourages wide dissemination of its printed and electronic publications for maximum
public benefit. Thus, in most cases colleagues working in research and development should feel
free to use CIAT materials for noncommercial purposes. However, the Center prohibits
modification of these materials, and we expect to receive due credit. Though CIAT prepares its
publications with considerable care, the Center does not guarantee their accuracy and
completeness.
ii
Contents
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword ix
Preface
Dany Griffon and Rupert Best xi
SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION
Chapter
1 Adding Value to Products, Byproducts, and Waste Products
of Small and Medium-Scale Cassava-Processing Industries
Dany Griffon 3
2 CORAF Networks
G. Hainnaux 6
3 The Cassava Biotechnology Network and Biotechnologies

for Improving the Processing Quality of Cassava
A. M. Thro, W. M. Roca, and G. Henry 10
SESSION 2: CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL
Chapter
4 Starch Potential in Brazil
M. P. Cereda, I. C. Takitane, G. Chuzel, and O. Vilpoux 19
5 Producing Cassava Flour in Peru and Its Prospects for

Development
S. Salas Domnguez, Y. Guzmn, and S. Aquino 25
6 Cassava Starch in Northern Cauca, Colombia:

Socioeconomic Evaluation of Its Production and Commerce
Liliana Mosquera P., Myriam Patricia Chacn P.,
G. Henry, and G. Chuzel 30
iii
Page
Chapter
7 Cassava Starch and Flour in Ecuador:
Its Commercialization and Use
Carlos Egez 42
8 Cassava Products for Food and Chemical Industries: China

Jin Shu-Ren 48
9 Thai Cassava Starch Industry: Its Current Status and

Potential Future
Boonjit Titapiwatanakun 55
10 Sweetpotato Flour and Starch: Its Uses and Future Potential

Nelly Espnola 71
11 Prospects for Cassava Starch in Vietnam

Dang Thanh Ha, Le Cong Tru, and G. Henry 78
12 Cassava Flour Processing and Marketing in Indonesia

D. S. Damardjati, S. Widowati, T. Bottema, and
G. Henry 89
13 World Production and Marketing of Starch

Carlos F. Ostertag 105
SESSION 3: PHYSICOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF FLOURS AND STARCHES
Chapter
14 The Role of Common Salt in Maintaining Hot-Paste
Viscosity of Cassava Starch
O. Safo-Kantanka and Rita Acquistucci 123
15 Amylographic Performance of Cassava Starch Subjected to

Extrusion Cooking
Z. Gonzlez and E. Prez 128
16 Improving the Bread-Making Potential of Cassava Sour Starch

D. Dufour, S. Larsonneur, F. Alarcn, C. Brabet, and
G. Chuzel 133
17 Physicochemical Properties of Cassava Sour Starch

C. Mestres, X. Rouau, N. Zakhia, and C. Brabet 143
18 Influence of Gelatinization Characteristics of

Cassava Starch and Flour on the Textural Properties of
Some Food Products
S. N. Moorthy, J. Rickard, and J. M. V. Blanshard 150
iv
Contents
Page
Chapter
19 Two Rapid Assays for Cyanogens in Cassava:
Their Evaluation, Modification, and Comparison
G. M. OBrien and C. C. Wheatley 156
20 Acute Poisoning in Tanzania: The Role of Insufficiently

Processed Cassava Roots
N. L. V. Mlingi 166
21 Gari, A Traditional Cassava Semolina in West Africa:

Its Stability and Shelf Life and the Role of Water
N. Zakhia, G. Chuzel, and Dany Griffon 176
SESSION 4: BIOCONVERSION AND BYPRODUCT USE
Chapter
22 Fermentation in Cassava Bioconversion
M. Raimbault, C. Ramrez Toro, E. Giraud,
C. Soccol, and G. Saucedo 187
23 Cassava Lactic Fermentation in Central Africa:

Microbiological and Biochemical Aspects
A. Brauman, S. Klke, M. Malonga, O. Mavoungou,
F. Ampe, and E. Miambi 197
24 A Lactic Acid Bacterium with Potential Application in

Cassava Fermentation
E. Giraud, A. Brauman, S. Klke, L. Gosselin, and
M. Raimbault 210
25 Cassava Wastes: Their Characterization, and Uses and

Treatment in Brazil
M. P. Cereda and M. Takahashi 221
26 Cassava Starch Extraction: A Typical Rural Agroindustry

with a High Contamination Potential
Olga Rojas Ch., Patricia Torres L., Didier Alazard,
Jean-Luc Farinet, and Mara del Carmen Z. de Cardoso 233
SESSION 5: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Chapter
27 Improving Cassava Sour Starch Quality in Colombia
C. Brabet, G. Chuzel, D. Dufour, M. Raimbault, and
J. Giraud 241
v
Page
Chapter
28 Investigating Sour Starch Production in Brazil
R. C. Marder, R. de Araujo Cruz, M. A. Moreno,
A. Curran, and D. S. Trim 247
29 Implementing Technological Innovations in Cassava Flour

and Starch Processing: A Case Study in Ecuador
Vicente Ruiz 259
30 The Influence of Variety and Processing on the

Physicochemical and Functional Properties of
Cassava Starch and Flour
A. Fernndez, J. Wenham, D. Dufour, and
C. C. Wheatley 263
31 Establishing and Operating a Cassava Flour Plant on

the Atlantic Coast of Colombia
Francisco Figueroa 270
32 Improving Processing Technologies for High-Quality

Cassava Flour
D. M. Jones, D. S. Trim, and C. C. Wheatley 276
33 Cassava Flour in Malawi: Processing, Quality, and Uses

J. D. Kalenga Saka 289
SESSION 6: NEW PRODUCTS
Chapter
34 The Potential for New Cassava Products in Brazil
G. Chuzel, N. Zakhia, and M. P. Cereda 299
35 Extrusion Processing of Cassava: Formulation of Snacks

N. Badrie and W. A. Mellowes 304
36 Thai Cassava Flour and Starch Industries for Food Uses:

Research and Development
Saipin Maneepun 312
37 Yuca Rava and Yuca Porridge: The Functional Properties

and Quality of Two Novel Cassava Food Products
G. Padmaja, C. Balagopalan, S. N. Moorthy, and
V. P. Potty 323
vi
Contents
Page
SESSION 7: INTEGRATED PROJECTS
Chapter
38 Integrated Cassava Research and Development Projects in
Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil: An Overview of CIATs
Experiences
B. Ospina, S. Poats, and G. Henry 333
39 The Cassava Flour Project in Colombia: From Opportunity

Identification to Market Development
Carlos F. Ostertag, L. Alonso, Rupert Best, and
C. C. Wheatley 358
40 Women as Processors and Traders of Cassava Flour:

The Philippine Experience
D. L. S. Tan, J. R. Roa, and E. A. Gundaya 364
41 Developing the Cassava Flour Industry in Rural Areas

of Indonesia
A. Setyono, Sutrisno, and D. S. Damardjati 380
APPENDICES
I List of Participants 393
II List of Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Text 402
vii
Contents
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
The 1994 International Meeting on who supervised the scientific

Cassava Flour and Starch, held in preparation of the sessions, and
Cali, Colombia, focused on cassava whose dynamism was instrumental
products and their use and potential for the overall organization of the
development. More than 130 event. Also much appreciated was
scientists, representing 29 countries, the smoothly efficient logistical
participated, presenting 45 papers support provided by Mrs. Mara
and 80 posters, of which 41 papers Eugenia Cobo.
are published in these proceedings.
Not only the efficient organization,
The Meeting was co-chaired by but also the number of participants,
CIRAD/SAR and CIAT, and was made their diversity, the quality of their
possible by the sponsorship of the presentations, and their willing
EU, IDRC, MAE, NRI, ORSTOM, UBA, participation, contributed to the
UNESP, and UNIVALLE. value of the discussions, making
this Meeting a significant scientific
Lodging and facilities were event.
provided by CIAT, and we thank
Dr. W. Scowcroft, Director General of CIRAD/SAR and CIAT, as
Research, and CIAT employees whose co-publishers of these proceedings,
efficient help was invaluable to our were assisted by CIATs
presentations. Communications Unit. Despite
careful editing and production, errors
We also thank Dominique Dufour, may remain, for which we take full
of CIRAD/SAR and stationed at CIAT, responsibility.
The organizers
ix
Contents
PREFACE
PREFACE
Until recently, most efforts in tropical 5,000 years agohave studies in

agriculture were focused on food demand begun to emphasize
increasing cereal productivity, thus the improvement of postharvest
neglecting root and tuber crops such handling, processing, and marketing
as cassava, long considered as a of cassava and its derived products.
primitive crop, as food for the Biotechnology research and
poor, and as having poor nutritional opportunities are now also taken
value. Cassava was rarely included into account in R&D programs on
in R&D programs for tropical products, byproducts, and even the
agriculture. wastes produced by processing
plants.
But, with population increase and
rapid urbanization in developing The 1994 International Meeting
countries, cassava has become more on Cassava Flour and Starch,
important as a source of food security organized in Cali, Colombia,
and dietary calories for the demonstrated this burgeoning
inhabitants of these countries. The scientific interest in cassava
unusual climatic variations witnessed processing and its role in the
in recent years, along with the socioeconomic growth of developing
prospect of global warming, highlight countries. Producers, researchers,
further advantages of this hardy, processors, and consumers of
drought-resistant crop. Policy cassava products have never before
makers have therefore become more met in such significant numbers to
aware of the crops significance and share their experiences, present
are encouraging its research. their work and results, and
exchange information. The
The roots remarkable capacity to technological development of
adapt to various agroecological cassava processing and conservation
conditions and its potential for high will surely improve as participants
starch yields first oriented research return to their work and apply their
toward increasing productivity new knowledge.
through varietal improvement, new
cultural practices, and crop The themes presented during the
protection. Meeting were:
Only since 1985which is The existing and potential uses of

remarkable, considering this edible cassava in the world.
root was domesticated more than
xi
The physical and chemical Currently, these approaches form the

composition and functional only way to contribute significantly to
properties of cassava flours and the socioeconomic growth of
starches. developing countries.
The possibilities of bioconversion
of processed products and The papers reported the most
byproducts. recent results of current research
Technological improvement of programs. They also pointed toward
cottage and industrial processes. future research directions and
Development of new products. suggested ways of translating results
Integrated development of into socioeconomic benefits for all
cassava products to supply groups involved in cassava.
market needs.
With the publication of these
These themes set the scene for proceedings, both those who could
many stimulating discussions. The and those who could not attend the
necessarily multidisciplinary Meeting will be able to reap from the
scientific approach, together with wealth of knowledge presented in
the participatory research these papers, and so develop new
approachboth involving the methodologies and new products and
various components of the cassava technology for their production, and,
production, processing, and most importantly, better guide the
marketing systememerged as a direction of thinking and planning for
recurrent pattern for quality work. their communities development.
Dany Griffon Rupert Best

Deputy Program Director Leader, Cassava Program
CIRAD/SAR CIAT
xii
SESSION 1:
INTRODUCTION
Adding Value to Products, Byproducts, and...
CHAPTER 1
ADDING VALUE TO PRODUCTS,

BYPRODUCTS, AND WASTE PRODUCTS OF
SMALL AND MEDIUM-SCALE
CASSAVA-PROCESSING INDUSTRIES1
Dany Griffon*
Introduction As urbanization increases in Latin

America, governments are becoming
The tropical root crop cassava interested in markets for
(Manihot esculenta Crantz) is cassava-derived products. National
considered a low risk crop that and international research projects on
adapts readily to a wide variety of cassava and its products have been
agroecological conditions. It is highly set up, attracting new funding for
efficient in the conversion of solar their expansion.
energy to starch.
Cassava serves as a subsistence The Need for Technological

crop for marginal rural populations in Research
the tropics, because it efficiently uses
the mineral reserves of infertile soils; it Originally focused on improved yields,
can withstand climatic variations; it cultivation practices, and crop
can stay in the ground unharvested protection, cassava research has,
for long periods; it resists drought; since 1985, also focused on
and it can function as a food-security processing, quality, and new product
crop in times of famine and other development. In 1988, a 3-year
disasters. European Union (EU) project, Quality
improvement of cassava-based
Cassavas importance in the fermented products, involving
socioeconomic development of rural French, African, and Latin American
areas has gained recognition during research institutions, was set up.
the last 20 years. Historically, its role This project built up knowledge and
in Latin America, where the crop strengthened exchange between teams
originated, was that of a basic investigating cassava conservation
foodstuff for rural inhabitants. Now it and processing technologies.
is also a source of income and Traditional fermented products such
employment for rural populations. as gari in Togo, chickwangue in
the Congo, and sour starch in
Colombia were chosen for the project.
A follow-up project was proposed

to the EU in 1992 as a result of
interest generated by the first project,
* CIRAD/SAR, Montpellier, France.
especially in sour starch in Latin
1. No abstract was provided by the author. America; the need to identify new uses
3
for cassava, and improve market together ORSTOM (France and

knowledge; the need to involve small Colombia), NRI (United Kingdom),
and medium-scale processing plants CIAT (Colombia), UNIVALLE
in minimizing their environmental (Colombia), the University of Buenos
impact by treating liquid and solid Aires (Argentina), UNESP (Brazil), and
wastes; and the dynamism, CIRAD (France, Colombia, and Brazil),
motivation, and experience of the whose Rural and Food Processing
research groups assigned to the work. Systems Department is in charge of
general coordination.2 The 3-year
project was approved in November
A Multidisciplinary Project 1992, and funding began in March
1993.
Under the EU program Science and
technology of the living for
development, the EU commission Scientific Organization
approved a contribution of 760,000
ECUs for a 3-year project entitled The project is structured around five
Value enhancement of products, complementary research operations,
byproducts, and waste products of each coordinated by a scientist:
small and medium-scale
cassava-processing industries in Latin Operation 1 characterizes raw
America. materials and evaluates the quality of
cassava flours and starches for
Value enhancement involves processing. (Managed by NRI and
increasing the value added during coordinated by Dr. June Rickard.)
processing; designing, developing, and
marketing quality products; and Operation 2 studies the treatment
reducing environmental pollution of liquid and solid waste products
caused by processing. from processing. (Managed by
ORSTOM and coordinated by
The project aims to help small- Dr. Didier Alazard.)
and medium-scale cassava producers
and processors strengthen their Operation 3 studies the
positions in existing markets and bioconversion of flours and starches
penetrate new markets. Researchers for the development of new products
would study markets for cassava and for use in the food industry. (Managed
its derived products; match cassava by ORSTOM and coordinated by
varieties with the specific technical Dr. Maurice Raimbault.)
requirements of users; improve the
physicochemical, functional, and Operation 4 focuses on improving
nutritional properties of cassava the functional properties of cassava
flours, starches, and other products; flours and starches, and studies the
develop new second-generation physicochemical and biochemical
products, and carry out feasibility properties necessary for elaborating
evaluations; and identify locally new products. Some of the new
feasible technologies for treating waste products being studied are modified
products. starches, cyclodextrins, glucose and
maltose syrups, extruded products,
The project has adopted a
multidisciplinaryagronomy,
economics, and biotechnologyand
2. For explanation of acronyms, see List of
interinstitutional approach to achieve Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Text,
optimal impact. The project brings p. 402.
4
Adding Value to Products, Byproducts, and...
and fat analogs. (Managed by Dr. D. Dufour in Cali, Colombia, and

CIRAD/SAR and coordinated by Dr. G. Chuzel in So Paulo, Brazil.)
Dr. Gerard Chuzel.)
Operation 5 studies the traditional Conclusions

markets for cassava and potential
markets for newly derived cassava The work plan, research teams, and
products. (Managed by CIAT and financing became operative in 1993.
coordinated by Dr. Guy Henry.) The first results of the research are
presented in these proceedings,
The wide range of cassava clones showing that added value is
in the global germplasm collection indispensable in the generation of
held at CIAT is vital to the project. income and employment. To obtain it,
the following activities must be carried
The UNIVALLE team in Colombia out: varietal improvement to satisfy
and the UNESP team in Brazil are technological applications;
involved in the research operations improvement in raw material
mentioned above, and in forming links conservation and processing;
between processors and product innovation and diversification of final
users. The University of Buenos Aires products; attention to product quality;
in Argentina studies the bioconversion and marketing of the final products.
of flours and starches.
Cassava producers, processors,
Accountable to the EU, and traders can benefit from the
CIRAD/SAR is responsible for the scientific and technical knowledge
overall scientific and financial generated by this project, thus
coordination. (Managed by obtaining a better market response
Dr. D. Griffon with Dr. Nadine Zakhia. toward this long-neglected tropical
In Latin America, coordinators are starchy food.
5
CHAPTER 2
CORAF NETWORKS1
G. Hainnaux*
What Is CORAF? CORAF is run by a 10-man

follow-up committee, six who represent
The Confrence des responsables de African national programs and four
recherche agronomique en Afrique de who are associate members from
lOuest et du Centre (CORAF) is a tool European countries. This committee
for cooperation in agronomic research. elects, from among its members, a
It provides a framework for collective president and a vice president to
action and for the exchange of represent CORAF. They are assisted
information and experience. CORAF by the executive secretariat.
aims to:
(1) Promote cooperation, collective Associate Networks

action, and information exchange
among member institutions; An associate research network is a
(2) Define common research group of researchers who work
objectives; together on a research theme
(3) Prepare common research recognized as priority by CORAF. The
projects; network aims to:
(4) Create, operate, and develop
associate networks and regional (1) Strengthen existing agronomic
research workers teams; and research systems and give them
(5) Collaborate with international regional and international
agronomic research centers, dimension;
regional or international (2) Promote the acquisition of
organizations, and funding scientific knowledge and optimal
agencies. use of results;
(3) Encourage joint action with
The institutional and operative International Agricultural Research
organs of CORAF are the plenary Centers (IARCs) and with other
conference, follow-up committee, international and regional
executive secretariat, and associate organizations;
networks. (4) Prepare projects and submit them
to external funding agencies;
(5) Encourage evaluation of research
* Cassava Network, Institut franais de
in various agroecological and
recherche scientifique pour le dveloppement socioeconomic conditions; and
en coopration (ORSTOM), Montpellier, (6) Facilitate the setting up of
France. interdisciplinary teams, and the
1. No abstract was provided by the author. training of researchers.
6
CORAF Networks
At present, six associate The network appoints an authority

networks belong to CORAF, doing to lead each project and specifies the
research on groundnuts, cotton, scientific objectives, duration,
maize, cassava, rice, and resistance partners, and resources to be
to drought. The CORAF networks acquired. The networks steering
take into account the bilateral and committee determines the timing and
multilateral relationships of methodology for the internal scientific
member institutions. evaluation of the work.
Organization and operation of

associate networks Base Centers
An associate network has a general A base center is an agronomic

assembly, and a steering research center that belongs to a
committee. The general assembly is national network and is open to
composed of the coordinator, regional and international cooperation
national correspondents, and one to within the framework of a network. It
several associate correspondents. brings together sufficient human,
The steering committee comprises financial, and material resources to
the coordinator, correspondents, attain scientific objectives and achieve
three members nominated by the results that are applicable or
general assembly, two scientific adaptable to other countries having
authorities outside the network and the same development preoccupations.
nominated by the general assembly,
and donor representatives. The Operation
steering committee assists the
coordinator in managing the A base center is placed under the
network and in following up its aegis of an international network and
scientific activities. of the national network that shelters
it. It:
The general assemblys mission
is to establish scientific priorities (1) Provides the networks with
and research orientations. It liaises supplementary means for
with scientific partners and with reinforcing a national program
other networks, and convenes once (scientific personnel, equipment,
every 3 years. operations);
(2) Contributes to regional
Research projects cooperation by improving the
working relationships among
The scientific activities of a given research workers of the same
network are divided into major region (visits, workshops,
themes that emerge according to seminars);
national program needs. These (3) Participates in the training and
themes are implemented as retraining of scientific and
projects, which take into account: technical personnel of countries of
the region;
(1) The scientific priorities within (4) Provides expertise to third parties
each theme, identified by the in the form of support or
networks general assembly; consultation; and
(2) The potential of each of the (5) Promotes the diffusion of
networks partners; and information and publication of
(3) Acquired experience and scientific and technical
existing work. documents.
7
Activities International Board for Soil Research

and Management (IBSRAM), based in
Base center programs are planned with Bangkok, Thailand; and the
the following factors taken into International Plant Genetic Resources
account: national agricultural policies; Institute (IPGRI), based in Rome, Italy.
development needs of each country;
national research programs; priorities Major research priorities
defined by the respective network;
scientific capabilities of members of the The Network has three main areas
respective network; and other regional of priorities:
and international arrangements in
member countries or outside. These (1) Make an inventory of, characterize,
programs aim to: and evaluate germplasm for
selection;
(1) Improve crops and livestock (2) Develop technologies for promoting
according to socioeconomic, longer shelf life, postharvest
agronomic, biological, and handling, and improving nutritional
edaphoclimatic conditions; quality; and
(2) Develop living collections to make (3) Study the management of
possible the sharing of available cassava-based systems to improve
genetic resources among member system productivity and conditions
institutions; and for propagation.
(3) Establish databases and encourage
joint studies of common interest. Major collaborative projects
CORAF has begun establishing thematic

The Cassava Network: base centers in the Congo and Togo.
An Example of an Associate Four projects are under way:
Network
(1) Setting up and monitoring a
Members multisite agronomic evaluation of
cassava in Africa. Located in Togo,
Network members number 156 it has researchers from the Congo,
researchers from agricultural research Cte dIvoire, France, and Togo.
institutes of CORAF member (or (2) Improving African cassava
associate member) countries, that is, cultivars. Located in the Congo,
Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the researchers come from the
Central African Republic, Chad, the Congo, Cte dIvoire, France, Italy,
Congo, Cte dIvoire, France, Gabon, and Spain.
Guinea, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, (3) Improving detoxification methods.
Senegal, and Togo. Also located in the Congo, the
researchers are from the Congo,
Associate network members are France, and Togo.
researchers from agricultural research (4) Improving foodstuffs processed
institutes of countries who do not from fermented cassava. Again
belong to CORAF: Belgium, Colombia, located in the Congo, the researchers
Italy, Rwanda, Spain, United Kingdom, are from Belgium, Colombia, the
USA, Germany, and Zaire. Congo, France, Mexico, and Togo.2
Other organizations connected with 2. For more information about the Cassava
the Network are the International Network, contact the Coordinator, Dr. Joseph
Mabanza, DGRST-ORSTOM, BP 181, Brazzaville,
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Congo; tel.: (242) 81 26 80 or 81 26 81; telex:
based in Ibadan, Nigeria; the 5404 (Attn. ORSTOM); fax: (242) 83 22 05.
8
CORAF Networks
Summary of projects and activities carried out by the Cassava Network
Project Activity Country
(1) Improvement of production, (a) Create a base center to Cameroon, the Congo, Gabon,
processing, and nutritional improve cassava varieties and Zaire
transformation and quality of cropping systems
cassava in Central and West
Africa
(b) Search and evaluate local Central Africa, Cameroon, the
cultivars; set up a multisite Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Benin
trial network to assess the
genotype-by-environment
interaction
(c) Improve cassava processing Network member countries:
and conservation practices; France, Germany, Spain
improve nutritional quality of
products and byproducts
(2) Cassava agronomy in West (a) Create a thematic base Benin, Cte dIvoire, France,
Africa center on the improvement of Germany, Ghana, Guinea,
cassava agronomy Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo
(b) Improve management of soil Same countries as above

fertility in cassava-based
farming systems
(c) Implement biological control Countries of the networks
of cassava pests
9
CHAPTER 3
THE CASSAVA BIOTECHNOLOGY NETWORK

AND BIOTECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVING
THE PROCESSING QUALITY OF CASSAVA1
A. M. Thro*, W. M. Roca**, and G. Henry***
Introduction then, many cassava biotechnology

research projects have been organized
Cassava plays two roles in tropical and funded (Table 1).
agriculture: it provides food security
for many countries; and is a source of
raw material for agroindustrial CBN Objectives
development. Because cassava is a
highly reliable crop, even on relatively (1) Identify priorities for cassava
poor soils, it can play these roles in biotechnology research.
areas otherwise poor in resources. (2) Stimulate complementary,
collaborative biotechnology
The Cassava Biotechnology research on topics of established
Network (CBN) is one response by priority through (3).
CIAT to cassavas incognito outside (3) Foster free exchange of
the tropics. By 1984, powerful new information on cassava
biotechnological tools for agricultural biotechnology research, including
research were developing rapidly but techniques, results, and materials.
chiefly in countries where cassava was
not grown. Thus, little was being done
to apply these new tools to cassava Defining Biotechnology
even though biotechnology could
significantly enhance cassava as a Among the many definitions of
traditional staple and help develop biotechnology is that formulated at the
new end uses for diverse markets. International Meeting on Cassava
Flour and Starch (held 11-15 January,
The CBN was founded in 1988 to 1994, at CIAT, Cali, Colombia):
provide a forum for cassava
biotechnology issues and to foster the deliberate use of an
cassava biotechnology research on organism, or part of an
priority subjects (CIAT, 1989). Since organism, to make or modify
products or to improve plants
or animals.
* Cassava Biotechnology Network, c/o CIAT,
Cali, Colombia. Biotechnologies in the context of
** Biotechnology Research Unit, CIAT, Cali, cassava processing include both
Colombia. genetic manipulation and the use of
*** Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
microorganisms to effect desired
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. changes.
10
The Cassava Biotechnology Network and...
Table 1. Cassava biotechnology research projects, partial listing, 1994.
Research area Number of Countries and

projects international centersa
Tissue culture, Many Barbados, Brazil, Cameroon, Cuba, China,

micropropagation Indonesia, Nigeria, Panama, Peru, Samoa,
Venezuela, Zaire, and others
CIAT, IITA
Regeneration 9 China, France, the Netherlands, UK, USA,
Zimbabwe
CIAT, IITA
Transformation 7 Brazil, Canada, UK, USA
CIAT, IITA
Molecular mapping, 6 France, UK, USA
markers, fingerprinting CIAT, IITA
Virus resistance 3 China, the Netherlands, USA, Zimbabwe
Cyanogenesis 7 Denmark, the Netherlands, Thailand, USA
CIAT, IITA
Photosynthesis 2 Australia, USA
Cryopreservation 2 France
CIAT
Processing Many Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, the Congo,
France, Ghana, India, Nigeria, South Africa,
Tanzania, UK, and others
CIAT
a. IITA = International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, based in Ibadan, Nigeria.
CBNs Interest in Cassava consumption, and so cassava

Processing, Including production, were falling in Latin
Flour and Starch America; and that demand for cassava
seemed to be present but the market
CBNs interest in cassava processing, was generally unable to bring cassava
including flour and starch, traces to the consumer, either in fresh or
back to the cassava demand studies processed form. This meant that
CIAT conducted from 1984 to 1986 cassavas advantageshigh yields of
(CIAT, 1987). These were extensive high-quality carbohydrate produced at
studies of current and potential low cost and even on poor soilswere
consumption of cassava, consumer not benefiting farmers nor urban
preferences for cassava versus other consumers as they might. This
staples, income generation and translated into a high priority for
employment opportunities in cassava research on cassava processing and
processing, and use of cassava in products to increase markets for the
animal feeds. The possibilities for crop and provide consumers with
expanding the cassava market were desirable products at low cost.
also studied, including factors such as
production costs, competing crops, The CBN conducted its own
and government policies. priority assessments in 1988 (CIAT,
1989) and 1991. Its 1991 survey was
The studies showed that cassava of experts on the value of different
production potential exceeded cassava possible applications of biotechnology
consumption; that cassava to cassava (Henry, 1991). It revealed
11
that, among possible biotechnological from cassava users, suggests that a

innovations for cassava, improving strong demand exists for research on
starch quality had a high, anticipated the quality of cassava flour, even in
impact on small-scale farmers and on areas with near-subsistence farming,
the market value of cassava (Table 2). where such demand might not be
expected.
In late 1994, the CBN began a
5-year study to develop a versatile
framework for using primary data for Current Research in
cassava research priority setting. This Biotechnology with
will refer especially to assessing the Reference to Cassava
relative advantages of biotechnology Quality and Processing
as against other research approaches.
Genetic transformation of cassava
The CBN has also begun to
establish its own direct contacts with Genetic transformation, or genetic
the ultimate users of cassava engineering, refers to inserting DNA of
research. In 1993, a CBN case study one genetic material into a cell of
was conducted in northern Tanzania another genetic material; ensuring the
where the staple food is a stiff porridge DNAs successful incorporation into
of cassava flour. The flour is obtained the cells genome; and, if the DNA
by pounding dried-then-fermented encodes one or more genes,
cassava pieces. Villagers had specific subsequently expressing those genes
quality preferences for the traditional in the phenotype of the cell. The most
product; some women had also promising methods used to genetically
experimented, but unsuccessfully, transform cassava include physically
with mixing cassava and wheat flour bombarding cells with microprojectiles
to produce baked goods for sale in the coated with DNA, and using the
small village restaurant (wheat flour bacterial vector Agrobacterium
was expensive and often scarce). tumefaciens.
CBN teams were often asked for Although single cassava cells have
suggestions on improving the local been transformed, they have yet to be
methods of cassava processing, or on regenerated as uniformly transformed
making a greater variety of products. plantlets. Regenerating from single
This perspective, gathered directly callus cells or from protoplasts
Table 2. Relative importance of cassava constraints and opportunities for which biotechnology may have a
relative research advantage, by region and by anticipated impact of biotechnological innovations
on small-scale farmers and market value of cassava.a
Biotechnology Importance by region Impact of innovations

research topics
Africa Latin America Asia Yield Market
increase advantage
Viral diseases +++ +++ + +++ +

Insect pests +++ +++ + +++ +
Cyanide toxicity +++ + ++ 0 ++
Starch quality ++ ++ +++ 0 +++
Postharvest root ++ +++ +++ 0 +++
deterioration
a. +++ = high; ++ = medium; + = low; 0 = no change.
SOURCE: Roca et al., 1992.
12
already successfully used for genetic any developmental stage, even using
transformation in other specieshas DNA from seedlings.
not been reported for cassava. In vitro
regeneration of cassava plantlets has If, for example, molecular markers
been achieved through somatic were established for a certain desired
embryogenesis in a wide range of cooking quality of cassava, then a
genotypes. These somatic embryos breeding population could be screened
arise from multicellular buds and, for that cooking quality even at the
when transformed, are chimeric. seedling stage, and even if the
physicochemical basis of the desired
Culture studies in embryogenic cooking quality was unknown.
suspension are so far promising,
and the possibility of other Cassava genomic and cDNA
single-cell-based regeneration systems libraries have been produced. A
should be investigated. mapping progeny has been developed
from the cross Nigeria 2 X ICA
Mapping the cassava genome Cebucan, whose parents were selected
according to their variation for both
A framework genetic map of cassava, agriculturally interesting traits and
based on molecular markers, is now molecular markers. The first group of
under construction through useful polymorphic markers has been
collaborative interchange agreements identified. When completed, the
between CIAT and the U.S. framework map and the mapping
Universities of Georgia and population will be made available to
WashingtonSt. Louis. Several types cassava breeders and other
of molecular markers are being used researchers.
in the initial mapping work, including
RFLPs from both total genomic DNA Genes for starch quality in cassava
and cDNA, and RAPD primers.2
Several research groups, for example,
A molecular map of markers in Brazil, the Netherlands, and CIAT,
linked to traits of interest has the are interested in working on
advantages that molecular markers transgenic approaches to cassava
are found in all genotypes, they are starch quality and quantity. To
numerous (from hundreds to produce transgenic cassava with
thousands in species so far appropriate characteristics,
investigated), and they are researchers need to control the
phenotypically neutral. This means proportions of amylose to amylopectin
that any normal plant will express so to permit new or wider uses of
many of them. A further advantage, cassava starch. One form of control is
and perhaps the most valuable to through genes.
plant breeders, is that molecular
markers are independent of external A private research group at
environment or the organisms Wageningen University, the
developmental stage. As a result, Netherlands, used their work with
molecular markers, and any traits potatoes to clone the starch
linked with them, can be scored and biosynthetic genes of cassava:
selected in any environment and at granule-bound starch synthase
(GBSS, responsible for amylose
synthesis), and branching enzyme
2. For explanation of acronyms, see List of
(BE, responsible for the cross linkages
Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Text, that form amylopectin). This group is
p. 402. also working on regenerating and
13
genetically transforming cassava and compounds in the plant? Is there a

is positioned to test the starch genes relationship between root cyanogen
in cassava as soon as a content and processing quality?
transformation protocol is developed. Although research on these topics has
Because the research is privately increased, much more is needed.
supported, the genes may not become
available for public use, except in the
long term. Postharvest Deterioration
of Cassava
CIAT (whose research results
become publicly available) may be very As cassava becomes more important
close to having a transformation as an industrial crop, the logistics of
protocol for cassava, which, if supplying fresh cassava to processing
confirmed, will then be optimized. plants becomes more critical. Cassava
CIAT is also investigating the priority roots that can be stored for more than
applications that are the ultimate a few days would let processors keep a
objective of developing the technology. reserve of raw material and thus
In accordance with cassava research operate more nearly at maximum
priorities, CIAT is working with efficiency.
published sequences of the BE, using
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) A multidisciplinary approach has
technology and a cassava genomic been outlined for addressing rapid
library developed at CIAT. To date, postharvest deterioration of cassava
CIAT has obtained several DNA clones, roots, a significant production and
which may contain parts of the BE marketing constraint. Four years ago
gene and is sequencing the clones to this problem was insufficiently
verify this. Confirmed clones will be understood to be considered
used to fish out the complete gene researchable. Now, if funds were
from cassava genomic DNA. available, research on cassava
postharvest deterioration would
integrate biotechnology, crop
Cassava Cyanogenesis improvement, and recent advances in
molecular genetics.
Understanding the biochemistry of
cassava cyanogenesis has progressed
significantly. Researchers at the Microorganism-based
University of Newcastle (UK) have Biotechnologies for Cassava
cloned for linamarase, a key enzyme in
the cyanogenesis pathway. When a This new area of interest for CBN is
transformation protocol is available, well covered by other papers in these
this cloned gene can be used to proceedings (Session 4).
produce acyanogenic cassava
genotypes for use in research on the
role of cassava cyanogens and in plant Outlook
breeding.
Experiences with other crops suggest
Researchers must first understand that a genetic transformation protocol
the implications of cyanogens for for cassava is not far off. Starch gene
cassava production and use before constructs, both publicly available
applying results of cassava and private, will probably be ready for
biotechnology research to testing in transgenic cassava plants as
cyanogenesis. For example, what is soon as a durable transformation
the role of cyanogenic glucoside protocol is available, pending
14
observance of all applicable biosafety Henry, G. 1991. Assessment of socioeconomic

regulations. Work on the framework constraints and benefits to small-scale
farmers from cassava biotechnology
molecular map of cassava is in research. In: CIAT. Proposal for
progress. Directoraat Generaal voor
Internationale Samenwerking (DGIS),
Neths., funding of coordination and
References activities of the Cassava Biotechnology
Network (CBN). Cali, Colombia.
CIAT. 1987. Global cassava research and Roca, W. M.; Henry, G.; Angel, F.; and Sarria,
development: the cassava demand R. 1992. Biotechnology research
studies and implications for the applied to cassava improvement at the
strategies for the CIAT Cassava International Center for Tropical
Program. CIAT Cassava Program Agriculture (CIAT). Agric. Biotech.
Strategy Document prepared for the News Inf. 4:303N-308N.
Board of Trustees Meeting, June,
1987. Cali, Colombia.
___________. 1989. Report on the founding

workshop for the Advanced Cassava
Research Network, held at CIAT, Sept.
6-9, 1988. Cali, Colombia.
15
SESSION 2:
CURRENT USE AND

FUTURE POTENTIAL
Starch Potential in Brazil
CHAPTER 4
STARCH POTENTIAL IN BRAZIL1
M. P. Cereda*, I. C. Takitane*,
G. Chuzel**, and O. Vilpoux***
Cassava Starch Production Because of its high quality and

and Uses high value (US$1.50/kg), arrowroot
will take a significant part of the
Brazilian starch production is almost future starch market. Cassava
1 million tons per year: 76% from starch, in contrast, is a low-value
maize (700,000 t/year), 23% from product, with prices ranging from
cassava (220,000 t/year), and the US$0.27 to US$0.40/kg (Ademir
remainder from other crops such as Zanella, 1992-1993, personal
potato and rice (500 t/year) (Ademir communication).
Zanella, 1992-1993, personal
communication). Being traditional Annual world production
Brazilian foods, the last two crops are of starch is currently about
unlikely ever to play an important 29 million tons, obtained from maize
role in the starch market. (12 million), wheat (10 million),
potato (4 million), cassava
About 45% of maize starch is (0.8 million), and others (2.2 million)
used raw (320,000 t/year), 40% as (Chuzel, 1991). The main starch
glucose and malto-dextrins producers are USA (maize), Canada
(280,000 t/year), and 15% as (wheat), and the European Union
modified starches (100,000 t/year). (potato).
In contrast, about 68% of cassava
starch is used raw (150,000 t/year), The USA imports 150,000 t of
18% as modified starch cassava starch, the EU 50,000 t, and
(40,000 t/year), 10% as sour starch Canada 10,000 t, representing only
(22,000 t/year), and about 3% as about 1% of world starch production,
tapioca (8,000 t/year) (Ademir but 25% of the worlds cassava starch
Zanella, 1992-1993, personal production. Japan imports another
communication). 300,000 t of cassava starch
(Lorenz Industry, 1990, personal
communication). These countries
use cassava starch to manufacture
modified starches (Table 1).
* Faculdade de Cincias Agronmicas (FCA),
Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So
Paulo, Brazil. Knight (1974) lists different
** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at UNESP/FCA. starches and their use in food
*** French Technical Cooperation, stationed at (waxy starch has a high level of
UNESP/FCA.
amylopectin, a result of genetic
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. modification):
19
Use Starches used Function
Spice for salads Maize + waxy Provide stability in acidity, cutting,

starch mixtures and temperature
Filling for Waxy starch Provides texture, transparency,

fresh-fruit pies and acid stability
Filling for Waxy starch Provides stability in acidity and frozen

frozen-fruit pies texture (does not coagulate), and
transparency
Maize-type cream Waxy starch Provides heat stability and high viscosity
Ready-made puddings Maize + waxy Provide stability in temperature, frozen

starch mixtures texture, and cutting
Baby foods Waxy starch Provides stability in frozen texture and

high viscosity
Table 1. Applications (in percentage) of cassava starch in USA and the European Union.a
Crop Product
Glucose Fructose Alcohol Paper Modified Raw
Maize 30 20 10 10 20 10
(40) (20) (-) (10) (20) (10)
Wheat 50 30 10 - 10 -
(60) (20) (-) (10) (10) (-)
Potato - - - - 90 10
(-) (-) (-) (10) (80) (10)
Cassava - - - - 100 -
(-) (-) (-) (-) (100) (-)
a. Percentages in parentheses are values for the European Union.
SOURCE: Lorenz Industry, 1990, personal communication.
Brazil, the worlds leading environmental conditions and

producer of cassava (Table 2), uses competition with the tobacco industry,
80% of its production in food. which has a quicker turnover of crops
Although the national production of (cassava takes 1 year to mature).
cassava is spread over most Brazilian
states (Table 3), northern and
northeastern Brazil grow 67% of the Cassava Starch Industries
national crop. Most is used as and Markets
foodof the 1991 crop, only 4% was
transformed into starch. Cassava starch industries are located
in Santa Catarina, Paran (78%), So
Table 4 compares cassava Paulo, Minas Gerais, and Mato Grosso
production in Paran state with that do Sul (Table 5) with 56 industries
in Santa Catarina: planting area in registered with the Associao
the first increased by 64%, as did Brasileira dos Produtores de Amido de
production (65%), in the last 10 years. Mandioca (ABAM, 1992-1993). But
In contrast, in Santa Catarina, the founding of many new industries
planting area dropped by 35%, as did may have increased this number to 70.
production (-13%), because of Processing capacity is variable, for
20
example, the average is 221 t/day in expansion of cassava starch use. The
Paran state and 109 t/day in Santa structure of the maize starch market
Catarina. These industries have in Brazil is oligopolistic and is formed
equipment of international standard. by three multinational enterprises:
National Starch, Cargil, and Corn
The Centro Raizes Tropicais Products Corporation.
(CERAT), Universidade Estadual
Paulista (UNESP), researched 12 Maize and cassava starches are
cassava flour industries in Santa commercialized in the same markets:
Catarina in 1993 through interviews, foodstuffs (cheese breads, cookies,
which showed an overall production of ice-creams, chocolates, processed
10,450 t. These results, however, meat, and forcemeats), paper and
differed from ABAMs data of the same cardboard, textiles, pharmaceutical
year (16,750 t). products, glues and adhesives, and
modified starches.
Cassava starch production faces
strong competition from maize starch, The biggest problem facing the
the prices of which are stable, and cassava starch industry is a price
quality is high and consistent. Such variability that ranges between 60%
competition inhibits the growth and and 70%. Prices for cassava roots
Table 2. World production of cassava roots (in millions of tons). Numbers are rounded.a
Producer 1961-1965b 1969-1971b 1991c
Major producers 50.0 (67) 63.5 (66) 99.4 (65)

Brazil 21.9 (29) 29.9 (31) 24.6 (16)
Thailand 1.7 (2) 3.2 (3) 20.3 (13)
Nigeria 7.2 (10) 9.4 (10) 20.0 (13)
Zaire 7.7 (10) 10.2 (11) 18.2 (12)
Indonesia 11.8 (16) 10.6 (11) 16.3 (11)
Otherd 24.5 (33) 33.2 (34) - -
Total 75.0 (100) 96.7 (100) 153.7 (100)
a. Values in parentheses signify proportion of total by percentage.

b. Compiled from FAO, 1990.
c. CIAT, 1993.
d. About 75 countries.
Table 3. Brazilian cassava production, 1991 crop, by region.
Region Area Output Proportion of Average

(ha) (t) national crop yield
(%)a (t/ha)
North 328,792 4,461,354 18 13.5

Northeast 1,132,889 12,005,948 49 10.5
Middle west 68,819 1,082,950 5 15.7
Southeast 134,775 2,118,052 9 15.7
South 277,835 4,862,480 19 17.5
Total 1,943,110 24,530,784 100 -
a. Numbers are rounded.
SOURCE: IBGE and CEPAGRO, 1992.
21
22
Table 4. Cassava production in the states of Paran and Santa Catarina, Brazil, 1981-1993. Numbers are rounded.
Year of Area Growth rate Production Growth rate Yield

crop (ha) (%) (millions of tons) (%) (t/ha)
Paran Santa Paran Santa Paran Santa Paran Santa Paran Santa
Catarina Catarina Catarina Catarina Catarina
1981/82 62,490 100 1.2 100 19.5

1982/83 69,870 12 1.3 13 19.7
1983/84 74,688 20 1.4 19 19.3
1984/85 85,800 88,443 37 100 1.7 1.1 41 100 20.0 13.3
1985/86 85,800 84,812 37 -4 1.7 1.2 39 4 20.0 14.4
1986/87 85,445 75,738 37 -14 1.8 1.2 52 3 21.7 16.1
1987/88 85,242 69,469 36 -21 1.8 1.1 52 -1 21.7 16.7
1988/89 77,839 74,756 25 -15 1.6 1.2 33 9 20.8 17.2

1989/90 101,854 67,596 63 -24 2.1 1.1 79 -2 21.4 17.1
1990/91 102,265 63,370 64 -28 2.2 1.0 86 -13 22.1 17.3
1991/92 100,000 56,873 60 -36 2.1 1.0 72 -13 21.0 18.0
1992/93 137,000 57,379 119 -35 2.0 1.0 65 -13 19.6 18.1
Average yield = 18.9 16.5
SOURCE: IBGE, various years.

Table 5. Brazilian starch production (in tons) for 1993, and estimated for 1994.
State Starch industries Production Estimated

(no.) 1993 production 1994
Paran 23 132,900 189,600

Santa Catarina 21 31,550 56,600
So Paulo 5 15,500 28,600
Mato Grosso do Sul 4 23,000 29,300
Mato Grosso 2 1,500 5,100
Esprito Santo 1 3,000 5,000
Total 56 207,450 314,200
SOURCE: ABAM, 1993.
varied erratically between US$19.50 of cassava starch (f.o.b. at factory) are

(1983), $33.50 (1992), and $51.00 more stable than those of cassava
(1989) per ton during 1980-1992 roots, which are vulnerable to the
(Ademir Zanella, 1992-1993, personal roots perishability and fluctuate with
communication). root production. Products using
cassava and maize starches are elastic,
Other problems include the fact that is, income positive, whereas
that the Brazilian cassava starch products from cassava flour are
industries must also stop working inelastic.
for 4 months/year. Low root
production, a long vegetative cycle, and
an inferior quality starch also make 13,500
cassava starch production costly, 11,500
compared with that of maize starch. In 9,500
CR$/t
the last 3 years, maize prices have 7,500

fallen against those of cassava roots, 5,500
thus making the prices of maize starch 3,500
more competitive and maize starch 1,500
more available, and thus more used by 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92
industries (Venturini Filho, 1993). Year
Figure 1. Cassava farmgate prices, Paran state,

Large Brazilian agroindustrial Brazil. Correct prices until August
complexes that use starch as a raw 1993 by general price index-internal
material have invested in this area to demand (deflator). (After Fundao
Getulio Vargas, 1993, personal
guarantee an adequate supply of good communication.)
quality and suitably stored starch.
Three examples can be cited: National 6,000
Starch in Santa Catarina and Nestl in 5,000
CR$/50 kg
Paran have just bought their own 4,000

cassava starch industries. Fleischman 3,000
Royal in So Paulo has used its own 2,000
factory, Jpiter, to manufacture its 1,000
own cassava starch for more than 0
5 years. 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92
Year
Figures 1, 2, and 3 show
Figure 2. Real wholesale prices for cassava flour.
differences between the real prices of Correct prices until August and
raw material (root), cassava flour, and September 1993 (after readjustment for
raw cassava starch in Paran. Prices inflation). (After ABAM, 1993.)
23
200
Acknowledgments
150
CR$/kg
We thank Ademir Zanella of Halotek

100
Fadel Industrial Ltd. for the data used
50 in the tables.
0
1986 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Year References
Figure 3. Real prices of raw cassava starch, ABAM (Associao Brasileira dos Produtores
industrial f.o.b., Paran, Brazil. Correct de Amido de Mandioca). 1992-1993.
prices until August 1993 by general
Produo; estoques, capacidade
price index-internal demand and in
industrial das fecularias brasileiras.
September 1993 after readjustment for
inflation. (After ABAM, 1993.) Paranava, Paran, Brazil.
Chuzel, G. 1991. Cassava starch:

current and potential use in Latin
Although all Brazilian states America. Cassava Newsl. 15(1):9-11.
produce cassava, only the states of the
CIAT. 1993. Cassava: the latest facts about an
south (Santa Catarina and Paran), ancient crop. Cali, Colombia.
southeast (So Paulo), and middle (Pamphlet.)
west (Mato Grosso do Sul) are
technologically prepared to produce FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations). 1990. Yearbook.
cassava starch.
Rome, Italy.
Other constraints to expanding the IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e

cassava starch market include Estatstica). 1981-1993. Censo
farmers ignorance of the market, and agropecurio. Fundao Instituto
Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica
lack of promotion of the virtues of
(FIBGE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
cassava starch. Promotional
pamphlets could be created by the __________ and CEPAGRO (Centro Estadual de
CIRAD/SAR-UNESP project to target Pesquisa Agronmica). 1992.
specific markets, potential markets, or Levantamento sistemtico da
produo agrcola. Fundao Instituto
growing existing markets.
Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica
(FIBGE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
An example of a growing market p. 46-47.
for cassava starch is beer manufacture
(Venturini Filho, 1993). To make Knight, J. W. 1974. Specialty food starches.
In: Cassava processing and storage:
7,400 g of beer, 474 g of cassava proceedings of an interdisciplinary
starch are needed. Brazilian beer workshop. Pattaya, Thailand. p. 77-87.
production is 5.8 billion liters.
Current mixes use malt with maize Venturini Filho, W. G. 1993. Fcula de
and rice grits. If the grits market mandioca como adjunto de malte na
fabricao de cerveja. Ph.D
could be divided into three to include dissertation. Faculdade de Cincias
cassava starch, a potential Agronmicas, Universidade Estadual
120,000 t of cassava starch would be Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP,
needed for this sector alone. Brazil. 234 p.
24
Producing Cassava Flour in Peru and...
CHAPTER 5
PRODUCING CASSAVA FLOUR IN PERU

AND ITS PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT1
S. Salas Domnguez, Y. Guzmn, and S. Aquino*
Introduction Peruvian Amazon and the humid

tropics. The Instituto de
Concern is increasing worldwide about Investigaciones de la Amazona
the social problems of poverty, Peruana (IIAP) established a pilot
unemployment, hunger, and mounting plant for producing cassava flour in
child mortality. In Peru, preliminary Pucallpa, capital of the Department of
data from the most recent census Ucayali, in the center of the Peruvian
shows that a population explosion has Amazon. This flour is used for human
taken place in the last few years. This consumption and as a substitute for
factor, together with Perus inputs used in plywood and
sociopolitical and economic problems, bread-making industries.
has depressed living standards,
especially in rural areas, which has to
produce enough food to feed nine city Cassava Production in
dwellers for every rural inhabitant. Ucayali, Peru
But subsistence agriculture is
prevalent because of agroecological In 1991, national cassava production
constraints, lack of infrastructure, was 405,725 t, twice that of the
and lack of technical and economic 1950s. In contrast, other staples such
resources. as potatoes, wheat, and quinoa
(Chenopodium quinoa) have decreased
More than two-thirds of Peru has by one-third. Ucayali produces
agroclimatic conditions suitable for 20,000 t of cassava annually, fourth
tropical crops that can grow in poor in national production. Consumption
soils, with little fertilization, and are centers are located on different
resistant to disease. Such crops have tributaries of the Ucayali River and,
been rapidly distributed, and are the although tributaries are navigable,
most valuable resource in fighting most cassava is wasted because
hunger and the greatest hope for rural distances are long, and boats slow and
development through agroindustry. Of small. The highly perishable and
these crops, cassava and plantain are bulky roots therefore do not reach
the most important, both in the markets in time.
Yields in the Departments of

Loreto and Ucayali vary from 10 to
* Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazona 35 t/ha. The little produce that does
Peruana (IIAP), Pucallpa, Peru.
reach urban markets has increased its
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. price by 200% in relation to farmgate
25
prices. In rural areas, cassava is production areas, which occurred as a

traditionally processed into products result of the 1991 political and
such as faria and tapioca, but economic emergencies.
because of inferior quality, these
products are not sufficiently The pilot plant was conceived as
competitive for urban markets. part of an integrated system.
Activities were to complement each
In the past, plants for producing other so to increase potential and thus
cassava flour were installed in use more effectively available
Pucallpa and Iquitos (Department of resources. The plant was to serve an
Loreto, north of Ucayali). These failed area that suffers multiple problems,
mainly because the technology did not and the Peruvian Amazon was
accord with the geographical and targeted.
socioeconomic conditions of the
respective areas. The plant was complemented by
vermiculture (farming of worms),
The inhabitants of Ucayali eat agroforestry, fish farms. These
sufficient carbohydrates to comply activities not only provide a market for
with the minimum nutritional cassava products, but also help slow
requirements set by the National down the degradation of natural
Nutritional Institute. That is, resources, for example, worm humus
142,350 t of roots and tubers and helps improve poor soils. The raising
98,550 t of cereals (mostly imported of small animals, based on products
wheat flour) are consumed yearly. and byproducts of rural agroindustry
(such as cassava flour), helps resolve
the lack of protein in the regional diet.
The IIAP Cassava Flour Plant Efficient farm management (and thus
higher productivity) reduces
Background emigration.
The farmers of Ucayali, especially Objectives

cassava producers, confront severe
socioeconomic and political pressures Through research, the plant was to
that often force them to emigrate en generate and adapt technologies for
masse to cities or cocaine areas. In an processing flour, and evaluate and
attempt to keep people on the land, establish production and quality
the IIAP looked for ways to propose parameters. The plant, however, had
and generate appropriate technologies, to be a successful enterprise to
employment, and organization. The interest farmers in the potential
IIAP suggested integrating production socioeconomic benefits of cassava
systems to permit a more efficient and flour production. Once farmers began
effective use of small-farm resources participating, the plant was to offer
and thus improve production. training to cassava farmers and
processors interested in integrating
In 1989, the IIAP, with production, processing, and
collaboration from CIAT (based in marketing.
Colombia), began developing
technology and machine prototypes for To fulfill its functions of
cassava processing. A plant was technological research, flour
established at Fundo Villarica, IIAPs production, product promotion, and
experiment station at Pucallpa, training, the plant had the following
despite a recession in almost all objectives:
26
(1) To validate, adapt, and generate management, and so sign agreements

technologies for processing that permit mutual collaboration.
cassava and its products. Supplies of raw material came from
(2) To open markets for cassava- some sectors of the Campo Verde
based products such as flour, district, near Pucallpa.
flakes, and grains.
(3) To integrate the use of the entire Plant operation
cassava plant in animal feed.
(4) To increase the value of cassava The plant operated at 60% capacity, in
roots, which are underused accordance with the goal set. The
because of their perishability. following five cultivars were used:
(5) To gradually substitute imported Seorita, Huangana, Huanuquea,
wheat flour. Arponcillo, and Nusharuna. Best
(6) To provide technical and results have been obtained with cv.
organizational training for farmers Seorita with a yield of 3.2:1 (root to
and mid-level technicians. flour), but is more perishable than
(7) To encourage farmers to not only other roots (lasts 2 days). Cultivar
produce cassava, but also to Nusharuna has the most durable
process and market it. roots but its yields are low, 3.9:1, and
the flour is darker because the peel is
Plant facilities difficult to remove.
The plant had four sections: The percentage of loss from root
(1) reception, storage, and defects after selection and preparation
preparation; (2) washing; was high (15%). Although this
(3) chipping; and (4) preliminary problem could be overcome by
sun-drying, artificial drying, milling, differentiating root prices, farmers had
and storing the final product. The to be taught the need for selection.
area for storing and preparing raw
material was built on higher terrain Overall, the equipment performed
than was the chipping area to make well, except for the screen and dryer.
use of gravity in transferring raw The minimum drying time achieved
material. The dryer was a tray was 12 hours, including preliminary
system used by CIAT, with a burner sun-drying. Raw material accounted
that, for fuel, used wood discarded for 85% of production costs, fuel 7%,
from sawmills. and labor 3%. Packaging,
depreciation, and maintenance
To reduce drying time, flakes accounted for the remaining 5%.
destined for animal feed were first
dried in trays, and then sun-dried. Marketing
The basic machinery was brought
from Colombia, but accessories and The plant targeted the local market,
other equipment were built locally and with some initial promotion in Iquitos
elsewhere in Peru. The total and Lima. Currently, demand is 70 t
investment was US$27,000, including of flour per month, of which only 16 t
buildings, machinery, and other could be supplied. About 60% of
equipment. production is sold to bakeries (which
substitute as much as 20% of wheat
From the start, the IIAP flour) through the Programa Nacional
encouraged the organized de Alimentacin (PRONAA) and to the
participation of cassava growers so private company, Cotrip, that makes
they could evaluate the possibilities of water biscuits. About 20% goes to
other plants under similar direct plywood industries, 5% to Lima, and
27
another 5% to Iquitos. The bran, making bread and pasta are being
together with discarded roots, is used installed to promote the establishment
for animal feed. of similar projects in different rural
sectors.
Key market segments at a national
level are still to be identified, and Training
competition from imported wheat flour
has to be resolved. Ucayali, for Training focuses on three levels:
example, uses 700 t/month, of which (1) university theses; (2) training rural
80% is for bread making and 20% for dwellers to become qualified workers,
plywood industries. or, through modular training courses,
knowledgeable on any phase of the
Research process; and (3) courses for the public,
such as bread making for commercial
The plant lacked laboratory equipment bread makers and housewives.
for quality control, which was done by
several universities and Achievements
nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs). Proximal and microbiological After 2 years of operation, the plant
analyses were carried out. successfully:
At first, because water quality was (1) Identified, analyzed, and

inferior and vermiculture was located improved native technology.
near the plant, microbiological quality (2) Built the production
was poor. Scientists found fungi, infrastructure, using locally
yeasts, fecal coliforms, and available resources. Machines
clostridium sulfite reducers in and equipment were simple,
quantities above permissible levels, versatile, and adaptable to
but no Escherichia coli nor salmonella. processing other products, such
These problems have been identified as plantains, sachapapa or
and solved, and the flour is now taro, and cassava.
acceptable for human consumption. (3) Produced flour that was US$0.25
cheaper than wheat flour.
Dry matter content of cv. Seorita (4) Found favorable local and
is 34%. On the average, whole regional markets. These were
cassava flour contains 84.2% starch, vermiculture, agroforestry,
1.4% protein, and 3.1% fiber. raising of small animals,
horticulture, and pisciculture.
Based on experiences in bread (5) Made the new technology
making, trials were conducted with economic for small-scale farmers
bakeries to establish the following to invest and rapidly recuperate
formula for bread preparation: their investments, thus
diminishing risks when
conditions become unfavorable.
Wheat flour 80 parts Yeast 3 parts (6) Established a modular system for
Cassava flour 20 parts Additive 1 part installation and operation, thus
Sugar 6 parts Salt 1 part enabling each phase of the
Fat 6 parts Water 30 parts
process to be totally independent
and thus more efficient.
(7) Passed the test of adverse
Color still has to be improved but political and economic conditions,
flavor and consistency are good. including violence, recession, and
Currently, artisanal modules for generalized poverty.
28
Prospectives at Tocache is being installed, with

CIATs assistance. With collaboration
An agreement has been signed with from Caritas Peru, four plants will be
the Alto Huallaga Special Project to established in Puerto Maldonado
introduce integrated production (southeast Peru), Iquitos and
systems as an alternative to Yurimaguas (Department of Loreto),
cultivating coca. Currently, the plant and Tumbes (north coast).
29
CHAPTER 6
CASSAVA STARCH IN NORTHERN CAUCA,

COLOMBIA:
SOCIOECONOMIC EVALUATION OF ITS
PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE1
Liliana Mosquera P.*, Myriam Patricia Chacn P.**,
G. Henry**, and G. Chuzel***
Introduction The study is part of a research and

development (R&D) program on cassava
Cassava plays a major role in starch production being conducted by
subsistence farming in northern CIATs Cassava Utilization Section.
Cauca, Colombia. About 90% of root The programs objective is to offer
production is used for extracting sour technological alternatives to small-scale,
starch, and as much as 80% of sour cassava starch producers. The program
starch production is used for making first began in 1989, and is based on an
the breads pandebono and informal network comprising various
pandeyuca. Sour starch has its own Latin American laboratories and
characteristic functional properties, institutions involved with cassava
flavor, and aroma. starch production. The program also
comprises regional working groups
In northern Cauca, cassava starch that evaluate technology for starch
extraction is mainly an artisanal production, study the technical and
activity, although processing plants economic system, characterize and
are mechanized to some extent. In evaluate products, treat waste waters,
importance, this agroindustry ranks and conduct basic research on
third after the sugar, and editorial and fermentation and raw material (Chuzel,
publishing industries. 1991).
Our study aimed to better

understand the different problems Objectives of the Study
affecting cassava starch production in
the region, and help researchers The general objective was to
identify priority needs for possible characterize starch production and
technology intervention. commerce in northern Cauca, Colombia,
and so assess the technical and
economic performance of
small-scale, cassava starch factories.
* Cassava Economics Section, CIAT, Cali,
Colombia. Specific objectives were:
** Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
*** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Faculdade de
Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade (1) To statistically analyze the surveys
Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Paulo, carried out by the Cassava
Brazil. Utilization Section in 1990 on the
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. technical performance of
30
Cassava Starch in Northern Cauca, Colombia:...
small-scale, starch factories, and to specific sample was established. The

study the economic performance of survey was therefore based on a list
these and their social implications. of 35 middlemen identified in the
The economic survey of starch previous survey on small-scale,
factories carried out by university cassava starch producers; of these
students was used as a base. 35 middlemen, 20 were surveyed.
(2) To characterize the production
process of cassava processing Numerous problems arose in
plants and determine the capacity obtaining comprehensive information,
of installed plants. especially that on the volume of starch
(3) To identify the seasons when purchases and sales. Because
supplies of cassava sour starch are middlemen were so reluctant to share
abundant or limited and determine information on how they managed
distribution channels. their businesses, a case study was
(4) To analyze social characteristics conducted, based on information
related to starch production and supplied by the COAPRACAUCA
commerce. Cooperative, Santander de Quilichao.
(5) To identify factors limiting starch
production and commerce.
Starch Processing and
Commerce
Methodology
Root production is a key aspect in the
The study began by surveying processing and commerce of cassava
small-scale, sour-starch producers and starch in northern Cauca. Although
middlemen. The target population roots are used more to obtain starch
consisted of 99 small-scale starch than for human consumption, when
factories, first surveyed in 1990 when market prices drop below the average
the R&D project began, in the towns of Col$32/kg (US$0.05/kg), then fresh
Santander de Quilichao (86 factories) cassava is sold to cassava drying
and Caldono (13). Of this group, plants for use in animal feed.
35 processing plants were selected
and, for reasons of efficiency, In the Cauca Department,
stratified according to plant size 6,290 ha were planted to cassava in
(small = fewer than 3 workers; 1991, producing 71,624 t at a yield
large = 4 or more), age of equipment of 11,387 kg/ha (Departamento
(new = purchased in the last 15 years; Administrativo Nacional de Estadstica,
old = more than 15 years old), and Colombia, 1992, unpublished data).
geographic area (municipality of
Santander de Quilichao or Caldono). The municipalities of Buenos Aires,
Santander de Quilichao, and Caldono
Selection was randomized, but planted 4,080 ha of cassava,
proportional to stratum size. The accounting for 64% of the total area
Stratified Sampling of Elements under cassava cultivation in Cauca.
technique (Pardo Camacho, 1991; de Production reached 39,000 t, 54% of
Servn and Servn Andrade, 1978), the departments total production.
which gives proportional allotment, Yields were 9.5 t/ha, almost 16%
was used for sampling. below the departmental average of
11.3 t/ha. But only 2.3% of the
Cassava starch middlemen were national crop (173,999 ha) is planted
surveyed in Caldono, Santander de in Cauca because the roots
Quilichao, and Cali. Because no perishability, and its low and
census of middlemen existed, no fluctuating prices, among other factors.
31
The amount of cassava on offer to The decrease in sour-starch

small-scale, starch factories averages production in 1991 was caused partly
556 t/year, for a consumption of by a lack of both raw material and
456 t/year at Col$32,000/t working capital. At the same time, the
(US$47.00). Although shortages of raw Colombian Government began
material occur in Cauca at certain implementing a policy of open
times of the year, the annual supply of economy. Bank credits were closed to
cassava often exceeds demand, stabilize inflation at 22%. From
especially for 18 of the factories in August 1990 to September 1991, the
Santander de Quilichao. Located close 33 starch factories under study
to the Pan-American Highway, they processed 16,878 t of starch,
tend to be oversupplied. producing 3,207 t of sour starch,
1,333 t of bran, and 270 t of mancha.
Plant production during That is, every 100 kg of roots yielded
1990-1991 was irregular: some plants 19% starch, 8% bran, 1.7% mancha,
operated sporadically, according to the and 71.3% of both water (which
availability of raw material and comprises 65% of roots) and waste,
working capital. For 1990, the average that is, peel and starch lost to
minimum production was 4.3 t of inefficient processing techniques. Yield
starch per week and the maximum was differences among factories are caused
175.0 t. by, for example, cassava variety,
harvest age, and postharvest
For 1991, the plants had an handling.
average production of 420 t of starch
per year (8.7 t/week) and a maximum Producers can obtain as much as
of 775 t/year (16.1 t/week). Such 27% starch (wet basis) with 60%
figures indicate that the plants do not technological efficiency, according to
work at full capacity because of the experiments by the Corporacin para
lack of raw material in the area. Estudios Interdisciplinarios y Asesoras
Production recession caused by lack of Tcnicas (CETEC), a Colombian
raw material can last from 2 to organization that provides technical
12 weeks. Of the processors, 51% assistance to starch-producing farmers.
stated that they required a constant Once the product is processed to 12%
amount of raw material. moisture content, these values can be
obtained per 100 t of cassava. For
small-scale, starch factories in
Yield northern Cauca, the cassava-to-starch
conversion ratio is 5:1. The
In 1991, sour-starch production per 200 small-scale, starch factories of this
factory decreased considerably, region therefore produced a total of
averaging 97 t/year. Byproducts were 8,500 t of sour starch in 1994.
bran (fiber and peel left over from
sieving starch) at 42 t/year and In Ecuador, the cassava-to-starch
mancha (scum skimmed off surface conversion ratio is 5-10:1. This ratio
of sedimented starch) at 8 t/year. varies greatly according to the time of
Most small-scale, starch factories carry year and cassava varieties used.
out sweet-starch extraction on request, Byproducts (bran and mancha) are
but production is sporadic because sold for animal feed (Chuzel, 1991).
starch quality does not always reach
industrial technical specifications. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, the
But, at the time of the survey, only one polvilho azedo, or sour starch,
factory was producing sweet starch enterprises can process from 1 to 40 t
(1.2 t/week). of cassava roots per day. Annual
32
production ranges from 20 to to surveys carried out in 1990 by

1,000 t/year, and yields from 200 to CIATs Cassava Utilization Section.
300 kg of starch per t of roots From August 1989 to August 1990,
(Oliver Vilpoux, 1992, personal the total area planted to cassava by
communication). processors averaged 106 ha, of which
43% corresponded to the processors
own plots and 57% to rented plots.
Procedures, Equipment, and For 1991, the percentage of processors
Maintenance renting land for cassava cultivation
decreased to 54%. That same year,
In Colombia, small, semicommercial, the total area planted to cassava by
cassava starch factories are called the 99 starch processors averaged
rallanderas. These factories typically 80 ha. Thus, in the two
have a grater-sieve and washer-peeler, municipalities, the 26 ha planted to
both motor-driven. Their processing cassava the previous year were
capacity ranges between 4.4 and 44 t destined for other purposes.
of roots per week, with an overall Furthermore, of the 51% growing
average of 16.2 t/week. Figure 1 cassava, only 33% owned the land and
demonstrates processing in a 18% rented it; 48% lack land title
medium-sized, starch extraction deeds, which reduced access to credit.
factory, beginning with the acquisition The cost of leasing 1 ha ranges
of roots. between Col$3,000 and Col$40,000
(US$4.43-$59.00) per month,
Root supplies. Small-scale starch averaging Col$10,333.00 (US$15.34)
processors do plant cassava, according per small-scale, starch factory.
Roots
Water Washing Water, external cortex, dirt
Grating
Sieving Bran
Starch
Sedimentation Mancha + Waste

waters
Moist
starch
Drying
Fermentation Dehydration
Animal feed
Dehydration Drying
Drying
Sour Sweet
starch
Figure 1. Processes performed in a medium-sized, cassava-starch extraction factory, northern Cauca,

Colombia. (Modified after Chuzel, 1991.)
33
Washing and peeling. These are Drying. Starch is usually

done either manually or in a rotating sun-dried on trays or terraces, or on
drum. Of the survey respondents, 93% concrete floors previously covered with
have mechanized these operations, plastic to prevent farmyard
thus reducing womens participation in contamination. The dried starch is
processing. Before, women were then packed for market distribution.
employed to peel the roots.
Grating. Grating is carried out by Commerce

rotors with perforated laminae that are
changed periodically. About 36% of The typical distribution of cassava
factories change the laminae every sour starch begins with the cassava
90 days, 23% every 60 days, 21% every farmer who sells the roots either to
30 days, and the rest more than middlemen or directly to the starch
90 days. processor. Only 7% of processors
surveyed purchase roots only through
Sieving. The starch dissolved in middlemen; 65% buy directly from the
water is separated from the pulp or farmer, and 28% from both. Starch is
bran, which is later used in animal also distributed through middlemen or
feed. Different types of fabric, placed directly to users. The middleman sells
on rotating screens, are used for to the wholesaler or retailer who, in
sieving, the most common being nylon turn, distributes to intermediate
(58%), canvas (28%), and silk (3%). consumers such as bakeries and
The fabrics are changed frequently: industries that, in their turn,
77% of processors change them every distribute their products directly to
30 days, 11% every 60 days, and the consumers or to distributors of
rest after 90 days. For 89% of the processed food products (Figure 2).
plants surveyed, sieves are less than
10 years old.
Cassava farmers
Sedimentation. The slurry from
sieving is left to settle. Particles of
fiber and other fine materials that had Middlemen
not been removed during sieving are
separated to form mancha, another Starch processors
byproduct used in animal feed.
Sedimentation is carried out in
concrete tanks veneered with wood or Middlemen
glazed tile. On the average, processing
plants have five sedimentation tanks,
each with an average capacity to hold Wholesalers Retailers
551 kg/day.
Intermediate processors
Fermentation. To obtain sour (bakeries and industries)
starch, the moist starch is passed
through a series of tanks, where it Distributors
remains 15 to 20 days until the of finished
desired acidity is reached. The average products
factory has five fermentation tanks,
each with a capacity of 1,030 kg. Ultimate consumers
Sweet starch is obtained by
dehydrating and sun-drying the moist Figure 2. Typical distribution chain for cassava
starch after sedimentation. starch in northern Cauca, Colombia.
34
Starch processors sell most of The municipality of Santander de

their products in cash but may sell on Quilichao has the highest number of
credit to regular clients. These clients middlemenwhich explains why 42%
also pay the processor in advance of starch processors sell their product
when they urgently need starch and therefollowed by Caldono and Cali,
the processor does not have enough each with 15%, and the other cities
working capital to fulfill the demand. with 28%. For 1991, the average price
A credit period is usually 19 days. per kg of sour starch was Col$230
Although commercializing products is (US$0.39). The byproducts (bran and
difficult, stocks rotate quickly. Sour mancha) are usually sold on the
starch is stored for an average of retail market in Santander de
10 days, sweet starch 8 days, bran Quilichao, being mainly used for
11 days, and mancha 14 days. animal feed (Figure 3).
Processors also distribute sour

starch through the COAPRACAUCA Economic Evaluation of
Cooperative, which groups about Small-scale, Starch Factories
30 small-scale, starch processors of
the region, and through middlemen. Table 1 shows the costs involved
The cooperative and intermediate in producing sour starch. All
middlemen, in turn, sell the starch to small-scale, starch factories are
wholesalers and retailers who then mechanized to a certain extent so
distribute the product to major electricity is necessary. An average
markets in the cities of Santander de factory pays US$220/year for
Quilichao, Cali, Buga, Cartago, Tulu, electricity, accounting for 1% of total
Pereira, Ibagu, Medelln, Bogot, costs. Because the factories must
Cartagena, and Montera. periodically change some of
Starch processors
Middlemen
Intermediate
Cooperative
middlemen
Wholesalers and retailers Wholesalers and retailers
Cali Bogot Armenia Ibagu Cali Medelln Cartago Ibagu

25% 24% 6% 6% 20% 37% 20% 8%
Medelln Pereira S/der de Quil. Pereira Palmira S/der de Quil.

7% 17% 7% 8% 6% 1%
Other cities
8%
Figure 3. Market channels of cassava starch in northern Cauca, Colombia. (From interviews with
COAPRACAUCA Cooperative members.)
35
Table 1. Annual average costs involved in producing cassava starch (1991), northern Cauca, Colombia.
Item Col$ US$ Percentage of

(1991 value) total costs
Fixed costs 2,882,000 4,836 12.1

Energy 131,000 220 0.5
Maintenance 487,000 817 2.0
Rent 1,082,000 1,815 4.6
Administration 855,000 1,435 3.6
Others 327,000 549 1.4
Variable costs 20,632,000 34,618 87.9

Raw material 16,708,000 28,034 71.5
Labor 1,751,000 2,938 7.4
Transport 1,958,000 3,285 8.0
Packing 215,000 361 1.0
Total costs 23,514,000 39,454 100.0
the equipment they incur and, even though some starch

maintenance costs equivalent to 2% processors feel that this represents
of total costs. an extra cost, it would guarantee
more efficient operation.
Small-scale, starch producers
save money when they own the Of the 99 small-scale, starch
factory rather than rent its premises factories operating during the study,
(CIMMYT, 1993). Rental costs three had administrative costs that
depend on the factorys location in exceeded labor costs. In most cases,
the region, but these are normally labor costs were notably greater than
low, with little tendency to increase. administrative costs, indicating that
Only two of the starch processors a balance does not exist between
surveyed had explicit rental costs, these two that would ensure a
accounting for 5% of total costs. distribution of the economic benefits
of small-scale, starch factories.
Administrative costs account for
4% of total costs. Usually, the owner The cost of buying and
himself manages the factory, this transporting raw material account
being his means of support. An for 71% of operating costs. Several
undetermined amount of the earnings small-scale, starch factories are
from the sale of starch is used for located where it is easy to purchase
household expenses, that is, as his large volumes of low-quality cassava,
salary. This fact, perhaps, most especially in flat areas, thus reducing
influences the efficient operation of the average purchase price per kg of
the factory. raw material. In 1991, average
freight charges were Col$1,958,000
Administrative costs are closely (US$3,285), accounting for 8% of
related to the efficiency of any total costs and exceeding
enterprise. A small-scale, cassava administrative and labor costs.
starch factory should have a
dedicated manager with sufficient Labor accounts for 7% of total
expertise to administer the factory costs. Labor is inexpensive, and
during production time. The small-scale, cassava starch factories
manager should be assigned a salary provide a significant source of
36
employment. In several rural Processing Constraints

communities of the region, these
factories are the rural populations Major constraints found in cassava
only source of income. Labor is also starch processing are:
seasonal, being scarce during coffee
harvest. Most factories busiest time Irregular cassava supply. A
is during cassava harvest. major constraint is irregular cassava
supply (Table 2), which is caused by
inconstant cassava production, which
Income Generated by Sour itself is related to unstable cassava
Starch Sales prices. As cassava prices rise, farmers
intensify cultivation, thus increasing
Processors sell everything they supply and lowering prices.
produce, with sour starch bringing Processors do not control the flow of
the highest yearly income of raw material required to initiate the
Col$22,942,000 (US$38,493) or 89% process; if they did, they could plan
of the total income. Byproducts production according to the market
brought Col$2,909,000 (US$4,881) and the output of each plant.
or 11% of the total income. Net
profit per factory was estimated at Working capital. The lack of
Col$2,337,000 (US$3,921), and the timely credit limits sour starch
net profit per ton of sour starch was production and its subsequent
Col$24,300 (US$41). commercialization. Of the processors,
61% had plans to obtain credit with a
bank. This credit was to pay suppliers
Cost-to-Benefit Ratio for raw material and to improve the
infrastructure, not only for plants that
Profitability of cassava starch process both coffee and cassava, but
processing was compared with the also housing for the processors.
interest that the local agricultural
bank (Caja Agraria) pays to savings Often this credit is used for
accounts (21% per year in 1991) as a purposes other than those indicated in
measure of opportunity cost. The the initial request. The factory is soon
return on starch processing was only left without working capital and has to
12%, although the opportunity resort to informal lines of credit such
interest was 21%. That is, the as suppliers giving extra days to pay.
processor lost 9%. Middlemen may also lend money to
the processors, with the compromise
Profits generated by this type of that, once the starch is processed, it
small enterprise are therefore
operative in nature, not financial.
Table 2. Constraints to cassava starch
Most small-scale, starch processors processing, northern Cauca, Colombia.
earn only enough to satisfy their
basic needs. Without an economic Constraints Responses by
surplus to reinvest in their business, processors
processors cannot readily modernize (no.) (%)
the infrastructure. Processors
Irregular supply 27 57
continue to participate in the market Supply vs. demand for starch 6 12
because their basic necessities and Working capital 6 12
fixed costs are covered and they can Lack of water (climate) 6 12
continue to sustain themselves in Tank capacity 3 6
the market despite the lack of profits
Total 48 100
for reinvestment.
37
will be sold to them at favorable Plant site. Starch processors

prices. Many loans granted by locate their processing plants
middlemen are used to make down according to where land is available,
payments to cassava farmers to rather than where consumers are
ensure root supplies. situated. Control over the product is
therefore lost and the distance
Tank capacity. Tank capacities between the two ends of the system
are often very limited: on the average, (supply and demand) grows and so
a factory will have five fermentation does the chain of middlemen
tanks with an average capacity of 1 t participating in the commerce.
each, and five sedimentation tanks
with an average capacity of 551 kg Starch quality. Processors have
each. few standard ideas on starch quality,
making it difficult to determine criteria
Stock of spare parts. for product quality. For 97% of the
Small-scale processors do not keep a surveyed processors, fermentation is
stock of spare parts needed to important; this process should take
maintain their equipment, often from 15 to 20 days. For 70% of
causing holdups in starch production. processors, cassava variety is also a
major criterion. But processors tend
to select varieties with high starch
Commercial Constraints yields rather than for quality, partly
because working capital is insufficient
Factories are affected by different for purchasing the more expensive,
combinations of several major high-quality starch varieties (Table 4).
commercial constraints (Table 3);
these are: Water. During summer months,
water is scarce and, in winter,
Transport. Remote rural areas processors have difficulty in drying
characteristically have deficient and transporting the starch. For 78%
transport facilities, which delay of surveyed processors, water quality
deliveries. Starch processors are thus is an important criterion: it should be
often obliged to rely on middlemen, cold. The water used by 60% of the
which may go against their own surveyed processors comes from
interests. streams and is untreated before use,
Table 3. Constraints to cassava starch Table 4. Processors criteria for quality in

commerce in northern Cauca, cassava starch, northern Cauca,
Colombia.a Colombia.
Constraints Factories Criterion Factories using

affected criteriona
(no.) (%) (no.) (%)
Transport 15 15.2 Color 33 33.3

Location 9 9.1 Fermentation time (acidity) 96 98.0
Availability of raw material 36 36.4 Starch grain 54 54.5
Availability of credit 24 24.2 Cassava variety 69 69.7
Starch quality 33 33.3 Age of cassava 30 30.3
Climate 33 33.3 Water quality 78 78.8
School vacations 21 21.2 Climate 9 9.1
Others 39 39.4 Others 30 30.3
a. Total number of starch factories surveyed a. Total number of starch factories surveyed
(weighted data) = 99. (weighted data) = 99.
38
thus contributing to low product to Cali, capital of the Department.

quality. Cali provides resources needed by
small-scale starch factories,
Processors knowledge. The particularly spare parts for equipment
limited technical knowledge that and financial resources.
cassava farmers have of starch
quality, and its processing and Industrial security. Adequate
commerce, also negatively affects this industrial security, to reduce risks for
agroindustry. employees during processing, does not
yet exist within the organizational
structure of small-scale starch
Social Characteristics Related factories. Processors usually do not
to Cassava Starch Production appreciate the risks and diseases that
and Commerce can occur during starch processing
and rarely take minimum protective
The following social issues are measures.
involved in the cassava starch
agroindustry: Colds comprise the commonest
ailment (according to 39% of surveyed
Improved living standards for processors), a result of personnel not
rural, small-scale, starch producers wearing dust masks during drying and
and of the region as a whole. packing (Table 6). The personnel in
Table 5 shows that the starch charge of sieving should be fitted with
agroindustry benefits both the people gloves and goggles; 27% have suffered
directly involved in the industry and either cuts or eye ailments. Drying
the entire northern Cauca region. sites located in high places, such as
This small-scale enterprise increases the eldas (sliding overhead screens),
the number of jobs (according to 76% should be constructed with protective
of the processors surveyed) and better banisters to prevent fractures and
uses available resources in the region, blows.
thus considerably energizing the
economy of the Valle del Cauca A related problem that affects
Department. The region is becoming a production continuity is frequent
center of development for the entire Monday absenteeism as a result of
Department, favored by its proximity hangovers after heavy drinking.
Table 5. How the cassava starch agroindustry contributes to the economic well-being of the individual
family and of the region, northern Cauca, Colombia. Responses from a survey of 99 households.
Socioeconomic criterion Family Region
(no.) (%)a (no.) (%)a
Overall improvement 99 100 99 100

Increased education 51 52
Improved housing 69 70
Improved living standards 48 49
Vehicle ownership 27 27
Improved roads 3 3
Increased income 66 67
Jobs 75 76
Others 21 21 24 24
a. Percentages are rounded off.
39
Table 6. Incidence of diseases and accidents in For example, CETEC is conducting

small-scale, starch factories, northern
Cauca, Colombia.a
studies on treating waste waters.
Complaint Factory reporting

(no.) (%) Conclusions
Ailmentb Some conclusions from the study are:
Cold 39 39.4
Backache 3 3.0
(1) Cassava starch production is of
Eye problems 3 3.0
major importance in northern
Sinusitis 3 3.0
Nonec 27 27.3
Cauca, with 90% of cassava roots
produced destined for starch
Accidents
production.
Fractures 9 9.0
(2) Major constraints are, for starch
Cuts 27 27.3
Blows 3 3.0
production, irregular supply of
Nonec 60 60.6 cassava, lack of timely credit, and
maintenance of equipment; for
a. Total number of starch factories surveyed starch quality, quality of water
(weighted data) = 99.
used, fermentation time, and
b. A problem that causes absenteeism and
industrial accidents is the hangover. Twenty-four
variety and age of cassava; for
(i.e., 24%) factories reported on this problem. commerce, starch quality,
c. That is, the factory either did not know, or did not climate, and transport.
answer. (3) Small-scale processors cannot fix
starch prices, which therefore
obey the laws of supply and
demand. Cassava farmers need
Environmental contamination. assistance in ensuring a constant
About 85% of residues produced supply of roots for processors,
during starch extraction are which would help control price
deposited in the streams (40%), fluctuations.
rivers (27%), and ravines (18%) near (4) Cassava starch production offers
the factories. Another 12% is used as socioeconomic benefits such as
manure, and 3% enters the sewerage employment. In 1990, 422 people
system. As a result, the agroindustry and, in 1991, 345 people were
noticeably contaminates the regions employed.
rivers and affects its inhabitants (5) Over the long term, this study is
health. Even the processors expected to benefit about
themselves use this same water for 3,000 households that subsist on
washing, drinking, and cooking, as this agroindustry. Once they
well as root processing. The understand and efficiently
contaminated water also affects manage the production and
starch quality and thus the commerce of cassava starch,
processors income. these families will have better
opportunities of participating in
Given their usually low the market and improving their
educational level, processors do not social well-being.
appreciate the importance of caring
for rivers or for the adequate disposal
of residues. To reduce environmental Recommendations
contamination, the departmental
government and different institutions The following list of recommendations
interested in regional economic and aim to help guide experts intervening
social development need to intervene. in technical, economic, and scientific
40
decisions on behalf of cassava starch measures are draining defined

processors. areas and conserving riversides to
prevent erosion.
(1) Small-scale cassava starch (6) Activities aimed at improving the
processors working in rural areas populations standards of living are
should be encouraged to plan also needed in such areas as
staggered crops by taking into health, education, housing, and
account the vegetative period of public services.
the varieties they select. The crop (7) The local government and
should satisfy, at least partly, the communities should be
factorys requirements for raw encouraged to provide potable
material so that it may reach water for human consumption and
equilibrium point or higher. The for use in small-scale, starch
remaining amount can be factories.
obtained from third parties within (8) Farmer associations should be
the factorys area of influence by encouraged to stimulate their
providing incentives to cassava members to negotiate more and
farmers. participate in setting cassava
(2) Differential prices for cassava starch prices. Farmers would then
roots should be fixed, depending have increased financial, operative,
on quality and yield. This policy and administrative capacity; be
will allow processing plants to able to handle their own trading
operate more economically. needs; and better understand
(3) Additional technical, financial, market behavior.
and administrative support,
adapted to the processors
socioeconomic level, is needed. References
The processors can then benefit
from real improvements in their Chuzel, G. 1991. Cassava starch: current
enterprises infrastructure and and potential use in Latin America.
Cassava Newsl. 15(1):9-11.
organization.
(4) Operational schemes that CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de
maintain labor and administrative Mejoramiento de Maz y Trigo),
costs at acceptable levels should Programa de Economa. 1993. La
be incorporated. The small-scale, formulacin de recomendaciones a
partir de datos agronmicos. Lisboa,
starch factory can then achieve Mexico.
equilibrium and will operate
acceptably and economically. Pardo Camacho, F. 1991. Diseo estadstico
(5) Measures should be taken to de muestreos. Universidad de los
improve factory infrastructure, Andes, Santaf de Bogot, Colombia.
thus improving cassava starch de Servn, A. and Servn Andrade, L. A. 1978.
production while better conserving Introduccin al muestreo. Editorial
the waterways. Examples of such Lumusa, Mexico City, Mexico.
41
CHAPTER 7
CASSAVA STARCH AND FLOUR IN

ECUADOR:
ITS COMMERCIALIZATION AND USE
Carlos Egez*
Abstract because either factories were poorly

located in relation to production
In Portoviejo, Ecuador, the Unin de zones, or national or imported raw
Asociaciones de Trabajadores materials were cheaper. In contrast,
Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores small-scale cassava starch extraction
de Yuca (UATAPPY) produces cassava dates back to early this century, while
starch and flour for a wide variety of flour processing began 8 years ago.
products, including animal feed,
corrugated cardboard, plywood, About 200 family-run processing
cassava bread (pandeyuca), baked units or rallanderas currently
products, and ice-cream cones. The produce between 2,500 and 4,000 t of
amounts of cassava starch or flour cassava starch per year. The
incorporated vary according to technology of drying cassava chips to
intended use. The most common uses produce flour was introduced from
are filling in plywood, carbohydrate Colombia to Manab Province,
source in balanced animal feeds, and Ecuador, in 1985, and has been
as binder in cardboard boxes and adopted mainly by the Unin de
shrimp feeds. Ecuadorean industries Asociaciones de Trabajadores
are beginning to appreciate the Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores
potential advantages of these de Yuca (UATAPPY), which produces
products. Recent studies estimate 1,000 to 1,500 t of flour per year.
that the potential demand greatly
exceeds the current supply, which The Ecuadorean Integrated
augurs well for cassava root Cassava Program, consisting of
processors. UATAPPY and several national and
international institutions, has
produced 10 different cassava
Introduction products with a wide marketing range,
including exports to Colombia over
Attempts to produce cassava flour and 2 consecutive years.
starch at the industrial level in
Ecuador have been unsuccessful, The commercialization of
UATAPPYs products has allowed it to
continue its activities. But market
expansion and consolidation remains
* Cassava Program, Fundacin para el difficult as Ecuadorean industries
Desarrollo Agropecuario (FUNDAGRO), continue to use other starchy raw
Portoviejo, Ecuador. materials that are sometimes
42
Cassava Starch and Flour in Ecuador:...
Table 1. Comparison of current prices of cassava byproducts with wheat flour and maize starch in
Ecuador (factory prices).
Cassava product Current price Other product Current price

(US$/t) (US$/t)
Cassava meal 175

Sieved whole flour 231
White cassava flour 236 Wheat flour 352
Sieved white flour
(for human consumption) 275
Starch (for human consumption) 660
Industrial starch (first grade) 440 Domestic maize starch 400
Standard industrial starch 363 Colombian maize starch 305
(second grade) (placed in Ecuadorean
factories)
Starch bagasse 113
Bran of sieved flours 88
SOURCE: UATAPPY, 1993, personal communication.
Table 2. Demand for wheat flour and maize starch by several markets, and current sales of cassava
products, Ecuador.
Product Market Annual demand (t) Current sales
Wheat flour Balanced shrimp feed 25,000 0

Lumber industries 2,400 256
Maize starch Cardboard factories 6,000 0

Colombia ? 200
SOURCE: Susan Poats, 1993, personal communication.
subsidized, such as wheat and Descriptions and Uses of

maize starch (Table 1). Cassava Products and
Byproducts1
Persuading industrial managers
to use cassava products Cassava meal is a coarse, brown
sometimes the same product powder obtained from unpeeled chips,
instead of traditional materials for a sun-dried on concrete, and ground in
wide variety of individual uses has a hammer mill. It is used as a
also been difficult (Table 2). carbohydrate source in balanced
feeds, and as a pellet binder in shrimp
The situation is improving, feed, replacing wheat flour and
however, with the current free synthetic binders and forming
market conditions, which allow 2%-12% of the formula, depending on
cassava products to be more the manufacturer.
competitive in terms of quality and
price.
1. The cassava products and their uses as
described here are not registered; they reflect
the authors research at processing and
industrial levels in Ecuador.
43
Sieved whole flour is a very fine White bran is a coarse white

off-white powder obtained by sieving powder that is a byproduct of
meal through a no. 60 mesh. It is processing for white table flour. It is
used in plywood, replacing 35%-40% used as a fiber source in feeds for
of wheat flour (17% of the formula). livestock and pigs.
White industrial-grade flour is a Whole bran is a coarse, brown

coarse powder made from peeled powder that is a byproduct of
chips, sun-dried on concrete, and processing for sieved whole flour. It is
hammer-milled. It is used as pellet used as a fiber source in feeds for
binder in shrimp feed. livestock and pigs.
White table flour is a very fine

white powder obtained from peeled UATAPPYs Production and
roots that have been treated, chipped, Markets
tray-dried, and sieved through a
no. 60 mesh screen under hygienic Since the program was established,
conditions. It is suitable for human UATAPPY has marketed more than
consumption, used to partially replace 8,000 t of cassava products for
wheat flour in cones for ice cream different uses (Tables 3 and 4).
(25%-30%) and in noodles (10%). The 50 t of cassava meal produced
during the first year were sold to
First-grade industrial starch is a poultry-feed plants, replacing maize
very fine, very white powder obtained grain. Since then, both markets and
from peeled cassava roots that have products have become more
been rasped, washed, sedimented, and diversified. Ten products are now
sun-dried on concrete. It is used as marketed, for three to five different
pellet binder in balanced shrimp purposes, depending on annual
feeds, and in cardboard boxes, negotiations (Tables 3 and 4).
replacing maize starch by as much as
100%. Between 1986 and 1989,
cassava meal was almost the only
Second-grade industrial starch is of product, finding a ready use as a
lower quality than first-grade starch, shrimp feed binder. Between 1989
because the protein fraction remains. and 1990, cassava meal for shrimp
It is used in balanced shrimp feeds feed was still being produced, but
and cardboard boxes, replacing maize important industries began to
starch by as much as 100%. demand cassava flour without peel.
Since then, this market has been
Starch for human consumption is a the most important, accounting for
very fine white powder obtained from 87% of the total volume produced.
peeled roots that have been rasped,
washed, sedimented, and dried on In 1990-1991, UATAPPYs total
paper under hygienic conditions. It is production volume increased by 70%
used in bread, milk products, bakery over that of the previous year. But
products, and sausages. the percentage of UATAPPYs total
produce destined for the shrimp feed
Ground bagasse is a coarse, market fell from 87% to 71% as two
white-yellow powder that is a new markets opened up: sieved
byproduct of starch extraction. It is whole flour for the plywood industry,
used as a carbohydrate source in and starch for the cardboard
balanced feeds, and in shrimp feed, industry.
combined with meal and starches.
44
Table 3. Total amount of cassava processed (ta) by UATAPPY, Manab, Ecuador, 1985-1993.
Yearb Assns. Fresh Flours Starch Total annual

(no.) roots production of
Indust. Indust. Indust. Sieved white Bran Indust. Human Bagasse Indust. Purchase Purchase cassava
meal white sieved human 1st and consumpt. purchase human bagasse products and
meal consumpt. 2nd consumpt. byproducts
1985-86 2 - 50 - - - - - - - - - - 50
1986-87 4 19 96 - - - - - - - - - - 115
1987-88 10 28 500 - - - - 11 4 - - - - 543
1988-89 16 - 1,100 - - - - - 5 - - - - 1,106
1989-90 16 - 304 574 - 33 - 70 10 24 - - - 1,015
1990-91 17 - 258 982 200 6 52 119 2 51 69 4 - 1,743
1991-92 17 - 464 304 170 - 17 20 4 12 37 5 - 1,033
1992-93 17 - 127 631 292 33 80 101 17 60 155 - 26 1,522
1993-94c 17 - 300 512 - 21 - 89 25 56 - - - 1,003
Total 17 47 3,199 3,003 662 93 149 410 67 203 261 9 26 8,129
a. Values rounded to metric tons.

b. Production estimated for the crop year 1 July-30 June.
c. Preliminary data, subject to confirmation.
SOURCE: Susan Poats, 1993, UATAPPY Socioeconomic Monitoring Survey.

45
Table 4. UATAPPY markets and their share of cassava products, Ecuador.
Year Product Volume Market Share

(t) (%)
1985-86 Meal 50 Poultry feed 100

Total 50
1986-87 Meal 96 Shrimp feed 83
Treated roots 19 Export human consumption 17
Total 115 Shrimp feed 2
Treated roots 28 Export human consumption 5
Industrial starch 11 2
Starch human consumption 4 Bread making 1
Total 543
1988-89 Meal 1,100 Shrimp feed 99.5
Starch human consumption 5 Bread making 0.5
Total 1,105
1989-90 White flour 574 Shrimp feed 57
Meal 304 Shrimp feed 30
Industrial starch 70 Shrimp feed 7
White flour
Sieved flour human 33 3
consumption 10 Bread making 1
Starch human consumption 24 Bovine feed 2
Bagasse 1,015
Total
1990-91 White flour 982 Shrimp feed 56
Meal 258 Shrimp feed 15
Sieved whole flour 200 Plywood 11
Industrial starch 188 Cardboard industry 11
Bran 52 Bovine feed 3
Bagasse 51 Shrimp feed 3
Starch human consumption 6 Bread making 0.5
Sieved white flour human 6 0.5
consumption 1,743
Total
White flour 304 Shrimp feed 29
Industrial starch 57 Shrimp feed 5
Bagasse 12 Bovine feed 1
Starch human consumption 9 Bread making 1
Total 1,033
1992-93 White flour 631 Export to Colombia 42
Industrial starch 292 Export to Colombia 19
Meal 127 8
Bagasse 86 6
Sieved white flour human 33 Ice-cream cones 2
consumption 17 Sausages 1
Starch human consumption 1,522
Total
SOURCE: UATAPPY, 1993, personal communication.
46
In 1992-1993, the Colombian (2) Cassava products compete well in

market was the main client: 600 t of terms of quality and price with
white flour and 200 t of second-grade other raw materials, except for
starch were exported. Although their maize starch, which is cheaper
use has not yet been confirmed, they imported from Colombia.
appear to have been used to make (3) Free market and open border
adhesives. conditions favor the
commercialization of cassava
products.
Constraints to
Commercializing Cassava
Products Bibliography
The major constraints are: Brouwer, R. 1992. The cassava flour demand
in the plywood industry in Ecuador.
Wageningen, the Netherlands.
(1) Poor product quality, resulting
from contamination at one or more CENDES (Centro de Desarrollo). 1993.
of the processing stages (most Estudio de mercado para conocer la
important in relation to the more demanda potencial de productos
profitable, but more demanding, elaborados de yuca. Unin de
Asociaciones de Trabajadores
markets). Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores
(2) Seasonality of supply (UATAPPY de Yuca (UATAPPY) and CENDES,
can only produce during the Quito, Ecuador.
8 summer months as the
cassava is sun-dried). Egez, C. 1992. Informe anual del Programa
de Yuca, 1992. Fundacin para el
(3) Competition from other raw Desarrollo Agropecuario (FUNDAGRO),
materials, especially maize starch Portoviejo, Ecuador.
that enters Ecuador from
Colombia at low prices (Table 1). __________. 1993. Revisiones de los archivos
(4) Lack of knowledge: industries do del Departamento de Contabilidad de
la UATAPPY, 1985-1993. Unin de
not yet know how to substitute Asociaciones de Trabajadores
wheat flour or maize starch with Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores
cassava products. de Yuca (UATAPPY), Portoviejo,
Ecuador.
Conclusions
(1) The current supply of cassava
products is small in relation to
the potential demand.
47
CHAPTER 8
CASSAVA PRODUCTS FOR FOOD AND

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES:
CHINA
Jin Shu-Ren*
Abstract cassava must also increasemost

effectively by developing the range of
Cassava is grown in China basically as its products through adopting and
a food security crop. But, in the last expanding secondary processing
20 years, yields have increased sharply techniques.
in answer to demand from small-scale
and, more recently, large-scale
industries. Since the 1980s, China Changes in Cassava
has seen rapid development in the Processing
commercial prospects of a wide range
of cassava derivatives, including During the 1960s
fructose-series products, sorbitol,
maltol, fermentation products (such Cassava processing in China was
as alcohol, MSG, and citric acid), mainly small-scale: production groups
denatured starch, glucose, and of 20-30 families in rural areas would
glucose syrup. A hillside crop, cassava plant cassava in unused areas or on
plays a key role in the economy and sloping land as insurance for food
agroindustry of southern China. scarcity. Because such land was
However, local economies and usually of low fertility and received no
production in poorer rural areas fertilizer, cassava yields were low: in
urgently need modernizing if they are the 1960s, in Guangxi, Chinas largest
to fully benefit from these new cassava-producing area, the average
developments. Recommendations are yield per mu (1 mu = 665 m2 or
made regarding appropriate scale and 15 mu = 1 ha), expressed as dried
technology, given the various chips, was only 46 kg, that is, about
constraints (e.g., transportation 0.7 t/ha. The area planted to cassava
through hilly terrain and seasonal varied from year to year: in 1967, in
availability of fresh roots). Relevant Guangxi, cassava was grown on
economic factors are also reviewed. 1,054,000 mu. Because of climatic
Through improved cultivars and constraints, cassava is a seasonal crop,
farming practices, cassava yields can and the small-scale processing plants
increase significantly. But, to operated only 3 to 4 months a year.
encourage production, the value of The major product was poor quality
starch.
Cassava was processed by first

* Guangxi Nanning Cassava Technical
Development Center (GNCTDC), Nanning, crushing fresh roots in a grinder and
Guangxi, China. allowing the resulting mash to settle in
48
Cassava Products for Food and Chemical Industries: China
water. The starchy mass was then Production capacity of some factories
strained through a fine-mesh cloth reached 10 t/day. Guangxi had more
bag to separate the starch, which was than 270 starch factories, although
then sun-dried and pulverized. the total output was lowprobably
less than 80,000 t, or less than
Some high-quality starch was also 300 t/factory.
produced, although outputs were low.
Fresh roots were crushed in a grinder; During the 1980s
passed through a second, finer,
grinder, and then through a vibrating, Cassava production improved
or octagonal, sieve that removed markedly, because:
coarse residues; and, finally, passed to
an open-ended, horizontal-flow, (1) More land was made available in
sedimentation trough that was rural areas;
30-50 m long, 35 cm deep, and 40 cm (2) Farmers were allowed to plant
wide. High-density impurities, such high-value crops, leading to major
as sand and gravel, were deposited increases in the area planted to
first, starch farther toward the middle cassava;
of the trough, and low-density (3) As the production of other crops
impurities, such as fiber and protein, improved, cassavas role shifted
at the far end, or flushed out. The away from being a food security
starch was then removed from the crop to providing raw material for
trough, dewatered by centrifugation, animal feed and industry;
dried, and pulverized. If desired, a (4) As the national economy developed,
bleaching agent, such as potassium the demand for starch increased;
chlorate or hypochlorite, was added and
before the starch entered the trough. (5) Capital and imported equipment
were made more readily available.
Starch was produced from fresh
cassava for only 3 to 4 months a year. The combination of these factors
During the rest of the year, dried created an unprecedented expansion in
cassava chips were used, requiring an the scale and technology of cassava
additional 1 to 2 days of immersion in production.
water (or longer in cold weather) before
filtering. During fine grinding, an The last five years
additive would be introduced to
improve the starch extraction rate. The two main cassava-producing areas
in southern China now have several
Most of the cassava not used for large-scale starch factories. By 1992,
starch extraction was used as pig feed. at least 10 factories had an output
The roots were first peeled, soaked in capacity of 40 t/day, the largest
water to remove hydrocyanic acid, and capable of producing 60 to 80 t.
then boiled. Overall, the factories produced more
than 30,000 t. Three types of factories
During the 1970s co-exist:
The technology of producing (1) Plants newly constructed or

quality cassava starch improved. The adapted, and using domestic
wooden lining of the trough was technology. Features include a
replaced by marble or glass, the roller cleaner, two-stage crusher,
centrifuge assumed a horizontal rather countercurrent-washer, rapid
than vertical structure, and a crank blancher, whirlpool sand remover,
sieve replaced the octagonal sieve. dish-separator, dewatering
49
centrifuge (sometimes imported), By 1992, cassava starch

and two-stage forced-air drier. production in southern China
Product quality and cost efficiency accounted for 23% of the national
are adequate. Such factories production. Cassava yields had
account for 25% of cassava starch increased notably, the regional total
produced in China. exceeding 1,200,000 t of dried chips.
(2) Plants where equipment and Yield per mu increased to 500 kg for
technology are entirely imported, fresh cassava and 200 kg for dried
for example, from Japan, Germany, chips.
and Thailand. Features include a
needle grinder, high-pressure Secondary processing
crank sieve, whirlflow separator,
centrifugal layer-separator, water Since the 1980s, the Government has
remover, and airflow drier. shown more interest in developing
Although they produce cassava products derived from
high-quality starch, such plants secondary processing. Cassava
are economically less viable development and utilization are listed
because of high equipment costs among the key projects of the sixth
and associated steep depreciation. 5-year plan drawn up by the State
In addition, they compare Science and Technology Commission.
unfavorably in performance when Several national centers are also
dried cassava chips are used in involved in the development and
seasons when fresh roots are utilization of cassava, including the
unavailable. Guangxi Nanning Cassava Technical
(3) Small-scale, low-technology Development Center (GNCTDC).
factories that, technologically and
economically, compare poorly
with (1) and (2). The average Developing Cassava Products
starch-extraction rate is estimated for Food and Chemical
as being 20% lower. Because Industries
these factories currently account
for about half of southern Chinas Industries began using cassava-based
annual starch production, their products, developed from secondary
technology urgently needs processing, during the 1980s. These
modernizing. include:
With fresh cassava available for Fructose-series products

only 3 to 4 months a year, the use of
dried chips has been inevitable, even Fructose emerged in the 1970s as a
though costs are higher, the starch of healthier alternative to sucrose.
poorer quality, and the recovery rate Technology using starch as a raw
lower. To counter these problems, a material was developed soon after, and
technology has been recently adopted 1980 saw the first factory, with an
that would produce high starch, high annual fructose output capacity of
extraction, and high storage. It 10,000 t, set up in central China. The
involves bulk-buying fresh cassava technology of third-generation
when starch content is at its highest, fructose (i.e., fructose containing not
and crudely processing the roots into a more than 10% glucose) has since
paste pool. The starch can therefore been mastered in China. Through a
be extracted in due course, extending collaborative project, the GNCTDC
the annual period of cost-effective, finished testing a pilot plant in 1986,
optimal quality starch production from and, in 1992, set up the first
3 to 5 months. industrial plant to produce crystalline
50
fructose. Third-generation fructose is mannitol, which is then purified by

used medically, in cases of glucose crystallization. Mannitol is used
contraindication. Clinical tests on medically in blood-vessel diastolic
100 diabetic patients given 25-50 g of preparations, as a dehydrating agent,
high or crystalline fructose showed no and in the treatment of cerebral
significant changes in blood sugar thrombosis and other circulatory
level. Thus, its safety, sweetness, disorders. In industry, it can be used
pleasant taste, and few calories make as raw material for the production of
fructose particularly suitable for polyester, polyethylene, and solid-foam
diabetics. plastics.
Maltol. A sugar alcohol, maltol is

Chemico-industrial products produced by incomplete hydrolysis of
starch, using the enzyme maltase, and
Sorbitol. A hexan-hexol, sorbitol subsequent hydrogenization. It is a
is made from glucose by syrup that is as sweet as sucrose, and
hydrogenization in a high-pressure is used in confectionery.
reactor. Because it readily absorbs
moisture, it can replace glycerine in Fermented products
the manufacture of toothpaste,
cosmetics, and oil-based paints. It Fermented cassava products form a
serves as raw material in the sizeable industry in China, and include
manufacture of vitamin C by alcohol, monosodium glutamate (MSG),
fermentation, first into hygric acid and and citric acid. Cassava wine was
then into ascorbic acid. Every ton of produced in the 1960s when grain was
ascorbic acid produced requires scarce, but has now become obsolete
2.7 t of sorbitol. More than 10 sorbitol because of poor quality.
factories operate in China, the largest
of which has an annual production Alcohol. After 2 days of
capacity of 13,000 t. A unit capable of fermenting, the alcohol content in
30,000 t is being planned, while some cassava can reach 10%-11%. Most
have recently begun using continuous- factories were established in the 1970s
hydrogenization technology. and have an annual output capacity of
10,000 t. New factories with a
Production of solid sorbitol 30 to 50-thousand-ton capacity are
(3,000 t/year) has been successfully now being planned. Sugarcane and
established in Nanning, Guangxi. cassava growing areas usually coincide
Glucose produced from cassava chips and cassava alcohol is almost always
is hydrogenized under high pressure produced by sugar mills, which use
(continuous process) to produce liquid molasses during the sugarcane season
sorbitol. The liquid is concentrated to (November-April) and, using the same
98 Brix, seed crystals are introduced, equipment, cassava roots for the rest
and the sorbitol spray-dried and of the year. Because cassava is low in
crystallized. Solid sorbitol is easier to protein and nutrients needed for
transport and store. growing yeast (the fermentative agent),
it must be supplemented. A mixture of
Mannitol. Another hexan-hexol, cassava and molasses is often used to
but with little moisture-absorption good effect.
capacity, mannitol is usually a
byproduct of iodine extraction from MSG. Also known as gourmet
kelp. But it can also be produced powder, MSG is a popular flavor
commercially by hydrogenizing enhancer in Chinese cuisine. National
fructose, of which 50% converts into production exceeds 200,000 t/year. Of
51
these, about 25,000 t are obtained in medicine) and glucose syrup

from cassava starch, which first (DE42) (confectionery). More than
undergoes acid hydrolysis, and is then 100,000 t are produced annually.
supplemented with growth factors and
left to ferment for 4 or 5 days. During
this time, ammonia salt is added Market for Cassava
continuously. When the glutamic acid Products
content reaches 7%-8%, the mixture is
filtered and the acid precipitated by While the Government does not
iso-electric points. The acid is then restrict sales within China, it controls
purified by ion exchange, neutralized exports. Fresh cassava or dried
to produce the sodium salt, and cassava chips are sold to domestic
crystallized. markets by farmers or by local
supply-and-marketing cooperatives.
Citric acid. In China, citric acid The higher value chips are cut 0.5 to
is mainly produced by fermenting 1.0 cm thick, peeled, and sun-dried.
sweetpotato. In 1990, more than The price of fresh cassava sold to
80,000 t were produced. Recently, factories varies according to season,
however, citric acid is increasingly starch content, and transportation
being produced from molasses and distances. More recently, prices have
cassava, using an Aspergillus strain, been affected significantly by grain
known as Citrobacter, which was prices. Cassava starch costs
developed by the Shanghai Industrial 10%-15% less in winter, the
Microbiology Research Institute. production season, than at other
Cassava starch liquefies easily to a times, reflecting the fact that most
low-density liquid and, after a 4-day factories are small-scale and lack
fermentation, the citric acid content capital.
exceeds 15%. An extraction rate of
more than 92% is possible. The short In total, about 500,000 t of
fermentation period, and ease of cassava (based on dried chips) are
liquefying the starch and extracting used in starch production, 80% from
the acid keep production costs low. fresh roots and 20% from dried chips.
The glucose industry uses the largest
Denatured starch amount of starch (55%), followed by
MSG production (20%), family
Since the 1980s, research on consumption (4%), and sales to
denatured starch has developed northern China or abroad (11%).
rapidly, allowing some processes to
become industrialized. The current Only about 15% of the cassava
annual yield of denatured cassava grown is used for alcohol and other
starch is about 7,000 t, and includes products. Alcohol producers in
acid-denatured starch, -starch, cassava-producing areas have access
ethylic starch, phosphate ester starch, to, and prefer, molasses from
and co-polymerized starch. Although sugarcane. In northern China
current outputs are low, the future transportation difficulties constrain
prospects of this industry are alcohol producers from buying
promising. cassava.
Glucose and glucose syrup Citric acid production accounts for

about 3% of cassava grown.
Crystalline glucose in southern China
is produced primarily from cassava About 600,000 t of dried cassava
starch, as are injection glucose (used chips are exported annually, but much
52
is used locally as animal feed, both in The rapid development of industry

traditional form and, more recently, in in China provides an ideal opportunity
compound feeds. for cassava. Yields of starch increased
five-fold between 1981 and 1989 as the
Although yields increased sharply annual growth rate exceeded 15%.
in the 1980s, processing remained Those industries using starch as a raw
backward and markets were few. More material, such as MSG, maltol,
recently, however, the processing glucose, and fructose, anticipate rapid
industry has been modernizing and expansion while the domestic market
supply and demand have increased in remains unsaturated. Because
tandem. maize-growing areas are far from
cassava-producing areas, cassava has
the advantage of lower transportation
Opportunity and costs. While the price differential is
Competition maintained, cassava has the
advantage in southern China.
The development of cassava production
and processing in China, already The market for cassava products is
inhibited by strong domestic grain potentially rich, particularly for
production, is further restricted by the denatured starch, which is still new.
natural coupling of major cassava and Although the use of cassava starch in
sugarcane producing areas. Thus, foodstuffs is currently limited, its
market prices of sugarcane largely future potential is high.
dictate the extent of cassava farming.
Furthermore, where sugarcane yields
are high, markets stable, and farmers Conclusions and
experienced producers of sugarcane, Suggestions
cassava is unlikely to be planted in
preference. However, where land is Cassava, a hillside crop, plays a key
less fertile and cane yields low, role in the economy and agroindustry
cassavas potentially higher production of southern China. Cassava products
is more attractive. are important both in their own right
and as industrial raw material. Their
Although its starch is used as an future development is integral to that
additive in cooking, cassava is rarely of the economy of rural and poorer
used as a food in China. Most cassava areas. Two objectives should be
is destined for the textile, paper pursued in parallel: to increase yields,
making, and chemical industries, and to raise the value of cassava. For
where it must face competition from the first, emphasis must be given to
maize products. importing and adapting improved
varieties, developing farming
Cassavas future prospects are technology, and improving fertilizers.
good, even though production yields The second objective requires
are still low: about 500 kg of fresh commitment to developing cassava
roots per mu (or 200 kg per mu of dried products such as those discussed
chips). Although most farmers still use above. If cassava is processed only
an old variety, Nanyang Red, fresh at the primary level and commands
cassava yields may eventually reach 2 only basic prices, then its prospects
or 3 t per mu with the adaptation of are severely limited. Governmental
imported improved varieties. That is, policy in this area must therefore
improved technology would increase promote research into secondary
the current average yield per unit area processing techniques to accompany
by an estimated 500%. the improvement of cassava cultivars.
53
The modern cassava starch not need a high degree of automation

factory, in scale and in the technology nor large factories (which are
employed, should correspond closely penalized by higher transport costs),
to local needs and to take account of and is readily adaptable to local rural
such factors as transportation conditions.
difficulties, and seasonal variations in
production and availability of fresh Most cassava industrial activity in
roots. The small, largely undeveloped China has so far been related to
factories of southern China urgently high-value products, such as MSG
need modernization. At present, and sorbitol, and, although progress is
Chinese-manufactured machinery is evident in some areas, effort is
adequate for such factories, whereas required in others, especially in the
investment in expensive machinery development of denatured starch.
from developed countries can increase Given realistic processing and
production costs out of proportion to technological transformations, cassava
benefits in output and quality. has much to offer the farmers and
Secondary processing of cassava does local economies of southern China.
54
Thai Cassava Starch Industry:...
CHAPTER 9
THAI CASSAVA STARCH INDUSTRY:

ITS CURRENT STATUS AND POTENTIAL
FUTURE1
Boonjit Titapiwatanakun*
A Brief History tonnage). Most of the starch was

exported to USA and Japan, and the
Early development byproducts to Malaysia and
Singapore. Cassava starch exports
Cassava first came as a subsistence increased every year from about
crop, probably to southern Thailand, 29,000 t in 1955, peaking at
through Malaysia, from West Java in 227,000 t in 1961, and dropping
Indonesia. Industrial cassava slightly in 1973.
processing began in the 1920s in
Chonburi Province, on the Eastern No published data are available on
Seaboard. The first plants used a domestic cassava starch consumption,
simple sedimentation process to but it was probably less than the
extract starch, which was destined amount exported, indicating a highly
mostly for household consumption. At export-oriented industry that
the end of World War II, starch milling developed in response to export
was introduced, thus catalyzing the markets.
development of Thailands now
modern cassava starch industry. Entering the animal feed market
Most of the starch was exported,
together with certain byproducts. The value of cassava starch exports
increased to 220 and 223 million baht
In the early 1950s, starch was in 1960 and 1965, respectively, but,
cassavas most important export as exports of cassava products for
product. In 1955, for example, animal feed expanded rapidly, their
54,122 t of cassava products were percentage share of the total value of
exported, with a total value of cassava exports decreased from 76%
69.1 million baht. Of this value, in 1960 to 33% in 1965.
cassava starch accounted for about
76% (i.e., 54% of the tonnage) and Thailand began processing
byproducts about 22% (i.e., 44% of cassava for animal feed in the late
1950s in response to heavy demand
(triggered off by the Common
Agriculture Policy) for nongrain feed
ingredients (NGFI)including cassava
* Department of Agricultural and Resource productsfrom the then European
Economics, Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart Economic Community (EEC, now the
University, Bangkok, Thailand.
European Union). In 1957, cassava
1. No abstract was provided by the author. byproduct exports to the Netherlands
55
and the then West Germany were The Agreement slowed down the
1,400 and 7,000 t, respectively. industrys development, and created
the need to explore new ways of using
At first (1955-1968), Thailand the cassava root and its products,
exported, as animal feed ingredients, particularly as starch.
cassava byproducts, meal, and chips;
during 1969-1982, native or soft Modified starch
pellets were exported; then from 1983
to the present, hard pellets. These Even with Bangkok as a significant
products evolved as efforts were market, Thailand was already
made to minimize transport costs exporting native starch to USA and
and contamination during loading Japan, who processed some of it into
and unloading. Such evolution the more valuable modified starch. In
reflects the increasing efficiency of Thailand, the earliest processing of
the industrys marketing system, native starch into modified starch
stimulated by coordination with, and (glucose syrup) was in 1950, followed
technological transfer from, by monosodium glutamate (MSG) in
importing countries. 1960. In the late 1970s, USA and
Thailand collaborated to produce
Exporting cassava products for modified starch for export, followed by
animal feed had a significant joint ventures with European and
socioeconomic impact on Thailand, Japanese firms. At the same time,
for example, farm income, exporters of cassava for animal feed
employment, and foreign exchange integrated with native and modified
earnings all increased. The area starch processing enterprises.
planted to cassava increased
dramatically from 38,400 ha in 1957 When modified-starch processing
to 171,000 ha, producing 2.6 million began in Thailand, it was typically a
tons, in 1968. Although about 75% closed industry, but with the need for
of the expanded area first occurred in new export products, the industry
Thailands eastern region, by 1977, opened up to the extent that even
the northeast was producing more plants in cassava-producing areas are
than 50% of the national production. producing modified starch, using
The starch industry also benefited, simple processing techniques. Plants
setting up plants in the new areas. using more complex techniques to
produce chemically modified starch
The increased export trade also are located mostly in the provinces
encouraged the development of around Bangkok, where most
equipment that enabled high-speed industries that use modified
loading of pellets, and permitted starch are located. Seventeen
specialization within the export modified-starch plants, with an
business. Thai exporters could set estimated total capacity of
up trading companies in the EEC, 300,000 t/year, were operating in
thus opening up investment 1990, producing about 250,000 t.
opportunities in the industry.
The Thai modified-starch industry
In July 1982, however, the EEC, developed rapidly during the last
through a Cooperation Agreement decade, because, first, the
with the Kingdom of Thailand on international trade in native starch
cassava production, marketing, and was hampered by import barriers,
trade, set an annual maximum of imposed to protect domestic native
5 million tons of imports of Thai starch industries. In contrast, few
cassava products as animal feed. import barriers operated against
56
modified starch. Second, Thailands (chips and pellets), which were mostly
impressive economic growth during exported, and 5-6 million tons were
1980-1990 made possible the processed into cassava starch.
investment in high-level technology for
processing. Third, modified starch Statistics on starch production are
provided an outlet for the foreseeable not available, although the Thai
overproduction of cassava, caused by Tapioca Flour Industries Trade
the EECs restricted imports of Association (TTFITA) estimates that
cassava pellets. the total cassava or native starch
production was about 1.2 million tons
in 1989, 1.3 million in 1990, and
Production, Marketing, and 1.4 million in 1992.
Price Formation
As for many agroindustries, the
Root and starch production total number and capacity of cassava
starch plants are not updated by
During the past decade, data from the official sources. Official records,
Ministry of Agriculture and especially those of the Ministry of
Cooperatives (MOAC) showed that Industry (MOI), register data as plants
total cassava root production are established, but conduct few
increased from 19 million tons in 1983 surveys for updating. For example,
to about 20 million tons in 1992, that MOAC reported the total number of
is, at an annual growth rate of only starch plants in 1970 as 50 and in
0.7%. Yield per ha decreased from 1973 as 128. The MOI then reported
about 18 t in 1983 to 14 t in 1992, 146 plants in 1978, but, in 1987, only
mainly because fertilizers were not 82, with an estimated capacity of
applied in most cassava-growing 1.5 million tons. Although, in 1990,
areas, especially in the northeast. the number dropped further to 45
plantsa decrease of 45% (Table 1)
The national average production the estimated capacity dropped only
costs per ton of cassava increased 13% to 1.3 million tons.
from 450 baht in 1989/90 to 470 in
1990/91 and 540 in 1991/92. The The starch industry may have
national average farmgate price per suffered from overcapacity since
ton (i.e., the price received by 1978. Even in 1990, the industry
cassava growers) was 620 baht in operated for only 8 months. If the
1990, 830 in 1991, and 770 in industry were to operate 10 or
1992. Between 1990-1992, the 11 months/year, then its potential
average farmgate price increased by production would be 1.7-1.9 million
24%, which compares with a tons of starch. The capacity of some
production cost increase of 20% plants could be expanded, especially
during the same period. Cassava in the eastern and northeastern
farmers made, on the average, a regions.
profit of 253 baht/t. But if
production costs continue to increase During 1978-1990, the number of
at their current annual growth rate starch plants in the eastern region
of 7%, the competitiveness of Thai decreased dramatically from 121 to
cassava products in the future world 17, whereas in the northeast it
market will be jeopardized. increased from 12 to 22, suggesting a
shift of cassava-producing regions
During the last 5 years, about from eastern to northeastern
14-15 million tons of root were Thailand, as the animal feed market
processed into animal feed products expanded.
57
Table 1. Number of cassava starch plants and productiona by region, Thailand, 1989 and 1990.
Region 1989 1990
Plants Production Plants Production

(no.) (1,000 t) (no.) (1,000 t)
Northern 4 39 4 39
Western 2 27 2 27
Eastern 18 263 17 263
Northeastern 23 936 22 1,024
Total 47 1,265 45 1,353
a. Annual production figures were estimated by multiplying the daily capacity of plants by 240 days.
SOURCE: TTFITA, various years.
But plant numbers may have satiated, and then to chip-and-pellet

dropped as the many small, plants.
family-operated businesses, using old
and mixed technologies, lost out in the Two major outlets are available for
competition with modern plants, native starch: (1) domestic
which had comparatively higher consumption, and (2) export.
production efficiency. Most modern Domestic consumption includes
starch plants were constructed by foodstuffs and industrial use
local firms, and more than 80% of the (discussed below), but also raw
materials and machinery used for material for domestic modified-starch
construction were locally produced plants located in provinces around
and assembled. Thai firms even built Bangkok. Their products, however,
starch plants in Indonesia. are mostly exported. Native starch is
sometimes sold as wet starch to
Marketing and price formation modified-starch plants located in
cassava-producing regions.
The marketing of cassava roots is
simple: through local truckers to In terms of market share, starch
both chip-and-pellet and starch has been more or less equally divided
plants. Because the Government between export and domestic
allocated quotas of exports to the consumption for the last 5 years. But
EEC, based on accumulated stock in prices of domestic native starch are
1988, the price of roots was strongly influenced by export markets
determined by that of chips and for both native and modified starch.
pellets during the time exporters Prices in importing countries compete
were accumulating their stock and with prices of other starches,
before stock checking. Once stock especially maize, and the eventual
checking was over, root prices were prices reached, in turn, influence Thai
more or less determined by native domestic prices.
starch prices. When domestic prices
of starch were high, following high In the domestic market, native
world prices, then only those roots starch is, comparatively, the
that could not meet starch content cheapest starch available and used
requirements would be sold to the at costs that comprise a relatively
chip-and-pellet plants. In other small percentage of the value of the
words, roots are sold first to the final products. This enables
starch plants, until their demand is domestic industries that use native
58
starch to absorb price fluctuations Current and Future Domestic

without seriously affecting the price Use and Export
of the final product.
Domestic use
The links among prices for
modified starch, native starch, and Overall, domestic use of cassava
roots are shown in the following list of starch can be classified into either
1990 average prices, and marketing food or nonfood industries. No official
and processing costs, obtained from a records are available of the total
1991 industry survey: cassava starch consumption by both
groups. In 1991, an industrial survey
was conducted by the Thailand
Items US$/ta Development Research Institute
Foundation (TDRI) to compile and
Modified starch price c.i.f., Japan 405.0
estimate starch consumption for that
Freight and insurance costs,
year, and to project future use.
Thailand-Japan 45.0
Modified starch price f.o.b., Bangkok 360.0
Starch consumption was
Exporting costs 20.0 estimated by calculating the
Modified starch prices at plant, percentage of starch consumption per
Bangkok 340.0 unit of final product, whether food or
Processing costs of modified starch, nonfood. The total starch
including 5% weight loss 117.8 consumption of each final product was
Native starch prices at Bangkok plant 222.2 then computed by multiplying the
Transport costs, Nakhon-Ratchasima percentage use by the total annual
and Bangkok 9.0 production of each final product. The
Native starch prices at plant in annual total cassava-starch
Nakhon-Ratchasima 213.2 consumption for producing the final
Processing costs of native starch products was obtained during the
(conversion rate of starch to survey as a discrete series. The
root = 1:5) 52.0
complete series was then constructed
Value of roots per ton of starch at plant 161.2
by using growth rates between
Value of wastes (10% of the value periods.
of roots) 16.1
Total value of roots per ton of starch Once the series of starch
at plant 177.3
consumption data was constructed,
Price of roots per ton (root prices at the future consumption of starch of
the plant in Nakhon-Ratchasima) 35.5
each product was forecast by a simple
Production costs of roots in 1989/90
demand projection equation:
(published by MOAC) 17.6
______________________________________________________________
a. Exchange rate is 25.50 baht = US$1.00 (1994). D = R + NY (1)
where:
The above list also shows the D = growth rate of quantity

relationships between Bangkok prices demanded for the final
and Nakhon-Ratchasima Province product
prices for native starch and roots. R = growth rate of population (the
Under normal conditions, cassava annual population growth rate,
starch plants derive their daily buying estimated by the TDRI as 1.3%,
price of cassava roots from this type of for 1991 to 2001 was used)
information.
59
N = income elasticity of demand for 1n(STl) = -16.043 + 1.749 1n(GDP) (2)

starch for the final product (-9.125) (9.034)
R2 = 0.950
(using the 1972 per capita
D.W. = 1.244
income as the base year)
Y = growth rate of income per
where:
capita, using 1972 as the base
year (the TDRI projection of
STl = per capita demand for starch
6.4% for 1991 to 2001 was
in producing MSG and lysine
used)
GDP = per capita income in the 1972
base year
The estimate of starch
consumption for each final product is
The growth of demand for starch
discussed below:
to produce MSG and lysine can be
approximated by equation (1). That is,
Food industries
if D = 12.617% (or 1.33 + 1.75 x 6.45),
then starch consumption for
Monosodium glutamate and
producing MSG and lysine in 1991 =
lysine. In 1991, three MSG plants
97,977 t (87,000 x 1.12617).
operated: Ajinomoto, Raja, and Thai
Churos. In 1960, Ajinomoto set up the
Sweeteners (excluding fructose).
first MSG plant in Thailand and was
Domestic production of glucose syrup
the first to use modern technology to
began in 1950, glucose powder in
modify cassava starch. Ajinomoto is
1976, and sorbitol in 1980. The
also the only MSG plant to use cassava
conversion ratio of each product and
starch as the major raw material,
the estimated annual production
which it does at a rate of 2.4 t of starch
obtained from the survey are as
per ton of MSG. The other two plants
follows:
use molasses.
Product Ratio of Estimated annual
In 1986, the Ajinomoto group set cassava production of
up the first and only lysine plant, not starch to final product
just in Thailand, but also in Southeast product (tons)
Asia. To produce lysine, the plant Glucose syrup 1:0.92 30,000
consumes cassava starch at the same Sorbitol 1:1.20 28,000
rate as for MSG.
To produce both MSG and lysine, The glucose syrup producers

the Ajinomoto group consumed estimated that sweetener production
28,000 t of cassava starch in 1980; consumed 28,040 t of cassava starch
33,000 t in 1985; and 87,000 t in in 1950; 42,060 t in 1980; and
1990. Growth rates were 3.3% during 70,100 t in 1990. Based on these
1980-1985, and 21.4% during data, a statistical series of cassava
1985-1990. Based on these data, a starch consumption data was
statistical series of starch consumption constructed, and the income elasticity
data for MSG and lysine production of demand for starch was estimated at
during 1980-1990 was constructed. 1.16. The annual growth rate of
These data were used to estimate the demand for sweeteners was calculated
income elasticity of demand for starch at 8.812%, which was used to project
for MSG production, that is, 1.75. The demand for cassava starch for
estimation equation, of which the producing sweeteners (but not
autocorrelation was corrected, was as fructose), during 1991-2001.
follows:
60
Pearl sago. Pearl sago or tapioca for starch was calculated at 0.64.
was produced by many small, and a Equation (1) was used to project
few large, cassava starch plants. In future starch consumption.
1990, the TTFITA listed 12 pearl-sago
plants, five of which were large. But Nonfood industries
many small, family-operated plants
may not have been counted. Paper industry. In 1989, the
Processing involves mixing cassava Thai Pulp and Paper Industries
starch with water, pearling the Association (TPPIA) reported that
mixture, and sun-drying it. The 38 paper mills were operating, 12 of
conversion rate of cassava starch to which received the Board of
pearl sago is 1:0.9. Starch Investment (BOI) privilege. The total
consumption was about 23,000 t in annual capacity was 870,000 t of
1986 and 30,000 t in 1990, an annual paper, proportioned as follows:
growth rate of 6.7%. Pearl-sago 521,000 t in kraft paper; 193,000 in
producers expect that the rate will be printing and writing paper; 110,000 in
maintained for the future, because paperboard; and 46,000 in sanitary
both domestic and export markets are paper. Although Thailand imports
expanding. The 6.7% growth rate was newsprint, by the end of 1993, three
therefore used to project cassava plants with total annual capacity of
starch consumption in pearl-sago 300,000 t were operating.
processing.
Of these five types of paper, only
Household consumption. Three the plants producing kraft paper,
kinds of starch are consumed by the printing and writing paper, and
household: rice starch, sticky rice paperboard used cassava starch as a
starch, and cassava starch. Total raw material in production. The
starch consumption was reported at average consumption rate of starch
7.12 kg/person per year. Assuming was about 5% of the total paper
equal proportions of starch weight, with paper production
consumption, then per capita cassava expanding at a rate of 13% per year.
starch consumption would be 2.37 kg. From these data, cassava starch
A statistical series of household starch consumption in the paper industry
consumption data was constructed for was estimated at about 42,000 t in
1991-2001 by assuming a constant 1990, and projected by using a 13%
per capita consumption at 2.37 kg annual growth rate.
and using the TDRIs population
projection. The constant was Plywood industry. In 1990,
approximated from a household 35 plywood manufacturers were
survey conducted by the Office of operating. One piece of plywood uses
Agricultural Economics, MOAC, about 370 g of cassava starch. As far
during 1970-1971. as can be ascertained, the average
metric ton of plywood contains
Other food industries. Cassava 80 pieces. Total plywood production
starch is used as a raw material or tends to be underreported because
ingredient by canning and other food logs are imported illegally from
industries that make, for example, neighboring countries. More accurate
instant noodles, vermicelli, sauces, estimates may be obtained by
soups, sausages, and candies. The examining the relatively constant
annual cassava starch consumption plywood market share of the Thai
was estimated to be 17,960 t in 1980 Plywood Company Limited, a state
and 31,986 t in 1990. Based on these enterprise, which share held at 10%
data, the income elasticity of demand during the last few years. Estimates
61
for cassava starch consumption were before weaving, at about 1% of the

4,775 t in 1989, 6,924 in 1990, and warps total weight. Modified starch is
6,700 in 1991. also used in dyeing, an industry that
is not yet well developed in Thailand.
For the next 3 years, the annual The estimated current consumption of
cassava starch consumption in the cassava starch in the textile industry
plywood industry may stay at about is therefore minimal. A statistical
6,700 t, because, first, importing logs series on cassava starch consumption
from neighboring countries will data was constructed for 1985-1990,
become difficult as these countries and used to estimate a simple trend
establish their own plywood industries regression. The simple trend equation
and the prices of logs rise. Second, is as follows:
other boards are substituting plywood,
such as hardboard, medium board, STH = 9657.5 + 816.5 Y (3)
medium density fiber board (MDF), t-vale = (26.699) (6.182)
and soft board. Some of these R2 = 0.9508
products are made from sugar fiber. D.W. = 2.0012
Third, the comparative advantage in
plywood production of Thailand will where:
decrease over the years as that of
Indonesia and Malaysia increase. STH = total annual cassava starch
Fourth, some plants are replacing consumption
cassava starch with phenolic resin,
which provides a better adhesive Y = year 1985 = 1
quality. Total cassava starch
consumption in the plywood industry Other industries. Other
will therefore decrease by 30%-40% industries that use cassava starch as
from the 1993 level and then remain a raw material are those that
stable until year 2000. manufacture glues, paper products,
and chemicals. The estimated cassava
Textile industry. Cassava starch starch consumption are about
is applied to the yarn in the warp 15,000 t in 1980, and 60,000 t in
Table 2. Projected consumption of cassava starch by Thai food and nonfood industries.a
Industry 1991 1996 2001
Food-processing industries 375,071 (73) 516,463 (70) 772,819 (65)

MSG and lysine 97,977 (19) 170,456 (23) 322,194 (27)
Glucose syrup 76,375 (15) 113,368 (15) 177,490 (15)
Pearl sago 32,060 (6) 44,690 (6) 62,295 (5)
Household consumption 134,908 (26) 144,582 (19) 153,645 (13)
Other food industries 33,751 (7) 43,367 (6) 57,195 (5)
Nonfood industry 136,151 (26) 226,357 (30) 411,634 (35)

Paper 47,098 (9) 86,776 (12) 159,879 (13)
Plywood 6,700 (1) 2,010 (<1) 2,010 (<1)
Textiles 14,557 (3) 18,640 (3) 22,722 (2)
Other industries 67,796 (13) 118,931 (16) 227,023 (19)
Total 511,221 (100) 742,818 (100) 1,184,453 (100)
a. Figures in parentheses are rounded percentages of the total.
SOURCE: TDRI, 1992.
62
1990, indicating an annual growth Exports and major markets

rate of about 15%. This growth rate
was used to project future As mentioned above, export markets
consumption of cassava starch. for Thai cassava starch strongly
influence domestic price formation.
Estimates of cassava starch The future prospects of export markets
consumption in Thailand are are therefore highly significant for the
presented in Table 2. In 1991, about development of, not only the starch
511,221 t of cassava starch was industry, but the entire cassava
consumed, 73% of which was industry in Thailand.
consumed by food industries and
households. When the data are On the whole, the starch industry
broken down, household consumption has been export oriented since the
is highest with 26%, followed by MSG 1940s. Although the quantities of
and lysine (19%), sweeteners exported cassava starch have
(excluding fructose) (15%), other food fluctuated, an upward trend is
industries (7%), and pearl sago (6%). obvious. Data from the TTFITA show
that exports of cassava native and
Nonfood industries consumed modified starches increased from
136,151 t of cassava starch or 26% of 459,048 t in 1985 to 656,291 in 1990.
the total. Other nonfood industries Exports to Japan increased from
consumed the highest percentage 143,619 to 204,572 t, and to Taiwan
(13%), followed by paper industries from 124,926 to 248,434 t. That is,
(9%), textile industries (3%), and the export share of Japan and Taiwan
plywood industries (1%). increased from 58% to 69% of all
exports. These countries are expected
The estimated total domestic to remain major export markets in the
starch consumption in 2001 is future.
1.18 million tons. Although starch
consumption by nonfood industries Japan. Although data from the
will have increased to more than Japanese Ministry of Agriculture show
400,000 t (35% of the total), most that Japans total annual starch
domestic starch consumption will still consumption increased from
be in the food industries (65%). 2.4 million tons in 1986 to 2.7 million
Among the industries, the in 1990, other sources suggest that
MSG-and-lysine industries will Japan consumes at least 3.5 million
consume the most (27%), followed by tons of starch annually. The Japanese
other nonfood industries (19%), Government has set 0.2 million tons
sweeteners (15%), and paper as the maximum annual import quota
industries (13%). for starch to protect the domestic
starch industry, which is based on
The fructose industry used sweetpotato and white potato.
9-15 thousand tons of cassava starch
during 1988-1990. Once existing food Starch in Japan is consumed
regulations permit the use of fructose mostly by manufacturing and
in the domestic soft drink industry, processing industries, especially for
then demand for fructose will increase syrup dextrose (60%). Other
by about 20% per year. This will industries, in descending order, are
mean an extra 17,600 t of cassava chemicals (including medicines) or
starch in 1991; 38,000 in 1996; and modified starches, fibers, foodstuffs,
92,200 in 2001. paper and adhesives, beverages,
63
fish-paste products, and MSG. starches were imported at much

Sources of starches are maize (79%), higher rates than the set ceiling.
white potato (10%), sweetpotato (5%), Imported modified cassava starch
imported starch (4%), and wheat must compete with domestic
starch and/or flour (2%). Some of modified starch made from maize.
the products of processing are
re-exported. Thailands competitive position in
the Japanese market is determined
The manufacturing and by its status in two categories: first,
processing industries are not only the the native starch market, in which
major consumers of starch, but they Thailand still has the strong
are also the major importers, advantages of low prices and
especially the syrup dextrose continuous supplies; and, second,
producers, modified-starch the modified-starch market, in which
processors, re-export processing Thailand faces not only competition
industries, and manufacturers of from domestic modified starch, but
MSG, medicines, and adhesives. also from modified starch imported
from the EEC (which makes it from
In 1990, the average wholesale low-priced starch, itself imported
prices of starch in Japan showed that from Eastern Europe). Future
native cassava starch was the prospects in the Japanese market,
cheapest (Table 3). If there were no however, depend heavily on Japans
import barriers, cassava starch trade protectionist policies.
imports would increase
tremendously. Taiwan. Being a newly
developed industrialized
Imported modified starch is country, with a rapidly growing
subject to an 8% import duty if from economy, Taiwan has had to
developed countries. Although restructure its agricultural sector.
developing countries pay 0% tariff, From producing basic raw materials,
they face an import ceiling, imposed it now produces high-value products
by the Japanese Government since such as fruit and those from
1989. The ceiling is based on a total livestock and fishery. Consequently,
value per year. During the early Taiwan expects to import more of
stages of implementation, the both raw and finished agricultural
Japanese Government was flexible, products. Although Taiwan does not
and some groups of modified impose a tariff import barrier on
cassava starch, it does on imported
cassava products (Table 4).
Table 3. Average wholesale prices of starches in
Japan, 1990. Thai cassava starch products
have good prospects in Taiwan,
Starch Price
where Thai exporters and concerned
(yen/kg)
governmental agencies have actively
Domestic starches produced from: promoted cassava products in the
Sweetpotato 65.00 Taiwan market.
White potato 140.00
Maize 62.00 Projections of cassava starch
Imported starches exports to Japan and Taiwan, and
Native cassava starch 33.00 of total exports. Simple linear
White potato starch 63.00 trends (Table 5) were used to project
cassava starch exports to Japan
SOURCE: TDRI, 1992. and Taiwan, and in total. The
64
Table 4. Import duties imposed on cassava will reach about 1.82 million tons
products by Taiwan.
(9.1 million tons of roots), of which
HS code Tariff rate
domestic consumption would account
for 41% (data not shown). In 2001,
0714.10 Manioc (cassava) 20% total demand would increase to
1108.14 Manioc (cassava) starch 17% or 2.6 million tons (13 million tons of
NT$1,200/t roots), of which domestic consumption
1903.00 Tapioca and substitutes 17% or would account for 46%. The future of
prepared from starch NT$1,306/t the cassava starch industry will
3505.00 Dextrins and other 7.5%-20%a
therefore still be export oriented.
modified starches 7.5%-17%b
a. Imposed for all countries.

b. Applied to countries with reciprocal benefits, such
Scenario of Future
as Thailand. Industrial Adjustment
SOURCE: TDRI, 1992.
As mentioned earlier, the EECs
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
Table 5. Projected cassava starch exports to triggered off the development of Thai
Taiwan and Japan and total exports cassava products for the animal feed
(in tons), Thailand, 1993-2001. industry. The EEC has been the only
Year Taiwan Japan Total exports
major market for these products, a
result of the EECs high cereal prices.
1993 355,673 259,837 872,614 Hence, any changes in the CAP will
1994 390,922 278,065 939,709 have a strong impact on the Thai
1995 426,171 296,293 1,006,805 cassava industry. Analyses of CAP
1996 461,420 314,520 1,073,901 reforms will therefore be imperative for
1997 496,668 332,748 1,208,093 predicting the industrys future
1998 531,917 350,976 1,275,189 prospects and development.
1999 567,166 369,204 1,342,285
2000 602,415 387,431 1,342,285 The CAP reforms
2001 637,664 405,659 1,409,381
Overall, the CAP has fulfilled the
SOURCE: TDRI, 1992. EECs objective of reaching
self-sufficiency in food, but at the high
price of subsidizing the agricultural
projection of total starch exports, sector. The CAP also created several
however, did not include the problems, especially the
possibility of new markets, such as overproduction of cereals, and
South Koreas paper industry. At livestock and dairy products, which
present, cassava starch imports under cost more than ECU 79,000 million.
the international HS code 1108.14 are
not restricted by South Korea. One reason for the overproduction
Another potential market is Russia, if of cereals was their reduced use in the
special export credits can be made animal feed industry, which
available to Thai exports through the substituted the highly priced cereals
establishment of an export-import with cheap NGFI imports. The EEC
bank. At least 10,000 t of cassava has tried to limit and reduce NGFI
starch would then be exported. imports by setting quotas for cassava
imports from Thailand, Indonesia,
Based on the above estimates, Brazil, and China. Many other NGFI
demand for cassava starch in both products, however, were imported
domestic and export markets in 1996, without restrictions or tariffs.
65
As well as the problems created by Impact of CAP reforms on prices of

the CAP, the EEC also has had to face cassava products and roots
pressure from the GATT Uruguay
Round of trade negotiations to The CAP reforms will probably
liberalize trade. CAP reforms were strongly effect NGFI imports,
therefore inevitableconcentrating on especially those providing sources of
decreasing agricultural subsidies to energy in animal feed, such as
reduce grain and meat surpluses. The cassava products. As cereals become
strongest impact on NGFI imports cheaper, substitutes will be used less.
came from the drastic decrease of The EEC commission reported that the
intervention prices for cereals, which substitution effect would be
severely reduced domestic wholesale 6-7 million tons (EEC, 1993b).
prices of cereals. Three major changes
from the existing system occurred: Given the price relationship of
ECU 24 per ton between wheat and
(1) Agricultural support shifted from cassava products used in compound
being solely price subsidies to feed in previous years, Thai cassava
being compensatory payments to products are expected to be
producers; competitive in the EEC market and to
(2) Measures for increasing be consumed by the animal feed
production for self-sufficiency were industry at the current rate of about
no longer emphasized; and 5 million tons. Prices, however, would
(3) Free trade was encouraged while decline to the following levels:
maintaining the basic principles
and instruments of the CAP.
Season Wholesale prices of cassava
products in the EEC
Under the CAP reforms, cereal
(ECU per ton)
prices will change as follows:
1993/94 93
(1) Buying-in prices and intervention 1994/95 84
prices will be the same for every
1995/96 76
cereal; and
(2) From the 1993/94 season (July)
onward, all cereal prices (ECU per However, the above price levels
ton) will be: show the worst scenario. Given the
exchange rate of ECU 1 = US$1.19
and US$1.00 = 25.30 baht, farmgate
Season Intervention Target Threshold
pricea priceb pricec prices of cassava roots in Nakhon
Ratchasima Province, Thailand, would
1993/94 117 130 175 be as follows:
1994/95 108 120 165
1995/96 100 110 155 Season Farmgate prices in

Nakhon Ratchasima
a. The price at which the EEC is prepared to buy Province, Thailand
cereals if the market price is below it.
b. The price the EEC wants producers to receive US$/ton baht per ton
(and consumers to pay). The EEC will intervene
through import levies (taxes) or by buying 1993/94 22.81 577.14
surpluses to ensure that prices do not fall below
the target level. 1994/95 18.78 475.26
c. The price at which cereal imports enter the EEC,
1995/96 15.93 403.00
i.e., the world price plus the variable import levy.
66
Based on MOAC statistics, the compound feed industry and of the

national average cost of producing Thai export industry to the CAP
cassava roots in 1991/92 was reforms, which dropped export prices
540 baht/t (US$21.34/t). This for cassava products for animal feed in
implies that farmers received only the EEC. Consequently, producers of
37.14 baht/t (US$1.47/t) in cassava chips and pellets had to lower
1993/94, and that, in 1994/95 and their buying prices for roots. As root
1995/96, farmgate prices will be less prices decreased, root supplies also
than production costs. Obviously, if decreased.
these price levels become reality,
cassava farmers will switch to other The immediate impact of CAP
crops. reforms on the Thai cassava starch
industry was to create competition
Also obviously, hard pellet prices among cassava starch plants to obtain
in Rotterdam (ECU 76-93/t) and root the cheapest root supplies. This
prices in Nakhon Ratchasima meant that, if cassava farmers delayed
(US$15.93-22.81/t) will discourage their harvests, root prices would
Thai exports to the EEC. That means increase in the short run. But, if
the quota rent of export quota in the prices of cassava products in the EEC
EEC will vanish, making it difficult for dropped to ECU 93/t, then exports to
Thai exporters to export pellets to the EEC in 1993/94 would be reduced
non-EEC markets at such low prices drastically. Eventually, surpluses of
that they would obtain export quota to cassava roots would develop and
the EEC and thus sell pellets at high prices will drop below 700 baht/t in
prices. In fact, current non-EEC 1993/94.
markets for Thai pellets are subsidized
by the quota rent to the EEC. These If prices remain at 700 baht/t (or
markets are not potential markets for US$27.67/t), which would give a net
cassava pellets, unless cereal supplies farmgate price of 580 baht/t
become drastically short and world (US$22.92/t), farmers would find it
prices of high-protein ingredients for unprofitable to grow cassava. For
animal feed (soybean meal) become example, the 1993/94 root production
very low. costs in Nakhon Ratchasima
were 578.50-664.80 baht/t
Impact of CAP reforms on root (US$ 22.87-26.28/t). This implies
supplies to the Thai cassava starch that cassava root production will begin
industry decreasing.
This section tries, perhaps The Thai Department of

prematurely, to project what would Agriculture reported that production
happen if exports of Thai cassava costs for cassava would decrease to
products as animal feed to the EEC 509.00 baht/t (US$20.12/t) if farmers
were decreased drastically. The followed appropriate agricultural
projection is based on observations of practices and used the new Rayong
events in Nakhon Ratchasima 60 variety. Trade associations of
Province. Nakhon Ratchasima Province are now
working closely with concerned
After the new CAP was governmental agencies to provide
implemented in July 1993, buying extension services for cassava farmers
prices for roots offered by plants in the to encourage them to adopt new
province decreased from 740 baht/t in agricultural practices and varieties.
July to 700 in October. This was a Extension services, however, are not
result of adjustments in the EECs sufficient if farmgate prices are not
67
high enough. To ensure their raw EEC market. Cassava starch plants
material supplies, therefore, cassava would have fewer operational days and
starch plants have begun contract higher average production costs. To
farming. overcome such problems, the plants
may either increase capacity per day,
To avoid cassava root surpluses, or minimize production costs wherever
the Government had already, in early possible.
1993, launched a program to
encourage farmers to reduce planting The first alternative may be
areas (now totalling 400,000 rai, or possible by merging plants. Thus,
64,000 ha). It is still too early to only large and efficient starch plants
assess the programs success, but will survive, and their operations
cassava production will decrease in would also be further integrated with
any case, if the above price level of high-value processing activities such
700 baht/t is realized for 1993/94. as modified starch. The plants may
also be forced to diversify into
Cassava starch plants will commodity trade.
therefore face problems of root
supplies, and their period of operation Production costs may be
may become smaller than 8 months if minimized through joint efforts in
contract farming and extension obtaining special rates from
services for improved varieties and governmental authorities for utilities
agricultural practices are not realized. such as electricity, which accounts for
more than 35% of total processing
As the production of cassava costs.
products for animal feed decreases,
the cassava market will become Governmental policy
dominated by starch plants operating
in cassava-producing areas. During Although concerned governmental
peak seasons, local starch plants will agencies realize that the CAP reforms
not be able to buy all available roots. will generate negative impact on the
Root prices will therefore drop to levels Thai cassava industry, especially for
at which chip-and-pellet plants find animal feed, the only policy so far
profitable to start their operations. implemented is that of reducing
Thus, a new market equilibrium of cassava planting areas. Short- and
root prices will be established at long-term policies for the cassava
levels profitable for farmers and industry are yet to be formulated. In
chip-and-pellet producers. The level addition, the Government has still to
will depend heavily on the export decide whether to renew or renounce
prices of chips and pellets and on the Agreement, which will expire in
domestic demand for these products. 1994, between Thailand and the EEC
Even so, both farmers and starch on cassava exports.
plants would mutually benefit from
setting up a system that regulates root
supplies. Summary, Conclusions,
and Recommendations
Starch processing
The cassava starch industry has
As low prices and decreasing demand developed largely under a free market
for roots force reductions in cassava system, with limited governmental
production, the root marketing period intervention. The EECs CAP triggered
will shorten and adjust to the seasonal off the rapid development of cassava
demand for cassava products in the exports for animal feed in the 1970s,
68
causing the whole industry to shift In the early 1990s, fewer than
from starch processing to the 50 cassava starch plants were
processing of cassava exports for actively operating, with a total
animal feed. capacity of about 1.4-1.6 million
tons of starch per year. This
Although, by percentage, the compares with the 2 million tons
proportion of cassava starch exports to that 84 plants produced in the late
total cassava exports decreased from 1980s. Of the plants remaining, 17
25% in 1966 to 11% in 1991, starch were modified-starch plants, with an
exports themselves increased at an estimated capacity of 300,000 t/year
annual growth rate of 5.5%. USA and and an actual production of
Japan have formed the major market 250,000 t.
for Thai cassava starch since 1966,
despite competition with domestic Domestic cassava starch
maize starch. During the 1980s, consumption was projected (as
Taiwan became the third most described in Current and Future
important market for Thailand, using Domestic Use and Export, p. 59-65)
Thai starch in modified-starch to the year 2001 as almost
processing and other industries. 1.2 million tons. Domestic
consumption and use in food
In 1982, the EEC-Thai Cooperative processing will decrease to 18%.
Agreement was signed; it set a Use in textiles will decrease to 2%,
maximum import quantity of and in plywood to 0.2%. In contrast,
21 million tons over 4 years. The starch consumption in the
Agreement also obliged Thailand to manufacture of MSG and lysine will
actively search for other uses of increase to 27%, and in the paper
cassava, finally settling on industry to 13% (Table 2).
value-added cassava starch, that is,
modified starch, for Japan. Total cassava starch use in
1991, that is, the sum of total
Cassava starch was already domestic consumption plus total
produced for domestic consumption, exports, was more than 1.2 million
both as food and industrial raw tons. It may increase to more than
material, and, in relatively larger 2.5 million tons by the year 2001,
quantities, for export. In 1965, the assuming Japan and Taiwan as the
estimated total domestic consumption only two major export markets.
was 44,557 t, and exports were
148,206 t. During 1965 to 1980, Despite the fact that domestic
starch was used mostly in food consumption of cassava starch has
industries (27%), the manufacture of increased over time, domestic prices
MSG (22%), paper industry (16%), and depend heavily on export prices,
household consumption (16%). especially those of modified starch in
recent years. For the future, the
Thailands outstanding economic cassava starch industry, and the
performance during 1980-1990 in both cassava industry as a whole, will
industrial and agroindustrial sectors still be export oriented. The EECs
drew the attention of cassava starch CAP reforms, which reduced
entrepreneurs to the domestic use of domestic cereal prices by 29% for
starch and its potential. During July 1993 to June 1996, will
1990-1991, a survey was carried out to therefore strongly influence the Thai
estimate domestic starch consumption cassava industry.
in various Thai industries, and to
project starch use in the next decade.
69
The impact of reduced cereal (1) Research on new uses for both
prices in the EEC (to ECU 117/t in cassava roots and starch should be
1993-1995) on Thai pellet prices in carried out as a joint effort between
Rotterdam was to reduce them to private and public sectors;
ECU 93/t. This reduced price, in (2) Research on cost-reduction
turn, reduced the farmgate price of technologies in cassava production
cassava roots in Nakhon Ratchasima should be enhanced and
Province, Thailand, to US$23/t in disseminated to farmers as soon as
1993/94, only slightly above possible;
production costs. These reduced (3) Coordination and cooperation
prices may make the cassava starch between public and private sectors
industry the major buyer of roots in should be strengthened through
the domestic market. frequent dialog and consultation;
and
But if the CAP reforms drastically (4) Short- and long-term governmental
decrease the exports of Thai cassava policies on the cassava industry as
products to the EEC, then cassava a whole should be formulated.
production would decrease in the
future, creating problems of supplies
for cassava starch plants. To Bibliography
overcome these problems, starch
plants and cassava farmers may find EEC (European Economic Community),
that contract farming would be Commission of the European
Communities. 1993a. Agriculture in
mutually beneficial. the GATT negotiations and reforms of
the CAP. Brussels, Belgium.
Despite the uncertainty of the kind
of impact the CAP reforms will have on __________. 1993b. CAP reforms and the GATT
the Thai cassava industry, both compatibility. DG VI. Brussels, Belgium.
domestic cassava starch consumption Jones, S. F. 1983. The world market for starch
and starch exports are likely to and starch products with particular
increase. As a whole, the Thai reference to cassava (tapioca) starch.
cassava industry is an Tropical Development and Research
export-dominated industry that has Institute (TDRI), London, UK.
faced many trade restrictions. The TDRI (Thailand Development Research Institute
outcome of the GATT Uruguay Round Foundation). 1992. Cassava: a scenario
of trade negotiations will strongly of the next decade. Bangkok, Thailand.
influence the cassava industry, (In Thai.)
especially the starch sector.
Titapiwatanakun, Boonjit. 1983. Domestic
tapioca starch consumption in Thailand.
Each cassava-producing country In: TTTA year book 1982. The Thai
should take this opportunity to review Tapioca Trade Association (TTTA),
the potential of its cassava starch Bangkok, Thailand.
industry in terms of its economic
__________. 1985. Analysis of the short- and
comparative advantage over other long-run demand and supply prospects
starches produced domestically and of of tapioca products: report submitted
its international economic comparative to UN/ESCAPE. Bangkok, Thailand.
advantage.
TTFITA (Thai Tapioca Flour Industries Trade
Association). 1989. Thai tapioca
As far as the future development of industries. Bangkok, Thailand.
the Thai cassava industry as a whole,
and its starch industry in particular, __________. Various years. Thai Tapioca
is concerned, the following Association yearbook. Bangkok,
recommendations are suggested: Thailand.
70
Sweetpotato Flour and Starch:...
CHAPTER 10
SWEETPOTATO FLOUR AND STARCH:

ITS USES AND FUTURE POTENTIAL1
Nelly Espnola*
Introduction 6.0 t/ha of dry matter, depending on

the variety (Ruiz et al., 1980). It can
In terms of production, sweetpotato also be grown as a perennial crop,
(Ipomoea batatas) is the fifth most tolerating foliage cutting every 3 to
important crop in developing countries 4 months, depending on where it is
(Table 1). Latin America, its place of
origin, paradoxically accounts for only
1.8% of world production (Table 2) Table 1. Food crop production in developing
(Scott, 1992). countries, 1961-1988.
In Peru, this root crop is used Crop Production

(thousands of tons)
mainly for direct human consumption
(96%) and its foliage or lianas are fed Paddy rice 449,968
to animals (90%). In other countries, Wheat 214,119
like the Philippines, the tender parts of Maize 184,927
the foliage are also eaten as a Cassava 137,412
Sweetpotato 125,359
vegetable (Woolfe, 1992).
SOURCE: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
In China, the worlds leading United Nations (FAO), Basic Data Unit,
unpublished data.
producer of sweetpotato, its use has
varied over the last 20 years,
decreasing for human consumption
(from 60% to 40%), and increasing for Table 2. Sweetpotato production in developing
animal feed (30% to 45%) and countries by region, 1961-1988.
industrial use (5% to 10%).
Region Production
About 90% of sweetpotato foliage (thousands of tons) (%)
is used for animal feed. Although it
Africa 6,263 5.0
has a low carbohydrate content, its
(Sub-Saharan) 6,192
levels of fiber, protein, and vitamins
are higher, thus stimulating milk Asia
production in cattle. Sweetpotato (China) 116,811 93.1
108,062
production may vary from 4.3 to
Latin America 228 1.8
Total 125,359 100.0

* Physiology Department, Centro Internacional
de la Papa (CIP), Lima, Peru. SOURCE: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), Basic Data Unit,
1. No abstract was provided by the author. unpublished data.
71
grown (either coastal regions or This paper reviews sweetpotato

highlands) (Beaufort-Murphy, 1993, processing at rural and industrial
personal communication). levels for both human and animal
consumption; and the effects its
A new variety is to be released to promotion would have on production,
farmers; it is high yielding for forage, rural and urban employment, savings
with high leaf protein content in foreign exchange, and stimulating
(up to 19% dry base) and very low agroindustrial activity.
trypsin-inhibitor content. This variety
can also be grown in the highlands
during the dry season when natural Unprocessed Sweetpotato
pastures become scarce.
In Peru, sweetpotato is boiled, fried,
In a study carried out in Peru, the baked, or mashed. Its raw roots can be
costs of cultivating sweetpotato were grated and used to make bread or
found to be lower than those of other sweets like camotillo. Sweetpotato roots
crops like potato and maize. It can be can also be used in cattle feed as raw
harvested two or three times a year chips mixed with fibrous feedstuffs.
and so is considered a staple crop for Animals seem to find sweetpotato
both human and animal consumption palatable, searching in their mixed feed
(Achata et al., 1990). to consume it first.
As a food product, sweetpotato is a A dairy in the Caete River area,

source of energy, proteins, provitamin the largest sweetpotato producing
A (-carotene), vitamin C, and iron. It region of Peru, used sweetpotato in its
ranks among the crops generating the cattle feed, thus considerably
highest carbohydrate content per increasing the daily milk production
hectare (156 MJ/day) over a relatively from 25-26 L/head (1992) to 30 L/head
short period (120 days), even when low (1993) (Espnola, 1992).
levels of fertilizer and pesticide are
applied.
Bread made with sweetpotato pure
The germplasm bank at the Centro
Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Peru, is Bread is an important item in the
a source of important genetic diversity Peruvian diet, but imports of wheat
with great potential for improving the flour for bread making are costly. Since
crop for human and animal the 1960s, researchers have sought
consumption and industrial purposes. ways of substituting wheat flour with
sweetpotato flour. The Universidad
Peru has some experience in Nacional Agraria La Molina and a
sweetpotato cultivation, but this crop is bakery in Chincha (near Lima), for
grown mainly in countries like Japan, example, have started manufacturing
China, Vietnam, and the Philippines, composite-flour specialty breads, both
where it is used in foodstuffs, animal loaf and cake-type, which include
feed, and industry. Sweetpotato boiled, peeled sweetpotato, substituting
processing is increasing in importance as much as 40% of the wheat flour
in these countries and considerable (Peralta et al., 1992).
information is available on the topic. If
this information were adapted to Bread made with raw, grated
Peruvian conditions, it could yield sweetpotato
rapid results, making investment in
sweetpotato products comparatively Peru. The use of raw, unpeeled,
cheaper than that in other crops. grated sweetpotato to make an
72
economic bread is being introduced; Flour: Peru

sweetpotato substitutes for 30% of
the wheat flour. A grainy bread is If sweetpotato varieties with a high
obtained, with a slightly sweet taste, dry-matter and starch content, and a
resulting from the very sweet low oxidation rate are processed, a
commercial varieties used. Its higher percentage of flour is recovered
nutritional quality is similar to that of (Table 3).
traditional bread made with 100%
wheat flour (Denen et al., 1993). CIP CIP is collaborating with the
is collaborating with the Universidad Universidad Nacional Agraria La
Nacional Agraria La Molina to Molina to test both sun- and
improve this sweet breads recipe, oven-dried flour in poultry rations. The
appearance, shelf life, and crumb (or optimal level of maize substitution and
grain) size. Initial efforts, in which the better type of flour (raw or cooked)
the peel was discarded and the roots will be determined. In another study,
finely grated, succeeded in substituting with pigs, conducted by the same
as much as 50% of wheat flour university, oven-dried sweetpotato was
(20% dry base) with sweetpotatoes. used to determine the optimal
substitution level, according to animal
Burundi. Bread preparation with age.
raw, grated sweetpotato was
introduced to Burundi, eastern Africa, Commercial production of
where the technology was adapted. sweetpotato flour, supported by the
White varieties, with dry matter private sector, is just beginning, and
contents ranging from 25% to 30%, new products for subsequent
were used to replace 30% of the wheat commercialization are being developed.
flour. Modifications included fine Commercially, sweetpotato flour can be
grating of peeled roots, oil instead of used to substitute wheat flour in bread
lard, and the elimination of enhancers. making or maize flour in balanced
Egg whites were added as a final feeds (in 1992, maize imports were
touch, to give the bread a look similar more than US$82 million).
to the Peruvian pan de yema. Sweetpotato flour will be analyzed to
identify its chemical components and
Costs were lower than for 100% contaminants, and to determine its
wheat bread but the selling price was digestibility and potential uses in
the same. This meant a higher profit human and animal consumption.
for the baker and a reduced use of
wheat flour, with subsequent savings Companies are producing
in foreign exchange (Berrios and sweetpotato flour through a novel,
Beavogui, 1992). low-cost industrial process that
processes the roots either continuously
Processed Sweetpotato
Table 3. Percentage of flour recovered from
Processed sweetpotato products different varieties of sweetpotato.
include snack foods, such as fried
chips and caramel-coated chips, and Country Variety Flour yield
industrial products such as (%)
sweetpotato flour, pure, and starch.
Philippines Georgia Red 12.0
A large variety of starch-based Ilocos Sur 37.0
products exists, and Japan has given
Peru Jonathan 28.6
high commercial value to raw
(commercial variety)
sweetpotato starch.
73
(500 kg/h), taking 8 to 10 min; or in ingredient for instant soups and

batches (less than 500 kg/h), taking traditional breakfasts.
45 to 60 min. Flour yield for
commercial sweetpotato varieties is Peru. The sweetpotato processing
28.6%, that is, 3.5 kg of fresh industry is just beginning and only
sweetpotatoes produces 1 kg of flour one company is producing flakes from
(Vsquez, 1994). sweetpotato pure under the
commercial trade name Men. This
First, sweetpotatoes are selected, product can be used to prepare baby
then washed and peeled foods or school breakfasts, but high
mechanically, only partially removing production costs are still a constraint
peel and foreign material by abrasion. (Denen et al., 1993).
Milling, that is, rasping the root at
high velocity, follows. A very fine
product is obtained, which is then Sweetpotato starch
pressed to eliminate water, resulting
in a pressed cake with 38% moisture. The granule size of sweetpotato starch
Some solids containing starch, is similar to that of cassava, with only
-carotene, sugars, and proteins are 5% of the total being very small and
eliminated with the water but are colloidal, and easily lost during water
later recovered by decanting and extraction. Both sweetpotato and
incorporated into the flour during cassava starches, when submitted to
drying. The flour is dried at 40 C for X-ray diffraction, have type-A
8 seconds in a current of hot air structures commonly found in cereals.
produced by propane gas (for table The ratio of amylopectin to amylose is
flour) or by carbon briquettes (for 3:1 and, in some cases, 4:1 (Woolfe,
animal feed). The flour is packed in 1992).
50-kg plastic bags through a feeder
hopper. Gelatinization temperature and
type are important in feed formulas,
Production costs for a volume of varying with variety. Gelatinization
700 t are US$150/t, and the selling temperatures from 58 to 69 C, 58 to
price is US$190/t. To maintain 75 C, and 65 to 80 C have been
optimal sanitary conditions, stainless reported. The degree of association
steel materials are used in the between molecules is much greater
equipment. than in potato and similar to that
found in cassava.
Pure
Raw sweetpotato starch is much
Philippines. Because this more resistant to the action of
process involves advanced technology, digestive enzymes (2.4%) than are
high-quality varieties should be used maize (9.2%) and wheat (17.6%)
to obtain a maximum yield. starches. The degradation time of
Developed countries, such as the USA raw sweetpotato starch is 15% in 6 h
or Japan, produce sweetpotato pure compared with 20% for cassava and
on a large scale. In the Philippines, a 10% for yam. Amylose degradation
powdered product for preparing capacity increases when starch
sweetpotato mash and Cantonese granules are ruptured, improving in
noodles, has developed through a pelletization (animal feed) and
collaborative project between the reaching a peak in cooking.
national agricultural program and
Visayas State College of Agriculture Asia. In countries like China,
(ViSCA). This powder is also the main Taiwan, and the Philippines,
74
sweetpotato is grown on small farms, (or Chinese noodles) commonly used in

where the raw roots are cut into long the dish chifa.
chips or flakes and sun-dried. The
dried product is then sent to distilleries Three different methods of starch
and starch factories for further extraction are employed, with differing
processing. percentages of recovery: the water
precipitation method (12%-14%); the
In Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, natural precipitation method
about 8%, 16%, and 28%, respectively, (16%-18%); and the liquid acid method
of the sweetpotato production is used (17%-20%) (Timmins et al., 1992).
as raw starch in the food industry, for
making bread, biscuits, cakes, juices, Residues are peelings and fiber,
ice cream, and noodles. The starch is which are fed to pigs either directly or
also converted into glucose syrup or after fermentation, or after being dried
isomerized glucose syrup (where some and mixed with other types of forages
of the glucose has been converted into such as maize stalks or rice hulls (CIP,
fructose to sweeten it further). 1991).
In Japan and Korea, starches and Peru. The prospects for starch
other fermentable carbohydrates are extraction in Peru are good, especially
used to distil a typical liquor called in rural agroindustry, as are potato and
socchu. Lactic acid, acetone, butanol, maize starches, both widely used in the
vinegar, and leavenings are also country. Sweetpotato starch could be
produced by fermentative processes. used in the food, textile, glue, paint, and
cardboard industries. A company has
Japan has developed a cyclodextrin begun manufacturing starch extraction
with diverse, high-value uses in the equipment adapted to small- and
food and pharmaceutical industries medium-scale farming conditions.
and in blood tests.
CIPs Plant Breeding Program has
China. Sichuan Province is the developed advanced clones, with
worlds largest producer of adequate processing characteristics,
sweetpotato, most of which is used in that are undergoing final testing and
processed products and animal feeds. selection for release by the Instituto
The crop forms the major source of Nacional de Investigacin Agraria (INIA).
income for most of the inhabitants. The clones should have high dry-matter
Simple, small-scale technology is used content, high yields, low oxidation rate,
to produce starch and noodles. The low fiber content, and very low latex
noodles are similar to the rice noodles content (Table 4).
Table 4. Preliminary data of clones selected for starch contenta and suitable for industrial processing,
Peru.
Clone Color Dry matter Starch

(%) (%)
SR 87.070 White 37.6 25.83

SR 90.012 Cream 38.6 23.66
SR 90.021 Cream 30.0 20.30
SR 90.323 Orange 42.8 22.80
YM 89.240 White 35.2 23.41
YM 89.052 White 29.8 20.47
a. Analyses carried out by Derivados del Maz, S. A. (DEMSA).
75
INIA is also assessing about (12) Sweetpotato pastes with high

1,000 clones for human -carotene content for baby
consumption, processing, and foods.
forage purposes in the Caete
region. A private company has
evaluated 42 of these clones for Conclusions
dry-matter and starch contents. Six
clones had high yields, and high The potential of sweetpotato
dry-matter and starch contents, processing will be realized if:
indicating broad potential for
further research (Table 4). (1) Sweetpotato breeding is directed
toward processing. This means
using the world collection of
Agroindustrial Prospects germplasm and installing
facilities for conducting
The following list summarizes the production trials at different
agroindustrial prospects of sites.
sweetpotato: (2) Collaborative research projects
are conducted to develop new
(1) Grated, raw sweetpotato for products.
preparing an economic bread. (3) Information on experiences in
(2) Sun-dried flakes for producing other countries is collected and
starch, alcohol, or flour for organized to help design
human consumption, animal strategies and policies that
feed, and industry. would support sweetpotato
(3) Sweetpotato flour for processing.
preparing porridge, breads, (4) The private sector participates
biscuits, and balanced feeds actively. Links must therefore
for poultry and swine be established with the private
(replacing maize). sector.
(4) Sweetpotato starch for
preparing noodles and glucose
syrup (dextrins). Peru imports References
glucose to produce
pharmaceutical syrups, Achata, A.; Fano, H.; Goyas, H.; Chiang, O.;
caramels, and gum drops. It and Andrade, M. 1990. El camote
(batata) en el sistema alimentario del
is also used by the textile and Per: El caso del Valle de Caete.
glue industries. Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP),
(5) Production of alcohol (Japan, Lima, Peru. 63 p.
Korea).
Berrios, D. and Beavogui, M. 1992. Trials for
(6) Sweets (e.g., flakes and
the introduction of sweetpotato in
caramels). breadmaking in Burundi. In: Scott,
(7) Ketchup (Philippines). G. J.; Ferguson, P. I.; and Herrera,
(8) Fruit-flavored juices J. E. (eds.). Product development for
(Philippines). root and tuber crops, vol. IIIAfrica:
proceedings of an international
(9) Liquor (Japan, Korea).
meeting held 26 October-2 November,
(10) Balanced feeds for poultry and 1991, at IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Centro
swine (replacing maize). Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima,
(11) Extracting anthocyanin, a Peru. 506 p.
natural purple coloring used
CIP (Centro Internacional de la Papa).
in preparing ice cream, yogurt, 1991. Informe anual. Lima, Peru.
and pastries. 258 p.
76
Denen, H.; Espnola, N.; Galarreta, V.; Herrera, Scott, G. J. 1992. Transformacin de los
J.; and Sluimer, P. 1993. Actividades cultivos alimenticios tradicionales:
propuestas para el crecimiento de la Desarrollo de productos a base de
produccin de camote mediante la races y tubrculos. In: Desarrollo de
ampliacin de su utilizacin: Informe de productos de races y tubrculos,
la misin para formular proyectos de vol. IIAmrica Latina: proceedings
desarrollo de productos de camote of an international meeting held
realizada del 10 al 21 de mayo de 1993, 8-12 April, 1991, at the Instituto de
por encargo de la Embajada Real de los Ciencia y Tecnologa Agrcolas (ICTA),
Pases Bajos, en colaboracin con la Villa Nueva, Guatemala. Centro
Secretara Ejecutiva de Cooperacin Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima,
Internacional del Ministerio de la Peru. 375 p.
Presidencia (SECTI/MIPRE), bajo la
coordinacin del Centro Internacional Timmins, W. H.; Marter, A. D.; Wesby, A.;
de la Papa (CIP), Lima, Peru. 79 p. and Rickard, J. E. 1992. Aspects of
(Typescript.) sweetpotato processing in Sichuan
Province, Peoples Republic of China.
Espnola, N. 1992. Alimentacin animal con In: Product Development for Root and
batata (Ipomoea batatas) en Tuber Crops, vol. 1Asia:
Latinoamrica. Turrialba proceedings of an international
42(1):114-126. meeting held 22 April-1 May, 1991,
at the Visayas State College of
Peralta, P.; Cavero, W.; and Chumbe, V. 1992. Agriculture (ViSCA), Baybay, Leyte,
Un diagnstico rpido del pan de Philippines. Centro Internacional de
camote en el Per. In: Desarrollo de la Papa (CIP), Lima, Peru. 384 p.
productos de races y tubrculos en
Amrica Latina, vol. IIAmrica Latina: Vsquez, H. 1994. Procesamiento a bajo
proceedings of an international meeting costo de la harina de camote. Paper
held 8-12 April, 1991, at the Instituto presented at the second meeting
de Ciencia y Tecnologa Agrcolas of the Grupo de Camote, held
(ICTA), Villa Nueva, Guatemala. Centro 7 January, 1994. Centro
Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima, Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima,
Peru. 375 p. Peru. (Typescript.)
Ruiz, M. E.; Pezo, D.; and Martnez, L. 1980. Woolfe, J. 1992. The sweet potato, an
The use of sweetpotato (Ipomoea untapped food resource. Cambridge
batatas (L.) Lam) in animal feeding. University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Trop. Anim. Prod. 5:144-151. 643 p.
77
CHAPTER 11
PROSPECTS FOR CASSAVA STARCH

IN VIETNAM1
Dang Thanh Ha*, Le Cong Tru*, and G. Henry**
Introduction analyzing constraints and

opportunities for the cassava sector.
As the third most important crop after The 1991 cassava benchmark study
rice and maize, cassava accounts for (Howeler, 1996) included household
30% to 40% of secondary food surveys, focusing on cassava
production in Vietnam (Thang, 1993). production, on-farm processing, use
The total production of cassava was and consumption, and rural,
2.47 million tons of fresh roots in semiurban, and urban marketing.
1992 (Statistical Yearbook of Also included were processing
Vietnam, 1993) planted on surveys, which focused on the
277,200 ha. The Vietnamese technical and socioeconomic aspects
Government has shown interest in of different products processed and
this root crop as a cheap raw material major marketing channels.
for further processing.
Results from an analysis
In 1989, the Vietnamese Root and conducted by Henry et al. (1993) on
Tuber Research Program was founded the main constraints to cassava
as the first step toward strategically production, productivity, processing,
reorganizing root crop research in and marketing could serve as a base
Vietnam. In the past, most efforts in for strategic research planning in
agricultural research and Vietnam. Cassava-based products
development in Vietnam concentrated seem potentially significant for the
on production and little is known future. Henry et al. (1993) also
about consumer and user needs. reviewed the products and market
From 1990 onward, with CIATs opportunities of cassava in Vietnam,
assistance, a series of cassava but data were scarce and information
production, processing, and incomplete.
marketing analyses were conducted
in Vietnam, aimed at identifying and For decisions on future cassava
research and development in
Vietnam, additional in-depth studies
are required to analyze current and
future potential demand of different
* Department of Agricultural Economics, cassava-based products. Research on
University of Agriculture and Forestry, market demand is important because
Thuduc, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
consumer needs (including industry,
** Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
on-farm use, etc.) should first be
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. assessed and then production,
78
Prospects for Cassava Starch in Vietnam
processing, and marketing technology Current Cassava Use

geared to address specific
opportunities. Cassava roots have been used for
different purposes such as animal
This study aims, first, to analyze feed (flour), starch production (wet
current use of, and relative quantities and dry starch), fresh roots for
of, starch for different end products; human consumption, dried chips for
second, to estimate starch demand of export, and home-processing
these products for the future; and purposes such as maltose and alcohol
third, to recommend issues for future (Table 1).
cassava research and development
activities. Fresh roots (for human
consumption) and flour for animal
feed (both at the farm and by
Methodology industry) account for about 73% of
the total cassava production in
Data were collected by interviewing Vietnam. Total production of pigs
processors, traders, personnel from was about 13.9 million head and of
export companies, and manufacturers poultry, about 124.5 million head,
who use cassava starch as a raw representing the use of about
material. With manufacturers, the 1.4 million tons of cassava roots.
interview format included questions Cassava starch production is the
on production level, current inclusion second source of root consumption,
ratio of cassava starch, production representing about 16% of total
technology, technical requirements production. Chips for export account
for cassava starch, its growth rate, for almost 5%, and home-processing
and future demand. The time series (not including dried chips) 6%.
data available on cassava starch
consumption for each end product Currently, dried cassava starch is
and for the manufacture of some used in food processing and for home
products are neither reliable nor consumption, exported, and used by
consistent. Future cassava starch several industries such as textiles,
demand was therefore estimated by pharmaceuticals, cardboard,
using a simple method based on monosodium glutamate (MSG),
population and income growth. glucose, maltose, and plywood. The
Table 1. Cassava consumption in Vietnam, 1992.
Use Quantity of fresh roots
(t) (%)
Fresh roots (human consumption) 301,376.60 12

Animal feed (by farmers and industry) 1,503,845.90 61
Dried chips for export 120,000.00 5
Starch production:
Dried starch (80%) 316,062.00
Wet starch (20%) 79,015.50
Total starch (100%) 395,077.50 16
Home processing (dried chips and

starch not included) 150,000.00 6
Total 2,470,300.00 100
79
total demand for cassava roots for rates), limited and fluctuating root
starch production (both wet and supplies, seasonality, restricted
dried) was about 395,077 t in 1992. capital, and poor market
About 20% went to wet starch organization. These lead to low
production, mostly for local profits and fluctuating quality and
processing into low quality noodles levels of supply. Some large
(Binh et al., 1992). processing plants also use old
technologies. Currently, investors are
interested in improving cassava
Cassava Starch Processing starch processing technologies.
and Marketing
During the Vietnamese cassava Current Use of Cassava
benchmark survey in 1991, cassava Starch in Vietnamese
starch processing was found to be Industry
practiced in most of the provinces
surveyed. But the largest cassava Table 2 summarizes current cassava
starch processing areas are in the starch use. Most dried starch is
provinces of Dongnai and Tayninh, consumed at home (about 57%) and
and Ho Chi Minh City. Cassava by food processing industries (about
starch is produced either dried (about 36%).
80% of the total starch production) or
wet (20%) (Binh et al., 1992). Food processing and home
consumption
Most cassava starch production is
conducted by the household or Households form the largest group of
village. It is constrained by consumers of cassava roots (about
traditional technology (low conversion 60,000 t/year). Cassava starch is
Table 2. Use and quantity of starch in different end products, 1992, and potential demand of cassava by
year 2000.
End product Starch Potential demand in year 2000

consumption
(t) (%) (t) (%)
Dried starch
Food processing 25,000 35.60 30,000 16.51
Home consumption 40,000 56.95 45,000 24.76
Textiles 1,550 2.21 2,000 1.10
Monosodium glutamate 0 0 90,000 49.53
Carton 600 0.85 1,200 0.66
Glue (other purposes) 50 0.07 150 0.08
Plywood 96 0.14 120 0.07
Maltose 40 0.06 100 0.06
Glucose 1,800 2.56 3,000 1.65
Pharmaceutical products 100 0.14 150 0.08
Exports 1,000 1.42 10,000 5.50
Total 70,236 100.00 181,720 100.00
Wet starch
(Cakes, noodles, etc.) 17,559 18,000
Total starch consumption 87,795 199,720
Fresh root consumption 395,077 898,740
80
used to bake cakes, fry meat and fish, The low conversion rates, poor
make soup, and cook other traditional product quality, and high production
Vietnamese dishes. Cassava starch is costs made local MSG unable to
bought from retailers, who obtain it compete with imported MSG. Thus,
from wholesalers in urban and local many companies ceased production
markets, who, in their turn, receive it or attempted to modernize their
from processing centers. technology, sometimes through joint
ventures with foreign partners. The
The food processing industry, production of MSG decreased from
currently the countrys second largest 2,003 t in 1987 to 721 t in 1992
consumer, uses about 25,000 t of (Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam,
high quality dried cassava starch per 1993). In 1987, almost 12,000 t of
year. A diverse range of products is cassava starch were used by this
made, including bread, rice chips, industry. But with modern
and cakes. About 30% of total starch technology, MSG is produced mostly
used in rice chips is cassava. For from imported glutamate azide and
making cakes, cassava starch is not from cassava starch.
mixed with other starches from
soybean, green bean, rice, and wheat Since 1990, several foreign
flours. To be competitive with other multinationals have entered the MSG
starches, cassava starch must be sector. At first, they imported MSG to
cheap and of high quality. sell in Vietnam, but after conducting
market research, they concluded that
Monosodium glutamate production producing MSG in Vietnam was a
viable option. Currently, they are
The total MSG used in Vietnam is producing MSG from glutamate azide
currently about 40,000 t/year. Most imported from the mother company.
is imported from Japan, Taiwan, and At the same time, they are
Singapore, with only a small amount researching the market potential of
produced nationally. In the 1980s, MSG produced from local raw
Vietnamese companies produced material, availability of raw materials
MSG, using as raw material either (cassava starch, byproducts from the
cassava starch (75%) or byproducts sugar industry, and other starch
from the sugar industry (25%). These sources), possible sites, and
companies used old technology with production organization. Four new
low conversion rates: 6-6.5 t of MSG factories, with a capacity of
cassava starch produced 1 t of MSG. 35-40 thousand tons/year, are now
being planned.
Cassava starch was obtained from
processing centers through Textile industry
wholesalers. A starch quality of
90%-92% purity was required. About 1,550 t of cassava starch are
Constraints included fluctuating currently used per year by the textile
starch quality as a result of industry as size for weaving cotton
processors using different fabrics. Other possible substitute
technologies; and erratic supplies starches are maize, wheat flour,
because root availability depended on potato, and rice. In the past, some
harvest seasons. The MSG textile factories in northern Vietnam
companies had to store starch, but used maize starch, which was more
often lacked good storage facilities, readily available in the Red River
which, with the starchs variable Delta than cassava starch. Later, as
consistency and low quality, caused supplies increased, most factories
quality losses. changed to cassava starch, which is
81
technically more suitable and also About 200 kg of cassava starch

cheaper. The Government also are needed to produce 5 t of
encouraged the industry to replace cardboard. Currently, about 600 t of
starches from other food crops with cassava starch are used to produce
that from cassava. an annual 15,000 t of carton.
Starch supplies arrive at the The estimated consumption of

factories from the processing centers cassava starch for glues for other
through wholesalers. The average purposes, such as for offices and
price of high quality cassava starch, packing materials, is about 50 t/year.
in Vietnamese dngs (VND), is about
VND 2,000 to VND 2,200/kg. Starch Maltose and glucose production
for the textile industry must be
homogeneous in quality, pure Maltose production in Vietnam
(92%-95%), highly adhesive, consumes about 40 t of cassava
whitewith no change in starch annually, and that of glucose
colorunfermented, and resistant about 1,800 t. To produce 1 t of
to quality loss when stored. maltose, about 1-1.5 t of cassava
starch is needed, and for 1 t of
Some textile factories use modern glucose syrup, about 300 kg.2 Starch
weaving machinery that has a high has to be at least 90% pure for these
production capacity and high weaving two products. Maltose and glucose
speed. Such machinery requires high are used by the pharmaceutical and
quality glue, which is imported. This food-processing industries, which
glue could be made from chemically thus govern demand.
modified cassava starch, a product
that is likely to be used by the textile Plywood industry
industry in the future. But raw
cassava starch will still be used in Together with urea, formaldehyde,
small weaving factories, and for and other chemicals, cassava starch
producing the currently imported is used to produce industrial glue for
glue. plywood production. To produce 1 m2
of plywood, 0.46 kg of industrial glue
Glues for cardboard production and is used, of which about 30%-35% is
other purposes cassava starch. Wheat flour could
also be used, but, because of its
To produce cardboard and other relatively low price, cassava starch is
packing materials, starch from preferred. Starch must be pure (less
wheat flour, maize, rice, and than 5% of substance remaining after
cassava is used as glue. In burning), with a pH value of 5.5 to 6
Vietnam, cassava starch and flour (in unfermented starch), and contain
are readily available and relatively less than 10% cellulose. Whiteness is
cheap. Small cardboard-producing not important. Current plywood
units with simple technology use production is about 700,000 m2,
both cassava flour and starch, but consuming about 96 t of cassava
large modern factories use only starch annually.
cassava starch, as the flour does
not reach technical standards.
Cassava starch must be highly
adhesive and pure (90%-92%). 2. Glucose syrup is a concentrated aqueous
solution of saccharides derived from the
Whiteness is not so important. original starch. Hence, a greater weight of
Most processing centers can satisfy syrup is obtained from a given weight of
these criteria. starch.
82
The proportion of cassava starch of cassava starch urgently needs

in glues for plywood is relatively high improving to produce high quality
in Vietnam. In the 1980s, the cost of dextrin, maltose dextrin, and glucose
glues was about 30%-35% of total for pharmaceutical use.
production costs. Producers therefore
reduced production costs by including Exports
high rates of cassava starch (35%),
which decreased the products Vietnam exports mostly dried cassava
quality. As chemicals for glue chips and only a small quantity of
manufacture became cheaper, the dried cassava starch. About 30,000 t
proportion of cassava starch dropped of cassava chips is exported annually
from 35% to 30%. to the European Union (EU), 10,000 t
to Asian countries, and only 1,000 t
Pharmaceutical industry of cassava starch and tapioca pearl to
neighboring countries. Cassava chips
At present, the pharmaceutical exported to the EU cost US$120 to
industry uses cassava starch to US$130/t, whereas chips to Asian
produce medicinal tablets and pills. countries cost US$70 to US$80/t.
Purity, whiteness, and adhesiveness Because of the higher prices of
are the most important criteria, which exports to the EU, the local price of
traditional technology usually does dried chips has increased and exports
not meet. Thus, starch bought from to Asian countries have dropped.
processing centers has to undergo Asian export companies have
further processing to reach the therefore changed to exporting
needed quality. About 100 t of cassava starch or tapioca pearl.
cassava starch is consumed annually
by this industry. Major constraints to cassava
starch export, however, are poor
Despite the extra processing starch quality, inefficient processing
needed, cassava starch is cheaper and marketing system, shortages or
than other starches such as rice or poor storage facilities, relatively high
potato, and is in plentiful supply. transport costs, and insufficient
The technology for using cassava supplies. The current conversion
starch is also more readily rate from fresh root to dried starch
available. in processing is 5:1 in the wet
season and 4:1 in the dry season.
One constraint is that, under Dry matter content is high in the dry
some circumstances, the season but farmers set their
adhesiveness of dried cassava starch cropping calendar so that they can
is not as good as that of other harvest in the wet season when less
starches. For example, in the labor is needed, but when both
processing of certain medicines, water starch content and conversion rates
cannot be used because it may are low and the high humidity
interfere with the medicines effects. makes drying the starch difficult.
Research is therefore needed on Many processors therefore cannot
technologies that can directly use produce export quality starch. The
dried cassava starch in producing small-scale processing and low
tablets and pills. starch quality make collecting
enough starch for export difficult.
Although cassava processing These constraints make Vietnamese
factories specializing in starch for cassava starch noncompetitive with
pharmaceutical use satisfy the starch from China and Thailand.
industrys requirements, the quality
83
Although labor is cheap and for cassava starch is high, even with
farmgate prices are low in Vietnam, byproducts from the sugar industry
Thailand has more advantages for as an alternative source of starch.
producing cassava starch. These are Modern technology and suitable
lower prices for fresh roots (farmgate bacteria will help increase the
price is about US$20/t), large-scale conversion rate from cassava starch
and highly efficient processing, a very to MSG. Despite the increased use of
efficient marketing system with good byproducts from the sugar industry
storage facilities, high starch quality, (because of their lower prices), the
large volumes, and low transport demand for cassava starch will still be
costs. high, probably at about 90,000 t/year
in the year 2000.
Nevertheless, foreign companies
with high production capacity, better However, some constraints
technology, and better export facilities operate against using cassava starch
have invested in cassava starch in this industry, one of which is the
production in Vietnam. These large volumes of starch needed daily
investments may generate an as raw material. For example, to
increased opportunity for cassava produce 10,000 t of MSG per year, a
starch exports in the future. company needs about 29 t of
cassava starch of 90% purity per
day. About 116 t of fresh roots per
Cassava Starch Market day are needed to produce this
Potential amount of starch. Hence, obtaining
sufficient supplies under current
Future domestic demand for conditions is difficult. Even
different end products collecting such large volumes is
costly, especially in areas where
Cassava starch consumption is cassava production is not
currently important, accounting for concentrated. Transport costs are
about 20% of the total cassava acceptable up to a distance of
production. Assessments of the 120 km around the plant, but
stability of this status revealed organizing the collection can be a
considerable future potential, with problem.
increasing demand from the MSG and
other food processing industries, and Another problem is the seasonal
household consumption. nature of harvesting cassava,
occupying about 5 to 6 months/year,
The demand for MSG is expected coupled with a lack of adequate
to grow to 60,000 t by the year 2000. storage facilities. Hence, supplies of
Although MSG production for starch for year-round production are
domestic consumption is growing, insufficient.
increasing production for export is
difficult because neighboring If these constraints could be
countries also produce MSG, and in resolved, then the demand for
sufficient quantities for their own cassava starch for MSG production
consumption. MSG production in would be high.
Vietnam therefore satisfies mostly
domestic demand. Cassava starch, as a food for
household consumption, is inferior
Currently, most companies are and its demand declines with increase
using imported glutamate azide to in consumer income. However,
produce the MSG, but the potential demand grows with population
84
increase. With an expected pharmaceutical industry will not

population growth of 2.1% and an increase much. The demand in
expected gross national product (GNP) glucose production may be higher
growth of 8%/year, the demand for with about 3,000 t/year. Table 2
cassava starch for household summarizes the estimated future
consumption, is conservatively demand by industry.
estimated to increase from 60,000 to
65,000 t/year by the year 2000. Export potential
In the food processing industry, By the year 2000, cassava starch

as products diversify, the use of exports will have significantly
cassava starch will increase greatly in increased. At present, foreign
the future. Cassava starch will be companies are investing in the
used in producing higher quality food cassava processing sector and
products and new ones such as exporting their products. The
different kinds of cakes and snacks. prospects for increased exports of
But higher starch quality will be cassava starch are good, once large
needed. processing plants are at full capacity
and using modern technology. Better
Textile industries are expected to facilities and high-yielding varieties
expand substantially. Thus, with high starch content would
demand for high quality glues (made improve the conversion ratio and
from chemically modified starch) starch quality, and lower production
and modern technology, such as costs. By the year 2000, export
high-speed weaving machinery, will volume may reach 10,000 t/year.
increase demand for modified But once the comparative advantage
cassava starch, which, in turn, may of cheap labor declines, more starch
encourage the local production of will be used for domestic industrial
cassava starch. The potential consumption.
demand for cassava starch in the
textile industry is expected to be Competition from other starches
about 2,000 t/year.
Cassava starch has a relatively lower
Demand for cassava starch as price than rice starch and wheat flour
raw material for glues for cardboard (Table 3), a price relationship which is
production is expected to increase
to about 1,200 t and for other
purposes to 150 t. These demands,
however, account for only a small Table 3. Prices of some products in Ho Chi Minh
proportion of the total future starch City, Vietnam, November 1993.
(VND 1,080.00 = US$1.00.)
demand.
Product Wholesale price Retail price
In the plywood industry, higher (VND/kg) (VND/kg)
quality plywood will be needed. The
Cassava starch quality:
proportion of cassava starch as raw I 2,200 2,300
material for glue production will II 2,000 2,200
decline from 30% to 20%-25% in the III 1,800 2,000
future. But if plywood production Rice starch 2,900 3,000
increases, about 120 t of cassava Wheat flour 3,000 3,200
will be used annually. Cassava flour 950 1,300
Cassava noodles 3,200 3,300
Monosodium
The demand for cassava starch for glutamate 5,500 16,000
maltose production and for the
85
unlikely to change in the future. The food processing, household

price of rice starch will not decline consumption, textiles, and glucose
compared with that of cassava are the current major cassava starch
starch because of technology and consumers. Demand in the MSG
because the Government will not industry is expected to increase
encourage the use of rice starch in greatly. Little change will occur in
industry. Wheat flour is less the demand for cassava starch in food
competitive with industrial cassava processing and household
starch because it is imported, thus consumption, which is expected to
using scarce currency and increasing remain very high in these two sectors.
production costs. Other starches In the food processing industry,
such as cinnamon and maize are products using cassava starch are
mostly used in the food processing highly diverse, requiring better starch
sector, being either too expensive or quality. Cassava starch exports will
too scarce for industrial use. also increase substantially. Demand
for cassava starch by the year 2000 is
The influence of government expected to be more than twice the
policies on market potential present level (Table 4).
The Vietnamese Government The trend of cultivated areas in

emphasizes substitution by cassava Vietnam (Table 5) shows that the area
and other roots and tubers to favor planted to cassava is decreasing and
rice for domestic human productivity is only slightly
consumption and export. The increasing. In the future, the cassava
Government also encourages the area is likely to decrease further as
export of agricultural products, other industrial crops of higher value
including cassava-based products, replace cassava. With the expected
such as dried chips and starch, increase in future demand for cassava
through a zero export tax. Taxes are starch, a gap between supply and
also used to protect domestic demand will develop. The gap will
production by limiting the import of widen further with increasing
goods that can be produced in demand for cassava flour for livestock
Vietnam. For example, the import and poultry feed. If cassava
tax on MSG and wheat flour is 20% productivity is not improved,
of the c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and shortages can be expected in the
freight) price. future.
The Government policy also Because cassava area cannot be

encourages investment in the increased, extra supplies can be
cassava sector. These policies can obtained only by intensifying cassava
greatly affect the business potential production. Introducing high-yielding
of cassava starch, especially in the and high starch content varieties
MSG industry and cassava would help solve this problem.
processing for export. As a result,
several foreign companies have But introducing high-yielding
invested in these two sectors. varieties requires research on
adopting new varieties in different
agronomic regions, transferring
Conclusions technology to farmers, and the
farmers adopting new technology.
The analysis of current cassava Despite the higher yields, improved
starch use and proportion of starch varieties require much more chemical
in different end products reveals that fertilizers, pesticides, and labor than
86
Table 4. Potential growth of cassava starch by industry, Vietnam, 1992-2000.
Product 1992 demand Estimated demand Growth rate

(t) in year 2000 (t) (%)
Dried starch
Food processing 25,000 30,000 20
Home consumption 40,000 45,000 13
Textiles 1,550 2,000 29
Monosodium glutamate 0 90,000 very large
Carton 600 1,200 100
Glue for other purposes 50 150 200
Plywood 96 120 25
Maltose 40 100 150
Glucose 1,800 3,000 67
Pharmaceutical products 100 150 50
Exports 1,000 10,000 900
Total 70,236 181,720 159
Wet starch 17,559 18,000 3
Total starch consumption 87,795 199,720 127
Total fresh root consumption 395,077 898,740 127
Table 5. Total cultivated area and production of disposition toward cassava-based

cassava in Vietnam, 1976-1992.
products created. Such integrated
Year Cultivated area Production
research needs cooperation among
(000 ha) (000 t) agronomists, plant breeders,
processing technologists, and
1976 243.5 1,843.1 economists. Only by these means can
1980 442.9 3,323.0 possible losses to society be
1985 335.0 2,939.8
eliminated. For example, in 1987,
1986 314.7 2,882.3
farmers were encouraged to produce
1987 298.9 2,738.3
1988 317.7 2,838.3
more cassava even though market
1989 284.6 2,585.4 demand was decreasing. The result
1990 256.8 2,275.8 was an over supply of cassava and a
1991 273.2 2,454.9 significant drop in the price of fresh
1992 277.2 2,470.3 roots. The drop was so great that
farmers did not harvest.
SOURCE: Statistical Year Book of Vietnam, 1993.
To develop the cassava sector, the

Government should provide adequate
do local varieties, and not all farmers statistics and make information on
can afford them. Ignorance of new prices, demand, and other marketing
technology and lack of credit are features widely available to help
further constraints to farmers farmers, processors, and other
adopting new technology, requiring producers decide appropriately. The
increased extension. Government should also clearly
indicate its pricing policies.
For the cassava sector and
agriculture in general to develop in The technical requirements of
harmony, cassava production, starch quantity and the quality of
processing, and marketing must be different end products made with
coordinated, and a favorable cassava starch could be used as
87
criteria for cassava production and Howeler, R. H. (ed.). 1996. A benchmark

starch processing. To satisfy future study on cassava production,
processing and marketing in
requirements for cassava starch Vietnam: proceedings of a workshop
quantity and quality, many held in Hanoi, Vietnam, Oct. 29-31,
improvements in production, 1992, to present and discuss the
processing, and marketing should be results of a nation-wide survey
made. Traditional processing units conducted in 1991-1992. Vietnam
Ministry of Agriculture and Food
must invest in modern processing Industry (MAFI) and Regional
plant and improve their efficiency, Cassava Program for Asia, CIAT,
that is, have higher conversion ratios Bangkok, Thailand. 284 p.
and better starch quality.
Thang, N. V. 1993. Cassava in Vietnam: an
overview. Draft for: Howeler, R. H.
(ed.). A benchmark study on cassava
References production, processing and
marketing in Vietnam: proceedings of
Binh, P. T.; Hung, N. M.; Tru, L. C.; and a workshop held in Hanoi, Vietnam,
Henry, G. 1993. Socio-economic Oct. 29-31, 1992, to present and
aspects of cassava production, discuss the results of a nation-wide
marketing and rural processing in survey conducted in 1991-1992.
Vietnam. Draft for: Howeler, R. H. Vietnam Ministry of Agriculture and
(ed.). A benchmark study on cassava Food Industry (MAFI) and Regional
production, processing and Cassava Program for Asia, CIAT,
marketing in Vietnam: proceedings of Bangkok, Thailand. p. 12-33.
a workshop held in Hanoi, Vietnam,
Oct. 29-31, 1992, to present and Statistical Year Book of Vietnam. 1993.
discuss the results of a nation-wide Hanoi, Vietnam.
survey conducted in 1991-1992.
Vietnam Ministry of Agriculture and
Food Industry (MAFI) and Regional
Cassava Program for Asia, CIAT,
Bangkok, Thailand. p. 113-158.
Henry, G.; Binh, P. T.; Tru, L. C.; and

Gottret, M. V. 1993. Cassava
constraints and opportunities in
Vietnam: a step toward a common
R&D agenda. Working document
no. 128. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
88
Cassava Flour Processing and Marketing in Indonesia
CHAPTER 12
CASSAVA FLOUR PROCESSING AND

MARKETING IN INDONESIA
D. S. Damardjati*, S. Widowati*,
T. Bottema**, and G. Henry***
Abstract Small farmers and farmer groups

receive increased added value by
In Indonesia, cassava is the fourth producing cassava chiplets (sawut)
most important food crop after rice, instead of gaplek (dried cassava
maize, and soybeans. An average of chips). Marketing, however, is still a
16 million tons of cassava is produced major constraint for the cassava flour
annually, most of which goes to starch agroindustry.
extraction or is exported as pellets and
chips. But markets are unstable and A consumer-acceptance study,
farmers have few incentives to produce conducted in the Purwakarta region
more cassava. and Ponorogo district, showed that
about 80% of cassava flour was
Processing for cassava flour began considered acceptable. About 84% of
in 1990 to diversify cassava products. consumers thought the flour was
The cassava flour agroindustry acceptable for household
consists of three major production consumption, which was estimated at
systems: at the farm (model 1), 4-7 kg/month per household.
farmers groups (model 2), and the mill, Because cassava flour can substitute
which acts as a nucleus by linking wheat flour in wheat-based products
farmers and farmers groups, through by as much as 30%, the entire local
their fresh roots and dried chips, with production of cassava flour can be
cassava flour distributors and absorbed, especially by the food
consumers (model 3). Processing industries. PT Mariza, a private
capacities of the three systems during company, has begun industrial
harvesting are about 75 kg of roots per production of cassava flour and is
day for model 1, 500 kg for model 2, developing a marketing system.
and 10,000 kg for model 3. Yield
recovery of 25% to 30% has been
obtained for dried chips, and 24% to Introduction
29% for cassava flour.
Agriculture is an important
component of the Indonesian
* Bogor Research Institute for Food Crops
economy, providing 49% of total
(BORIF), Bogor, Indonesia employment, and about 18% of the
** Center for Research and Development of gross domestic product (GDP). Food
Coarse Grains, Pulses, Roots and Tuber crops alone represent 62% of the GDP
Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the
Pacific (CGPRT), Bogor, Indonesia from the agricultural sector, that is,
*** Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 12% of the total GDP (1991 figures).
89
Rice is the chief food crop, followed cassava-growing regions have

by soybeans, maize, and cassava. increased. (Less than 10 years ago
Other secondary crops are peanuts, about 65% of total production came
mung beans, and sweetpotatoes. from Java alone [Dimyati and
Minor crops with a potential future in Manwan, 1992]). Factors causing the
food production are several cereals, reduced harvest area are complex:
legumes, roots, and tubers. incentives and sharp price
fluctuations have induced farmers to
Cassava is grown on about grow cassava, but factors such as
1.4 million hectares throughout the establishing irrigation facilities and
country, with an average production of reforestation have reduced planting
16.3 million tons/year (CBS, 1992). area.
The crop is used as food and for
starch extraction, and is exported as The average yield per hectare of
feed (Damardjati et al., 1992). The cassava is rather low at 12 t, but the
cassava market overall, however, is trend has been toward a constant
unstable and tends to discourage increase in yields. A much higher
farmers from producing cassava. yield can be obtained through
improved cultural practices. On the
Recently, the Government began estate of a tapioca plant in Lampung,
promoting cassava for industrial a yield of 25-30 t/ha of cassava has
purposes and food. A preliminary been continuously attained
economic analysis indicated that (Rusastra, 1988) as a result of a
cassava flour production and use in cassava intensification program
processed foods would be feasible. A started by the Government in 1975
series of investigations on cassava (Dimyati and Manwan, 1992).
flour production and use was therefore Moreover, research findings suggest
begun by several research institutes that yields can be as much as
operating under the auspices of the 75 t/ha.
Central Research Institute for Food
Crops (CRIFC). Between 1978 and 1992, cassava
production fluctuated, with a peak at
The CRIFC then collaborated with 17.1 million tons during the late
private companies to develop a 1980s. In 1992, about 16 million tons
cassava-flour agroindustry model at were produced (Figure 1).
the village level in several locations in
Indonesia (Damardjati et al., 1992).
This paper presents the results of 30

our study on the development of the
Supply (million tons)
25
cassava-flour production system,
consumer acceptance, and the 20
marketing of cassava flour.
15
10
Cassava Production, 5
Consumption, and Use
0
Production 1978 80 82 84 86 88 90 92
Year
In Indonesia during the past decade,
Figure 1. Domestic supply of rice ( ), cassava ( ),
the harvest area has decreased while and wheat ( ) in Indonesia, 1978-1992.
both productivity and the number of (Taken from CBS, 1978-1992.)
90
Domestic demand and consumption Processing and use
Annual per capita consumption of According to the Indonesian food

cassava as food has been decreasing balance sheet for 1991 (CBS, 1992),
gradually from about 57 kg in 1983 to total cassava production in 1991
51 kg in 1988 (Damardjati et al., was almost 16 million tons. Of this,
1990). From 1988 to 1992, almost 57% was consumed as both
consumption of cassava and other fresh and processed food, 21% was
secondary crops fluctuated, showing a processed into gaplek and pellets, of
correlation with rice consumption which 41% were exported and 59%
(Table 1). went to industry. Tapioca starch
was produced from about 8% of
Cassava also became an important harvested cassava, mostly for export,
export crop. Since 1982, Indonesia but, if sold on the domestic market,
has exported a yearly quota of gaplek also for making krupuk. The rest is
and pellets to the European Union used in other food, textile, paper,
(EU), as well as to other countries. glucose, and pharmaceutical
Since 1989, Indonesia has also industries. Postharvest losses are
regularly exported tapioca starch still relatively high at 13% (Table 3).
(Table 2).
Cassava use in Indonesia differs
Cassava availability for domestic throughout the country. In Java,
food consumption is related to the where 60% of the population resides,
total export of all cassava products cassava is primarily for human
(chips, pellets, and starch). For consumption. Unnevhr (1990)
example, domestic consumption of reported that the rural dwellers,
cassava in 1990 was lower than that producers, and major consumers of
in 1992, because exports were higher cassava use about 62% of roots and
in 1990. 49% of the gaplek they produce for
their family needs.
The consumption of cassava as a
foodstuff is concentrated in Java, thus Currently, the demand for
making demand more stable and cassava in Indonesia seems to have
easier to estimate. Outside Java, in reached a plateau, but experts
areas such as Lampung, the anticipate an increase in domestic
international market and industrial demand during the next decade for
activities influence demand. both food and industrial purposes.
Table 1. Average per capita consumption of major food crops in Indonesia, 1986-1992.
Crop Consumption
1986 1988 1990 1992

kg/year cal/day kg/year cal/day kg/year cal/day kg/year cal/day
Rice 147.36 1,453 150.18 1,481 150.05 1,480 147.91 1,459

Cassava 51.44 154 51.00 154 43.07 129 57.40 172
Sweetpotato 11.05 32 10.93 32 9.74 28 10.34 30
Wheat 5.96 60 6.59 60 7.54 75 10.36 104
Maize 29.25 256 30.75 256 29.68 260 34.63 303
Soybean 8.80 80 9.45 80 10.72 97 12.57 114
SOURCES: CBS, 1988; 1990; 1992; 1994.
91
Table 2. International trade in Indonesian cassava (t), 1983-1992.
Year Exports Imports
Chips Starch Chips Starch
1983 358,346 1,602 - 63,883

1984 365,161 183 - 3
1985 343,303 107,000 - 21
1986 424,600 - 165,000 20,500
1987 783,776 116,000 41,750 9,500
1988 825,000 - 250,000 23,000
1989 834,000 282,000 - -
1990 697,000 487,000 - -
1991 494,000 317,000 - 12,000
1992 372,000 135,000 79,000 34,000
SOURCE: CBS, 1992.
Table 3. Trends of cassava production and use in Indonesia (thousands of tons).
Item Fresh cassavaa
1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 Percentageb of

total production
Total production 13,312 15,471 17,117 15,830 15,954 100

Losses 1,572 2,011 2,225 2,058 2,074 13
Feed for domestic use 242 309 342 317 319 2
Roots for chips 4,281 3,900 3,336 21
Total chips produced (1,540) (1,403) (1,200)
Exports (424) (825) (834) (697) (494)
Tapioca starch 1,150 1,881 1,232 8
Domestic use (322) (527) (345)
Exports (282) (487) (357)
Food consumption 8,573 8,863 9,119 7,674 8,993 56
Food industry 5,431 5,781 4,568
a. Values in parentheses indicate dried cassava.

b. Percentages are rounded.
SOURCES: CBS, 1988; 1990; 1991; 1992; 1993.
Developing of Appropriate The Indonesian Government is

Technology for Cassava Flour attempting to develop the potential of
cassava flour as a food for domestic
Developing diversified uses for cassava consumption and as a raw material for
and the appropriate technology should both household consumption and the
extend the market and strengthen food industry to complement or
farmers bargaining power in that they substitute wheat flour. The
would have other buyers available and Government has recommended that
could command better prices. New the agricultural and industrial sectors
alternatives for cassava use should be make special efforts in promoting
simple and easy, and give added value cassava by diversifying cassava
directly to the farmers. processed products, improving their
92
quality, and promoting their use sieved (Damardjati et al., 1992). The
among the different strata of the village distribution and processing
Indonesian population. system commonly used for handling
agricultural products involves three
Several research institutes, the types of processor groups:
public sector, and private companies (1) individual farmers, (2) farmers
have developed machine prototypes for groups, and (3) groups of village union
cassava processing and new recipes for cooperatives, known as Koperasi Unit
preparing food using cassava products, Desa (KUDs), processors, millers, and
and have promoted the use of cassava flour producers. Figure 2
composite cassava-wheat flour in shows the overall cassava processing
preparing foodstuffs such as breads, system, with three tradable products
pasta, and cookies. produced during the processing of
flour from harvesting to marketing:
The use of a model of an (1) roots, (2) dried cassava chips, and
agroindustrial system based on (3) cassava flour.
cassava flour production would
support efforts to transfer technology Models for cassava flour production
from researchers to farmers, who could
then commercialize the system. The The KUD or other entrepreneur group
system would then be supported by a is appointed as the nucleus processor
continuous distribution and marketing responsible for cassava-flour
system. processing and marketing. Three
models of cassava flour production can
Developing the processing operation be derived from the overall pattern of
cassava distribution and marketing
To produce cassava flour, roots are and transaction products. The models
peeled, washed, chipped, pressed, are individual farmers (model 1),
dried, ground or milled, and then farmers groups (model 2), and cassava
Cassava
Peeling Washing Chipping
roots
and soaking
1,000 kg
Pressing Slurry
Peel Drying Steeping

170 kg
Drying Chips Drying

330 kg
Feed Fiber Milling Starch

30 kg
Cassava Food
flour industry
310 kg
Packaging
Figure 2. Model of cassava processing system in Indonesia. Ovals indicate tradable products.
93
flour plants that act as nuclei that link (4) Sufficient infrastructure such as
farmers and farmers groups, by buying transport and marketing facilities.
their fresh roots and chips and milling
them, with distributors and consumers Infrastructure needed to implement
(model 3) (Damardjati et al., 1992). project
Implementing the project brought

Developing the Agroindustry together all aspects of production,
for Cassava Flour Processing processing, and marketing of
cassava chips and flour. The most
With finance from its own project appropriate available technology was
budget, the ARM-AARD project, and tested in real-life situations. Table 4
the Government Corporation (PT Petro shows the space and installations
Kimia Gresik), SURIF undertook to required for a village-level processing
develop and establish a project to operation.
develop a cassava-flour agroindustry
for village farmers. PT Petro Kimia Problems encountered were
Gresik acted as the nucleus company. variable product quality in
farmer-processed chips; inadequate
Site selection quality control for both chips and
flour; inadequate communication
Several sites were chosen for the between farmers and processors;
project, based on the following criteria: difficulties in developing handling
systems for poor quality chips; and
(1) Desire to participate, and difficulties in establishing the social
participation, on the part of organization needed for processes
farmers (or farmers group) and the that produce marketable products.
KUD or private company as Operational research directed toward
processor in the production of resolving these problems was an
dried chips and cassava flour. essential component of the project.
(2) The village or subdistrict selected
must be a cassava production Supply and sorting area. Fresh
center at the district or provincial roots are supplied to this area and
level. higher quality roots separated for
(3) Readiness of the KUD or processor processing. This area is most
to produce cassava flour and important at the processor level where
collect dried chips from farmers or it is a part of the processing area. The
their groups. roots are weighed, graded, grouped,
Table 4. Infrastructure required by three models of the cassava chip and flour agroindustry, Indonesia.
Infrastructure Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

(individual farmer) (farmers group) (processor as nucleus)
Supply and sorting area 4-8 10-16 20-30

(m)
Processing area (m) 10-15 30-40 300-500
Drying area (m) 20-30 80-100 800-1,000
Storage room for chips 8-12 20-30 200-300
(m)
Storage room for flour - - 1,000
(in tons of flour)
94
and sequentially processed according the same as for chips. Cassava flour
to their time of harvest. Ideally, all is more compact than chips, and
roots should be processed no later therefore requires less space. Cassava
than 24 h after harvest. flour is stored only for short periods
before being sold.
Processing area. In models 1
and 2, roots are peeled, washed, Processing procedures
soaked, chipped, and pressed in this
area. In model 3, milling and packing The procedures followed by the village
are also done here. The area must plant to process cassava flour are root
have a brick or plastered platform with handling, peeling, washing and
sufficient slope to provide good soaking, chipping, pressing, drying,
drainage and easy cleaning. In East milling, and packing.
Java, the size of the processing area for
model 3 is about 4 x 10 m. In model 1, Root handling. The
processing is usually done in the characteristics and quality of the
backyard or kitchen. Some model 2 eventual cassava products influence
systems have an area set aside, the way roots are handled by farmers.
usually in a group leaders house or Root handling includes time and
office. methods of harvesting, transport from
the field, and storage. For a good
Drying area. Sun drying is the quality product, roots should be
most appropriate and cheapest method processed in less than 24 h after
for all three models to dry chips. The harvest.
drying area must be completely
exposed to the sun, with a small Peeling. Roots are peeled
shaded area where workers can spread manually with a knife or traditional
wet chips on to trays before moving peeler, usually by women. Peeled
them into the sun. The area is cassava yield is about 70%-80%, that
completed with a wooden or bamboo is, 15-20 kg/ha per person.
rack to hold the trays during drying.
Ideally, trays are 0.8 x 2 m and can Washing and soaking. Peeled
carry 7-10 kg of wet chips, depending cassava is washed thoroughly, then
on the weather. Model 3 has a drying soaked overnight (for high-cyanogen
area capacity of 6,000 kg. cultivars), or for a few minutes
(low-cyanogen cultivars) while waiting
Storage room for chips. Once to be chipped. Soaking should be done
dried, chips are packed and stored in a in excess water to inhibit browning and
room. The platformed floor is covered reduce cyanogenic (HCN) potential
with wood or bamboo to protect the where necessary.
chips from direct contact with the
concrete or brick floor. In model 3, the Chipping and pressing. Peeled
storage room is also used to keep and soaked roots are then chipped into
products collected from farmers or 0.2-0.5 x 1-5 cm chips. The wet chips
farmers groups. The chips are stored are then placed on a tray and pressed
until milled or sold. In models 1 and with either a screw or hydraulic press.
2, no special area is set aside for Pressing reduces moisture, drying
storing chips, which are stored with time, and HCN content, especially for
other field produce in the central high-cyanogen cultivars. It is optional
house. for low-cyanogen cultivars.
Storage room for flour. The floor Drying. Pressed chips are spread
area for storing cassava flour is about out on a bamboo or aluminum tray,
95
which is put on a rack in direct from other sources at a ratio of 60% to

sunlight. Pressed chips take between 40%, respectively. These mixed chips
14 h and 2 days to dry, whereas are either suitably stored or milled for
unpressed chips take 2-3 days. The distribution, or sent to the distributor.
faster the drying, the better the quality
of chips. This system has advantages for
both the plant and the farmers. The
Packing and milling. Dried plant guarantees that all chips
chips are packed in double plastic produced by the farmers will be
bags, which are tightly sealed. accepted and bought. Advantages for
They can then be stored for about the plant are that its equipment,
6 months. Chips from models 1 and 2 especially the mill, operates at optimal
are taken to the processor, whereas in capacity; it obtains, indirectly, drying
model 3 the chips are milled to flour, areas from farmers and farmers
using a 60-80 m mesh. Usually the groups; labor efficiency is optimized;
flour is packed into thick plastic bags and plant operational time is longer
(0.5-1.0 kg) or into double sacks during the cassava off-season because
(25 kg). of its stock of dried chips.
Implementing the agroindustrial Material, energy, and production

model for cassava flour production cost analysis. Material conversion
value in cassava flour processing is
Processing operation system. influenced by root size and peel,
The agroindustrial model follows a cassava variety, and equipment used.
foster-parent system in which the Large, easily peeled roots mean higher
big Government-owned corporations yields. Table 5 indicates the material
are appointed as foster parents. The conversion in each processing step
foster-parent company was (Damardjati et al., 1991). The average
supported with equipment and yield of dried chips is 34% and of flour,
technical skills through collaboration 32%. Screw pressing results in a
with research and development slightly higher yield than hydraulic
institutes. For example, pressing. The root cyanogenic potential
SURIF/CRIFC and PT Petro Aneka strongly influences yield recovery of
Usaha collaborated in founding an dried starch. Normally, high-cyanogen
agroindustrial system for cassava flour cultivars contain more starch than do
in Ponorogo district. low-cyanogen cultivars.
At the village level, an At the time of the study, labor

agroindustrial model has been wages were 2,500 rupiahs/day
developed in which the farmers or (exchange rate was Rp 2,126 =
farmers groups produce dried chips US$1.00). Based on the
as an intermediate product. The yield recovery of flour (32%), the total
foster parent is the milling plant, production cost of cassava flour was
which produces cassava flour. In this 18,725 rupiahs/kg.
system, farmers produce dried chips
two to three times a week, depending Economic analysis
on their capacity and the weather.
The farmers or farmers groups pool Price determination. Standard
their dried chips before sending them prices are an important factor in the
to the cassava flour plant. cassava flour agroindustry, and are
usually higher than those of sliced
The plant mixes the chips gaplek, which are unstable and depend
collected from this source with those on middlemen. Farmers have no
96
bargaining power. Gaplek prices and the foster-parent factory

always decrease, especially during peak collaborated to determine a standard
season. Farmers producing dried chips price for dried chips, which, in 1992,
also face the same problem as do was 270 rupiahs/kg of chips.
gaplek farmers. For example, one
factory buys cassava chips from Added value for farmer.
farmers at a higher price (Rp 50/kg Traditionally, farmers in Ponorogo
more) than the highest price for gaplek. district processed cassava roots into
Another factory, however, uses a table gaplek. Table 6 compares the added
based on root prices. value of chips with that of gaplek
for farmers, showing that the
Farmers do not readily accept these added value for farmers was
methods of determining prices. SURIF 2,175 rupiahs/100 kg of roots.
Table 5. Yield recovery in cassava flour processing calculated from 500 kg of fresh cassava.
Form of cassava Number of Processing Average

samples recovery (%) conversion value
Min. Max. (%)
Peeled roots 15 73 83 80
Soaked and peeled roots 12 74 88 82
Wet chips before pressing 15 70 88 80
Pressed chips:
Screw press 6 61 68 65
Hydraulic press 6 61 66
Dried chips: 34
Screw press 6 29 37
Hydraulic press 6 22 37
Flour 15 30 34 32
Dried starch (byproduct) 9 2 5
SOURCE: Damardjati et al., 1991.
Table 6. Added value of cassava chips compared with that of gaplek for farmers, Ponorogo district,
Indonesia, 1992a.
Item Costs in rupiahsb

Dried chips Gaplek
Labor costs:
Peeling 1,000 1,000
Chipping and drying 1,000
Equipment hire (Rp 10/kg dried chips) 300
Total costs 2,300 1,000
Product price 270 125

Income from product 8,100 5,625
Economic profit 5,000 4,625
Economic income + wage 7,800 5,625
Added income 2,175 0
a. Calculations based on 100 kg of roots, gaplek yield at 45%, chips yield at 30%, 1992 prices of gaplek at
Rp 125/kg and sawut (chiplets) at Rp 270/kg, and equipment hire for dried chips at Rp 10/kg.
b. Exchange rate: Rp 2,126 = US$1.00 (January 1994).
97
Consumer Acceptance cracker-like product. Table 8 shows

and Marketing the basic ingredients and processing.
Survey on consumer acceptance More than 50% of respondents

used cassava flour to bake traditional
Consumer acceptance and market foods because they were simple to
assessment studies were conducted prepare, were familiar, and the other
in two locations with different ingredients readily available. The
consumer characteristics: respondents different income levels
Purwakarta region and Ponorogo were reflected in the different
district, both in East Java. The preferences for food types prepared
inhabitants of Purwakarta and from cassava flour (Table 9). About
Karawang districts in the 43% of high-income consumers
Purwakarta region do not produce preferred to process cassava flour
cassava and eat it infrequently. In into cake as compared with 21% of
contrast, Ponorogo district is a medium- and 29% of low-income
major cassava-producing area where consumers who tended to prefer
the inhabitants eat cassava as the traditional foods. Table 10 gives
second staple after rice. examples of traditional foods in
which cassava flour can be used as a
A survey was first carried out on substitute for other flours.
115 families in Purwakarta region
and 124 in Ponorogo district to Consumer acceptance for
discover the acceptability of cassava long-term consumption. The survey
flour, its use, and consumer also assessed consumer acceptance
preferences. In both areas, more of and the kind of food products
than 80% of respondents did not made from cassava flour in the long
know of the product but, when it term. Most respondents used as
was introduced, received it well much as 50% cassava flour mixed
(more than 84% of respondents). with another flour such as wheat,
tapioca, or rice for traditional foods
More than 50% of respondents (e.g., bala-bale, fried banana, and
from both areas used the cassava putu ayu) and cakes. For cookies
flour to make traditional foods. and krupuk, relatively little was used
Respondents from Purwakarta (Damardjati et al., 1992), although as
region also tended to like cookies much as 60% substitution with
and cakes (Table 7), whereas those cassava flour, resulting in good
from Ponorogo district tended to quality cookies, has been reported
prefer traditional foods. One reason (Damardjati et al., 1992). Cassava
for the difference may be location: flour and tapioca (cassava starch),
the Purwakarta region is larger and mixed at a ratio of 1:3, respectively,
most respondents were more have been used in krupuk, resulting
educated and skilled in food in an acceptable product (Suismono
products. and Wheatley, 1991).
Consumers use of cassava In a cooking trial, carried out by

flour. Cassava flour can be used as 115 respondents, cassava flour was
a substitute flour in wheat-based accepted by about 84% and rejected
products. For household by about 15%. The respondents
consumption, most respondents average demand for cassava flour is
preferred to process it into either about 5-7 kg/month. The group that
(1) traditional foods, (2) cakes, purchased the most had a medium
(3) cookies, or (4) krupuk, a income. Most consumers would
98
Table 7. Consumer preferences for cassava products in Purwakarta region and Ponorogo district (%),
Indonesia.
Product Consumers in Consumers in

Purwakarta regiona Ponorogo districta
Like Dislike Like Dislike
Traditional foods 57.0 3.3 59.7 12.1

Cookies or crackers 13.1 0.9 8.9 0.8
Cakes 37.8 1.8 9.7 8.9
a. Number of households surveyed was 115 in Purwakarta and 124 in Ponorogo.
SOURCES: Damardjati et al., 1993; Martini, 1992.
Table 8. Processing and ingredients of products processed from cassava flour, Indonesia.
Type of ingredient Traditional Cookies Cakes Krupuk

and process foods
Basic Wheat flour Wheat flour Wheat flour Tapioca flour

ingredients Rice flour
Additional Margarine Margarine Margarine Cane sugar

ingredients Eggs Eggs Eggs
Cane sugar Cane sugar Cane sugar
Vegetables
Coconut milk
Other Salt Leavening Leavening Salt

ingredients Artificial coloring Flavoring Artificial Spices
flavoring Flavoring
Process Steamed, fried, or Oven-baked Oven-baked Steamed before

roasted frying
Table 9. Consumer preferences (%) among foods prepared from cassava flour, Purwakarta region and
Ponorogo district, Indonesia. Samples given during a consumer-preference survey.
Respondent group Processed products
Traditional foods Cookies Cakes Krupuk
Purwakarta region
Income group:
Low (n = 39) 67.6 16.2 29.7 2.7
Medium (n = 46) 75.6 12.2 21.9 2.4
High (n = 30) 53.3 13.3 43.3 -
Ponorogo district:
Urban (n = 57) 66.7 17.5 15.8 -
Village (n = 67) 76.1 1.8 24.6 -
99
Table 10. Traditional food products made with cassava flour as substitute flour, Indonesia.
Local name Cassava Other Brief description

flour (%) flour
Bala-bale 50 Wheat Mixture of flour, water, vegetables, and spices. Fried.

Cimplung 50 Wheat Mixture of flour, water, sliced jackfruit, and salt. Fried.
Nagasari 70 Maize Mixture of flour, coconut milk, sugar, salt, vanilla, maize flour, and
cooked. Filled with sliced banana and wrapped in banana leaf.
Steamed.
Jongkong 50 Rice Dough of flour mixed with coconut milk and salt, and cooked.
Filled with sliced palm sugar and thick coconut milk. Wrapped in
banana leaf. Steamed.
Ongol-ongol 65 Wheat Mixture of flour, water, and sugar, and cooked. Formed, cooled, and
sliced. Served with grated coconut.
Dodongkal 100 - Cooked flour with water and salt. Dough filled with shredded palm
or awug sugar. Served with grated coconut.
Biji salak 100 - Small balls made from flour dough and cooked. Served with sweet
coconut milk and sliced jackfruit.
Bika Ambon 35 Rice Two mixtures of flour, egg, fermipan, and coconut water. One
mixture worked into a dough. Other mixture cooked with sugar and
coconut milk until oily. The two mixtures then combined and baked.
250
process cassava flour into traditional
foods (41.7%) and cakes (21.7%).
200
Marketing problems. During

Tonnage
150
the several years of establishing and
developing the cassava flour 100
agroindustry, marketing was the first
problem faced. Cassava flour was 50
unknown and the market had to be
developed. Farmers and farmers 0
Jan. Mar. May July Sept. Nov.
groups depend heavily on a mill to act
as nucleus for collecting and buying Figure 3. Trends in purchasing chips and selling
cassava flour by PT Mariza, Indonesia,
chips. The mill sells mostly to food
1991. ( = purchasing; = selling.)
industries. But the market for
processed cassava products is small,
500
with the consequence that the plant
(nucleus) becomes overstocked in
400
chips and flour. Operational
Rupiahs per kg
management also becomes a 300

problem.
200
One company which has
expanded its cassava processing 100
operations is PT Mariza, a food
company that produces snack foods 0
Jan. Mar. May July Sept. Nov.
and cakes. This company has
increased its monthly output of Figure 4. Trends in prices of cassava roots and
cassava flour in transactions carried
cassava flour by over 200% since out by PT Mariza, Indonesia, 1992.
1991 (Figures 3 and 4). ( = flour; = roots.)
100
Future Development of the flour at distribution level needs to be

Cassava Flour Agroindustry determined through the National Food
Authority (BULOG). A 10% share from
Interrelationships among the total distributed by BULOG will
determinants in the agroindustrys suffice to warrant cassava flour
development marketing. The increased agroindustry
will speed up the development of
The main interacting participants in cassava products, the prices of which
the cassava flour agroindustry are will be heavily influenced by their
(1) farmers or farmers groups, quality.
(2) KUD or processor, (3) factory
and distributors, and (4) consumers Consumers. Even with BULOGs
(Table 11). The four determinants intervention in distributing cassava
are (1) policy, (2) infrastructure, flour, distributors and retailers are
(3) participation, and (4) technology. responsible for making it readily
available to consumers. Three
Farmers or farmers groups. methods are to undercut the prices of
Basic policy needs to be constructed at other flours, promote through mass
farmer level. An example is media, and encourage food and catering
determining a suitable floor price for industries to increase their use of
chips, to motivate farmers in cassava flour as a raw material in
processing. Small farmers should processing food.
obtain credit from banks through
simple procedures and flexible Supporting activities
guarantees. They should also receive
extension and training in skills for To support efforts in developing the
developing both the cassava flour agroindustry, certain governmental
agroindustry and its processed policies are urgently needed. These
products. would help improve quality; create a
production environment advantageous
KUD or processor. The KUD or to processors, distributors, and
processor also expects simple farmers; and change consumer
procedures and flexible guarantees attitudes toward cassava. These
when obtaining credit from banks. To policies are:
ensure the agroindustrys continuity at
village level, each small industrys (1) Price and distribution policies. Price
share of production should be and distribution policies for cassava
protected. Chip prices should also be products (cassava flour and chips)
sufficiently competitive. of defined levels of quality can
encourage increased production
The village KUD or processor has a and improved product quality. The
relatively low management capability, ensuring of cassava raw material
needing guidance in its operational supplies requires an established
management. Simple and easily distribution mechanism.
installed equipment with locally
available spare parts is to be preferred. The continuous distribution of
The demand for such equipment will cassava flour throughout the year
provide opportunities for local will encourage farmers to increase
workshops. cassava production and ensure a
continuous supply for processors.
Industry and distributor. To BULOG is expected to play an
speed up distribution of cassava flour important role in the distribution
to consumers the market share of the system, which will then develop
101
102
Table 11. Matrix correlation of determinants, by participating groups, in the cassava flour agroindustry, Indonesia.
Determinant Subject
a
Farmers or farmers group KUD or processor Industry Consumer
Policy - Basic price of chips - Credit ensured - Cassava flour marketing at - Good distribution through
- Easy credit - Assurance flexibility distributor level, BULOGb BULOGb intervention
- Credit ensured - Protection of production share controlled - Ceiling price
- Assurance flexibility - Basic price of cassava flour - BULOGb as foster-parent, but
no market monopoly
Infrastructure - Extension - Guidance in operation - Facilities for promoting - Promotion through mass
- Training management processed cassava products media
- Credit for chipping - Credit for equipment and - Facilities for credit - Improvement role of service
equipment operational costs - Products from cassava flour

- Market implementation - Market information
Participation - Price expectation - Price expectation - Continuity of chips and cassava - Competitiveness of taste
- Processing efficiency - Processing efficiency flour supplies and flour packaging
- Added value in processing - Standard quality of chips and - Attractive packaging
flour - Can be mixed with other flour
- Export promotion
Technology - Simple and easily installed - Simple and easily installed - Efficient - Serving technique
equipment - Spare parts available
- Spare parts available - Labor intensive
- Relatively cheap
a. Koperasi Unit Desa (village union cooperative).

b. BULOG = National Food Authority, Indonesia.
SOURCE: Adnyana et al., 1991.

through the self-supportive nature and Dharma Pertiwi;

of the existing market. nongovernment organizations,
including social and professional
(2) Support for industrial and export organizations; and the mass media.
diversification. Developing cassava
flour processing plants is the main
step toward supporting the Conclusions
development of cassava industries
in general. The consistent demand Developing the cassava flour
for raw material for cassava flour agroindustry represents for Indonesia
production has already increased an alternative for diversifying cassava
at farmer level. To develop, these products. It can potentially increase
industries need support in farmer incomes, extend marketing,
providing an environment that will support food diversification, reduce
attract investors. wheat imports, and contribute to the
development of various chemical and
Quota restrictions have already food industries. Cassava flour
severely limited the possibilities of processing requires the development of
increasing the traditional export of techniques and equipment for peeling,
dried cassava (chips and pellets). washing, soaking, drying, chipping,
But export volumes can be pressing, and milling.
expanded for nontraditional
commodities such as fructose, The cassava flour agroindustry can
sweets, sorbitol, and modified be structured on three models,
starch. Various food products with according to capital, capability,
potential as export commodities knowledge, and distribution systems of
have already been formulated with the raw material. These models are
cassava flour as raw material. based at farmer level (model 1); farmer
group level (model 2); and mill or plant
(3) Extension should be aimed at belonging to a group of private
various levels of the community: companies or cooperatives as a nucleus
farmers and their families, in the processing and marketing
processors, and other groups. system (model 3). The mills act as
Extension materials should be processors of intermediate products,
structured according to each that is, dried chips, from models 1 and
targeted level of the community. 2 to be processed into cassava flour as
final product. An economic feasibility
(4) Campaigns and promotion. The analysis showed that a cassava flour
Government can help change the agroindustry is feasible at the village
communitys attitudes toward level when it is based on the three
cassava through such activities as models being structured into a system.
promotion, extension, expositions,
and cooking festivals. Cassava flour can be processed into
four groups of food product: traditional
(5) Community uses of cassava flour. foods, cookies, cakes, and krupuk. The
Catering services and bakeries higher the income and education of the
would be the major consumers household mother, the more likely that
of cassava flour, especially by cassava flour will be accepted for use in
substituting for wheat flour in traditional foods and cakes. As many
their products. Other promoters as 84% of consumers would accept
include governmental and cassava flour, and most of these could
semigovernmental organizations buy 4 to 7 kg of cassava flour per
such as KORPRI, Dharma Wanita, month. With promotion and improved
103
supplies, the flour therefore has a high __________; Widowati, S.; and Dimyati, A.
potential to develop a niche in urban 1990. Present status of cassava
processing and utilization in
markets, especially as supplement to Indonesia. In: Howeler, R. H. (ed.).
cereal flours. Proceedings of the Third Regional
Workshop of the Cassava Research
Marketing is still a major Network in Asia, Oct. 22-27, Malang,
constraint to expanding the cassava Indonesia. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
p. 298-314.
flour agroindustry. The PT Marizas
successful expansion was supported __________; __________; and Rachim, A. 1992.
by its ability to diversify its products Development of cassava
and markets. Governmental support processing at the village level in
and policy making is still necessary to Indonesia. In: Product development
for root and tuber crops. Centro
create a favorable production Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima,
environment and improve quality at Peru. p. 261-273.
every step of the production system to
match market demands. __________; __________; and __________. 1993.
Cassava flour production and
consumers acceptance at village
level in Indonesia. Indones. Agric.
References Res. Dev. J. 15(1):16-25.
Adnyana, M. O.; Rachim, A.; Damardjati,

Dimyati, A. and Manwan, I. 1992. National
D. S.; and Basa, I. 1991. Potensi dan
coordinated research program:
Kendala Pengembangan Agro-industri
cassava and sweet potato. Central
Tepung Kasava dalam Sistem
Research Institute for Food Crops
Usahatani Terpadu di Lampung.
(CRIFC), Bogor, Indonesia. 61 p.
Puslitbangtan, Bogor, Indonesia.
Martini, R. 1992. Study on cassava flour as
CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). 1988. Food
substitution ingredient on food
balance sheet in Indonesia, 1986-87.
industry and family level in
Jakarta, Indonesia.
Ponorogo. S1 thesis. Bogor
Agricultural University, Bogor,
__________. 1990. Food balance sheet in Indonesia.
Indonesia, 1988-89. Jakarta,
Indonesia.
Rusastra, I. W. 1988. Study on aspects of
national production, consumption
__________. 1991. Food balance sheet in
and marketing of cassava. Indones.
Agric. Res. Dev. J. 7:57-63.
Indonesia.
__________. 1992. Food balance sheet in Suismono and Wheatley, C. 1991.

Indonesia, 1990-91. Jakarta, Physico-chemical properties of the
Indonesia. krupuk product on some of the
formulates of cassava composite
flour. In: Suismono (ed.). Cassava
roots: characteristic, utilization and
analysis methods. CIAT, Cali,
Indonesia.
Colombia. 21 p.
Indonesia, 1992-1993. Jakarta, Unnevhr, L. J. 1990. Assessing the impact of
Indonesia. research on improving the quality of
food commodities. In: Methods for
Damardjati, D. S.; Seytono, A.; Widowati, S.; diagnosing research systems
Suismono; and Indrasari dan Sutrisno, constraints and assessing the impact
S. D. 1991. Lap. model of agricultural research.
Agro-industri tepung Kasava di International Service for National
Pedesan. I. Analisis petensi wilayah Agricultural Research (ISNAR), The
pengembangan dan penyajian pilot Hague, the Netherlands. p. 101-116.
plant. Bogor, Indonesia.
104
World Production and Marketing of Starch
CHAPTER 13
WORLD PRODUCTION AND MARKETING

OF STARCH1
Carlos F. Ostertag*
Introduction Main Starch Sources

Starch production is a major world Starch is extracted from maize,
agroindustry, with a volume of sweetpotatoes, cassava, potatoes,
around 33 million tons per year, and wheat, rice, sorghum, sago palm,
a value of US$14 billion (Jones, 1983; arrowroot, and bananas (AVEBE,
Marter and Timmins, 1992; 1989; Jones, 1983). Developed
Titapiwatanakun, 1993) (Table 1). countries grow most of the worlds
Starch is extracted primarily from maize, potatoes, and wheat, whereas
cereals and roots through processes developing countries grow most of the
that separate fiber and protein. sweetpotatoes and cassava. For
example, China produces almost 85%
Demand for starch is influenced of worlds sweetpotatoes (Rhem and
by its versatility. Almost all major Espig, 1991).
industries use starch and, as a result,
industrialization normally coincides These starches differ from each
with a significant increase in the other in their granule forms and sizes,
demand for this raw material (Lynam, contents of amylase and amylopectin
1987c). (the two types of glucose polymers
present in starches), swelling
Three main classes of capacities (i.e., capacities to absorb
starch-based products exist: water), and gelatinization
unmodified or native starches (UMS), temperatures (Jones, 1983).
modified starches (MS), and
sweeteners. Modified starches are In the early 1980s, 77% of worlds
those in which one or more of their starch was estimated to derive from
physical and chemical properties have maize (Jones, 1983), mainly because
been changed slightly (Jones, 1983). 91% of the starch produced in the
USA, the worlds largest producer,
was from maize (Farris, 1984). The
increase in yield per hectare, from
2.4 t in 1950 to 7.6 t in 1986,
contributed significantly to this
cereals importance (Lynam, 1987c).
Table 1 shows the relative

* Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
importance of different starch
1. No abstract was provided by the author. sources. Two reasons for the
105
Table 1. Estimated world starch production (1992) (thousand tons)a.
Region or country Raw material Total Percentage

of world
Maize Sweet- Cassava Wheat Potato Other production
potato
North America: 13,450 - - 200 55 20 13,725 41

USA 13,200 - - 50 50 20 13,320 40
Canada 250 - - 150 5 - 405 1
Latin America 1,000 - 330 - - - 1,330 4
European Union 3,400 - - 1,400 1,200 - 6,000 18
Ex-USSR and 300 - - - 300 - 600 2

Eastern Europe
Africa - - 20 - - - 20 <1
Asia: 3,020 4,165 3,442 165 400 30 11,222 34

China - 4,000 300 - - - 4,300 13
Japan 2,500 120 - 150 400 - 3,170 10
Thailand - - 1,800 - - - 1,800 5
Indonesia - - 800 - - - 800 2
India 200 - 350 - - - 550 2
Vietnam - - 90 - - - 90 <1
Philippines 75 - 17 - - - 92 <1
Malaysia - - 70 - - - 100 <1
Taiwan 45 15 15 15 - 30 90 <1
South Korea 200 30 - - - - 230 1
Australia 50 - - 300 - - 350 1
Total 21,220 4,165 3,792 2,065 1,955 50 33,247 100

64% 13% 6% 6% 6% 0% 100%
a. Includes modified starches and sweeteners.
SOURCES: Estimates based on Jones, 1983; Marter and Timmins, 1992; Titapiwatanakun, 1993.
decrease in the proportion of maize Holland), Japan, and Eastern Europe.

starch (64%) are (1) the table includes China accounts for almost all of the
estimates by Marter and Timmins worlds production of sweetpotato
(1992) of starch production in China, starch, whereas the EU, Australia,
derived mainly from sweetpotato, and Canada dominate wheat starch
which Jones excluded in the 1983 production (Table 1).
estimate; and (2) Thailand has greatly
expanded cassava starch production The maize starch produced in
recently (Titapiwatanakun, 1993). Japan is derived mainly from
imported U.S. maize, as used to be
Production of maize starch is the case for the EU. This region
concentrated in the USA, Japan, and now locally produces 99% of its
the European Union (EU). Asia is the maize requirements for starch
chief cassava starch producer, production (Leygue, 1993). Local
primarily Thailand, Indonesia, China, maize-processing capacity has
and India; with Brazil, in Latin displaced native starch sources such
America, also an important producer. as rice, sweetpotatoes, potatoes, and
Production of potato starch is cassava. For example, in Japan, in
centered in the EU (especially 1962, 80% of the starch produced
106
was derived from sweetpotatoes and obtain chemical derivatives not

potatoes. But this share fell to 20% possible from cellulose or sucrose.
by 1982, displaced by U.S. maize. Starch can also be separated into
The main reason was that Japanese amylose and amylopectin, and can be
starch was used mostly for producing used in solvolysis with alcohols (Koch
sweeteners, a category for which the and Roper, 1988) (Figure 1).
technology for maize wet-milling is
very advanced (Lynam, 1987c). A simple way to classify
starch-based products is as follows:
UMS, MS (e.g., dextrins,
Simplified Classification of pregelatinized starches, and oxidized
Starch-Based Products starches), starch derivatives (e.g.,
esters, ethers, and cross-linked
Starch is a versatile raw material starches), and sweeteners (glucose
compared with other carbohydrates. syrups, high fructose syrups,
Native starch can be modified or dextrose, and maltodextrins) (Jones,
chemical derivatives obtained from it 1983; Koch and Roper, 1988). Starch
by using relatively simple processes. derivatives and sweeteners are used
Starch is dispersible in cold water primarily in the food industry.
and has a higher reactivity than the
highly polymeric cellulose. Starch is Native starches are marketed dry,
also highly susceptible to partial or under different grades for human and
total hydrolytic degradation by acids industrial consumption. Most
or enzymes, yielding oligomeric or developing countries produce only
monomeric products, which, in turn, this type of starch, except for those
can be further modified or used to with Corn Products Corporation (CPC)
Process Product
Separation * Amylose
* Amylopectin
* Modified starches
Mechanical/thermal
* Pregelatinized starches
treatment
* Dextrins
Esterification
Native Etherification * Starch derivatives
starch Cross-linking
Transglicosilation
* Glucosides
(solvolysis)
* Monosaccharides
Hydrolysis * Disaccharides
* Oligosaccharides
* Maltodextrins
Figure 1. Starch-based products. (After Koch and Roper, 1988.)
107
subsidiaries, which also produce MS Main Starch Producers

(Jones, 1983).
Table 1 shows that starch production
Modified starches are those that in the USA, almost exclusively maize
have been changed slightly in one or starch, accounts for 41% of world
more of their physical and chemical production. Asia has become an
properties. Modification aims to important starch producer,
adjust the product to the particular contributing to more than one-third of
needs of a client or to imitate a world production. The major
competitive product. The range of producers are China (sweetpotato),
modifications and processes is vast Japan (maize), and Thailand
and complex but can be (cassava). Asian starch is extracted
summarized as follows: mainly from sweetpotatoes (38%),
cassava (31%), and maize (28%).
(1) Pregelatinized type by feeding a Although maize starch is from U.S.
starch suspension on to a heated maize, the other starches are
rotating drum. obtained from local raw materials.
(2) Dextrin type from dry chemical
treatment. No exact records of sweetpotato
(3) Wet chemical treatment, starch production in China exist but,
including thin boiling and according to Marter and Timmins
oxidized starches. (1992), the volume could be about
(4) Other modifications, including 4 million tons/year. Processing is at
the use of catalysts and household level in villages and the
cross-linking and etherifying starch is used primarily for making
agents (Jones, 1983). noodles, a traditional oriental food.
The term sweetener refers to Starch consumed in Japan can be

products such as glucose syrup, categorized as (1) starch obtained
high fructose syrup (HFS), and from local crops such as potatoes and
dextrose. Sweetener production is sweetpotatoes, (2) starch derived from
based on acid or enzymatic imported raw materials such as maize
hydrolysis of starch. Chemically, and wheat, and (3) imported starches,
glucose and dextrose are such as cassava, sago, and potato
synonymous, but, commercially, starches (Jones, 1983).
dextrose is used to describe the
pure crystalline product and The EU produces nearly 18% of
glucose syrup products obtained world starch, principally from maize,
from incomplete starch hydrolysis wheat, and potato. France alone
(Jones, 1983). accounts for one quarter of this
volume (Leygue, 1993). Obtaining
By subsequent complex starch from wheat flour through
processing, based on enzyme action, wheat-washing technology (gluten
HFS can be obtained. This product separation) has increased since 1983,
has grown substantially in with an annual growth rate of 15%.
importance, particularly in the USA, This source has displaced maize
where it was introduced in 1968. starch to a significant extent (Leuch,
Usually based on maize, it is known 1990). Starch production in the EU
as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has grown at an annual compound
in the USA and as isoglucose in rate of 4.4% during 1981-1990 (Koch
Europe (Jones, 1983). et al., 1993).
108
Latin American starch production reduction in the domestic price of

accounts for 4% of world production cereals in the EU indicates that the
and consists of maize and some farm price of local roots will decrease
cassava starches. Brazil dominates in Thailand, liberating raw material
the production of both starches. for producing cassava starch. Thai
cassava starch exports have increased
The starch industry mostly at an annual growth rate of about
supplies its own domestic markets. In 14% since 1975 (Atthasampunna,
1980, excluding internal EU trade, 1990; Lynam, 1987b;
only 4% of world production Titapiwatanakun, 1993); for example:
(600,000 t/year) was estimated to be
exported (Jones, 1983). Since then, Year Exports in tons
starch production has expanded to
such an extent in Thailand and China, 1975 145,000
that exports have more than doubled, 1980 248,000
to almost 1.5 million tons. Almost 1985 497,000
70% of Thai starch is exported, mainly 1989 646,000
to the USA, Japan, and Taiwan 1991 1 million
(Titapiwatanakun, 1993).
International trade is concentrated Current Starch Markets

in UMS, mainly from Thailand, China,
Indonesia, and Brazil, and consists In most countries, starch
chiefly of cassava and sweetpotato consumption is highly correlated with
starches (Jones, 1983; Shuren and production. Exceptions are those
Henry, 1993; Titapiwatanakun, 1993). countries where starch production is
The major markets for exported starch primarily export-oriented (e.g.,
are Japan, Taiwan, the USA, and the Thailand and China) or where starch
EU (Jones, 1983). is imported (e.g., Taiwan and, to a
lesser extent, Japan).
The recent high growth rate of the
starch industry in Thailand is worth General uses
studying. The Thai starch industry
has confronted two limitations: first, Starch has one of the widest ranges of
the high tariffs for starch imports in end-uses of any product derived from
almost all nations except the USA; and vegetable sources. It is a good source
the second, competition with the pellet of carbohydrate but in the food
and chip export market for raw industry it is used mainly as a
material. The domestic EU price for thickener, filler, binder, stabilizer, or
cereals determines local root prices, texture improver. Some examples of
which is why roots for the starch these uses are in canned and
industry are so expensive. The starch powdered soups, instant desserts,
industry, in turn, has to compete with custard powder, sausages and
the low international maize prices processed meat, sauces, bakery
(Lynam, 1987c). products, confectionery, and ice
cream. Sweeteners such as syrups
But the establishment of export are used for soft drinks, pastries, and
quotas for Thai pellets to the EU in the canned goods; this segment has
early 1980s lowered domestic prices of shown the most growth in the last
cassava roots and led to a doubling of 25 years. Edible starch is also used
cassava starch exports (Lynam, in the pharmaceutical and brewing
1987c). Titapiwatanakuns study industries (Jones, 1983).
(1993) of the impact of the recent 29%
109
The industrial uses of starch for sugar in every area except dry
and starch products are numerous. mixes or wherever a nonhygroscopic
Among the most important are in sweetener is required, as is the case
the paper and board industry for hard candy and table sugar (Long,
(printing papers, coated papers, 1985).
corrugated board), adhesives (labels,
laminating, gummed paper, tape), The end-uses for UMS and MS in
textiles (sizing, finishing), oil-well the USA (1980 data from Jones, 1983)
drilling (drilling mud), dye stuffs, include:
and the building, metal, and
chemical industries (Jones, 1983). (1) Paper industry (60% of UMS and
50% of MS), including for sizing,
Uses in the USA coating, and corrugation.
(2) Food industry (20% of UMS and
More than 95% of the starch 20% of MS), including for
currently used in the USA is ingredients in cookies and
obtained by wet milling maize. In convenience foods (e.g., instant
1992, 48% of the wet milling output soups, desserts, and frozen
was destined for HFCS production, dinners).
25% for glucose and dextrose, and (3) Other important industrial users
27% for actual maize starch (USDA, are the brewing, pharmaceutical,
1993a). These figures exclude and adhesive industries (20% of
ethanol production based on the wet UMS) and the textile industry
milling technology but it should be (30% of MS).
noted that more than 10 million
tons of maize were used for this
purpose in the USA in 1992 (USDA,
1993a). Table 2. Production of the principal starch
products in the USA in millions of tons
(mill. t)a.
Table 2 shows starch production
and relative weight for 1980 and Product 1980 1992
1992 of the main starch-derived
products in the USA. The end-use (mill. t) (%) (mill. t) (%)
as sweetener is prominent,
Maize starch
representing more than 70% of the HFCSb 1.91 31 6.00 45
total. The high growth of the HFCS Glucose syrup 1.86 30 2.90 22
segment can also be noted for the Dextrose 0.41 7 0.60 4
absolute domination of the soft Subtotal
drink market for sweeteners since sweeteners 4.18 68 9.50 71
1985 (Claassen and Brenner, 1991). Unmodified 1.18 19 2.20c 16
HFCS production is divided into Modified 0.68 11 1.40c 11
HFCS-55 (containing 55% fructose) Other 0.06 1 0.10c 1
with a market share of 58% and Other starches
HFCS-42 (containing 42%) with (e.g., wheat,
42%. potato) 0.07 1 0.12 1
Total 6.17 100 13.32 100
The use of maize-based a. Excludes ethanol production derived from wet
sweeteners, especially HFCS, has milling maize.
grown dramatically because of their b. HFCS = High fructose corn syrup.
excellent quality, their usefulness as c. C. F. Ostertag, 1993, unpublished data.
functional agents in foods, and their SOURCES: 1980 data: Jones, 1983.
lower cost versus sugar (Long, 1992 data: Farris, 1984; Kirby, 1990;
1985). HFCS is a direct substitute USDA, 1993a.
110
Almost 100% of the starch-based 1980-1987 because of its special

production of sweeteners is destined chemical properties. At the same
for the food industry. More than time, the consumption of potato
70% of the HFCS production is used starch also increased, whereas that of
by companies producing carbonated maize starch decreased (Christmann,
soft drinks; 90% of HFCS-55 is used 1991). The demand for starch overall
for carbonated soft drinks (USDA, in Germany by nonfood industries in
1993b). Other uses for sweeteners the year 2000 is predicted to be
include pastries, canned fruit, between 600,000 and 800,000 t,
dessert dairy products, and and for the EU, between 2.5 and
dressings and ketchup. Apart from 3.0 million tons (Christmann, 1991).
their sweetening properties, they are
also useful for controlling Uses of potato starch
hygroscopicity, texture, freezing
temperature, and viscosity (Long, The chief world markets for potato
1985). starch, mostly located in the EU, are
the following industries: food, paper,
Uses in the EU textiles, and mineral oil (additives for
oil-well drilling) (AVEBE, 1989). In
Of the 6 million tons of starch the early 1980s, these uses were
produced in the EU, 54% is used by distributed in the USA as follows:
the food industry and the remaining 33% for paper, as a cationic
46% by the nonfood sector, including derivative; 30% in the food industry
paper (19%), chemicals and in native or modified form for
fermentation (13%), corrugation (7%), preparing soup mixes, puddings, and
and others (7%) (Koch et al., 1993). sweets in general; 19% for adhesives,
Other relatively new uses in the EU preferably in dextrin form; and 15%
are for the production of ethanol, in pregelatinized form as an additive
plastics, and polymers (Agra Europe, in oil-well drilling. The latter segment
1990). The annual growth rate of exhibits the highest growth rate
nonfood markets (4.8%) has been (Mitch, 1984).
greater than the global market (4.4%)
(Koch et al., 1993). Uses in Japan
Starch is consumed in its native In 1980, almost 60% of the starch

(29%), modified (17%), and hydrolyzed produced in Japan was for
forms (54%). Hydrolyzed starch is sweeteners, mainly HFCS, derived
used in sweets, beverages, fruit primarily from U.S. maize, but also
preparations, and pastries (Koch et from sweetpotato and potato starches.
al., 1993). Nearly 15% of the starch was destined
for MS production, principally based
Of the 1 million tons of starch on imported maize; the main MS
employed by industry in the then produced was oxidized starch. Other
West Germany (1987), 41% was used important uses were for paper,
for the following product categories: cardboard, and textiles (7%); fish
adhesives, pharmaceuticals, paper products such as kamaboko (7%);
and cardboard, soap, chemicals, dyes, beer (3%); and monosodium
paints, building materials, and rubber glutamate (MSG), a popular flavor
products (Christmann, 1991). enhancer in Asian cuisine (1%). The
rest of the starch (12%) was used
The use of wheat flour in nonfood chiefly for food products (Jones,
industries in West Germany increased 1983). Currently, Japan produces
from 1,000 to 90,000 t during almost 2 million tons of HFCS.
111
Uses in Taiwan In Thailand, for the 510,000 t of

starch consumed domestically, the
Taiwan is a major importer of starch, main markets in 1991 were
principally cassava starch, which, in household use and food (e.g.,
1983, was used mainly for preparing noodles), 33%; MSG and lysine, 19%;
maltose for bakery products and glucose syrup, 15%; paper industry,
sweets and alpha starch for eel feed. 9%; textiles, 3%; plywood, 1%; and
Other uses for MS were adhesives for others, 13% (Titapiwatanakun, 1993).
corrugated cardboard, dextrins, When comparing these figures with
ingredients for food products such as 1983 data (Lynam, 1987b), the food
noodles, and other uses in the textile and glucose markets present the
and paper industries. Potentially, highest rates of growththe glucose
MSG can be the largest consumer of market did not even exist in 1983.
starch but molasses are normally The markets for MSG, lysine, and
used. When the price of molasses end-uses in the paper industry, in
goes up, cassava starch is preferred contrast, have decreased significantly.
(Jones, 1983).
Predictions for the year 2001
Other Asian markets suggest that the consumption by the
food industry will fall to 18%,
Asians tend to use cassava and whereas the share held by MSG and
sweetpotato starch more for industrial lysine will rise to 27%, and that of
uses than for human consumption. the paper industry to 15%
For example, the percentage of (Titapiwatanakun, 1993). Thailand
cassava starch destined for human exports MS mostly to Japan.
consumption fell from 65% to 50%
between 1966 and 1980 (Ghosh, About 10% of Indonesian
1988). In Indonesia, 3% of cassava cassava production is processed to
roots in 1983 were directed toward obtain starch, which is mostly used
starch production, whereas by 1988 (65%) to make krupuk, a crunchy
this percentage had increased to 10% native food. Another 15% of cassava
(Damardjati et al., 1990). starch is used for other foods, 10%
for textiles, and 3% for glucose
Sweetpotato and cassava (Damardjati et al., 1990; Lynam,
starches in China have traditionally 1987a).
been used to prepare noodles and
MSG. Almost half the starch Cassava starch in India is
production is directed to noodles. Of mainly used for household
the 200,000 t of MSG produced consumption and to prepare glucose
annually, 90% are prepared from and dextrins. In the northern
sweetpotato and 10% from cassava states, it is also used in the textile
starch (Shuren, 1990). industry (Padmaja et al., 1990).
Other industrial uses of starch in Cassava starch production in the

China include sweeteners such as Philippines is destined chiefly for the
glucose syrup (100,000 t/year), food industry and for glucose. Other
medical glucose, maltose, and HFS. minor markets include the
Production of HFS is low because it pharmaceutical, paper, textile, and
cannot compete with the adhesive industries (van Den et al.,
sophisticated sugar industry (Shuren, 1990).
1990). China has also pioneered the
production of sophisticated chemical
products.
112
Uses in Latin America the EU (Sasson, 1990). The following

year, the main soft drink
Starch in Brazil is used for household manufacturers in the USA decided to
consumption, and in the food (e.g., as increase the proportion of fructose
a thickener, stabilizer in processed syrup from 50% to 100% (Sasson,
meat, base for colors and aromas, 1990). Per capita consumption of
and in bread making) and HFCS rose almost three-fold between
pharmaceutical industries. In 1980 and 1988 (Table 3). The growth
nonfood industries, it is employed to rate of the HFCS began to fall in 1985
manufacture adhesives, paper, (The advance of..., 1991) after
explosives, and biodegradable plastics conquering the soft drink market, the
(Cereda, 1991; I. C. Takitane, 1992, main market for sweeteners in the USA
personal communication). (Claassen and Brenner, 1991).
The market for sweeteners The annual production of HFCS in

the USA in 1992 was 6 million tons,
Of the market segments for starch, 58% of which corresponded to
that of sweeteners deserves special HFCS-55 and 42% to HFCS-42 (USDA,
attention because it has displayed the 1993b). This volume represents 70%
highest growth in the last 25 years. of world production, followed by Japan
The birth of enzyme engineering (The advance of..., 1991).
allowed the low-cost conversion of
starch to D-glucose and then to a The current world production of
mixture in equilibrium of D-glucose HFS, about 8.5 million tons, is
and D-fructose (HFCS) exhibiting the concentrated in developed countries.
same degree of sweetness as invert In the EU, the annual HFS production,
sugar from sugar cane or sugar beet. about 500,000 t, has been voluntarily
restricted to protect the sugar beet
High fructose corn syrup. HFCS industry (Coutouly, 1991).
contains from 55% to 90% fructose (a
median of 60%) but the most common But an increasing proportion of
in the U.S. market are HFCS-55 and growth is expected in developing
HFCS-42. The HFCS-55 is slightly countries, which have alternative
sweeter than sucrose. A fructose with sources such as cassava, rice, wheat,
a 97% purity can be obtained from and sorghum. Currently,
these syrups (Sasson, 1990). starch-based sweetener production is
When HFCS was launched in

1968, it immediately captured 30% of Table 3. Growth of annual consumption (kg per
the market for sugar in the USA and capita) of caloric sweeteners in the USA
(1965-1992).
doubled the amount of starch
produced by the maize wet-milling Year Sweetener
industry (Whistler, 1984). The
Glucose High Dextrose Sucrose
success of the HFCS resulted from the
syrup fructose
protection of the domestic sugar syrup
industry, reflected by high internal
prices, and the lowered price of maize 1965 5.6 .0 1.9 44.0
due to yield increases (Lynam, 1975 7.4 3.1 2.3 41.6
1980 8.3 7.0 1.6 38.6
1987c).
1985 8.9 20.0 1.8 29.1
1992 9.6 23.5 2.0 29.3
In 1984, 3.5 million tons of HFCS
were produced in the USA, almost SOURCES: Farris, 1984; Higley and White, 1991;
1 million in Japan, and 200,000 in USDA, 1993b; Whistler, 1984.
113
growing faster in Asia and Latin Marketing Opportunities for

America (Claassen and Brenner, Developing Countries
1991). Some countries, like China
and Vietnam, already have small HFS According to Jones (1983), trade
industries. But the international barriers such as duties, levies, and
sweetener trade is small, with the quotas limit export opportunities,
USA as a net importerit purchased particularly to the EU and Japan.
almost 200,000 t of HFCS from Price competitiveness is the other
Canada in 1992 (USDA, 1993b). major factor affecting market
prospects.
Glucose syrup. In contrast,
processing for glucose syrup is Mass and specialized markets
simpler. Hence, its production is must be distinguished: in the mass
widespread, even in the developing market most UMS must compete with
countries of Asia (e.g., Thailand, one another, with the result that the
China, India, the Philippines, and cheapest, assuming acceptable
Indonesia) and Latin America (in quality levels, enjoy market success.
countries with CPC subsidiaries).
In contrast, the specialized
Marketing factors. Table 3 market is a small segment of the UMS
shows the growth of per capita market, where end-users require
consumption of sweeteners in the specific characteristics, such as a
USA from 1965 to 1992. By 1985, certain granule size or pasting
the combined per capita consumption temperature, that can only be
of sweeteners surpassed that of supplied by one or two particular
sugar. starches. But, because other
starches can be profitably modified to
The world sweetener market, reproduce the desired properties,
however, is divided into caloric (e.g., these modified starches (usually
sugar and HFS) and noncaloric (e.g., maize or sweetpotato) may gradually
saccharine and aspartame) reduce the UMS share in the
sweeteners. Total consumption of specialized market. For example,
noncaloric sweeteners is equivalent, after World War II, much of the USAs
in sweetness, to 8 million tons of cassava starch imports were
sugar, similar to the equivalent HFS substituted with cheaper maize
production. As a reference, total starch (Lynam, 1987c).
sugar production exceeds 110 million
tons (The advance of..., 1991). Future prospects for starch
exporters in developing countries vary
Prices of the different greatly with regard to the mass
starch-derived sweeteners in the U.S. market. In the EU, for example, with
market in July 1993 were HFCS-55, the current restrictions, the outlook
US$0.52/kg; HFCS-42, $0.47; for import growth is nil. In Japan,
glucose, $0.33; and dextrose, $0.54. import growth prospects are limited to
These prices were considered to be achieving the full quota. If the
high and a reduction was expected in exporter can compete with U.S. maize
the fourth quarter (USDA, 1993b). prices, then considerable potential
Prices respond to the cost of maize exists in the USA.
and other inputs and to demand,
which is high in summer and declines International trade in MS and
in other seasons. Dextrose is sweeteners is small. Sweetener
characterized by a high but stable exports are limited. Most MS exports
price (USDA, 1993b). correspond to dextrins. Traditionally,
114
developing countries participate little petrochemical products, but focus

in this trade. The main potential lies should be given to preparing and
in increasing the exports of the synthesizing new compounds with
already modified cassava starches specific and improved properties
being produced in the USA, Japan, (Koch and Roper, 1988).
and the EU from imported cassava
starch. Ethanol
For developing countries, modified One new compound of high potential

starch exports would earn added is ethanol. In the USA, since the late
value and are likely to have easier 1960s, 95% of ethanol has been
access to foreign markets. But a high produced from wet milling maize.
level of technical expertise and a close Initially, ethanol was used to blend
relationship between modifier and with gasoline at a 1:9 ratio to produce
end-user are desirable. Thailand and gasohol. Currently, this blend
China are currently increasing represents 8% of gasolines sold in the
exports of MS to Japan. USA. New uses later emerged: as an
octane enhancer in gasoline, and as
In view of the uncertain export an oxygenate to reduce the
opportunities, prospective starch environmental pollution of
producers in developing countries are automobiles. In 1992, ethanol
recommended to concentrate first on production reached almost 1 billion
their domestic markets, then expand gallons. Ethanol is now not only
to neighboring markets, before selling feasible but will be the predominant
on the international market. energy alternative in the future. The
main oxygenate competitor for
The domestic markets for UMS ethanol is methyl tertiary butyl ether
will grow if the UMS-using industries (MTBE) (Hiunok, 1993; Russo, 1993).
(food, textile, paper and cardboard)
develop. Demand for MS, sweeteners, Germany and the EU are studying
and, in countries where sugar is the feasibility of replacing
scarce or expensive, HFS may arise. petroleum-derived products with
Other uses for starches are for renewable raw materials such as
composite flours and biotechnological starch, among others. Analyses are
applications. being conducted on substituting 10%
of diesel and heating oils and 5% of
petroleum with renewable raw
New Market Perspectives materials such as starch, and on the
for Starch greater use of renewable raw
materials as fuel (Schmitt, 1988).
Because of starchs versatility, new
uses arise every year. It is also an Biodegradable polymers
excellent example of a renewable raw
material. It should be used more The USA is increasingly concerned
widely in the medium and long term, with environmental pollution caused
taking into account three aims: (1) to by its production processes and the
preserve natural resources, (2) to disposal of its end products. This has
produce biodegradable products that forced the plastic industry to look for
are environmentally friendly, and alternative raw materials and to make
(3) to reduce agricultural surpluses its products more recyclable and
(Koch and Roper, 1988). biodegradable (Beach and Price,
Starch-based derivatives can 1993).
substitute to some extent for
115
The current use of biodegradable about 4.5 million tons of adhesives, of

polymers, mostly based on maize, in which 40% were natural. Maize
the USA has been for items where starch dominates the market for
disintegration after use is of direct natural adhesives with an annual
benefit. Some examples are consumption of 1.6 million tons
agricultural mulch films, planting (USDA, 1993a).
containers and protectors, hay twine,
surgical stitching, medicine capsules, Organic chemicals
and compost bags. Agricultural
pesticide firms are also examining the Agricultural products are increasingly
use of starch-based polymers to considered as alternative raw
encapsulate products (Beach and materials for organic chemicals.
Price, 1993). Within the common ground shared by
agricultural and chemical industries,
Markets for biodegradable a new industry, labeled green
polymers in the USA are food refinery, may result. The starch
packaging, nonfood packaging, industry competes with that of
personal care and medical products, glucose syrup to supply fermentation
and other disposable products. But substrata. Of the possible
because the U.S. Government has not biotechnological processes, the most
regulated the use of biodegradable viable in the short and medium terms
packaging for food, the key market in involve producing energy,
the near future will be for nonfood fermentation products such as amino
packaging. By 1992, biodegradable acids and other organic acids,
polymeric resins had captured 0.06% biodegradable plastics and
of the market for plastic resins used surfactants, antibiotics, and
by the nonfood sector, representing biocatalysts (Malerbe, 1990).
2.3 million kg of a total of
3.6 billion kg (USDA, 1993a). China has pioneered the
development of refined chemical
Biodegradable polymers compete products such as sorbitol, mannitol,
in the market for plastic materials oxalic acid, gluconic acid, acetic acid,
and resins, whose composition in the and ethylene. Sorbitol is used to
USA (1992) was low-density manufacture vitamin C, for
polyethylene (19%), high-density toothpaste, cosmetics, and paints.
polyethylene (16%), polyvinyl chloride Mannitol is used to produce polyester
or PVC (15%), polypropylene (13%), and plastic foam, and is also used
polystyrene (8%), and more than 18 medically as a plasma expander
additional materials account for the (Ghosh, 1988; Shuren, 1990).
remaining 29% (Beach and Price,
1993). Large-scale, bioprocess technology
already has had a significant impact
Vegetable adhesives on the use of starch for producing
citric and lactic acids. Improved
Environmental concerns in the USA fermenting processes have been
over synthetic adhesives have spurred developed for producing butyric,
new starch-using technologies succinic, and propionic acids (Zeikus,
destined mainly for the packaging 1993).
market. Starch-based adhesives are
usually less expensive than synthetic Food
adhesives and are free of the
unpleasant odors of some animal Previously, starch was appreciated
glues. In 1990, the USA consumed mainly for its nutritional value as a
116
source of calories. Currently, it is also Other uses

valued for its functional properties
related to human health. For example, Other examples of new or expanded
resistant starch, as does fiber, helps markets include systems for
stimulate digestion, and plays a role in controlled release of chemicals,
the prevention of colon cancer. Fat coating agents, surfactants,
substitutes such as maltodextrins and plasticizers, and sequestrants
complex carbohydrates help reduce based on starch (Doane, 1993).
caloric intake (Koch et al., 1993).
Figure 2 divides the potential
Other novel starch-based products industrial (nonfood) use of a range
include solid glucose and fructose, of new starch-derived products into
new combinations of starch and fiber, five categories. Figure 3
and modified maize and cassava summarizes both current and
starches used to replace lactic protein future uses of starch-based
in processed meat and yogurt. products.
* Binders and glues

* Thickeners
Auxiliary material Process aids * Texturizers
* Formulation aids
* Protective colloids
* Polyols
* Organic acids
Biotechnology
Raw materials * Amino acids
(fermentation)
* Polysaccharides
* Enzymes
* Polyethylene and polypropylene

Processing of * Polystyrene
Starch Functional
synthetic * Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
additives
polymers * Polyurethane foam
* Styrene and butadien lattices
* Polyesters and alkyd resins

* Polyurethanes
Component Incorporation into * U/F or M/F resins
synthetic polymers * Phenolic resins
* Grafted polymers
* Surfactants and detergents

End product or * Sequestrants
Active materials intermediate * Builders
product * Perborate boosters
* Chiral building blocks
Figure 2. New categories of nonfood industrial uses for starch. (After Koch and Roper, 1988.)
117
Ethanol Oxygenated motor fuels/solvents/cosmetics/pharmaceuticals
Lactic acid Biodegradable plastics, mold retardant, acidulants
Itaconic acid Plastic objects

Fermentation
processes Citric, gluconic acids Cleaners, control of metal contaminants
Commercial
products from Enzymes Catalysts HFCS, denim, ethanol, detergents
agricultural
materials: Pharmaceuticals Antibiotics, vitamin B12, etc.
Acetic acid
Acetone
n-Butanol Xanthan gum Oil, textiles
Glycerol
Fumaric acid Fermentation byproducts Dry ice, fuel gas, animal feed
Malic acid
Succinic acid
Oxidation/dehydration Polyester plastics
Starch Hydrolysis Glucose
Sorbitol/ Plastics/alkyd
Hydrogenation Mannitol paints, coatings
Depolymerization with heat, Economical starches with Paper goods, textiles,

acids, oxidizing agents improved performance adhesives
Starch with improved resistance Powder for surgical gloves,

Crosslinking
to shear and temperature other anti-stick products
Reaction with ethylene oxide Hydroxyethyl starch Coated papers
Reaction with Cationic Floculants/fiber Water treatment, paper

reactive amines starch modification goods, textiles
Acrylonitrile polymerization Adsorbent Diapers, adsorbent pads,

and hydrolysis material seed coats, filters
Figure 3. Current and future starch-based products (with processes in italics). (After Parker, 1993,
personal communication.)
References AVEBE. 1989. Potato starch. Foxhol, the

Netherlands. 17 p.
The advance of sugars competitors in
perspective. 1991. Int. Sugar Beach, E. D. and Price, J. M. 1993. The effects
Sweetener Rep. 123:22, 355-358. of expanding biodegradable polymer
production on the farm sector. In:
Agra Europe. 1990. Prospects for alternative Industrial uses of agricultural materials.
uses of cereals and other crops. Situation and outlook report, no. 6.
Agra-Briefing, no. 23. Kent, UK. 35 p. Economic Research Service, United
States Department of Agriculture (ERS/
Atthasampunna, P. 1990. Cassava processing USDA), Washington, DC, USA. p. 41-48.
and utilization in Thailand. In:
Howeler, R. H. (ed.). Proceedings of Cereda, M. P. 1991. General viewpoint of
the Third Regional Workshop of the cassava starch industries in Brazil.
Cassava Research Network in Asia, Paper presented at the Cassava Starch
held Oct. 22-27, 1990, Malang, Workshop, 17-20 June, Centro
Indonesia. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. p. Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
315-326. (CIAT), Cali, Colombia. CIAT, Cali,
Colombia. (Abstr.)
118
Christmann, V. 1991. Price formation and Kirby, K. W. 1990. Specialty starches: use in
the use of starches in the non-food the paper industry. In: Glass, J. E.
area. In: The production and and Swift, G. (eds.). Proceedings of
alternative uses of renewable raw the American Chemical Society (ACS)
materials from agriculture and Symposium. ACS, Washington, DC,
forestry. Research document USA. p. 274-287.
prepared for the German
Government, Sonderheft, Germany. Koch, H. and Roper, H. 1988. New
p. 111-115. (Typescript.) industrial products from starch.
Starch/Strke 4:121-131.
Claassen, T. L. and Brenner, K. 1991. A
new world order for sweeteners? ___________; __________; and Hopcke, R.
Sugar y Azcar 86:10, 22-24, 26. 1993. New industrial uses of starch.
In: Meuser, F.; Manners, D. J.; and
Coutouly, G. 1991. Genie enzymatique. Seibel, W. (eds.). Plant polymeric
Masson et Doin, Paris, France. carbohydrates. Royal Society of
Chemistry, Cambridge, UK.
Damardjati, S. D.; Widowati, S.; and Dimyati, p. 157-179.
A. 1990. Present status of cassava
processing and utilization in Leuch, D. J. 1990. The effects of the
Indonesia. In: Howeler, R. H. (ed.). Common Industrial Policy on the
Proceedings of the Third Regional European Community wheat-washing
Workshop of the Cassava Research industry and grain trade. Staff report,
Network in Asia, Oct. 22-27, Malang, no. AGES 9023. Economic Research
Indonesia. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. Service, United States Department of
p. 298-314. Agriculture (ERS/USDA),
Washington, DC, USA. 26 p.
Doane, W. M. 1993. Starch: opportunities for
new industrial uses. Cereal Foods Leygue, J. P. 1993. Dbouchs industriels
World 38(8):613. des crales. Institut technique des
crales et des fourrages (ITCF),
Farris, P. L. 1984. Economics and future of Craliers du France, Paris, France.
the starch industry. In: 32 p.
Whistler, R. L. and Paschall, E. F.
(eds.). Starch: chemistry and Long, J. E. 1985. United States markets for
technology. Academic Press, Orlando, starch-based products. In: van
FL, USA. p. 11-24. Beynum, G. M. A. and Roels, J. A.
(eds.). Starch conversion technology.
Ghosh, S. P. 1988. Tuber crops. Oxford and Marcel Dekker, Delft, the
IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India. Netherlands. p. 335-347.
Higley, N. A. and White, J. S. 1991. Trends in Lynam, J. 1987a. Indonesia, a multi-market

fructose availability and cassava economy. In: Lynam, J. The
consumption in the United States. cassava economy of Asia: adapting to
Food Technol. 10:118-122. economic change. Section 4, draft
version. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 55 p.
Hiunok, L. 1993. Ethanols evolving role in
the U.S. automobile fuel market. __________. 1987b. Thailand, rapid growth
In: Industrial uses of agricultural driven by export markets. In: Lynam,
materials. Situation and outlook J. The cassava economy of Asia:
report, no. 6. Economic Research adapting to economic change. Section
Service, United States Department of 7, draft version. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
Agriculture (ERS/USDA), 55 p.
Washington, DC, USA. p. 49-54.
__________. 1987c. World and Asian markets
Jones, S. F. 1983. The world market for for cassava products. In: Lynam, J.
starch and starch products with The cassava economy of Asia:
particular reference to cassava adapting to economic change. Section
(tapioca) starch. Report no. G173. 8, draft version. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
Tropical Development and Research 49 p.
Institute (TDRI), London, UK. 98 p.
119
Malerbe, A. 1990. La chimie verte: quelles __________ and Henry, G. 1993. The changing
strategies pour les industries du role of cassava in South Chinas
sucre et de lamidon. Economie et agro-industrial development:
Sociologie Rurales, no. 34. Grignon, problems and opportunities. Paper
France. 101 p. presented at the regional seminar on
Upland Agriculture in Asia, April
Marter, A. D. and Timmins, W. H. 1992. 6-8, Regional Coordination Centre for
Small-scale processing of sweet Research and Development of Coarse
potato in Sichuan Province, Peoples Grains, Pulses, Roots, and Tuber
Republic of China. Trop. Sci. Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia
32:241-250. and the Pacific (CGPRT), Bogor,
Indonesia.
Mitch, E. L. 1984. Potato starch: production
and uses. In: Whistler, R. L. and Titapiwatanakun, B. 1993. Thai cassava
Paschall, E. F. (eds.). Starch: starch industry: current and future
chemistry and technology. Academic utilization. Paper presented at the
Press, Orlando, FL, USA. p. 479-489. International Meeting on Cassava
Flour and Starch, Jan. 11-15, 1994,
Padmaja, G.; Balagopalan, C.; Kurup, G. T.; Cali, Colombia. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
Moorthy, S. N.; and Nanda, S. K. (Abstr.)
1990. Cassava processing, marketing
and utilization in India. In: Howeler, USDA (United States Department of
R. H. (ed.). Proceedings of the Third Agriculture). 1993a. Industrial uses
Regional Workshop of the Cassava of agricultural materials. Situation
Research Network in Asia, Oct. and outlook report, no. 6. Economic
22-27, Malang, Indonesia. CIAT, Cali, Research Service (ERS), USDA,
Colombia. p. 327-338. Washington, DC, USA. 71 p.
Rhem, S. and Espig, G. 1991. The cultivated __________. 1993b. Sugar and sweetener.
plants of the tropics and subtropics. Situation and outlook report, no. 9.
Margraf, Germany. 552 p. Economic Research Service (ERS),
USDA, Washington, DC, USA. 57 p.
Russo, L. J. 1993. The evolution of
technology in the fuel ethanol van Den, T.; Palomar, L. S.; and Amestos,
industry. Cereal Foods World F. J. 1990. Cassava processing and
38(8):636. utilization in the Philippines. In:
Howeler, R. H. (ed.). Proceedings of
Sasson, A. 1990. Feeding tomorrows world. the Third Regional Workshop of the
United Nations Education, Cassava Research Network in Asia,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization Oct. 22-27, Malang, Indonesia. CIAT,
(UNESCO) and Editorial Revert, Cali, Colombia. p. 339-354.
Barcelona, Spain. 807 p.
Whistler, R. L. 1984. History and future
Schmitt, H. 1988. Renewable raw materials: expectation of starch use. In:
effects on agricultural markets. Whistler, R. L. and Paschall, E. F.
Politische Studien 301:39, 609-618. (eds.). Starch: chemistry and
technology. Academic Press, Orlando,
Shuren, J. 1990. Cassava processing and FL, USA. p. 1-9.
utilization in China. In: Howeler,
R. H. (ed.). Proceedings of the Third Zeikus, J. G. 1993. Production of organic
Regional Workshop of the Cassava acids from fermentation of starch.
Research Network in Asia, Oct. Cereal Foods World 38(8):609.
22-27, Malang, Indonesia. CIAT,
Cali, Colombia. p. 355-362.
120
SESSION 3:
PHYSICOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF
FLOURS AND STARCHES
The Role of Common Salt in Maintaining Hot-Paste Viscosity...
CHAPTER 14
THE ROLE OF COMMON SALT IN

MAINTAINING HOT-PASTE VISCOSITY OF
CASSAVA STARCH
O. Safo-Kantanka* and Rita Acquistucci.**
Abstract Tipples (1982) pointed out that, in

wheat starch, these additives affect its
The amylographs of starch and flour gelatinization properties. Additives
from three cassava varieties were include sugars, syrups, various ions,
determined in salt (NaCl) solutions and some bread ingredients. He cited
of 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% the study of Hester et al. (1956) on the
concentrations. The salt increased effect of sucrose on the pasting
the pasting and peak viscosity characteristics of several starches.
temperatures. Peak viscosity differed They reported that:
with variety, and increased with salt in
some cases, but was reduced to below (1) The temperature of the initial rise
that of the control in others. Salt also in paste viscosity increased for
reduced the extent of retrogradation of most starches, indicating a
starch, compared with the control. delayed swelling of granules.
(2) The temperature of maximum
viscosity of starch pastes was
Introduction lower than, or did not reach,
95 C, indicating less swelling of
The average Ghanaian housewife granules.
knows that, if a family member is late (3) Granules disintegrated less.
for the evening meal of fufu, she must (4) The amount of soluble material
add salt, pounding it into the cassava diffusing from the granules was
paste (or plantain or cocoyam). This less.
practice helps prolong the elasticity of (5) Starch gels became less rigid, and,
the pounded paste, which otherwise when high sucrose concentrations
will harden, and, in some cases, were used, gels did not form.
become watery.
Bean and Osman (1959)
For industrial starches, certain investigated the effect of 10 different
additives are often used to modify sugars and syrups on hot-paste
starch properties to make them viscosity curves and gel strength of 5%
suitable for particular end products. maize-starch paste. The maximum
hot-paste viscosity increased slightly
during gelatinization with
concentrations of sugar as high as
* Crop Science Department, University of
20%, but decreased with higher
Science and Technology (UST), Kumasi,
Ghana. concentrations. Tipples (1982) also
** National Nutrition Institute, Rome, Italy. cites Medcalf and Gilless 1966 study
123
on the effect of different salts on showed a one-step slow swelling, had

wheat-starch amylograms. They found good cooking qualities. The three
that pasting temperature and peak varieties differed in the strength of the
temperature progressively increased, bonding forces between granules
according to the effects of the classical (Figures 1 and 2). These three varieties
lyotropic anion series (SCN-, I-, NO-3, were used in the present investigation.
Br-, Cl-, F-, SO-4). Except for Na2SO4
and NaF, the salts studied gave The concentrations of NaCl
markedly increased starch peak solutions used by Ganz (1965) for
viscosities. Even NaCl concentrations wheat were adopted. They were
as low as 0.05 M resulted in a 0.43 M, 0.86 M, and 1.29 M, thus
significant increase in wheat-starch giving 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% salt
peak viscosity. solutions, respectively. One sample of
35 g (dry basis) of cassava starch was
Ganz (1965) found that when a
suspension of wheat starch was heated
in 2.5% (0.43 M) NaCl solution in a
Brabender viscoamylograph, peak 70
viscosity markedly increased. This 60

increase was believed to be a result of
50
Swelling power
an enhanced maintenance of granule

integrity. That is, the granule swells, 40
or remains intact, over a longer time
30
before fragmenting. The use of salts
was therefore suggested as a way of 20
regulating starch swelling. 10
Our study accordingly aimed to 0

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
verify the Ghanaian housewifes
practice, and to find agreement with Temperature (C)
the observed effects of additives on Figure 1. The effect of temperature on the

starch gelatinization reported in the swelling power of starch from three
literature. cassava varieties. ( = cv. 91934;
= cv. Ankra; = cv. 30474.)
Materials and Methods

50
A previous study had already
examined the swelling power and 40
solubility of three cassava varieties
Solubility (%)
that differed in cooking quality 30

(i.e., mealiness of the cooked root, and
elasticity and smoothness of the 20
pounded paste).
10
Results showed that the three
varieties differed in granule swelling 0
characteristics. Ankra, a good 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
cooking variety, showed a two-step Temperature (C)
gradual swelling of granules. But
neither the variety 91934, which Figure 2. The effect of temperature on the
solubility of starch from three cassava
showed a two-step rapid swelling of varieties. ( = cv. 91934; = cv. Ankra;
granules, nor the variety 30474, which = cv. 30474.)
124
dissolved in each solution and the and in Figures 3 and 4, and are
standard Brabender procedure discussed below.
followed. The flours were also studied
in the same way. Pasting temperature
The addition of salt increased pasting

Results and Discussion temperature, although the degree of
increase varied with variety. These
The pasting cycles of the starches and results agree with the findings of
flours are presented in Tables 1 and 2 Hester et al. (1956) (see p. 123). This
Table 1. Viscosity changes (using Brabender viscosity units = BU) in starch during gelatinization in the
presence of common salt (NaCl).
Variety Salt Pasting Peak temp. Peak Visc. at Visc. Visc. at Visc.
concn temp. (C) (C) visc. 95 C after 1 h 50 C after 1 h
at 95 C at 50 C
Ankra 0 M 74.0 82.0 560 460 260 480 420

0.43 M 75.5 89.0 360 340 150 220 180
0.86 M 74.0 92.0 300 300 160 200 160
1.29 M 79.3 93.5 360 360 200 300 260
91934 0 M 74.0 77.0 500 380 145 280 240

0.43 M 75.5 81.5 460 380 30 50 40
0.86 M 77.0 84.5 500 440 60 90 80
1.29 M 77.8 87.5 560 500 100 140 100
30474 0 M 71.0 85.0 340 290 140 280 260

0.43 M 78.5 92.0 340 270 110 160 120
0.86 M 81.5 95.0 380 380 180 260 200
1.29 M 81.5 95.0 380 380 260 340 280
Table 2. Viscosity changes (in Brabender viscosity units = BU) in flour during gelatinization in the
presence of common salt (NaCl).
Variety Salt Pasting Peak temp. Peak Visc. at Visc. Visc. at Visc.
concn temp. (C) (C) visc. 95 C after 1 h 50 C after 1 h
at 95 C at 50 C
Ankra 0 M 66.5 75.5 480 480 160 240 250

0.43 M 72.5 80.0 500 380 70 120 90
0.86 M 74.0 81.5 500 400 80 120 100
1.29 M 78.5 86.0 420 400 120 180 140
91934 0 M 66.5 75.5 380 40 0 0 0

0.43 M 69.5 77.0 390 100 0 0 0
0.86 M 74.0 80.0 420 180 0 0 0
1.29 M 75.5 81.5 400 220 0 0 0
30474 0 M 71.0 78.5 90 60 30 50 50

0.43 M 75.5 87.5 90 80 10 10 10
0.86 M 75.5 84.5 290 170 10 10 10
1.29 M 75.5 86.0 240 190 20 20 20
125
600 300
cv. 30474
500 250 cv. 30474
400 200
300 150
200 100
100 50
0 0
0 13 14 15 30 60 90 120 150 180
600
Temp. 50 C Held at 95 C Held at 50 C
cv. 91934
Hot-paste viscosity (BU)

500 500
Viscosity (BU)
400 cv. 91934

400
300
300
200
100 200
0 100
0
600
cv. Ankra 0 14 15 30 45 60 90 120 150 180
500 600
400 500 cv. Ankra
300 400
200 300
100 200
0 100
Time 0 14 15 30 45 60 90 120 150 180
(in minutes) 0
Time 0 14 15 30 45 60 90 120 150 180
(in minutes)
Cooking temperature and time Cooking temperature and time
Figure 3. The effect of different salt concentrations Figure 4. Effect of different salt concentrations
on hot-paste viscosity of starch from on hot-paste viscosity of flour from
three cassava varieties. (Salt three cassava varieties. (Salt
concentrations: = control; = 7.5%; concentrations: = control; = 7.5%;
= 5%; = 2.5%.) = 5%; = 2.5%.
means that the salt caused a delay in found similar results when they
granule swelling. examined the effect of different salts
on wheat starch amylographs.
In all three varieties, adding salt
also increased the temperature at Peak viscosity
which peak viscosity was attained.
For example, in 30474, peak The effect of salt concentrations on
viscosity of its starch in 5% and 7.5% peak viscosity varied with variety. In
salt solutions occurred at 95 C. The the flours and starches of 30474 and
cited Medcalf and Gilles study (1966) 91934, salt concentrations of 5% and
126
7.5% resulted in increases in peak syneresis, or the release of water.

viscosity. These results agree with Retrogradation is heavily influenced
findings by Medcalf and Gilles (1966) by the amylose content of the starch.
and Ganz (1965), who found that It declines when salt is added.
NaCl concentrations of 0.05 M and Hence, the Ghanaian housewife, by
0.43 M significantly increased peak pounding salt into the pounded paste,
viscosity in starches, for which Ganz is reducing its tendency to retrograde,
(1965) postulated the granule thus extending its table-life.
integrity hypothesis (p. 124). In
Ankra, results were slightly different: For the three varieties, the extent
peak viscosity of untreated starch of retrogradation in pure starch and
was far higher than those with salt flour tended to increase as the salt
added, even though peak viscosity concentration increased, but, except
increased with salt concentration. for starch from cv. 30474, the extent
of retrogradation was always less
For flour made from Ankra, the than the control. The cited study by
highest salt concentration of 7.5% Hester et al. (1956) also found that
had the lowest peak viscosity. Again, starch gels became less rigid when
this contrasted markedly with the sucrose was added and that, when
behavior of the other two varieties. high sucrose concentrations were
used, gels did not form at all.
Our results seem to demonstrate
that, if starch granules are fragile
when swollen, as for variety 91934, Acknowledgments
adding NaCl may reduce the fragility,
but in other cases, as with Ankra, This work was undertaken as part
salt may inhibit granule swelling. of a contract (Research Contract
Number GHA 5416) with the
Salt also affected the International Atomic Energy Agency
temperatures at which peak viscosity (IAEA). The award of a six-month
could be maintained: at temperatures fellowship, which enabled the senior
higher than 95 C peak viscosity author to travel to Rome to carry out
would begin to drop. For all three this research, is gratefully
varieties, even though adding salt did acknowledged.
not increase peak viscosity, compared
with the control, no differences
existed between peak viscosity and References
viscosity at 95 C. The reason may be
that either the salt increased the Bean, M. M. and Osman, E. M. 1959.
temperature at which peak viscosity Behaviour of starch during food
was attained, or it enabled the preparation. II. Effects of different
sugars on the viscosity and gel
swollen granules to remain intact for strength of starch pastes. Food Res.
a longer time before fragmenting. 24:665.
Retrogradation Ganz, A. J. 1965. Effect of sodium chloride

on the pasting of wheat starch
granules. Cereal Chem. 42:429.
Retrogradation is an increased
rigidity in the starch gel that occurs Tipples, K. H. 1982. Uses and applications.
as starch granules re-associate Brabender.viscoamylograph
during cooling, sometimes leading to handbook, 1982.
127
CHAPTER 15
AMYLOGRAPHIC PERFORMANCE OF
CASSAVA STARCH SUBJECTED TO
EXTRUSION COOKING1
Z. Gonzlez and E. Prez*
Introduction Materials and Methods

In Venezuela, cassava (Manihot A commercial cassava starch was
esculenta Crantz) is consumed submitted to extrusion cooking in two
preferably fresh but also in other Rheocord Torque Rheometers. Model
forms. During 1991, 381,069 t of 104 had a single rotating screw that
cassava were produced, of which operated at 90 rpm at a temperature
183,913 t were used for human of 150 C, with a 25% sample
consumption, including 19,549 t for moisture content. Model 3000 had
producing casabe, a type of cassava double, co-rotating screws that also
bread. Another 38,107 t were used operated at 90 rpm, but at
for animal feed, 244 t for export. temperatures of 100 and 150 C, and
About 152,428 t were estimated as with 10%, 21%, and 25% sample
lost (INN, 1991). moisture contents.
Because starch has multiple uses Starch suspensions at 6.88%

in the food, pharmaceutical, oil, and (w/w dry basis) were prepared. These
textile industries, great interest has were heated at a rate of 1.5 C per
arisen in the use of alternative, minute in the bowl of a Brabender
low-cost sources of this amylograph (model A.V. 40, 60-cycle),
polysaccharide. Starchs functional from 30 until 90 C. Suspensions
properties can be modified by were maintained at this temperature
different methods. Our study for 30 min and then cooled at the
evaluated the effect of extrusion same rate to 50 C, at which they
cooking on the amylographic were maintained for 30 min more.
performance of cassava starch. Water absorption capacity, solubility,
and swelling power of both extruded
and native starches were determined
by Schochs method (1964).
Results
* Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Table 1 shows the most important
Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad parameters of the amylograms
Central de Venezuela (UCV), Caracas,
Venezuela. obtained. The initial gelatinization
temperature of starches extruded at
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. 25% moisture content (61.5 C) and
128
Amylographic Performance of Cassava Starch Under Extrusion Cooking
Table 1. Effect of extrusion cooking on the most important parameters used in cassava starch
amylography.
Parametera Sample
Native Extruded Extruded Extruded

starch starchb starchc starchd
Initial gelatinization temperature (C) 60.8 61.5 55.5 61.5

Final gelatinization temperature (C) 70.5 77.5 67.5 78.0
Maximum viscosity (Vmax); (BU) 900 740 860 700
Vmax temperature (C) 69.8 77.3 66.8 76.5
Viscosity at 90 C (BU) 380 520 410 530
Viscosity after 30 min at 90 C (V90/30); (BU) 40 300 260 290
Viscosity at 50 C (V50); (BU) 400 480 420 320
Viscosity after 30 min at 50 C (BU) 420 480 430 380
Stability (Vmax - V90/30); (BU) 660 440 600 410
Sedimentation (V50 - V90/30); (BU) 160 180 160 30
Consistency (V50 - V max); (BU) -500 -260 -440 -380
a. BU = Brabender viscosity units.

b. Single-screw, 150 C, 25% moisture content, and 90 rpm.
c. Double-screw, 100 C, 10.21% moisture content, and 90 rpm.
d. Double-screw, 150 C, 25% moisture content, and 90 rpm.
that for native starch (60.8 C) did not All processed samples had lower
differ significantly. However, initial maximum viscosity (Vmax) values
gelatinization temperature for the (Table 1) compared with native
sample extruded at 10.21% moisture starches (900 Brabender viscosity
content by the double-screw extruder units [BU]). Starches extruded at
was 55.5 C. Apparently, the 25% moisture content by single-screw
conditions under which this last extruders showed Vmax of 740 BU and
operation was performed favored the by double-screw extruder, 700 BU.
access of water to the amorphous These values were lower than that for
zones of the starch granules, causing starch extruded at 10.21% moisture
them to swell faster. Gelatinization content by a double-screw extruder,
therefore began at a lower which, in its turn, differed by 40 BU
temperature. from that of native starch (860 BU).
The interval between initial and Maximum viscosities of extruded

final gelatinization temperatures was starches, at 25% moisture content,
greater in starches extruded at 25% were obtained at 77.3 (single-screw
moisture content by both single- and extruder) and 76.5 C (double-screw
double-screw extruders (about 16 C) extruder), higher than that
than those corresponding to starch corresponding to native starch
processed by the double-screw (69.8 C) (Table 1). Starch extruded
extruder at 10.21% moisture content at 10.21% moisture content by the
(12 C) and to native starch (9.7 C) double-screw extruder not only
(Table 1). These results indicate that showed the lowest temperature for
extrusion partially transformed the Vmax (66.8 C), but also the lowest
starch granule structure and affected gelatinization temperature range
the macromolecules. This caused a (55.5-67.5 C). This finding probably
greater temperature interval in indicates that, because the extrusion
extruded products than in native process makes more water available
starches. to the amorphous zones of starch
129
granules, gelatinization advanced These findings suggest that the

more rapidly and so reached Vmax at a expansion corresponding to Vmax of
lower temperature. extruded starches was the result of
various factors acting together,
Because no Vmax value similar to principally swelling power and
that of native starch was obtained in solubility. The greatest value of Vmax
the samples processed, a certain of extruded samples thus
degree of macromolecule rupture corresponded to processed starch at
and/or reorganization can be 10.21% moisture content in the
inferred. Although native starch double-screw extruder, whose
presented the highest Vmax, its swelling capacity was the highest of
swelling power was not the highest the starches tested. Extruded
(Table 2). Also, at about 70 C, the starch at 25% moisture content in
temperature at which Vmax of native the single-screw extruder had,
starch was obtained, the highest overall, the lowest solubility values
value of water absorption (24.31 g/g of the starches, even though it
starch) and of swelling power tended to swell less than the
(2.34 g/g starch) corresponded to starches processed by the
extruded starch at 10.21% moisture double-screw extruder.
content by the double-screw extruder
(Table 2).
Table 2. Effect of extrusion cooking on water absorption, solubility, and swelling power of cassava
starches.
Temperature (C) Sample
Native Extruded Extruded Extruded

starch starcha starch b starchc
Water absorption (g/g starch)

65 2.40 7.40 0.90 0.89
70 15.04 14.46 24.31 19.09
75 23.22 17.74 23.14 -
80 29.47 21.09 29.41 24.27
85 31.77 25.17 37.95 28.49
90 43.41 27.86 38.93 30.41
Solubility (%)
65 1.90 5.44 9.21 9.11
70 11.48 11.09 17.42 17.50
75 21.57 13.52 16.23 -
80 22.11 16.88 22.20 21.78
85 25.21 19.52 39.79 26.33
90 33.09 21.79 59.87 26.54
Swelling power
65 0.50 0.83 0.90 0.86
70 0.83 1.54 2.34 1.90
75 1.15 1.80 2.24 -
80 1.29 2.19 2.78 2.32
85 1.53 2.62 3.48 2.66
90 2.04 2.93 3.28 2.55
a. Single-screw, 150 C, 25% moisture content, and 90 rpm.

b. Double-screw, 100 C, 10.21% moisture content, and 90 rpm.
c. Double-screw, 150 C, 25% moisture content, and 90 rpm.
130
Amylographic Performance of Cassava Starch Under Extrusion Cooking
Starch modified at 25% moisture difference between the viscosity at

content in the double-screw extruder, 50 C and that after 30 min at 90 C
despite showing an intermediate (Rasper, 1980). Native starch and
swelling ability compared with the starch extruded at 10.21% moisture
rest of the processed samples, had content by the double-screw extruder
the lowest Vmax. The reason may have presented the same retrogradation
been that its solubility was usually tendency (160 BU), and starch
higher at the same moisture content processed by the single-screw
than that of the single-screw extruder extruder at 25% moisture content
(Table 2). showed the greatest sedimentation
(180 BU). The lowest value for this
In summary, extrusion tended to index corresponded to starch
reduce water absorption capacity and extruded at 25% moisture content by
solubility of samples processed at the double-screw extruder (30 BU).
25% moisture content by single- and
double-screw equipment, whereas the Viscosity after 30 min at 50 C
swelling power of all extruded was higher than viscosity at 50 C,
starches increased. However, in except for starch extruded by the
starch processed at 10.21% moisture single-screw extruder, whose value
content by the double-screw extruder, remained constant (480 BU). In
solubility tended to increase. general terms, all starches showed
stability during cooking at 50 C.
Without exception, all starches
had reduced viscosity values at 90 C Consistency (the difference
in relation to Vmax and, after 30 min at between viscosity at 50 C and Vmax;
90 C, in relation to the initial Rasper, 1980) increased as a
viscosity (Table 1). The different consequence of the extrusion process.
starch suspensions showed low Native starch showed a value of
stability during cooking, that is, -500 BU, while extruded starches
granules were highly susceptible to showed values of -440 BU (starch
shearing stress. This was reflected in extruded at 10.21% moisture content
the positive values of the stability by a double-screw extruder), -260 BU
index, which is defined as the (starch extruded by a single-screw
difference between Vmax and viscosity extruder), and -380 BU (starch
after 30 min at 90 C (Rasper, 1980). extruded at 25% moisture content by
Native starch was the least stable a double-screw extruder).
during cooking (660 BU), followed by
starch extruded at 10.21% moisture
content in the double-screw extruder Conclusions
(600 BU), starch processed at 25%
moisture content in single-screw Extrusion cooking of cassava starch
extruder (440 BU), and starch caused a series of modifications in the
processed in the double-screw starch structure, depending on
extruder (410 BU). cooking conditions. The amorphous
zones of starch extruded at 10.21%
Viscosity values at 50 C of all moisture content by the double-screw
starches were higher than the extruder apparently had greater
corresponding viscosity values after access to water. This translated into
30 min at 90 C. This finding quicker swelling of starch granules
suggests that a certain degree of and the start of gelatinization for all
retrogradation occurred in these extruded samples at a lower
starches, which could be quantified temperature, although the intervals of
as a sedimentation index, or the gelatinization temperature increased
131
due to the process. Swelling power, Rasper, V. 1980. Theoretical aspects of

stability, and consistency of extruded amylographology. In: Shuey, W. C.
and Tipples, K. H. (eds.). The
starches also increased, while Vmax amylograph handbook. American
decreased. This appeared to depend Association of Cereal Chemists, St.
principally on swelling power and Paul, MN, USA. p. 1-6.
solubility, among other factors. In
the sample processed at 25% Schoch, T. J. 1964. Swelling power and
solubility of granular starches. In:
moisture content by the double-screw Whistler, R. L. (ed.). Methods in
extruder, the tendency of starch carbohydrate chemistry, vol. 4.
retrogradation was notably reduced. Academic Press, New York, USA.
p. 106-108.
References
INN (Instituto Nacional de Nutricin). 1991.
Hoja de balance de alimentos, versin
preliminar. Caracas, Venezuela.
132
Improving the Bread-Making Potential of Cassava Sour Starch
CHAPTER 16
IMPROVING THE BREAD-MAKING

POTENTIAL OF CASSAVA SOUR STARCH
D. Dufour*, S. Larsonneur*, F. Alarcn**,
C. Brabet*, and G. Chuzel***
Abstract Introduction
Cassava sour starch, fermented for Cassava sour starch is a product of
use in bread making, is traditionally traditional rural industry in Latin
sun-dried. Changes in the America. It is used for making breads
physicochemical and functional such as pandebono and pan de yuca
properties of the starch during in Colombia, and po de queijo in
sun-drying were examined for Brazil; and for industrially processed
correlations between these changes snack foods (Cereda, 1973, 1991;
and the starchs bread-making Cereda and Nues, 1992; Chuzel,
potential. Starch samples collected 1990). Urban markets for sour starch
after fermentation and drying were are growing in Brazil (where it is
analyzed for their pH, total acidity, known as polvilho azedo) and in
and lactic acid. Viscoamylograms Colombia (almidn agrio).
were plotted and bread-making
potential determined. Results Bakers and manufacturers
indicated that exposure to sunlight regard swelling power as the main
considerably changes the criterion of quality, but this is often
physicochemical and rheological unpredictable. Our study aimed to
properties of cassava sour starch, understand how bread-making
correlating directly with potential is increased during
bread-making potential. During traditional processing, so we could
oven-drying, the lactic acid content suggest ways of achieving a better
remained steady, whereas sun-drying quality sour starch (Chuzel and
at a similar temperature greatly Muchnik, 1993).
reduced it, thus augmenting the
cassava sour starchs bread-making The traditional method consists of
potential. wet-process extraction of starch from
cassava roots (Pinto, 1978; Ruiz,
1988, 1991). The starch is then
stored in 0.5 to 5-t capacity tanks and
* CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Cassava fermented for 20 to 60 days, according
Utilization Section, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. to climatic conditions (temperatures
** CIRAD/SAR, Montpellier, France. may range from 15 to 25 C) (Jory,
*** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Faculdade de 1989). Lactic fermentation takes place
Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade
Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Paulo, and the starch pH drops to about
Brazil. 3.5-4.0 (Crdenas and de Buckle,
133
1980). It is then sun-dried on Our study examines how sunlight

drying tables (Brazil) or on black changes the bread-making potential of
plastic sheeting laid on the ground cassava sour starch by changing the
(Colombia). following physicochemical and
rheological properties: pH, total
Both fermentation and acidity, lactic acid content, and
sun-drying give the cassava starch Brabender viscosity. The important
its bread-making potential (Chuzel, role of lactic acid is also
1992). Fermentation also causes demonstrated.
substantial modifications to the
starchs organoleptic and
physicochemical characteristics Materials and Methods
(Camargo et al., 1988; Cereda,
1985; Nakamura and Park, 1975). Preparing samples
Larsonneur (1993) achieved Starch samples were collected from

optimal swelling power by exposing production units at Santander de
thin layers (0.5 to 1 cm) of sour Quilichao (Department of Cauca,
starch to the sun (solar radiation Colombia). Three local cassava
intensity 1,200 W/m2) on sheets of cultivars were used: Amarga (referred
black plastic, and shaking the to as starch A), CMC 40 (B), and
sheets frequently. In confirmation, Algodona (C).
Colombian sour starch producers
maintain that drying in low levels of Extracted starch was left to
sunlight results in poor-quality sour ferment in tiled tanks (0.95 x 0.82 x
starch with low bread-making 0.79 m, capacity 0.5 m3). The average
potential. Brazilian large-scale temperature in the zone was 20 C,
manufacturers prefer drying sour with a small day-night variability of
starch in the sun (sometimes using 18 to 22 C. For starch A, a sample of
12 km of drying tables) to the starch milk (unfermented starch
various types of driers (e.g., hot air, suspension in water) was collected
flash driers, and drum driers) used immediately after extraction. A
for producing unfermented cassava sample of fermented starch was taken
starch. Industrial trials have shown after 30 days of fermentation, just
that sour starch dried artificially before farmers typically initiate
has no significant swelling power. sun-drying. The samples were then
transferred, in an insulated box, to the
Sour starch is the main CIAT laboratory, frozen at -20 C, and
ingredient (mixed with fats or subjected to drying tests and analysis.
cheese, eggs, and salt) in
traditional, high-swelling breads. Drying conditions
Such breads contain no wheat flour,
nor do they undergo yeast Sun-drying, on black plastic sheets for
fermentation before baking. 8 h, was similar to traditional sour
Additives are not used and the starch-drying conditions in Colombia
dough is baked immediately after (layer 1 to 1.5 cm thick, with agitation
kneading, with no rising or every 2 h).
proofing time. Rising, therefore,
does not involve a protein-gluten Exposure to sun
network nor the production of
carbon dioxide by yeasts as seen in, Starch samples were sun-dried for
for example, the making of French different lengths of time (2, 4, 6, and
bread (Godon, 1981). 8 h) and then oven-dried at 40 C to a
134
final moisture content of about 11%. temperature was kept constant for
A control sample was oven-dried only, 10 min. Viscosities are expressed in
at 40 C. This temperature was Brabender units (BU).
chosen because it does not cause
gelatinization, but is representative of Measurement of pH. A 10% (w/v)
an average daytime temperature in aqueous suspension was agitated at
strong sunlight. The sampling plan ambient temperature (20 2 C) for
was as follows: 30 min and then centrifuged at
15,000 g for 15 min. Supernatant pH
was measured.
Moist starch Dry starch
0 2 4 6 8 Assay of total acidity. Total

acidity was assayed in 50 ml of
hours of drying
the supernatant described above
by titration of a NaOH 0.1 N
S______________________________ S
solution in the presence of 1%
S______________________S phenolphthalein-alcohol solution. The
results were measured in moles of acid
S______________ S per gram of dry weight of sour starch.
S______ S Assay of lactic acid. Cassava

sour starch (10 g) was added to
S 15 ml H2S04 (0.006 M) and agitated
for 1 min. The suspension was
where:
homogenized for 1 min at 24,000 rpm
S = sampling for in an Ultraturrax blender, agitated
subsequent analysis in a vortex mixer for 1 min, and
= sun-drying centrifuged at 9,800 g for 25 min.
________ = oven-drying
The supernatant was passed through
a 0.45 m filter and analyzed by
high-performance liquid
Rheological and physicochemical chromatography (HPLC) as follows: of
analyses the filtrate, 20 l was injected into an
Aminex HPX87H column (Biorad),
Each of the following analyses was which was controlled thermostatically
performed in duplicate on starches A, at 65 C. Column separation was
B, and C: based on a combination of ion
exchange, molecular screening, and
Viscoamylograms. The hydrophobic exchange. A solution of
rheological properties were determined H2S04 (0.006 M) was used as eluant at
by using a Brabender a flow rate of 0.8 ml/min (Giraud and
viscoamylograph. The sour starch Raimbault, 1991). The lactic acid
was first ground and sieved through a peak was detected under ultraviolet
65/cm ( 150 m) mesh. An aliquot light at 210 nm. The results were
(500 ml) of an aqueous sour-starch expressed in grams of lactic acid per
suspension (5% dry matter) was used 100 g of initial sour-starch dry weight.
to plot the viscoamylogram. The
analysis unit rotated at 75 rpm; the Measuring bread-making
temperature of the reaction mixture potential. Procedures for bread
increased steadily at 1.5 C/min from making with sour starch and
25 to 90 C. The mixture was kept evaluation of swelling power were
at 90 C for 20 min, then steadily developed by Escobar and Molinari
cooled at 1.5 C/min to 50 C; this (1990) and modified by Laurent (1992)
135
and Larsonneur (1993). Sour starch (Larsonneur, 1993). The samples

was ground in a mortar and sieved for taken after fermentation were therefore
10 min through a 65/cm (150 m) frozen to be sun-dried the following
mesh. Of this fraction, 85 g (dry day.
weight) was mixed with 100 g of
Colombian cheese (Campesino, brand The viscoamylograms in Figure 1
Alpina) in a Hobart kneading show the performances of two
machine operated at low speed subsamples taken from the original
(165 rpm) for 1 min. Water was added starch sample A. One subsample was
to obtain a total of 65 ml of water in frozen and the other fermented for
the dough. It was then kneaded at 33 days. They were then sun-dried
medium speed (300 rpm) for 2 min. under identical conditions. The
Six 30-g rings of dough with an inside viscoamylograms reveal considerable
diameter of 2 cm were prepared. These modification of the rheological
were baked at 280 C for 17 min and properties of the fermented sour starch.
cooled for 2 h at ambient temperature.
Each loaf was weighed and its volume Pasting temperature (62.5 C) and
measured with a volumeter according that of maximum viscosity (70 C)
to Vanhamel et al. (1991). The specific were identical in all the samples. The
volume of the bread was then tendency toward retrogradation (a
expressed in cm3/g. decrease in viscosity after the peak)
increased relative to fermentation, a
finding which agrees with those of
Results and Discussion Nakamura and Park (1975). Peak
viscosity decreased in relation to
Previous tests had shown that freezing the time allowed for the
had no effect on the viscoelastic fermentationbacterial amylases to
properties of starch or on the break down the large starch molecules
bread-making potential of sour starch (Camargo et al., 1988).
400
300
70 C
Viscosity (BU)
200
100
62.5 C
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Analysis time (minutes)
Figure 1. Changes in the rheological properties of starch, extracted from cassava variety Amarga, during
fermentation. The samples were sun-dried for 8 h before analysis. ( = unfermented starch;
= starch fermented 33 days.)
136
The specific volume of the loaves the two latter viscoamylograms are
increased from 3.5 to 6.5 cm3/g for similar, indicating that oven-drying
starch A, from 2.0 to 5.8 cm3/g for B, barely affects the physicochemical
and from 1.9 to 5.2 cm3/g for C. properties of sour starch. The
sun-dried starch shows a strong
The effect of sunlight retrogradation tendency and a notable
decrease in maximum viscosity (from
Direct exposure to sunlight (8 h under 320 to 220 BU).
equatorial conditions) caused
substantial changes in the rheological Analysis of pasting properties of
properties of fermented starch A. The starch A after 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 h of
viscoamylogram (Figure 2) differs sun-drying reveals a rapid increase in
widely from those of the same starch retrogradation tendency after about
analyzed before drying (wet starch) and 3 h of exposure to sunlight (Figure 3).
after oven-drying at 40 C. In addition, In contrast, the decrease in maximum
400
300
Viscosity (BU)
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 2. Influence of type of drying on the rheological properties of starch extracted from cassava
variety Amarga. Samples were taken after 33 days of fermentation. ( = wet starch;
. . = starch oven-dried 8 h; = starch sun-dried 8 h.)
400
300
Viscosity (BU)
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 3. Influence of sun-drying time on the rheological properties of starch extracted from cassava
variety Amarga. Samples were taken after 33 days of fermentation. ( = wet starch;
= starch sun-dried 2 h; = starch sun-dried 4 h; = starch sun-dried 6 h;
= starch sun-dried 8 h.)
137
viscosity is linear (r2 = 0.934) against 7

time of exposure to sunlight within the
Specific volume
6
0 to 8-h range (Figure 4). Because
(cm3/g)
maximum bread-making potential was 5
attained after 3 h of sun-drying 4
(Figure 5), bread-making potential
3
appears to relate more directly to the
increase in retrogradation tendency of 2
starch. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sun-drying time (hours)
In addition, when oven-dried, the
Figure 5. Changes in bread-making potential of
same starch showed no increase in starch extracted from cassava variety
bread-making potential. Sun-drying Amarga in relation to duration of
kinetics observed for other cassava sun-drying.
cultivars (starches B and C) are shown
in Figure 6. They confirm that
bread-making potential is acquired
during exposure to solar radiation and
not after oven-drying. 7
6
Specific volume
Significantly, the pH of starch A 5

(cm3/g)
(sampled after 33 days of

4
fermentation) rose from 3.45 to 3.70
3
after sun-drying and increased to only
3.50 when oven-dried (Figure 7). 2
Starches B and C similarly increased 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
in pH during sun-drying from 3.48 to
3.55 (B) and from 3.45 to 3.55 (C) Drying time (hours)
(Table 1). Because the pre-drying pH
Figure 6. Changes in bread-making potential
of 3.45 corresponded to the pKa of of starches extracted from cassava
lactic acid, the medium would have varieties Amarga ( ) CMC 40 ( ),
been strongly buffered, with lactic and and Algodona ( ) in relation to
duration of sun-drying. All three
lactate forms in equal proportions. varieties were also oven-dried
This small increase in pH during ( ; oven-dried CMC 40 ).
sun-drying (0.25 unit, from 3.45 to
340 3.80
Maximum viscosity
320 y = 316.60 - 11.60 x r2 = 0.934 3.75

300 3.70
(BU)
3.65
280
pH
3.60
260
3.55
240 3.50
220 3.45
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3.40
Sun-drying time (hours) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drying time (hours)
Figure 4. Changes in maximum viscosity of
starch extracted from cassava variety Figure 7. Changes in the pH of starch extracted
Amarga in relation to duration of from cassava variety Amarga in
sun-drying. Samples were taken after relation to drying time ( = sun-drying;
33 days of fermentation. = oven-drying).
138
Table 1. Acquisition of bread-making potential during fermentation.
Starch Cassava varietya

A B C
pH of wet sweet starch 6.8 - -
pH of sour starch before sun-drying 3.45 3.48 3.45
pH of sour starch after sun-drying 3.70 3.55 3.55
Bread specific volume

(ml/g) of oven-dried starch 3.5 2 1.9
Bread specific volume

(ml/g) of sun-dried starch 6.5 5.8 4.7
Total acidity before sun-drying

(10-5 mol/g dry matter) 10.5 10.4 7.7
Total acidity after sun-drying

(10-5 mol/g dry matter) 6.8 9.4 6.7
Lactic acid before sun-drying

(10-6 mol/g of dry matter) 105 105 76
Lactic acid after sun-drying

(10-6 mol/g of dry matter) 68 94 66
a. A = Amarga; B = CMC 40; C = Algodona.
3.70, starch A) therefore suggests 10.4 to 9.4 x 10-5 and 7.7 to

considerable variation in the 6.7 x 10-5 mol/g dry weight,
proportions of lactic acid and lactate, respectively. The greater fall in the
considering the chemical equation of lactic acid content of starch A (35%
the buffer solutions (pH = pKa + log against 10% and 13%, respectively)
base/acid). and its higher bread-making potential
(6.5 against 5.8 and 4.7, respectively)
This variation during sun-drying correlate well (Table 1). The
can be interpreted either by the differences observed between starches
transformation of lactic acid into A, B, and C may be heightened by the
lactate or by the disappearance of the diversity of cultivars used, a finding
lactic form. The lactic acid assay of
fermented starch sample A (Figure 8), 110
sun-dried and oven-dried, indicates
Lactic acid + lactate
content (10-6 mol/g)
that the initial (lactic acid + lactate) 100

content was 10.5 x 10-5 mol/g dry
90
weight, which corresponds to the
conversion of 1% of the initial starch 80
into lactic acid during fermentation.
This decreased to 6.8 x 10-5 mol/g dry 70
weight (a decrease of 35%) during
60
sun-drying but remained unchanged 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
during oven-drying for 8 h. Because Drying time (hours)
the oven-drying temperature was
similar to that of sun-drying, the Figure 8. Changes in the lactic acid content
disappearance of lactic acid cannot be of starch extracted from cassava
variety Amarga in relation to drying
ascribed to volatilization. Starches B time ( = sun-drying; = oven-drying).
and C similarly produced decreases of
139
which agrees with that of Chuzel content decreased by as much as

(1992). 35% during sun-drying only,
suggesting a photochemical reaction
The pH increase suggests that involving the starch, resulting in the
lactic acid is consumed in a chemical formation of a three-dimensional
reaction during sun-drying. The network that retains gas bubbles
HPLC method used did not permit during baking and, hence,
assay of combined forms of lactic acid accounting for the acquisition of
and thus did not detect polymerized bread-making potential by sour
forms or covalent bonds which might starch.
have formed during drying. Detection
would be possible after total Characterization of the solar
hydrolysis of the starch. radiation involved in this process
should lead to the design of drying
In classic bread making, wheat apparatus that would combine both
gluten forms a three-dimensional air-drying and radiation. Such a
network that retains gas bubbles system would overcome dependence
during baking. Baking additives on climate, reduce labor costs and
(xanthan gums) are added to drying space, and reduce losses to
non-panifiable flours to increase their wind, poor handling, and external
bread-making potential (Eggleston, contamination. Brazilian
1992; Godon, 1981). Because starch industrialists favor developing an
is the only significant macromolecule artificial drier to manufacture
in sour starch (no protein or cellulose high-quality industrial sour starch.
is present), a three-dimensional
network may be formed by a A better understanding of the
photochemical reaction involving phenomena described in this study
lactic acid and fermented starch. should permit the development of
Such a network may account for the modified cassava starch with a high
acquired bread-making potential of bread-making potential. Such
sun-dried cassava sour starch. modified starch could be used as an
additive (as are xanthan gums) to
improve the bread-making capacity of
Conclusions and Prospects flours which expand little.
Furthermore, modified cassava starch
Fermentation and sun-drying clearly could have great potential for the
played a role in obtaining sour starch development of gluten-free bread.
with high swelling power and
desirable organoleptic characteristics. Good fermentation practice and
At the end of fermentation, the pH solar drying, combined with the use
was 3.45, following conversion of of cassava cultivars specifically
about 1% of the initial starch to lactic chosen for sour starch production,
acid. Fermentation gave the starch should facilitate the production of
the necessary physicochemical high-quality cassava sour starch for
properties required to later achieve which demand exists in bread
bread-making potential through making and various industries.
exposure to sunlight. Fermentation
and sun-drying modified the
rheological properties of the starch Acknowledgments
and produced a more marked
retrogradation and lower maximum The authors thank Marney Pascoli
viscosity, together with an increased Cereda (UNESP, Botucatu, Brazil) for
swelling power. The lactic acid her advice, hospitality, and access to
140
her extensive knowledge of cassava Chuzel, G. 1990. Cassava starch: current

and potential use in Latin
sour starch.
America. Cassava Newsl. (Cent.
Int. Agric. Trop.) 15(1):9-11.
The research used facilities at
CIATs Cassava Quality and __________. 1992. Amlioration technique
et conomique du procd de
Utilization Section, and was funded
fabrication de lamidon aigre de
by CIAT, CIRAD/SAR, and the manioc. In: D. Dufour and
European Unin. D. Griffon (eds.). Amlioration de
la qualit des aliments ferments
Special thanks go to Alba Luca base de manioc: Rapport
final du contrat CEE/STD2
Chvez and Jorge Mayer, of CIATs
TS2A-0225. CIRAD, Montpellier,
Biotechnology Research Unit, and France.
Luc Laurent, of Universit
Technologique de Compigne, __________ and Muchnik, J. 1993. La
Compigne, France, for their active valorisation des ressources
techniques locales: Lamidon
participation in the trials. aigre de manioc en Colombie. In:
J. Muchnick (ed.). Alimentation:
Techniques et innovations dans
References les rgions tropicales. Editions
LHarmattan, Paris, France.
p. 307-337.
Camargo, C.; Colonna, P.; Buleon, A.; and
Richard-Molard, D. 1988. Eggleston, G. 1992. Can we make a
Functional properties of sour marketable cassava bread
cassava (Manihot utilissima).starch: without wheat? Cassava Newsl.
polvilho azedo. J. Sci. Food Agric. (Cent. Int. Agric. Trop.) 16(1):7-8.
45:273-289.
Escobar, C. A. and Molinari, J. E. 1990.
Crdenas, O. S. and de Buckle, T. S. 1980. Obtencin de parmetros para la
Sour cassava starch production: a evaluacin de la calidad de un
preliminary study. J. Food Sci. almidn agrio de yuca. B.S.
45:1509-1512, 1528. thesis. Plan de Estudios de
Ingeniera Qumica, Universidad
Cereda, M. P. 1973. Alguns aspectos sobre a del Valle, Cali, Colombia. 75 p.
fermentao da fcula de
Giraud, E. and Raimbault, M. 1991.
mandioca. Ph.D. dissertation.
Utilizacin de la cromatografa
Faculdade de Cincias Mdicas e
lquida de alta resolucin (HPLC)
Biolgicas, Universidade Estadual
para la caracterizacin
Paulista, Botucatu, SP, Brazil. 89 p.
bioqumica de la fermentacin del
almidn de yuca. In: [Proceedings
__________. 1985. Avaliao da qualidade da of the workshop on] Avances
fcula fermentada comercial de sobre Almidn de Yuca held at
mandioca (polvilho azedo). CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 17-20 June
I. Caractersticas viscogrficas e 1991. (Abstr.)
absoro de agua. Rev. Bras. Med.
3(2):7-13. Godon, B. 1981. Le pain. Pour la Science
50:74-87.
__________. 1991. Technology and quality of
Jory, M. 1989. Contribution ltude de
sour starch. In: [Proceedings of the
deux processus de transformation
workshop on] Avances sobre
du manioc comportant une phase
Almidn de Yuca held at CIAT, Cali,
de fermentation: Le gari au Togo,
Colombia, 17-20 June 1991. (Abstr.)
lamidon aigre en Colombie.
Mmoire de mastre en
__________ and Nues, O. L. S. 1992. technologie alimentaire rgions
Brazilian fermented cassava starch. chaudes. Ecole nationale
I. Production and use. In: XVIth suprieure des industries
International Carbohydrate agricoles et alimentaires (ENSIA)
Symposium held in Paris, France, and CIRAD, Montpellier, France.
July 5-10, 1992. (Abstr.) 45 p.
141
Larsonneur, S. 1993. Influence du schage Ruiz, R. 1988. Informe de actividad:

solaire sur la qualit de lamidon Programa de apoyo a las empresas
aigre de manioc. Mmoire ingnieur. productoras de almidn de yuca en
Universit Tecnologique de Compigne el norte del Cauca. Corporacin
and CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 114 p. para Estudios Interdisciplinarios y
Asesoras Tcnicas (CETEC) and
Laurent, L. 1992. Qualit de lamidon aigre de Servicio de Desarrollo y Consultora
manioc: Validation dune mthode para el Sector Cooperativo y de
dvaluation du pouvoir de Micro-Empresas (SEDECOM), Cali,
panification et mise en place dune Colombia.
preuve descriptive danalyse
sensorielle. Mmoire ingnieur. __________. 1991. Agroindustria de
Universit Tecnologique de almidn agrio en el norte del
Compigne and CIAT, Cali, Colombia. Cauca. In: [Proceedings of the
88 p. workshop on] Avances sobre
Almidn de Yuca held at CIAT,
Nakamura, I. M. and Park, Y. K. 1975. Some Cali, Colombia, 17-20 June 1991.
physico-chemical properties of (Abstr.)
fermented cassava starch (polvilho
azedo). Starch/Strke 27(9):295-297. Vanhamel, S.; Van den Ende, L.; Darius,
P. L.; and Delcour, J. A. 1991. A
Pinto, R. 1978. Extraccin de almidn de volumeter for breads prepared from
yuca en rallanderas. ICA (Inst. 10 grams of flour. Cereal Chem.
Colomb. Agropecu.) Informa 12(9):3-6. 68(2):170-172.
142
Physicochemical Properties of Cassava Sour Starch
CHAPTER 17
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
CASSAVA SOUR STARCH1
C. Mestres*, X. Rouau**,
N. Zakhia***, and C. Brabet
Introduction If pandebono is to expand, as in

wheat bread, gas must form and be
This chapter describes a collaborative retained. Retention supposes that
study involving CIRAD, the Institut the dough has viscoelastic properties
national de recherche agronomique that make it gas-tight. Viscoelastic
(INRA), and CIAT. The study materials in food are generally
investigated the physicochemical polymers and polymer networks.
bases of baking pandebono, a They can be proteins such as gluten
Colombian traditional bread, using in wheat bread, nonstarch
cassava sour starch samples provided polysaccharides such as pentosans in
by CIAT. We evaluated the rye bread, or exopolysaccharides from
physicochemical modifications of sour microorganisms often added in
(i.e., fermented) starch during nonwheat bread recipes (e.g.,
fermentation and drying and tried to dextran). Pentosans need oxidative
relate them with the starchs reticulation, and starch
expansion property and potential for gelatinization, to improve their
making pandebono. rheological properties. We
investigated all these possibilities to
Pandebono dough, a mixture of explain gas retention in cassava sour
sour starch, water, and cheese, starch.
expands during cooking. This implies
that gas is produced, which expands,
thus increasing the products volume Determining the Presence
(Figure 1). If sweet (i.e., unfermented) of Polymers in
starch is used, expansion does not Pandebono Dough
occur, because either no gas is
produced, or it escapes from the Dufour et al. (Chapter 16, this
dough. volume) describe collecting two sets of
samples: (1) at different stages of
fermentation (0 to 33 days), followed
* Dpartement des cultures annuelles (CA), by sun-drying for 8 h, and (2) after
CIRAD, Montpellier, France. complete fermentation (33 days) and
** Institut national de recherche agronomique at different stages of sun-drying (0 to
(INRA), Montpellier, France. 8 h). The resulting loaf volumes are
*** CIRAD/SAR, Montpellier, France.
CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Cassava
shown in Figure 2.
Utilization Section, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
We first determined the nitrogen
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. content of the starch samples, which
143
In unfermented starch,
gas bubbles escape
Starch
Water In sour starch, gas

bubbles are retained
Cheese
Mixing Shaping Cooking
Figure 1. Presumed mechanism of expansion in pandebono dough during cooking. Pandebono is a

traditional cheesebread eaten in Colombia.
8
After 8 h of sun-drying was very low, ranging between 0.3
and 0.6 g/kg and implying about
6 0.2% as protein (Figure 3).
Fermentation even decreased nitrogen
4
content slightly. Proteins are,
therefore, highly unlikely to directly
influence the viscoelastic properties of
2 sour starch.
Loaf volume (cm3/g)
0 The samples pentosan content

0 10 20 30 40 ranged from 6 to 7 g/kg and did not
Duration of fermentation (days) change significantly with the duration
of fermentation (Figure 4). These
polysaccharides originated from
8
After 33 days of fermentation residual fibers of cassava roots,
rather than from production of
6 pentosan-like polymers by
microorganisms during fermentation.
4
The molecules of phenolic
compounds are efficient oxidative
2
reticulation agents of pentosans,
improving their functional properties.
0 They can also absorb ultraviolet light,
0 2 4 6 8 which greatly increases their activity
Sun-drying (hours) as oxidative agents. However, we
found only traces of ferulic acid,
Figure 2. Loaf volumes of pandebono (traditional which probably originated from
Colombian cheesebread) obtained in
two sets of samples. Data from residual fibers. We could not
Dufour et al., Chapter 16, this determine whether sour starch
volume. contains dextran because this
144
0.6 molecule is very similar to starch and

After 8 h of sun-drying
cannot be separated from it.
0.5 Protein and pentosan contents of

pandebono dough are too low to have
a significant influence on the
viscoelastic properties of sour starch
0.4
in general, and on gas retention in
particular.
Nitrogen (g/kg)
0.3
0 10 20 30 40
Duration of fermentation (days) The Role of Gelatinization
in Gas Retention
0.6
After 33 days of fermentation Apart from cheese, starch remains the
main component of pandebono
0.5 (95%-98% dry matter). We therefore
studied the gelatinization and
rheological properties of starch to
determine whether fermentation and
0.4
drying modify it in a way that would
explain sour starchs ability to expand
and retain gas.
0.3
0 2 4 6 8
Sun-drying (hours) We determined starchs thermal
properties by using differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC). We
Figure 3. Nitrogen content (g/kg) of cassava
sour starch samples. heated starch at a constant rate of
10 C/min and measured the
heat-flux between 35 to 140 C. This
way we could determine the
gelatinization onset temperature (the
intercept of base line and tangent to
the energy change) and the enthalpy
change (the area of heat flux during
8
the gelatinization transition)
(Figure 5).
1234 1234 12341234 1234 1234
6 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234
1234 1234 1234
Content of pentoses
1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234

1234 1234
12345 1234
1234 1234
12345
12345 1234
1234
1234 12341234
1234
1234 12345 1234
1234
1234 1234
12345
12345
(% dry basis)
12345
12345
1234
1234
12345
12345
1234
1234
1234
1234
12345
12345
1234
1234
12345
12345
Table 1 gives the results for the
12345 1234 12345 1234 1234 12345 1234 12345
12345 1234 12345 1234 1234 12345 1234 12345 most significant samples: unfermented
4 12345 12345 1234 1234 12345 12345
starch, oven-dried sour starch, and
sun-dried sour starch. Only the last
2 sample expanded well. The cassava
samples did not differ markedly in
0
their thermal properties: for all,
0 3 7 9 13 19 26 33 gelatinization temperature was close to
60 C and enthalpy change to 16 J/g.
Duration of fermentation (days)
Fermentation and drying did not
significantly modify the thermal
Figure 4. Sugar content of cassava sour starch
samples after total acid hydrolysis properties of starch crystallites, thus
(glucose is not 123
12 reported). ( = xylose; the specific expansion property of sour
12 123
12 = arabinose;123 = ribose; starch cannot be explained by changes
= rhamnose.)
in crystallites.
145
Table 1. Thermal propertiesa of cassava starch samples.
Sample Fermentation Sun-drying In pH 4.0 In water In pH 7.0

of starch (days) (h) buffer buffer
GT EC GT EC GT EC GT EC GT EC
Maize 0 0 0 0 66.2 14.3 - - 69.0 14.7

Cassava 1b 0 0 8 8 60.5 16.6 59.8 16.7 63.9 17.4
Cassava 2c 33 33 8 8 60.6 15.5 60.2 16.1 63.5 17.3
Cassava 3d 33 33 0 0 60.5 16.1 60.3 16.3 64.0 16.7
a. GT = gelatinization temperature ( C); EC = enthalpy change (J/g dry basis).

b. Unfermented cassava starch.
c. Sour, oven-dried cassava starch.
d. Sour, sun-dried cassava starch.
We then characterized the

rheological properties of cassava
19
starches. We made
Heat flux (mW)
viscoamylographic determinations
17 with the Rapid Visco Analyzer, a
EC similar device to the Brabender
viscoamylograph. We measured
15 pasting temperature, maximum
viscosity, and gelification index
GT
(Figure 6).
13
40 60 80 100
Our results (Figure 7) confirm
Temperature (C) those obtained at CIAT (Dufour et al.,
Figure 5. Enthalpy change (EC) and Chapter 16, this volume):
gelatinization temperature (GT) of
cassava starch observed with (1) The pasting temperature is similar
differential scanning calorimetry.
for all samples (which matches
the DSC measurements).
200
Maximum viscosity
90
160
Viscosity (RVA units)
Gelification
Temperature (C)
120
70
80
Pasting temperature 50
40
0
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (minutes)
Figure 6. Viscosity profile of cassava sour starch observed by using a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA).
( = viscosity; ...... = temperature.)
146
80 250 200
Maximum viscosity
200 160
60
(RVA units)
150 120
40
100 80
Maximum viscosity (RVA units)

20 40
Pasting temperature (C)
50
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 4 6 8 10
Duration of fermentation after pH
8 h of sun-drying (days)
Figure 8. Influence of pH on the maximum
80 250 viscosity of cassava sour starch
samples. (... ... = unfermented,
200 sun-dried; o = fermented 33 days,
60 artificially dried; -- -- = fermented
33 days, sun-dried; RVA = Rapid Visco
150
Analyzer.)
40
100
20 Consequently, the maximum
50
viscosity is similar for all samples in
0 0 an acid medium. We hypothesized
0 2 4 6 8 10 that the sour starch with the best
Sun-drying after 33 days expansion property may contain an
of fermentation (hours)
amylase that hydrolyzes the product
during measurement, lowering the
Figure 7. Variation of pasting temperature (- -)
and maximum viscosity (- -) for two viscosity of the medium. Because this
sets of samples of cassava sour starch amylase should be active in neutral
in phosphate buffer at pH 7.0. and basic pH, we tried to determine
(RVA = Rapid Visco Analyzer.)
amylase activity within this sample by
establishing the presence of reducing
sugars and starch solubility. That is,
(2) The maximum viscosity decreased if exo-amylase activity exists,
with increased duration of reducing sugars should be released
fermentation and sun-drying. with time, but if endo-amylase
This figure seemed related to the activity exists, then starch solubility
loaf volume of pandebono: the would increase with time.
lower the maximum viscosity, the
higher the loaf volume. In fact, we did not find change in
either of these two parameters. This
These observations were made indicates that amylase activity is
with samples in a pH 7.0 buffer either very low or nonexistent.
without amylase inhibitor. However,
pH did have a significant effect We then investigated the
(Figure 8): in fermented and sun-dried macromolecular structure of starch,
sour starch, which had the best determining intrinsic viscosity by
expansion property, maximum making the starch soluble with alkali
viscosity continuously decreased as (pH 13). Intrinsic viscosity represents
pH increased from 4 to 10. This the hydrodynamic volume of the
phenomenon did not occur for molecules (polymers) and depends on
starches unsuitable for pandebono two factors: first, the molecular
making, such as unfermented starch weight of the polymerthe higher the
or oven-dried sour starch. molecular weight, the higher the
147
intrinsic viscosityand, second, the (1) A decrease of molecular weight

conformation of the moleculesthe unlikely, because of the lack of
less folded they are in solution, the amylase activity.
higher the intrinsic viscosity. (2) A change in macromolecular
conformation and increased
The intrinsic viscosity follows the convolution through interaction
same pattern as the maximum with other molecules. Such
viscosity observed on the amylograph interaction facilitates polymer
(Figure 9): it decreases within the first folding.
days of fermentation and within the
first hours of sun-drying.
8
180
After 8 h of sun-drying 6
160
4
140
2
Loaf volume (cm3/g)
120
100
Intrinsic viscosity (ml/g)
0
6
80
0 10 20 30 40
Duration of fermentation (days)
4
200
After 33 days of fermentation
170 2
140
110 0
100 120 140 160 180 200
Intrinsic viscosity (ml/g)
80
Figure 10. Relationship between intrinsic
50 viscosity of sour starch from two
0 2 4 6 8 10 cassava varieties and pandebono loaf
Sun-drying (hours) volumes. ( = variety Amarga;
= variety CMC 40; pandebono = a
Figure 9. The intrinsic viscosity of two sets of traditional cheesebread eaten in
samples of cassava sour starch. Colombia.)
A marked relationship therefore

exists between intrinsic viscosity and Conclusions
the pandebonos loaf volume: the
lower the viscosity, the higher the loaf We did not see any differences in the
volume (Figure 10). We confirmed crystalline structure of starch, but we
this relationship with another set of showed that viscosity of solubilized
samples from a different cassava (intrinsic viscosity) or dispersed
variety (CMC 40). How can the (viscoamylograph) starch decreases
lowering of intrinsic viscosity be with increased fermentation and
explained? sun-drying. Such reduction in
148
viscosity seems related to the have occurred with other molecules,

pandebonos loaf volume, but is either lactates or derivatives of lactic
observed only at neutral and basic acid. Lactates cause starch to
pH, and after 2 h of sun-drying but plasticize, and the effect is so notable
not after 33 days of fermentation. It that a patent has recently been taken
is not linked to an amylase or acidic out. Through lactates starch
degradation of starch. derivatives can be obtained. Volatile
derivatives of lactic acid may
We can only propose some contribute to gas production, and to
hypotheses to explain our results. the flavor and smell of sour starch. If
The starch may have undergone an flammable, their flame colors could
oxidative degradation (possible in indicate the quality of a sour starch.
oven-drying). Or interactions may
149
CHAPTER 18
INFLUENCE OF GELATINIZATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF CASSAVA STARCH
AND FLOUR ON THE TEXTURAL
PROPERTIES OF SOME FOOD PRODUCTS
S. N. Moorthy*, J. Rickard**, and
J. M. V. Blanshard***
Abstract lipids or sugars, probably makes the

most important contribution to flour
Cassava flour contains fiber, sugars, texture. The importance of these
and smaller quantities of lipids and findings to the texture of food products
other components. It exhibits made from cassava flour and starch is
properties different from those of discussed.
cassava starch, which cooks to a more
cohesive paste. The gelatinization
characteristics of starch and flour, Introduction
extracted from selected cassava
cultivars, were examined. The peak Cassava is an important root crop in
viscosity of flour was generally lower many tropical countries, where the
than that of starch, although more starchy and tuberous roots are eaten
stable. Swelling volumes were also in various forms, including as starch
correspondingly lower. The and flour. The starch is extracted by a
gelatinization temperature of flour, wet process and the flour obtained by
whether ascertained by differential milling dried chips.
scanning calorimetry or viscography,
was consistently several degrees The texture of cooked roots differs
higher than that of starch. The widely between cultivars, and
lower peak viscosity and higher considerable work has been carried out
gelatinization temperature probably to identify reasons for this variability
contribute significantly to the textural (Asaoka et al., 1992; Kawano et al.,
differences between flour and starch. 1987; Moorthy et al., 1993a;
Defatting and ethanol extraction had Safo-Katanka and Owusu-Nipah,
little influence on the gelatinization 1992; Wheatley et al., 1993). Few
characteristics of either starch or conclusions have been reached but the
flour, indicating that fiber, rather than quantity and quality of the starch in
the root and the presence of various
nonstarchy polysaccharides are
considered important.
* Division of Postharvest Technology, Central Several differences also exist in

Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), the rheological and functional
Trivandrum, India.
** Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Chatham,
properties between starch and flour.
UK. We attempted to identify the reasons
*** University of Nottingham, UK. for these differences.
150
...Gelatinization Characteristics of Cassava Starch and Flour...
Materials and Methods Lipids, in common with many

surfactants, significantly affect starch
Starch and flour were obtained from by complexing strongly with amylose
five cultivars of freshly harvested and amylopectin side chains,
cassava roots (M-4, H-165, H-1687, rendering these less labile (Krog,
S-856, and H-97), each having 1973). This capacity has been
different cooking qualities. The main exploited for reducing the
constituents of the samplesstarch, cohesiveness of potato starch products
fiber, lipids, and sugarswere (Hoover and Hadziyev, 1981, 1982).
determined by standard procedures. Low levels of surfactants can have a
To assess the influence of lipids, profound effect on cassava starch
samples were defatted by extraction (Moorthy, 1985). Ethanol-soluble
(Soxhlet), using petroleum ether constituents in the flours ranged from
(40-60 C). Ethanol extraction was 2.5% to 3.7% and only 0.9% to 1.3%
similarly undertaken, with 80% in the starch samples (data not
ethanol (Soxhlet, 6 h), to examine shown). The predominant sugar in
the influence of sugars and cassava flour has been identified as
ethanol-soluble components. sucrose.
Differential scanning calorimetry The recorded gelatinization

(DSC) data were obtained by using temperatures (Table 2) reveal a
Perkin Elmer DSC-2 equipment with consistent difference between the flour
Indium as a standard (temperature and starch samples. Comparing
range 25-100 C, at a heating rate of values for initial, maximum, and end
10 C/min). Gelatinization profiles of temperatures, the results for flour
the samples (5%) were obtained on a are each 2-3 C higher than for the
Brabender Viscoamylograph (350 cmg corresponding starches. Components
[torque] sensitivity cartridge, heating within the flour, by restricting access
rate 1.5 C/min). Swelling volumes of water into the starch granules, can
were determined at 95 C (Schoch, delay gelatinization. Surfactants
1964). and lipids, by forming complexes, are
known to raise gelatinization
temperatures (Osman, 1967).
Results and Discussion However, the defatted and
ethanol-extracted flours had the same
Table 1 presents the results of the values as native flour, indicating that
chemical analyses of starch and flour neither lipids nor sugars were
from the five cassava varieties. responsible for enhanced
Starch content on a dry weight basis gelatinization temperatures. Recent
was 98% or more in all the starch experiments on cassava starch show
samples and between 79.1% and correlation between higher fiber
86.0% in the flour samples. Crude content and higher gelatinization
fiber content was 0.13% or less in the temperatures (Moorthy et al., 1993a).
starch samples, whereas it ranged Thus, the elevation in gelatinization
from 1.50% to 2.98% in the flour. temperature of flour may be attributed
Earlier studies show similar starch to the fiber.
and fiber compositions (Abraham et
al., 1979). The DSC peak patterns of starch
and flour from the same cultivar were
The lipid content, by nature much similar. H-97 starch and flour had a
lower than that of cereals, varied from characteristic shoulder in their peaks,
0.11% to 0.22% in the starches and whereas M-4 starch and flour had
from 0.25% to 0.56% in the flours. typically broad peaks. The peak
151
Table 1. Biochemical constituents of starch and flour made from five cassava varieties.
Variety Product Starch Sugar Lipids Crude fiber

(%) (%) (%) (%)
M-4 Starch 98.1 - 0.11 0.11

Flour 86.0 2.20 0.45 1.50
H-165 Starch 98.0 - 0.22 0.13

Flour 79.1 3.49 0.27 2.98
H-1687 Starch 98.2 - 0.18 0.15

Flour 80.5 2.72 0.29 2.23
S-856 Starch 98.5 - 0.20 0.12

Flour 81.2 3.23 0.56 2.56
H-97 Starch 98.3 - 0.20 0.11

Flour 82.7 3.05 0.25 2.70
Table 2. Data from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of cassava starch and flour.
Variety Product Temperature (C) Ha (cal/g)

Initial Maximum End
M-4 Starch 68.10 73.24 78.54 2.95

Flour 71.11 75.67 81.29 2.02
H-165 Starch 65.35 69.22 74.86 3.27

Flour 68.65 72.02 77.19 2.14
H-1687 Starch 67.12 71.45 75.39 2.15

Flour 70.02 73.90 79.11 2.22
S-856 Starch 65.62 70.14 74.94 2.65

Flour 68.72 72.92 76.95 2.09
H-97 Starch 69.36 72.29 77.13 3.43

Flour 71.82 75.02 79.92 2.27
a. H = Enthalpy change.
patterns were not modified by gelatinization temperatures in the

defatting or by ethanol extraction, DSC results for the flour samples
indicating dependence on the starch are supported by the Brabender
granular structure. The enthalpy of viscographic data (Table 3), which
gelatinization of flour was lower than show that pasting temperatures for
that for starch for every variety and flours were 3-5 C higher than for the
neither defatting nor ethanol respective starches.
extraction affected the values to any
noticeable extent. However, the lower The peak viscosity and viscosity
enthalpy for the flour can be breakdown for each flour were
attributed in part to the lower starch different from those of the
content of the samples. The enhanced corresponding starch, and most
152
Table 3. Viscosity and swelling properties of cassava starch and flour.
Variety Producta Viscosity (BU)b Break-down Pasting Swelling

temp. (C) vol. (ml/g)
V97 VH
M-4 Starch 540 380 160 68-73 32.0

Flour 380 320 60 71-74 28.0
Starch (d.) 580 440 140 70-76 33.5
Flour (d.) 380 310 70 72-75 29.5
Starch (e.) 560 420 140 70-75 33.0
Flour (e.) 410 380 30 72-76 29.0
H-165 Starch 940 480 460 66-78 38.5

Flour 460 380 80 71-75 32.0
Starch (d.) 1,000 580 420 69-82 39.5
Flour (d.) 440 360 80 72-76 33.5
Starch (e.) 1,000 520 480 69-83 39.5
Flour (e.) 470 380 90 71-78 33.0
H-1687 Starch 540 480 60 70-81 33.5

Flour 460 440 20 71-83 29.5
Starch (d.) 570 510 60 71-82 33.5
Flour (d.) 440 390 50 70-80 29.0
Starch (e.) 520 480 40 70-83 34.0
Flour (e.) 440 400 40 71-83 29.5
S-856 Starch 500 340 160 67-80 33.0

Flour 440 360 80 71-86 29.0
Starch (d.) 580 390 190 69-75 33.5
Flour (d.) 470 380 90 70-85 29.5
Starch (e.) 490 360 130 69-75 34.0
Flour (e.) 740 390 80 70-89 30.0
a. (d.) = after defatting; (e.) = after ethanol extraction.

b. V97 = viscosity at 97 C; VH = viscosity after holding at 97 C.
pronounced in the comparatively affecting starch granule expansion and

much lower peak viscosity of flour from breakdown.
H-165. Again, the lower starch
content in the flour samples can Defatting and ethanol extraction
account in part for the low readings. slightly enhanced paste viscosity in
However, while the viscosity was lower, starch, whereas flour samples remained
it was more consistent throughout the unaffected. In contrast, the slight
temperature program. Stabilization increase in the flours pasting
occurs through the presence of temperature was probably due to the
nonstarchy components in the flour. continuing presence of fiber in the
Lipids, although known to stabilize defatted ethanol-extracted samples.
starch viscosity (Krog, 1973), had little Similar results have been obtained in a
effect here. The absence of fiber-rich starchy flour extracted from
stabilization in the ethanol-extracted fermented roots (Moorthy et al., 1993b).
samples indicates that sugars were not According to Osman (1967), high levels
involved either. The reduced viscosity of sugars are needed to bring about
noted in all varieties was most perceptible changes in the viscosity of
pronounced in H-165, which had the starch. The absence of significant
highest crude fiber content. Stability changes in the peak viscosity of flours
may therefore result from the fiber and starches thus indicates that sugars
153
do not greatly influence viscosity in and hemicellulose) and their interaction

cassava. with starch. It should also focus on how
rheological characteristics can lead to
Neither defatting nor ethanol different functional properties in starch
extraction affected swelling volumes of and flour.
the starches and flours, further
indicating the influence of fiber in
modifying starch rheological properties Acknowledgments
in the flour.
We thank the Director of the CTCRI
Cassava starch, cooked in water, and Dr. C. Balagopalan, Head of the
generally gives a cohesive, long paste, PHT Division, CTCRI, for their kind
whereas flour texture is less cohesive. help and encouragement.
Cohesiveness is attributed to the
breakdown of starch molecules during
heating and stirring. Early References
gelatinization can render starch more
susceptible to breakdown because it Abraham, T. E.; Raja, K. C. M.; Sreedharan,
undergoes a longer period of shear. V. P.; and Sreemulanathan, H. 1979.
Some quality aspects of a few varieties of
High swelling necessitates the
cassava. J. Food Sci. Tech. 16:237-239.
weakening of associative forces and
thus easier breakdown of starch. The Asaoka, M.; Blanshard, J. M. V.; and Rickard,
fiber may act as a barrier to earlier J. E. 1992. Effects of cultivars and
growth on the gelatinization properties
gelatinization and to higher swelling, of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
reducing the cohesiveness of the paste. starch. J. Sci. Food Agric. 59:53-58.
Hoover, R. and Hadziyev, D. 1981. The effect

Starch can act, for example, as a
of monoglycerides on amylose
binder, thickener, or glazing agent in complexing during a potato granule
different foods (Smith, 1982[?]). In process. Starch/Strke 33:346-355.
products where a cohesive texture is
_______ and _______. 1982. Effect of
desired, such as gravies and puddings, monoglyceride on some rehydration
starch would be favored, whereas in properties of potato granules.
products where a nonsticky consistency Starch/Strke 34:152-158.
is sought, flour would be more suitable.
Kawano, K.; Fukuda, W. M. G.; and Cenpukdee,
These mirror the findings of U. 1987. Genetic and environmental
comparative studies conducted at the effects on dry matter content of cassava
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute root. Crop. Sci. 27:69-74.
(CTCRI) for starch and flour in locally
Krog, N. 1973. Amylose complexing effect of
produced extruded products (when food-grade emulsifiers. Starch/Strke
starch was used, the product tended to 23:206-210.
be hard and oily; with flour, the same
Moorthy, S. N. 1985. Effect of different types
product was crisp and nonsticky).
of surfactants on cassava starch
Similarly, food items prepared from properties. J. Agric. Food Chem.
starchy flour made from fermented 33:1227-1232.
roots had a higher fiber content and
_______; Blanshard, J. M. V.; and Rickard, J. E.
better texture. 1993a. Starch properties in relation to
cooking quality of cassava. In: Roca,
The study thus clearly indicates W. M. and Thro, A. M. (eds.). Proceedings
that fiber is a significant determinant of the First International Scientific
of the characteristics and functional Meeting, Cassava Biotechnology
Network, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia,
properties of cassava starches and 25-28 August 1992. Working document
flours. Future work should examine no. 123. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
specific fiber components (e.g., cellulose p. 265-269.
154
_______; George, M.; and Padmaja, G. Schoch, T. J. 1964. Swelling power and
1993b. Functional properties of solubility of granular starches. In:
the starchy flour extracted from Whistler, R. L. (ed.). Methods in
cassava on fermentation with a carbohydrate chemistry, vol. 4. Academic
mixed-culture inoculum. J. Sci. Press, New York, NY, USA. p. 106-108.
Food Agric. 61:442-447.
Smith, P. S. 1982[?]. Starchy derivatives and
Osman, E. M. 1967. Starch in the food their use in foods. In: Linebeck, D. R.
industry. In: Whistler, R. L. and and Inglett, G. E. (eds.). Food
Paschall, E. F. (eds.). Starch carbohydrates. AVI Publications,
chemistry and technology, vol. 2. Westport, CT, USA. p. 237-258.
Academic Press, New York, NY,
USA. p. 163-215. Wheatley, C. C.; Orrego, J. I.; Snchez, T.; and
Granados, E. 1993. Quality evaluation
Safo-Katanka, O. and Owusu-Nipah, J. of the cassava core collection at CIAT.
1992. Cassava varietal screening In: Roca, W. M. and Thro, A. M. (eds.).
for cooking quality: relationship Proceedings of the First International
between dry matter, starch Scientific Meeting, Cassava
content, mealiness and certain Biotechnology Network, Cartagena de
microscopic observations of the Indias, Colombia, 25-28 August 1992.
raw and cooked tuber. J. Sci. Food Working document no. 123. CIAT, Cali,
Agric. 60:99-104. Colombia. p. 255-264.
155
CHAPTER 19
TWO RAPID ASSAYS FOR CYANOGENS

IN CASSAVA:
THEIR EVALUATION, MODIFICATION,
AND COMPARISON
G. M. OBrien* and C. C. Wheatley**
Abstract in 68% of cases compared with 66%

by the T.B. assay. The T.B. assay,
Two rapid, semiquantitative assays however, performed more reliably with
for total cyanogens in cassava were low cyanogen samples, whereas the
evaluated. These were the rapid picrate assay was more reliable with
picrate paper test, now well-known, intermediate cyanogen samples. The
and a recently proposed, rapid, paper sampling protocol used at CIAT for
test that involves the reagent tetra the rapid assay of cyanogen contents
base (T.B.; 4,4'-methylenebis- of cassava clones was also evaluated.
[N,N-dimethylaniline]). A precise
colorimetric assay was used as
control. After preliminary evaluation, Introduction
both assay methods underwent
modification to improve accuracy of Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is
scoring. As a result, the reliability of the fourth most important food crop
the picrate assay was greatly of the tropics (Cock, 1985). An
improved. The T.B. assay was efficient source of low-cost
modified in the interests of safety. carbohydrates, cassava is important
Evaluation of the latter assay over a for food security, particularly in
range of temperatures from 20 to Africa, and as an industrial raw
35 C showed no significant effects of material, especially in Asia and Latin
temperature on performance when America. Cyanogens have long been
the new scoring system was used. recognized as a toxic component of
The level of endogenous linamarase cassavas edible roots and leaves.
activity in each sample was an The cyanogenic contents of the roots
influential factor in rapid assay can vary from less than 10 to more
performance. In a series of than 500 mg/kg, measured as
comparative trials in three distinct hydrogen cyanide (HCN), on a fresh
ecosystems, the newly modified weight basis (fwb).
picrate assay produced correct results
Guignard first developed the
alkaline picrate assay for cyanide in
1906. It was introduced in a
semiquantitative, rapid format to
* Natural Resources Institute (NRI)/CIAT,
CIAT and the International Institute
currently Research Fellow at CIAT. of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria,
** Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), during the 1970s as a routine assay
stationed at Bogor, Indonesia. in cassava breeding programs. The
156
Two Rapid Assays for Cyanogens in Cassava:...
rapid picrate assay is based on have carried out controlled

producing a red-brown color whose evaluation and comparison of the
intensity increases with the quantity two assay methods in three distinct
of HCN liberated from the sample. tropical environments in Colombia
The HCN is liberated by autolysis under field conditions.
and results from the hydrolytic
action of the endogenous enzyme,
linamarase, on cyanogenic Reagents
glucosides in the sample. The
picrate system, when used Picric acid (99%), copper (II) acetate
quantitatively, has been observed to (99%), toluene (99.5%), sodium
produce very high results from carbonate (99.5%, anhydrous)
cassava compared with other (E. Merck, Darmstadt, Germany),
quantitative methods and T.B. (Sigma Chemical Company,
(Izomkun-Etiobhio and Ugochukwu, St. Louis, USA) were used for the
1984; Mendoza et al., 1984). The rapid methods. Reagents used for
assay has been criticized for falsely the colorimetric quantitative
detecting cyanogens in acyanogenic cyanogen assay were as described
samples (Nahrstedt, 1980). The by OBrien et al. (1991).
rapid picrate assay originally used
with a 9-point scale at CIAT has Alkaline picrate mixture was
been criticized for giving poor composed of picric acid (5 g) and
correlation between cyanogen sodium carbonate (25 g, anhydrous)
content and result (CIAT, 1993). dissolved in water and made up to
1 liter.
More recently, an alternative,
rapid semiquantitative assay was The T.B. mixture was as
developed, based on the reagent described by Bradbury and Egan
tetra base (T.B.; [4,4'-methylenebis- (1992), a 1:1 (v/v) mixture produced
[N,N-dimethylaniline]). Also known on a daily basis, using two reagents:
as Michlers reagent, T.B. was
originally used for qualitative assay (1) Copper (II) acetate, 3 g/L in 15%
of cyanogens (Feigl and Anger, acetic acid.
1966). The modified T.B. method (2) Tetra base, 3 g/L in acetone.
was proposed as more sensitive and
rapid than picrate (Bradbury and According to Bradbury and Egan
Egan, 1992). In this test, a (1992), the two reagent solutions
blue-violet color forms, which should be stable for several months.
increases in intensity and in violet But we noted a slight darkening of
hue the higher the samples the reagent mixture made from
cyanogen content. reagents 3 weeks old and older.
Reagents were therefore freshly
We have evaluated both the made every 3 weeks.
picrate and the T.B. rapid methods,
using a reliable quantitative Because of the highly toxic and
colorimetric assay (Cooke, 1978; carcinogenic nature of T.B., nitrile
OBrien et al., 1991) as control. The rubber gloves were used in handling.
assay method(s) selected after this The T.B. reagent was prepared and
evaluation would be expected to stored in a fume-cupboard.
perform well in any cassava-growing
environment. Because ambient Reagents for assay of linamarase
temperatures in the tropics and activity were as described by Cooke
subtropics vary considerably, we (1979).
157
The Tetra Base Assay buildup of HCN in the vial. The assay
was then carried out.
The T.B. rapid assay of Bradbury
and Egan (1992) represented a new To start the assay, the stopper in
development in cassava cyanogen the sample vial was replaced by a
assay, which had been tested, using similar stopper with a T.B. test-paper
only low-cyanogen cultivars. The attached, so that the paper was
assay was also reported to be a suspended inside the vial, 1 cm above
little more rapid at higher ambient the sample. The blue-violet color
temperatures, suggesting that produced at the bottom end of the
changes in temperature may affect paper was recorded after 10 and
the endogenous linamarase in a 60 min. The result was interpreted in
given sample (J. H. Bradbury, 1992, terms of cyanogen content.
personal communication).
The T.B. test-paper was made as
This reference to linamarase follows: paper strips (Whatmans
enzyme also prompted interest in no. 1 filter paper, 4 x 1 cm) were
the relationship between the attached to clean vial stoppers with
amount of endogenous linamarase adhesive tape. A 1-cm portion at one
in a given sample, its activity under end of the paper was attached to the
given environmental conditions, stopper, leaving a length of 3 cm to
and, consequently, the reliability of act as support for the T.B. mixture.
autolytic assays. Thus, evaluating The stoppers and papers were placed
the T.B. assay in some detail within the fume cupboard. One drop
became necessary. At CIAT, of T.B. mixture was placed on each
Palmira, the T.B. assay was run at paper at the end away from the
different temperatures, with an stopper. The drops of mixture were
assay of endogenous linamarase left to soak through before each paper
activity in parenchyma surrounding was sealed in an empty vial for safety,
the sample taken for the T.B. assay. before assay.
The quantitative, colorimetric assay
of cyanogen content was used as To evaluate the T.B. assay
control. The duration of the assay method, assays were made of 72
was determined after constantly cassava roots from 10 varieties,
observing samples under assay for ranging between 10 and 456 mg/kg
3 h and after an overnight period. total cyanogens (as HCN, fwb). In
The testing of the method resulted each case, the root was first sampled
in a 1-h assay. for T.B. assay, then the rest of the
peeled root was assayed for both total
Conducting the assay cyanogens and endogenous
linamarase activity (Figure 1) by
The T.B. assay was carried out in quantitative colorimetric assay
quadruplicate. A central disc was (Cooke, 1978; OBrien et al., 1991).
sliced out crosswise from a cassava
root and parenchymal plugs Tetra base assays were carried
removed (Figure 1). The plugs were out at 20, 25, 30, and 35 C, using an
trimmed with a scalpel to 0.5 cm incubator. At least one root from
thick, placed individually in small each of the 10 cassava clones used in
glass vials (2 x 5 cm), and sealed the experiment was assayed at each
with tightly fitting, plastic stoppers. temperature. The samples were
The plugs were maintained in the stored in the incubator during the 1-h
vials for 1 h before assay, to allow preassay period and during the assay
158
Figure 1. Steps in sampling a cassava root for rapid and quantitative cyanogen assays. (A) The root is
first measured longitudinally and a disc, 1 cm thick, is removed from the center. (B; i) The
geometric radius of the disc is measured from the center to the inner edge of the peel. (ii) Half
way along a radius, a 1-cm round plug is removed with a borer. The plug is used for the tetra
base assay. The sampling is replicated four times. (iii) From the space between two plugs,
again half way along a radius, a 1-cm cube is cut out with a scalpel. The cube is used for the
picrate assay. (iv) The rest of the root is peeled and the parenchyma chopped into cubes of
about 1 cm3. From these, a random sample of 50 g is quantitatively assayed for total
cyanogens. Where required, another 50-g sample is taken for a linamarase enzyme assay.
itself. A 10-point numerical scale was 8.5 and 10 within 10 min.

devised, using the Munsell color Accordingly, a system of scoring
guide. It was based on the intensity (Table 1) for total cyanogens in
of color attained, differing from that cassava parenchyma was devised.
used by Bradbury and Egan (1992). The maximum permitted error in this
The scale ran from very pale blue to grouping method was 1 mg/kg. A
deep violet. sample with a cyanogen content of
50.9 mg/kg could therefore be classed
Figure 2 shows the scores either in range 1 or range 2.
obtained by 72 roots in a 1-h test of
their cyanogen contents. The
relationship between total cyanogens Table 1. Tetra base rapid assay, grouping
format.
and T.B. score in the 1-h test was
linear only to about 50 mg/kg (as Range Score Total cyanogens
HCN, fwb). Most samples with (mg/kg as HCN, fwb)
cyanogen contents greater than
50 mg/kg produced a score between 1 <8.5 0-50
8.5 and 10. Roots containing more 2 <8.5 after 10 min,
>8.5 after 1 h 50-100
than 100 mg/kg, almost without
3 >8.5 after 10 min >100
exception, gave scores between
159
12
10
Tetra base score 8
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Total cyanogens (as HCN, mg/kg, fwb)
Figure 2. Evaluation of the tetra base assay used at CIAT, Palmira, to determine the cyanogen content
of 72 roots from 10 cassava varieties.
Of the 72 assays carried out in sample is neither grated nor

this experiment, 61 results proved to macerated in buffer and where a
be correct within the grouping significant degree of autolytic
format shown in Table 1. Thus, breakdown of cyanogens is sought
84.7% of all results were correctly within 1 h. Cooke and De la Cruz
assayed. (1982) found that 24 h in excess
buffer was needed for a complete
Influence of endogenous autolytic breakdown of cyanogens in
linamarase activity a cassava sample. Yet, 84.7% of all
results in this experiment were
During the T.B. experimental work correctly assayed, regardless of
at CIAT, the endogenous linamarase endogenous linamarase activity and
activity of roots being assayed was of temperature within the range
measured colorimetrically. Activity stated (20 to 35 C).
ranged between 0.03 and 0.63
enzyme units per gram (EU/g, fwb). This experiment and its results
The T.B. score and colorimetric are described in greater detail
assay correlated better when data elsewhere (OBrien et al., 1993).
points from samples with less than
0.2 EU/g were removed, reducing
the total from 72 to 43 cases. The Picrate Assay
Spearman correlation of linearity
increased from 0.77 to 0.85. Hence, Plant breeding programs have been
T.B. performance in roots with routinely using the alkaline picrate
linamarase activity below 0.2 EU/g rapid assay for about 20 years,
was negatively affected. unlike the relatively untested T.B.
assay. The original scoring format,
It is unsurprising that a used for the picrate assay, assigned
samples endogenous linamarase a cyanogen-content range to each
activity should affect results in a of the nine points on the
system where the parenchymal color scale:
160
Score Total cyanogens toluene were placed on to the sample.

(mg/kg, as HCN, fwb) The tube was tightly sealed with a
1 = pale yellow < 10 rubber stopper, entrapping a strip of
2 10 - 15 paper (Whatmans no. 1, 6 x 1 cm),
3 15 - 25 saturated in alkaline picrate mixture
4 25 - 40
and suspended above the sample.
5 40 - 60
After 10 h (Pivijay) or 12 h (Palmira
6 60 - 85
7 85 - 115
and Cajibo), the resultant color
8 115 - 150 change was noted and interpreted in
9 = dark brown > 150 terms of cyanogen content.
Some time before this project

began, CIAT had made a limited Field-Based Comparison of
evaluation of the picrate rapid assay. the Two Rapid Methods,
The original scoring format, with its with Colorimetric Control
9-point scale, was regarded as
unworkable because of errors (CIAT, Three sites were selected for this
1993). The method of scoring was work:
thus modified into anecdotal ranges:
(1) Cajibo (near Popayn,
Score Cyanogen contents southwestern Colombia): a
1-4 Low highland area, 2,000 m above sea
5-7 Medium level, temperatures were 19 to
8-9 High 26 C during trials.
(2) CIAT (Palmira, southwestern
With the picrate assay, we Colombia): mid-altitude, 1,000 m
evaluated only this anecdotal above sea level, temperatures were
scoring system, assigning specific 26 to 33 C during trials.
quantities to the anecdotal ranges (3) Pivijay (North Coast, Colombia): at
listed above. The assay was sea level, temperatures of 30 to
compared with the evaluated and 34 C during trials.
modified T.B. assay, under field
conditions, using the quantitative In this experiment, 100 roots
colorimetric cyanogen assay as a from 12 different clones were assayed.
control. Each root was sampled for both
the rapid T.B. assay and the rapid
For the picrate assay, a cube was picrate assay (Figure 1). The rest
cut from the parenchymal disc taken of the root parenchyma then
from the root (Figure 1) and placed underwent quantitative colorimetric
in a 12-cm test tube. Five drops of assay.
Table 2. Scoring ranges and levels of accuracy for tetra base and picrate rapid assays.
Group Scoring ranges Assay accuracy (%)
1 2 3 TB Picrate Q. color.
A 0-50 50-100 100+ 66 68 100
B 0-40 40-90 90+ 61 73 100
C 0-60 60-110 110+ 68 65 100
161
Using the results of the 100 A

analyses carried out, three range 1 2 3 1 2 3
groups of total cyanogen content
(measured in mg/kg of HCN, fwb) 1 1 1 1 9 3 4
were considered for scoring in each 2 7 8 13 2 2 3
rapid assay and their levels of
accuracy evaluated (Table 2). Group 3 10 3 2 17
B gave 73% correct results for picrate
but only 61% for T.B. Group C gave B
65% for picrate and 68% for T.B.
1 2 3 1 2 3
Group A gave the most favorable
proportion of correct results for both 1 1 1 1
the T.B. (66%) and picrate (68%)
methods. 2 1 12 3 2 9 7
3 14 3 2 10
Of the three groups, group A was
adopted. Hence, the picrate rapid
C
assay gave slightly but not
significantly better results than the 1 2 3 1 2 3
T.B. rapid assay. Also, the picrate
1 1 2 7
scoring format was slightly modified:
the score 7 was reassigned to high 2 2 13 2 2 7 3
instead of intermediate cyanogen
content. The scores were therefore 3 3 10 3 2 9
grouped as shown in Table 3.
Figure 3 shows the results of Picrate assay score Tetra base assay score
comparing the two assays.
Figure 3. Performance of picrate and tetra base

Table 3. Picrate rapid assay, revised group assays in measuring total cyanogens
format. in cassava grown in three ecosystems:
A = CIAT, Palmira, mid-altitudes,
Range Score Total cyanogens southwestern Colombia; B = Cajibo,
(mg/kg as HCN, fwb) highlands, southwestern Colombia;
C = Pivijay, sea level, North Coast,
1 1-4 0 -50 Colombia. Values indicated on the
2 5-6 50 -100 graphs axes correspond to cyanogen
content ranges (mg/kg, as HCN, fwb):
3 7-9 >100
1 = 0-50; 2 = 50-100; 3 = > 100.
Correct results are reported in shaded
boxes. Maximum error permitted is
1 mg/kg.
Sensitivity to cyanogen content
A statistical study was carried out on

the data from this experiment, using intermediate (range 2) and even some
a box plot model (SAS statistical high (range 3) cyanogen samples. The
analysis package). It was found that picrate assay wrongly classified a
the methods produced different number of high and some low cyanogen
interquartile ranges (IQR, samples as intermediate. For
representing the central 50% of samples classified as high the IQRs
results) for cyanogen content. were almost identical. Despite a small
Range 1 denoted low cyanogen number of intermediate results
content and range 2 intermediate. wrongly classified as high, nearly all
The T.B. assay wrongly classified as samples with cyanogen contents of
low (range 1) a number of 100+ mg/kg or more were correctly
162
placed within range 3 in both particularly good for rapid screening.

methods. But variations in sample linamarase
activity constitute an inbuilt source of
The findings of the three trials error for any rapid autolytic assay of
suggest that the picrate assay cyanogens in cassava. Nonautolytic
performs more reliably than the T.B. methods (for example, destruction of
with roots containing 50-100 mg/kg the endogenous linamarase of the
as HCN, whereas the T.B. assay is sample, followed by adding an excess
more reliable than picrate with roots quantity of exogenous linamarase) are
containing less than 50 mg/kg. more effective in this respect, but they
are much slower for mass-screening
Comparing the two assays across samples. Autolysis is therefore still
ecosystems the only practicable system.
Figure 3 shows that the picrate assay

performed less well than the T.B. at Evaluation of Field Sampling
CIAT, Palmira (almost 48% correct, Method
compared with 70%, respectively,
Figure 3A). But, at Cajibo, the In the comparison trials undertaken
picrate was better than the T.B. assay at Cajibo and Pivijay, the two rapid
(87% compared with 67%, assays were compared, using the
respectively, Figure 3B). At Pivijay, same root samples. The CIAT plant
results were 77% for picrate breeders sampling method itself was
compared with 60% for T.B. also tested for its representativeness,
(Figure 3C). using the quantitative colorimetric
assay. CIAT usually samples clones
This apparent irregularity for mass screening from a plot of
probably had more to do with 25 plants (5 x 5), selecting one plant
samples cyanogen content than with near the center. From this plant, one
other factors (temperatures were root is selected for rapid assay of total
similar at CIAT and Pivijay). At CIAT, cyanogens. The result obtained from
of the eight clones used, two this root is treated as representative
produced roots whose cyanogen of the entire plot.
contents belonged to range 1. These
roots were all erroneously classified At Cajibo, plots containing
under range 2 in the picrate assay, 25 plants of each clone, 13 months
whereas the T.B. assay correctly old, were used. At Pivijay, rows of six
classified them under range 1. In the plants per clone, 8.5 months old,
other two trials, no low-cyanogen were used. In each case, one plant
clone was used and the erroneous was harvested as representing its plot
picrate results therefore did not recur. or row. From this plant, one root was
chosen to represent the whole plant
Interpreting the results of the (and therefore the whole plot or row).
respective assays by means of the At the same time, a further four roots
system chosen, no significant were taken from the same plant: their
difference in overall performance was parenchyma was pooled and triplicate
found between the two methods, with extracts made. Their assay served as
overall success rates of 68% (picrate) control to show whether the chosen
and 66% (T.B.). root represented the whole plant.
That both methods produced A further four plants were

results of which more than 30% were harvested from the same plot or row.
erroneous suggests that neither is The parenchyma of their roots was
163
thoroughly chopped and pooled. of cassava cyanogens in all cases,

Triplicate assays were taken to show except:
if the chosen plant properly
represented the entire plot or row, (a) where a significantly high
and further, if the chosen root from proportion of low-cyanogen
that plant properly represented the clones (0-50 mg/kg, fwb) are
entire plot or row. used (i.e., where the risk of
rejecting low-cyanogen
The semiquantitative, rapid material would be high); and
assays operate with three ranges of (b) where a very rapid result is
cyanogen content. To be required.
representative, the sample root taken
from a given plot or row had to give a (2) Under circumstances described in
result within the same range as the (1a) and (1b), the tetra base assay
mean of the rest of the plot or row. should be used but only if:
Analysis of the data from the trial for
representativeness shows that, in 47 (a) a well-maintained fume
cases out of 60 (i.e., in 78% of cases), cupboard and good disposal
the selected root was found to be facilities are available; and
representative both of the plant from (b) workers have been trained
which it was taken and of the group and are willing to apply
of five plants taken to represent the strict safety procedures.
entire plot or row. Thus, the
sampling method appears
satisfactory, although it would be References
desirable to continue and expand this
investigation, extending it to other Bradbury, J. H. and Egan, S. V. 1992. Rapid
cassava clones. screening assay of cyanide content of
cassava. Phytochem. Anal. 3:91-94.
CIAT, Cassava Program. 1993. Activities

Conclusions during 1989: utilization. In:
Cassava Program report, 1987-1989.
In comparing the Bradbury and Egan Working document no. 91. Cali,
Colombia. p. 567-568.
(1992) picrate assay with a newly
modified T.B. assay, the success rates Cock, J. 1985. Cassava: new potential for a
of both were very similar68% for neglected crop. Westview Press,
picrate and 66% for T.B. Boulder, CO, USA. 191 p.
Cooke, R. D. 1978. An enzymatic assay for

The high toxicity and carcinogenic the total cyanide content of cassava
nature of the reagent tetra base (Manihot esculenta Crantz). J. Sci.
requires a comprehensive and Food Agric. 29:345-352.
carefully controlled methodology. In
terms of reagent costs, the T.B. assay __________. 1979. Enzymatic assay for
determining the cyanide content of
is potentially less expensive than the cassava and cassava products. CIAT,
picrate assay, although costs Cali, Colombia. 14 p.
associated with safety precautions
and equipment are considerably __________ and De la Cruz, E. M. 1982. An
higher. In view of these findings, the evaluation of enzymic and
autolytic assays for cyanide in
following recommendations are made: cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz).
J. Sci. Food Agric. 33:1001-1009.
(1) The newly modified, picrate assay
should be used for rapid screening
164
Feigl, F. and Anger, V. 1966. Replacement of Munsell color guide. Kollmorgen Instrument
benzidine by copper Corporation, Baltimore, MD, USA.
ethylacetoacetate and tetra base as
spot-test reagent for hydrogen Nahrstedt, A. 1980. Absence of cyanogenesis
cyanide and cyanogen. Analyst from Droseraceae. Phytochemistry
91:282-284. 19:2757-2758.
Izomkun-Etiobhio, B. O. and Ugochukwu, OBrien, G. M.; Taylor, A. J.; and Poulter,

E. N. 1984. Comparison of an N. H. 1991. Improved enzymic assay
alkaline picrate and a for cyanogens in fresh and processed
pyridine-pyrazolone method for the cassava. J. Sci. Food Agric.
determination of hydrogen cyanide in 56:277-289.
cassava and in its products. J. Sci.
Food Agric. 35:1-4. __________; Wheatley, C. C.; and Poulter,
N. H. 1993. Evaluation of a rapid
Mendoza, E. M. T.; Kojima, M.; Iwatsuki, N.; semi-quantitative assay for
Fukuba, H.; and Uritani, I. 1984. cyanogensis in cassava. In: Roca,
Evaluation of some methods for the W. M. and Thro, A. M. (eds.).
analysis of cyanide in cassava. In: Proceedings of the First International
Uritani, I. and Reyes, E. D. (eds.). Scientific Meeting, Cassava
Tropical root crops: postharvest Biotechnology Network, Cartagena de
physiology and processing. Japanese Indias, Colombia, 25-28 August,
Scientific Society Press, Tokyo, 1992. Working document no. 123.
Japan. p. 235-242. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. p. 390-399.
165
CHAPTER 20
ACUTE POISONING IN TANZANIA:

THE ROLE OF INSUFFICIENTLY
PROCESSED CASSAVA ROOTS
N. L. V. Mlingi*
Abstract cyanogenic glucosides and

cyanohydrins from the roots and
In 1988, an outbreak of acute prevent poisoning are urgently needed
poisoning occurred in a in this area. An intervention program
drought-stricken district in southern has been established to develop an
Tanzania. Studies carried out in the extension package for cassava
area revealed that the victims had processing, and to make the
high levels of thiocyanate, a cyanide population aware of the problem and
metabolite found in the bodys plasma adopt more efficient processing
and urine. The high dietary cyanide methods.
came from consuming insufficiently
processed roots of cassava, the only
crop to survive the prolonged drought. Introduction
Because of food scarcity, the
customary, but lengthy, sun-drying of The advantages of cassava as a food
peeled cassava roots was replaced by security crop in sub-Saharan Africa
a repeated pounding and sun-drying usually outweigh the nutritional
of peeled roots to obtain flour for drawbacks that sometimes make
consumption the same day. An cassava appear an inferior food.
experiment in one village showed that Drawbacks include low protein
the principal source of dietary cyanide content of the roots, low energy
comprised the high residual levels of density, and potential toxicity from the
cyanohydrin (the intermediate presence of the cyanogenic glucosides
breakdown product), which ranged linamarin and lotaustralin (Rosling,
from 16 to 20 mg CN equivalent per 1987).
kg dry weight. The shortened
processing method adopted during the The amount of glucosides, mainly
drought resulted in high glucoside consisting of linamarin (90%), can
levels ranging from 3 to 879 mg CN reach 1,500 mg CN equivalent per kg
equivalent per kg dry weight in the dry weight in fresh roots, particularly
final products. Rapid, but more in those of bitter varieties grown for
effective, tissue disintegration and their higher yields (Sunderesan et al.,
drying techniques that easily remove 1987). Environmental factors such as
drought, pests, and diseases may
increase the glucoside content
(Gondwe, 1974). If the food security
* Tanzania Food and Nutrition Center, Dar es provided by cassava is to have an
Salaam, Tanzania. optimal impact on community health,
166
Acute Poisoning in Tanzania:...
then the nutritional drawbacks must Despite cassava being extensively

be avoided or balanced. used as food, reports of acute
Supplementing cassava-based meals poisonings are rare. Most consumers
with various protein sources can are aware of the potential toxicity and
balance low protein content and low know how to detoxify the roots. Where
energy density, and efficient cases of acute poisoning and other
processing can solve toxicity effects have occurred, they were mainly
problems. in populations suffering severe food
shortages (Rosling, 1987). Lack of
During processing, disintegrating scientific attention to such populations
the root tissue releases an may also partly explain the scarcity of
endogenous enzymelinamarase reporting.
which hydrolyzes the glucosides to the
corresponding intermediate products: A prolonged drought occurred in
cyanohydrins (Figure 1). The Masasi District, southern Tanzania, in
intermediate products at pH >6 1987/88, causing a severe food
spontaneously decompose to volatile shortage that motivated people to
hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which deviate from traditional cassava
rapidly evaporates into the air or processing methods. The first visit to
dissolves in water (Figure 1) (Cooke, the District, in September 1988, was
1978). during a situation of emergency,
declared by authorities who had
The glucosides, cyanohydrins, and received reports from many villages of
HCN are collectively known as acute poisoning after consumption of
cyanogens, and efficient processing cassava-based meals.
can reduce them all to negligible
levels. If insufficiently processed
roots are consumed, cyanide exposure Materials and Methods
can occur from glucosides or
cyanohydrins breaking down in the The study area
gut. The human body detoxifies
cyanide by enzymatically converting it In 1988, Masasi District, Mtwara
to the less toxic thiocyanate (or SCN), region, southern Tanzania, had a
using sulfur as a substrate. Sulfur is population of 335,000, corresponding
obtained from sulfur-containing to 38 inhabitants per square km. Most
amino acids in the diet (Banea et al., of the soil in the District is a red loam,
1992). The thiocyanate is found in suitable for cassava and maize
serum and urine, through which it is cultivation. The District has a
excreted. Thus, cyanide exposure in unimodal rainfall that usually starts in
humans can be estimated by late November and ends in May.
determining thiocyanate in serum and Average annual rainfall is 940 mm and
urine. temperatures vary from as low as 18 C
Dissolves in
Mainly water and/or
CH3 CH3 nonenzymatic evaporates
Enzymatic Slow at pH < 6-7 into the air
Glucose O C CN HO C CN > HCN
R1 or 2 R1 or 2
Figure 1. The breakdown of cyanogenic glucosides in cassava to produce hydrogen cyanide. R1 = CH3 for
linamarin; R2 = C2H5 for lotaustralin.
167
in July to as high as 35 C in Table 1. Dietary practices during food shortages

in 35 interviewed households, Masasi
December. district, southern Tanzania, 1988.
Cassava is a secondary staple in Foods consumed in Households

Masasi but in difficult years becomes last 24 h
(no.) (%)
the primary one. In neighboring
Newala District, cassava is the Cassava roots 35 100
primary staple and people from Wild vegetables 30 86
Masasi often beg or barter cassava Fruit (mainly mangoes) 29 83
roots and seedlings from Newala Cassava leaves 19 54
during periods of food shortage. An Maize 10 29
earlier rapid rural appraisal revealed Dried small fish 7 20
that prolonged sun-drying of peeled Legumes 6 17
roots was the main cassava
processing method in Masasi
(Seenappa and Mlingi, 1988).
from 28 men, 37 women, and 30

Key informants, focus-group children aged 5 to 14 yearsa total of
interviews, household surveys, and 95 subjects in the interviewed
sample analysis households.
Local authorities and other key A year later, Mtandi and

informants of Masasi District provided Chanikanguo villages were revisited.
general information on the Of the previously studied households,
agricultural and dietary situation in 12 volunteered to be briefly
the District before and during the interviewed on diet and give urine
drought in 1988. The district specimens, that is, 32 subjects
authorities selected, for the study, the making up 9 men, 13 women, and
villages of Mtandi, Chanikanguo, and 10 children. At the same time,
Mumbaka, all 5 to 15 km from Masasi specimens of cassava flour used in the
town and which had the highest interviewed households were collected.
numbers of reported cases of acute Clinical records of the Ndanda Mission
poisoning. Hospital and Masasi District Hospital
were reviewed for cases of cassava
In each village, the leaders, poisoning. In Mumbaka, six
elders, and women were gathered for households that had reported acute
focus-group interviews (Scrimshaw poisoning in 1988 were extensively
and Hurtado, 1987) on agricultural reinterviewed on the symptoms
and dietary practices. One 10-cell experienced.
unit (an administrative structure with
about 10 households) was selected in As a reference, thiocyanate was
each village. In the 35 households determined in plasma and urine
found in those units, the husband specimens collected from 201 adults of
and/or wife were interviewed through both sexes, randomly selected, from a
a formulated open-ended village in the Kilimanjaro region,
questionnaire. This covered food northern Tanzania, where the dietary
consumption over 24 h (Table 1), staple was banana, and cassava
cassava cultivation and processing, consumption was rare.
and occurrence of acute poisoning.
To determine thiocyanate, an A cassava-processing experiment
indicator of cyanide exposure, plasma was conducted in Mtandi village
and urine specimens were collected during a follow-up study in 1988.
168
Cyanogen levels were determined in bitter varieties of cassava but that,

cassava flour obtained by two during the drought, roots from both
shortened processing methods used varieties tasted more bitter than in
during the food shortage. Roots from normal years. Among the interviewed
20 plants of a bitter variety, chimaje, households, 71% cultivated only bitter
were harvested from the same field. varieties, while the rest cultivated both
Roots were peeled and split lengthwise bitter and sweet. Of the six most
to form 19 identical pairs of batches. commonly grown varieties, two,
Under supervision, an elderly woman chimaje and limbanga, were identified
processed one set of batches into as bitter; threeliumbukwa, kigoma,
chinyanya flour and another set into and mba safias sweet; and the sixth
small makopa (or dried root pieces), variety, mreteta, as either sweet (by
which were later pounded into flour, as 58% of households) or as both sweet
practiced during the food shortage. and bitter (23%).
All specimens collected were kept During the drought, the Prime
frozen before analysis and thiocyanate Ministers Office (PMO) promptly
was determined according to Lundquist reacted to news of the food shortage by
et al., (1979, 1983). Cyanogens in distributing about 400 t/month of
flour samples were determined by an relief food, thus alleviating the threat
enzymic assay method modified by of famine. But several households did
OBrien et al. (1991), permitting not receive relief because it was
separate quantification of glucosides, insufficient, and used mainly to induce
cyanohydrins, and HCN. people to cultivate communal fields in
the most affected villages. Old and
disabled people received free relief
Results food.
Drought and food shortage Cassava processing
In normal years, cassava, maize, and In normal years, most cassava is

sorghum dominate production in processed by direct sun-drying for
higher areas while rice is restricted to 1 to 4 weeks, depending on sunshine.
some lower swampy areas. Other food The roots are first peeled and left
crops in the district include whole if small or split if large. The
sweetpotatoes, cowpeas, and pigeon resulting dried root pieces are known
peas. Cashews, groundnuts, and as makopa, and are either sold for
bambara nuts are cultivated as cash cash or pounded into a flour used for
crops. The areas rainfall pattern making ugali, a stiff porridge.
shows that rainfall was halved in the Legumes, small fish, cassava leaves
agricultural year 1987/88, the period (kisamvu), or other green vegetables
before the food shortage. Interviews constitute the relishes regularly eaten
with key informants and focus groups together with cassava or maize ugali.
confirmed that the drought from June
1987 to September 1988 caused the During the food shortage, the
worst food shortages ever experienced normal processing method was
in the district since 1966. Cassava replaced by two shortened methods.
was the only crop which survived; Chinyanya was faster and more widely
maize, rice, sorghum, and millet all used, according to the focus groups.
failed. Peeled roots were pounded into pieces,
sun-dried for some hours, then
The focus groups revealed that repeatedly pounded and dried until a
many families grow both sweet and flour was obtained within half to
169
1 day. The second method, small in water, and another 18% fermented
makopa, involved cutting fresh roots peeled roots in covered heaps.
into finger-sized pieces and drying
them on hot rocks until they could be Acute poisoning and dietary
pounded into flour. This method took cyanide exposure
1 or 2 days, depending on the
sunshine. The relish used to Key informants stated that the acute
supplement the ugali made from such poisoning following cassava-based
short-processed roots, was limited to meals frequently occurred in the
kisamvu during the food shortage. Masasi villages between March and
September 1988. All those interviewed
All households had consumed agreed that they had seen or heard
cassava during the 24 h before the of villagers who were poisoned after
interviews (Table 1). Although most eating cassava-based meals. Of the
households consisted of farming 35 households interviewed in the
families (91%), during the food second round, 80% confirmed that
shortage, some relied on cassava either most family members had suffered
bartered or given free of charge. Of the acute poisoning on one or more
29% of households that had consumed occasions. The pattern of symptoms,
maize, almost a quarter had mixed it time of onset after meals, and duration
with cassava flour to make ugali. All of poisoning, as determined by the
households admitted they had made extensive interviews of households in
some shortcuts in processing cassava Mumbaka village (Table 2) are
by producing small makopa and 65% consistent with information obtained
of households stated that they had from other interviews.
used the chinyanya method.
Clinical records for July 1988
Nevertheless, 9% of households showed that the Ndanda Mission
fermented cassava by soaking the roots Hospital treated several outpatients
Table 2. Results of interviews of six households regarding acute poisoning in Mumbaka village, Masasi
district, southern Tanzania, 1989.
Poisoning parameters Household code numbera
1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of persons affected 6 5 6 6 4 3

Number of times poisoned in 1988 3 3 10 10 1 1
Interval between meal and onset of symptoms (h) 1 4 1 6 2 2
Estimated duration of poisoning (h) 4 8 24 8 10 8
Cassava was processed into:
Chinyanya y y y y y y
Small makopa y
Symptoms of poisoning:
Vomiting y y y y y y
Dizziness y y y y y y
Nausea y y y y y y
Palpitations y y y y y
Weakness y y y y y
Diarrhoea y y y y
Headaches y y y y
Difficulties in seeing y y y
a. y = yes.
170
and admitted three patients for reexamined in the same month of

cassava poisoning. The first was a 1989, a normal year, their mean
7-year-old girl who suffered urinary SCN was only 6% of the mean
abdominal pain and vomiting after found the year before. All households
eating bitter cassava. She recovered still consumed cassava daily but this
the following morning without specific year the ugali was made from properly
treatment. dried, normal-sized makopa (Essers et
al., 1992).
Two days later, a 4-year-old girl
was admitted semiconscious and Cassava processing experiment
dehydrated, but without fever. She
had suffered a sudden onset of The two shortened methods, chinyanya
intense vomiting caused by eating and small makopa, were used to
pieces of cassava that were being process the 19 pairs of batches of split,
dried. A routine neurological peeled roots from 20 cassava plants of
examination was normal. She the same bitter variety from the same
received antibiotic treatment against field, as described on p. 169.
suspected aspiration pneumonia and
parenteral fluid, and recovered within Each of the 19 batches processed
24 h. to chinyanya flour was pounded and
sun-dried four successive times and
Several days later, a 10-year-old sieved after each pounding to obtain
boy was admitted unconscious after a flour. Each of the 19 batches
sudden onset of poisoning symptoms processed into small makopa was
from eating bitter cassava. Because split into small finger-sized pieces that
antidotes were unavailable, he was were sun-dried on hot rocks and then
treated with dextrose saline infusion pounded into flour at the end of the
and cortisone but died 3 h later. day.
In July 1988, the Masasi District Table 4 compares the cyanogen

Hospital also admitted three cases content of flours obtained in the
with similar symptoms and history. experiment by the two shortened
All recovered within 24 h. methods with that of flour samples
collected from 12 households in 1989,
Table 3 shows that, during the a normal year. Glucosides were very
food shortage, the plasma SCN value high in the small makopa flour and
was more than 10 times and the cyanohydrins were high in the
urinary SCN more than 100 times chinyanya flour. The samples of
higher in Masasi subjects than in normal flour had relatively high levels
those from the Kilimanjaro village. of glucosides but very low cyanohydrin
When 32 subjects in Masasi were content.
Table 3. Thiocyanate (SCN) levelsa in subjects from Masasi, southern Tanzania, who eat cassava, and
subjects from Kilimanjaro, northern Tanzania, who eat banana.
SCN sample Cassava diet, Cassava diet, Banana diet,

drought year normal year normal year
(n = 95) (n = 32) (n = 201)
Plasma 335 12 28 4
Urine 1,120 75 68 9 71
a. Values are given in mol/L and as mean the standard error of mean.
171
Table 4. Cyanogen levels in cassava floura processed by three different methods, southern Tanzania.
Contents Processing experiment Household flour made

from normal-sized
Chinyanya Small mapoka mapoka, normal year
(n = 19) (n = 19) (n = 12)
Glucosides 90 17 768 107 120 70

(12-296) (121-1,837) (93-879)
Cyanohydrins 48 5 15 4 72
(16-120) (0-61) (0-17)
Hydrogen cyanide 61 7 0.5 6 0.5

(2-12) (5-10) (4-9)
Total cyanogens 144 18 971 107 133 71

(56-336) (131-1,855) (8-901)
pH 6.6 0.1 6.9 0.1 6.3 0.2

(6.2-6.9) (6.6-7.2) (5.2-7.0)
Moisture (%) 13.5 1 10.8 0.2 10.6 0.4

(6.0-23.6) (9.3-12.7) (9.5-14.4)
a. Values are given as mean standard error of mean. Values in parentheses are ranges. Cyanogen values are
measured as mg of CN equivalent/kg of dry weight.
Discussion this complicated analysis during our

study, and relied on thiocyanate.
Results confirm that most households Levels of this easily determined
of the Masasi District suffered severe cyanide metabolite in the affected
food shortage during March to population were among the highest
December 1988, and depended almost ever reported in cassava eaters,
entirely on cassavathe only crop to suggesting strongly that cyanide
survive the drought. All interviewed caused the poisonings. The fact that
households daily consumed ugali, the thiocyanate levels fell almost to
most of it prepared from cassava flour normalcy the next year also supports
made from short-processed roots. All the hypothesis of cyanide poisoning.
acute poisonings resulted from eating
ugali prepared from such flour, Cyanide
especially chinyanya flour.
Undoubtedly, thousands of people in In contrast to earlier assumptions
the District were poisoned to some (Cheok, 1978), we concluded that
degree during the food shortage. cassava poisoning is not the result of
ingesting HCN. The reason is that
General symptoms of the case HCN evaporates at 28 C, thus rapidly
patients suggested cassava poisoning, escaping during drying, as verified by
which is characterized by an interval the low levels found in all flour
of 1 to 4 h from meal to onset and analyzed. Further losses occur when
symptoms usually clearing within boiling ugali. Cyanide is also rapidly
24 h (Cheok, 1978; Essers et al., absorbed from the stomach, whereas
1992). Cyanide, originating from the poisonings reported here occurred
cyanogenic glucosides occurring one to several hours after ingestion.
naturally in the roots, is presumed to The length of this interval suggests
cause acute cassava poisoning. But that the cyanide exposure resulted
blood cyanide levels were never from ingested cyanide precursors,
documented. We could not perform such as glucosides or cyanohydrins,
172
that probably yielded cyanide in the Cyanohydrins

small intestine.
We believe that cyanide exposure
Glucosides results mainly from consumption of
cyanohydrins in ugali prepared from
Ingested glucosides are an unlikely chinyanya flour. Total cyanogens
source of cyanide exposure in the were higher in small makopa flour,
Masasi population. The reasons are, but cyanohydrins were higher in
first, experiments with animals chinyanya flour.
indicate that ingested linamarin can
be absorbed unchanged and excreted Very little is known about the fate
intact in the urine (Barrett et al., of different forms of cyanogens during
1977). Ingesting linamarin will only digestion in humans. In the alkaline
result in cyanide exposure if suitable environment of the small intestine,
microbial glucosidases are present in cyanohydrins should rapidly
the gut, a mechanism still not decompose to yield cyanide that is
confirmed as occurring in humans. then absorbed. Our results support
Second, poisonings were associated this hypothesis. The cyanohydrin
mainly with consumption of level found in chinyanya can
chinyanya flour, which had relatively potentially yield about 1 mmol of
low glucoside levels. Third, the 1989 cyanide at the estimated daily
subjects had low urinary thiocyanate consumption of about 0.5 kg. This
levels, despite the high levels of quantity of cyanide matches the high
glucosides found in the flour urinary thiocyanate level of 1 mmol/L
collected from their households. An found during the poisonings. The
adults estimated daily consumption next, normal, year, when the
of 0.5 kg of normal, household, chinyanya method was not used, the
cassava flour corresponds to cyanohydrin levels in household flour
ingesting 2,000 mol of potential were low, as were the urinary
cyanide. The 68 mol of thiocyanate thiocyanate levels. Those who
per liter of urine constitutes only 3% consumed cassava in the normal year
of this amount, indicating that or bananas had thiocyanate values
ingested glucosides do not result in below 100 mol/L, corresponding to
cyanide exposure. the levels of thiocyanate found in
nonsmokers1 in other countries
The rapid drying of small (Lundquist et al., 1979).
makopa in strong sunshine may
result in high levels of glucosides, Effects of cyanide exposure
probably because the heat destroys
the linamarase enzyme or reduces Despite numerous cases of acute
moisture content to a level that poisoning in many Masasi villages,
inactivates this enzyme before tissue very few deaths were reported and
disruption enables it to act on the we could only document one.
glucosides. A daily consumption of Hospital-based reports of cassava
0.5 kg of small makopa corresponds poisoning give an impression of high
to a potential cyanide yield of more mortality (Cheok, 1978; Tylleskar et
than 300 mg, which is above the al., 1991), but anecdotal information
lethal dose (Hall and Rumack, 1986). suggests low mortality in several other
Thus, the low mortality observed outbreaks of cassava poisoning for
suggests that glucoside ingestion is of which we could not find scientific
minor importance for cyanide
exposure from insufficiently 1. Cigarette smoke contains small quantities of
processed cassava. cyanide.
173
documentation. Although many epidemic. The highest incidences of

subjects reached blood cyanide levels this disease have been found in
at which symptoms of poisoning populations who exclusively
occurred, few reached levels that were consumed insufficiently processed
two to four times higher than lethal cassava for several weeks to months
(Hall and Rumack, 1986). The small (Howlett et al., 1992; Tylleskar et al.,
number suggests that exposure to 1992).
sudden high peaks of blood cyanide
was rare. The rarity can be explained In conclusion, the 1988 acute
if the levels causing symptoms are poisonings in Masasi resulted from
partly reached by a cumulative effect consuming insufficiently processed
from several meals, and partly caused cassava roots, and which therefore
by a decreased cyanide-to-thiocyanate contained high residual amounts of
conversion as the intake of sulfur cyanohydrins. Roots from bitter
amino acids (which provides the cassava varieties can be safely eaten
substrate for conversion) drops. A after effective processing. Even in the
gradual cyanide release following shortened processing methods,
meals would contribute to flat cyanohydrin levels may easily be
exposure peaks that usually reach reduced by improving the
levels causing only symptoms and, disintegration and drying techniques
rarely, the higher levels causing used.
death.
Toxic effects from cassava may
A different mechanism may also occur in several areas of eastern
operate to reduce the mortality rate. Africa where bitter varieties have
The metabolism of linamarin and its been introduced and where ineffective
effects has not been studied in processing methods are used,
humans. Some symptoms of acute especially during food shortages
cassava poisoning may be caused by (Essers et al., 1992). However,
non-lethal effects of absorbed, intact cassavas agricultural potential may
linamarin. If this hypothetical be used to improve food security with
mechanism operates in parallel to a positive effect on nutrition and
cyanide exposure, it may explain why health if attention is paid to its
the frequency of diarrhoea seems potential nutritional drawbacks.
higher than that reported for cyanide
poisoning from other sources (Hall An ongoing program aims to
and Rumack, 1986). provide practical measures to prevent
further outbreaks of acute poisonings
The epidemic paralytical disease, during food shortages. This involves
konzo, characterized by abrupt onset making the authorities and the
of spastic paraparesis, has been population aware of the faults in the
attributed to high dietary cyanide ineffective processing methods
exposure from insufficiently processed practiced in that area. The program
cassava. We screened the population will then develop an extension
in one village in Masasi for konzo package for cassava processing that
and, as reported elsewhere (Tylleskar will use more efficient techniques,
et al., 1991), found that the such as those for gari processing
incidence of konzo was about 1 per from West Africa. The extension
1,000 people during the period of high package includes selecting the best
cyanide intake. The minimal dietary and simplest message for the
variation, provided by relief food, community, strategies to introduce
probably protected the population new processing methods, and
against a more extensive konzo approaches to be used.
174
References OBrien, G. M.; Taylor, A. J.; and Poulter,

N. H. 1991. An improved enzymic
assay method for cyanogens in fresh
Banea, M.; Poulter, N.; and Rosling, H. 1992.
and processed cassava. J. Sci. Food
Shortcuts in cassava processing and
Agric. 56:277-289.
risk of dietary cyanide exposure in
Zaire. Food Nutr. 14:137-143.
Rosling, H. 1987. Cassava toxicity and food
security: a review of health effects of
Barrett, M. D.; Hill, D. C.; Alexander, J. C.; cyanide exposure from cassava and
and Zitnak, A. 1977. Fate of orally of ways to prevent these effects.
dosed linamarin in the rat. Can. J. Report to the African Household
Physiol. Pharmacol. 55:134-36. Food Security Program, United
Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF).
Cheok, S. S. 1978. Acute cassava poisoning International Child Health Unit,
in children in Sarawak. Trop. Doc. Uppsala University, Uppsala,
8:99-101. Sweden. 40 p.
Cooke, R. D. 1978. An enzymatic assay for the Scrimshaw, S. C. M. and Hurtado, E. 1987.
total cyanide content of cassava Rapid assessment procedures for
(Manihot esculenta Crantz). J. Sci. nutrition and primary health care:
Food Agric. 29:345-352. anthropological approaches to
improving programmed effectiveness.
Essers, A. J. A.; Alsen, P.; and Rosling, H. Reference series, vol. 11. Latin
1992. Insufficient processing of American Center, University of
cassava induced acute intoxications California (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA,
and the paralytic disease konzo in a USA.
rural area of Mozambique. Ecol. Food
Nutr. 27:17-27. Seenappa, M. and Mlingi, N. 1988.
Household food security and the role
Gondwe, A. T. D. 1974. Studies on of cassava: a case study from
hydrocyanic acid content of some Tanzania. In: Nutrition and food
local varieties of cassava and some security. Vol. 2. Proceedings of the
traditional cassava products. East Afr. Third Africa Food and Nutrition
Agric. For. J. 40:161-7. Congress, Harare, Zimbabwe,
5-8 September, 1988. p. 734-763.
Hall, A. H. and Rumack, B. H. 1986. Clinical
toxicology of cyanide. Ann. Emerg. Sunderesan, S.; Nambisan, B.; and Easwari,
Med. 15:1067-74. A. 1987. Bitterness in cassava in
relation to cyanoglucoside content.
Howlett, W. P.; Brubaker, G. R.; Mlingi, N.; Indian J. Agric. Sci. 57:37-40.
and Rosling, H. A. 1992.
Geographical cluster of konzo in Tylleskar, T.; Banea, M.; Bikangi, N.; Fresco,
Tanzania. J. Trop. Geogr. Neurol. L.; Persson, L-A.; and Rosling, H.
2:102-108. 1991. Epidemiological evidence from
Zaire for a dietary aetiology of konzo,
Lundquist, P.; Martensson, J.; Sorbo, B.; an upper motor neutron disease.
and Ohman, S. 1979. Method for Bull. W. H. O. 69:581-90.
determining thiocyanate in serum and
urine. Clin. Chem. 25:678-81. __________; __________; __________; Poulter,
N.; Cooke, R.; and Rosling, H. 1992.
__________; __________; __________; and Cassava cyanogens and konzo, an
__________. 1983. Adsorption of upper motor neuron disease found
thiocyanate by anion-exchange resins in Africa. Lancet 339:208-11.
and its analytical application. Clin.
Chem. 29:403.
175
CHAPTER 21
GARI, A TRADITIONAL CASSAVA SEMOLINA

IN WEST AFRICA:
ITS STABILITY AND SHELF LIFE AND THE
ROLE OF WATER
N. Zakhia*, G. Chuzel**, and Dany Griffon*
Abstract consumed with milk (for breakfast) or

added to hot sauces.
Gari is a cassava semolina
traditionally processed and widely As demand for gari from urban
consumed in West Africa. Its markets is increasing, a better quality
shelf-life is largely dependent on both product with an extended shelf-life is
its water content and storage needed. The shelf-life of packed and
temperature and relative humidity. stored gari largely depends on storage
This paper deals with garis temperature and relative humidity,
adsorption properties in relation to and on the product itself (moisture
water availability at 15, 25, and content and water activity). These
30 C. From the results, optimal parameters determine the rate of
packaging conditions can be garis microbial and physicochemical
estimated, thus providing an deterioration. The sorption isotherm,
extended shelf-life for gari. that is, the equilibrium between water
activity and moisture content of a
foodstuff, is a good indicator of the
Introduction products stability at different
ambient temperatures and relative
Gari is a cassava semolina humidities (Bandyopadhyay et al.,
traditionally prepared and widely 1980).
consumed in West Africa. Gari
processing consists of pressing the Our study used adsorption
juice out of peeled and grated cassava isotherms to determine garis optimal
roots for 2 to 4 days, allowing a shelf-life. Thus, we could propose a
natural lactic fermentation to take set of packaging recommendations to
place. The fermented mash is then ensure better storage of gari in the
cooked in an open clay vessel until tropics.
the starch gelatinizes sufficiently
(Chuzel, 1989; Zakhia, 1985). Gari is
a ready-to-use food, generally Materials and Methods
Samples of traditional Togolese gari
(about 8% w.b. water content) were
* CIRAD/SAR, Montpellier, France. collected from a small factory near
** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Faculdade de
Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade
Lom and packaged in sealed
Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Paulo, polyethylene bags. They were sent to
Brazil. Montpellier, France, and stored at
176
Gari, A Traditional Cassava Semolina in West Africa:...
Table 1. Experimental data for adsorption equilibrium of gari at 15, 25, and 35 C ( SD) with salt
sources and references.
Salt 15 C 25 C 35 C
Equilibrium Moisture Equilibrium Moisture Equilibrium Moisture

relative content relative content relative content
humidity (% d.b. SD) humiditya (% d.b. SD) humidity (% d.b. SD)
LiCl 0.119b 5.2 0.4 0.110 4.8 0.1 0.112b 4.4 0.3
CH3COOK 0.234c 7.4 0.4 0.224 6.7 0.3 0.230d 5.9 0.2
MgCl2 0.333b 8.1 0.4 0.330 7.6 0.2 0.320b 7.3 0.3
K2CO3 0.431c 9.1 0.2 0.428 8.6 0.3 0.410e 8.6 0.2
NaBr 0.607c 11.4 0.7 0.577 11.0 0.2 0.545c 10.3 0.6
SrCl2 0.741b 15.2 0.8 0.708 14.3 0.2 0.680d 13.7 0.8
NaCl 0.755c 15.4 0.5 0.753 16.1 0.2 0.751f 16.6 0.7
KCl 0.856b 20.7 0.9 0.843 20.3 0.6 0.829c 20.8 1.2
BaCl2 0.911b 24.5 0.8 0.902 26.7 0.6 0.894g 26.8 1.2
a. Stokes and Robinson, 1949.

b. Acheson, 1965.
c. Greenspan, 1977.
d. Rockland, 1960.
e. Griffin, 1944.
f. Clarke and Glew, 1985.
g. Baxter and Cooper, 1924.
2 C until evaluation. Adsorption were then sprayed with a solution of

isotherms were determined at 15, 25, sodium azide (0.5%) to inhibit the
and 35 C, using the standard growth of microorganisms at high
method recommended by the Water water activities (aw > 0.8). They were
Activity Group (WAG) of the European placed in dishes resting on trivets
Union (EU)1 (Wolf et al., 1985). standing in jars of salt solutions. The
Equipment used comprised nine, sealed jars were then submerged in
sealed, glass jars, containing an insulated water bath, the
saturated salt solutions ranging from temperature of which was controlled
aw 0.1 to 0.9 (Table 1). This aw range to within 0.2 C.
is required practice for predicting the
shelf-life of dried packaged products Equilibrium time was 21 days, as
(Chirife et al., 1979). recommended by WAGs standard
(i.e., 7 days for aw < 0.6 and 14 days
In France, before measurements for aw > 0.6), and in accord with the
were taken, 3 g of gari samples were equilibration time required for
predried over phosphorus pentoxide cassava mash (Gevaudan et al.,
(P2O5) for 10 days at about 20 C 1989). Equilibrated samples were
(ambient temperature) to lower their oven-dried (103 C, 24 h) in triplicate
water content to a minimum. They to determine moisture content.
The WAG uses the GAB

(Guggenheim-Anderson-De Boer)
model, which is believed to be the
1. The Water Activity Group conducts the best for providing equations for
project COST 90 bis as part of the program describing food isotherms up to aw 0.9
for European Cooperation in the Field of (Bizot, 1983; Van den Berg, 1985).
Science and Technical Research, sponsored
by the former European Economic
The GAB equation is as follows
Community, now the European Union. (Labuza et al., 1985):
177
aw Results and Discussion

= aw + aw + (1)
X
Adsorption isotherms
where:
Table 1 and Figure 1 show the
average values and standard
K 1
= ( 1) deviations of the equilibrium moisture
Xm C contents for the water activities
studied at 15, 25, and 35 C, and
1 2 their fitted GAB isotherms.
= (1 )
Xm C
At low water activities (aw < 0.6),
1 the experimental curves agree with
=
X m . K .C the sorption theory, that is, at
constant aw, an increase of
X = water content (% d.b.) temperature causes a small decrease
of moisture content. At high water
Xm = percentage of water content activities (0.7-0.9), moisture content
corresponding to the increases with rise in temperature.
occupation of all primary The three calculated isotherms
adsorption sites by one water intersect at the following points:
molecule. Xm is also called
the monolayer. isotherms 15 C and 25 C
where X = 13.0% and aw = 0.66
C = the Guggenheim constant. isotherms 15 C and 35 C
C = CN exp [(H1 - Hm)/RT] where X = 11.5% and aw = 0.59
isotherms 25 C and 35 C
K = a correction factor for the where X = 9.5% and aw = 0.48
multilayer molecules. K = KN
exp [(H1 - Hq)/RT]
H1 = the heat of condensation of

pure water vapor 30
Hq = the total heat of sorption of the

(g H2O/100 g dry matter)
multilayer water molecules

Moisture content
20
Hm = the total heat of sorption of the
monolayer
The GAB models coefficients , 10

, and were determined for each
temperature by using a nonlinear,
least-square regression as
recommended by Schr and Regg 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(1985). The values of GAB
constants Xm, C, and K were also Water activity (aw)
calculated. The confidence of fit
was judged by the relative root Figure 1. Adsorption isotherms of gari at three
temperatures. Experimental points
mean square error (% RMS).
are means of triplicates. = 15 C;
= 25 C; = 35 C.
178
The crossing of isotherms at high content (for aw between 0.5 and 0.7)
water activities with increasing initiate a collapse that makes the
temperature has already been soluble starch (amorphous fractions
observed in some foods and may and branched segments) leach out.
result from the products chemical This increases the number of
composition and its treatments (e.g., available adsorption sites (glucose
heating, drying, and residues) and explains why gari
pregelatinization). Other foods becomes more hygroscopic at higher
showing this phenomenon are temperatures and water activity.
sucrose and fructose (Loncin et al., Moreover, the degree of starch
1968), potato slices (Mazza, 1982), damage in gelatinized starchy
carrots (Mazza, 1983), Jerusalem products is measured by the
artichoke (Mazza, 1984), and sultanas solubility and swelling indices at
(Saravacos et al., 1986). The 30 C, which depend on the ability of
explanation is that some sugars starch to absorb water (Anderson et
increase their solubility with al., 1969).
temperature, thus binding more water
at higher temperatures and Slade and Levine (1988) and
increasing the equilibrium moisture Orford et al. (1989) have also
content. discussed the physicochemical effect
of water, acting as a plasticizer of the
The technological treatments amorphous regions in the starch
involved in gari production (grating, native granule, on the temperature of
fermentation, and squeezing) induce the vitreous transition that occurs
damage to about 3% to 6% of the during native starch gelatinization.
cassava starch (Zakhia, 1985). Only the water included in the starch
During roasting, the starch is heated granule (about 10% w.b.) is involved
in the presence of water, but the in this process; the vitreous transition
initial moisture content of about temperature decreases sharply with
1 g g-1 (d.b.) of cassava mash does not increasing water content. This
allow the starch to completely plasticizing effect could also explain
gelatinize (Chuzel, 1989; Gevaudan et the observed adsorption behavior of
al., 1989). But crystallinity is lost gari. The amorphous matrix of gari,
and extensive swelling of the starch which is partially plasticized at room
granules occurs. A complex temperature by excess water (> 12%
metastable network forms, consisting d.b.), would become more plastic if
of amorphous regions (containing the temperature increased to 35 C.
plasticizing water) and hydrated The mobility of chains is then
microcrystalline regions that had not enhanced and the free volumes inside
dissolved during the partial the polymer increase. As these free
gelatinization and which serve as volumes may absorb more water, the
junction zones (Levine and Slade, sorption sites are then more available.
1988). All these factors strongly
affect the polymer-water interactions Gari storage
(Radosta et al., 1989).
In tropical countries, high relative
The sorption mechanism for humidity and temperature make
starch is almost entirely governed by long-term storage very difficult. So
active sites, that is, the glucose predicting the shelf-life of packaged
residues of the starch polymer (Hill gari in terms of its storage conditions
and Rizvi, 1982). We suggest, and quality becomes important. The
therefore, that increases in both Heiss and Eichner (1971a; 1971b)
temperature (to 35 C) and water model allows calculation of the
179
potential storage time based on a Ws = Weight of the product (kg of

critical aw for a particular system dry matter in the package).
under given storage conditions. This
model equation is: S = Slope of the product isotherm
(assumed linear over the range
between Xe and Xc).
ln (( X e X i ) /( X e X c ))
c = (2)
K x (A / Ws ) (Po / S) Using the Heiss and Eichner
model, we estimated the shelf-life of
where: gari packaged in 1-kg polyethylene
bags (A = 0.124 m2, Kx = 2.28 10-6 kg
c = Potential shelf-life of the H2O.m-2.Pa-1.day-1) at three
product (time in days for the temperatures (15, 25, and 35 C) and
packaged product to suffer four initial moisture contents (6%,
microbial and biochemical 8%, 10%, and 12% d.b.) (Table 2). As
deterioration with loss of ambient storage conditions, we
sensory quality). considered a relative humidity of 0.9
(which is the safe storage borderline
Xe = Equilibrium moisture content humidity) and an aw of 0.7 (which is
(g g-1, d.b.) of the product (if it the safe storage borderline aw
is left in contact with the generally used for most products)
atmosphere outside the (Pixton, 1982). Adeniji (1976)
package). Xe depends on observed a significant growth of
temperature, relative humidity mould in gari stored at 27 C, in a
and on the product adsorption relative humidity of 0.7 and having an
isotherm. equilibrium content of 14.5% (d.b.).
For aw 0.7, our sorption curves at
Xc = Safe storage moisture 15, 25, and 35 C give 14.0%, 14.2%,
content of the product (g g-1, and 15.3% (d.b.) as equilibrium
d.b.), that is, the moisture moisture contents (Table 2). These
content corresponding to the values agree with those of Adeniji
safe storage borderline aw. (1976). Moisture contents around
Xc is calculated for the 14% (d.b.) allow gari to maintain a
borderline aw by successive crispness that consumers greatly
iterations from the GAB appreciate (Chuzel, 1989; Ekundayo,
regression equation until the 1984).
difference between two
calculated Xc is lower than Moisture contents before
0.01. packaging (Xi) are those generally
found in local gari sold in tropical
Xi = Initial moisture content of the markets. lkediobi and Onyike (1982)
product when it is packaged mention moisture contents ranging
(g g-1, d.b.). from 4% to 19% (d.b.). The
crossing-over of adsorption isotherms
Kx = Permeability of the package to described above leads to the following
moisture vapor paradox: gari stored at 35 C seems to
(kg H2O.m-2.Pa-1.day-1). be better than that stored at 25 C for
a moisture content of 12% (d.b.).
Po = Vapor pressure at storage This moisture content is usually
temperature (in Pa). obtained with traditional gari
processing (Chuzel, 1989), although
A = Surface area of the package storage time was less than 1 month
(m2). under the given conditions.
180
Table 2. Estimated shelf-life (days) for safe storage of gari at aw 0.7 at four initial moisture contents (d.b)
and three storage temperatures.
Initial moisture content (d.b.) Equilibration temperature (C)a
15 (14.0) 25 (14.2) 35 (15.3)
6 181 90 57
8 166 85 52
10 140 73 45
12 89 24 30
a. Values in parentheses are equilibrium moisture contents (d.b.) for aw 0.7 (from experimental adsorption
isotherms).
We also focused on the packed in cardboard boxes for both

permeability of packaging materials. physical convenience and to prevent
Polyethylene, especially the oxidation and reaction to light.
high-density type, tends to inhibit
water vapor transfer, but is permeable Further research should be
to oxygen and carbon dioxide, which carried out to determine the safe
may oxidize gari or cause loss of its storage water activity in the tropics,
aromas. Polypropylene is less taking into account the initial
permeable to water vapor and oxygen, microbial flora of cassava roots and
but, because it is more expensive the local quality requirements for gari
than polyethylene, it is less suitable quality, that is, color, crispness,
for storing gari as a daily foodstuff for flavor, and food customs.
low-income consumers.
References
Conclusions
Acheson, D. T. 1965. Vapor pressure of
Gari processing modifies the saturated aqueous salt solutions.
In: Wexler, A. (ed.). Humidity and
structure of native cassava starch so moisture, vol. 3. Reinhold, NY.
that, at high water activity, it p. 521-530.
becomes more hygroscopic as
temperature increases. Our study Adeniji, M. O. 1976. Fungi associated with
pointed out a collapse (not yet the deterioration of gari. Niger. J.
Plant Prot. 2:74-77.
observed in other starchy products),
caused by the partial gelatinization Anderson, R. A.; Conway, H. F.; Pfeiffer,
of gari starch. The GAB regression V. F.; and Griffin, E. L. 1969.
equation was adequate for fitting Gelatinization of corn grits by roll and
sorption isotherms of gari. extrusion cooking. Cereal Sci. Today
14(1):4-7.
The shelf-life of gari was Bandyopadhyay, S.; Weisser, H.; and Loncin,
theoretically estimated for three M. 1980. Water adsorption
storage temperatures (15, 25, and isotherms of foods at high
35 C) at a relative humidity of 0.9 temperatures. Lebensm. Wiss. &
Technol. 13:182-185.
(which is usual in the tropics). For a
low-cost storage of at least Baxter, G. P. and Cooper, W. C., Jr. 1924.
3 months at about 30 C, we The aqueous pressure of hydrated
recommend packaging gari at an crystals. II. Oxalic acid, sodium
initial moisture content of about 8% sulfate, sodium acetate, sodium
carbonate, disodium phosphate,
(d.b.) in polyethylene bags. The barium chloride. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
bags should be sealed and tightly 46:923-933.
181
Bizot, H. 1983. Using the GAB model to Ikediobi, C. O. and Onyike, E. 1982. The use
construct sorption isotherms. In: of linamarase in gari production.
Jowitt, R.; Escher, F.; Hallstrom, B.; Process Biochem. 17(4):2-5.
Meffert, H. F. T.; Spiess, W. E. L.; and
Vos, G. (eds.). Physical properties of Labuza, T. P.; Kaanane, A.; and Chen, J. Y.
foods. Applied Science Publications, 1985. Effect of temperature on the
London, UK. p. 43-54. moisture sorption isotherms and the
water activity shift of two dehydrated
Chirife, J.; Boquet, R.; and Iglesias, H. 1979. foods. J. Food Sci. 50:385-391.
The mathematical description of
water sorption isotherm of foods in Levine, H. and Slade, L. 1988. Water as a
the high range of water activity. plasticizer; physicochemical aspects
Lebensm. Wiss. & Technol. of low moisture polymeric systems.
12:150-152. Water Sci. Rev. 3:79-185.
Chuzel, G. 1989. Etude des traitements Loncin, M.; Bimbenet, J. J.; and Lenges, J.
technologiques intervenant lors de la 1968. Influence of the activity of
transformation du manioc en gari. water on the spoilage of foodstuffs.
Ph.D. dissertation. Ecole nationale J. Food Technol. 3:131-142.
suprieure agronomique de
Montpellier (ENSAM), Montpellier, Mazza, G. 1982. Moisture sorption isotherms
France. 195 p. of potato slices. J. Food Technol.
17:47-54.
Clarke, W. E. and Glew, D. N. 1985.
Evaluation of the thermodynamic __________. 1983. Dehydration of carrots:
function for aqueous sodium chloride effects of pre-drying treatments on
from equilibrium and calorimetric moisture transport and product
measurements below 154 C. J. Phys. quality. J. Food Technol. 18:113-123.
Chem. Ref. Data 14(2):429-610.
__________. 1984. Sorption isotherms and
Ekundayo, C. A. 1984. Microbial spoilage of drying rates of Jerusalem artichoke
packaged gari in storage. Microbios (Helianthus tuberosus). J. Food Sci.
Lett. 26:145-150. 49:384-388.
Gevaudan, A.; Chuzel, G.; Didier, S.; and Orford, P. D.; Parker, R.; Ring, S. G.; and
Andrieu, J. 1989. Thermophysical Smith, A. C. 1989. Effect of water as
properties of cassava mash. Int. J. a diluent on the glass transition
Food Sci. Technol. 24:637-645. behavior of malto-oligosaccharides,
amylose and amylopectin. Int. J. Biol.
Greenspan, L. 1977. Humidity fixed points of Macromol. 11:91-96.
binary saturated aqueous solutions.
J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. A. Phys. Pixton, S. W. 1982. The importance of
Chem. 81 A(1):89-96. moisture and equilibrium relative
humidity in stored products. Trop.
Griffin, R. C. 1944. Technical Association of Stored Prod. Inf. 43:16-29.
the Pulp and Paper Industry
(TAPPI). TAPPI Data Sheet 109-109a. Radosta, S.; Schierbaum, F.; Reuther, F.;
NY. and Anger, H. 1989. Polymer-water
interaction of maltodextrins, part 1.
Heiss, R. and Eichner, K. 1971a. Moisture Water vapour sorption and desorption
content and shelf-life. I. Food Manuf. of maltodextrin powders. Starch/
46(5):53-56. Strke 41(10):395-401.
__________ and __________. 1971b. Moisture Rockland, L. 1960. Saturated salt solutions
content and shelf-life. II. Food Manuf. for static control of relative humidity
46(6):37-38, 41-42. between 5 C and 40 C. Anal. Chem.
32(10):1375-1376.
Hill, P. E. and Rizvi, S. S. H. 1982.
Thermodynamic parameters and Saravacos, G. D.; Tsiourvas, D. A.; and
storage stability of drum dried peanut Tsami, E. 1986. Effect of temperature
flakes. Lebensm. Wiss. & Technol. on the water adsorption isotherms of
15(4):185-190. sultana raisins. J. Food Sci.
51(2):381-383.
182
Schr, W. and Regg, M. 1985. The Wolf, W.; Speiss, W. E. L.; and Jung, G.
evaluation of G.A.B. constants from 1985. Standardization of isotherm
water vapor sorption data. Lebensm. measurements. In: Simatos, D. and
Wiss. & Technol. 18:225-229. Multon, J. L. (eds.). Properties of
water in foods. Nato Asi series,
Slade, L. and Levine, H. 1988. Non- no. 90. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht,
equilibrium melting of native the Netherlands. p. 661-679.
granular starch. Part I. Temperature
location of the glass transition Zakhia, N. 1985. Etude de Ioperation de
associated with gelatinization of cuisson-schage du gari; mmoire
A-type cereal starch. Carbohydr. ingnieur. Ecole nationale suprieure
Polym. 8:183-208. des industries agricoles et
alimentaires, Section Rgions
Stokes, R. H. and Robinson, R. A. 1949. Chaudes (ENSIA-SIARC), Montpellier,
Standard solutions for humidity France. 97 p.
control at 25 C. Ind. Eng. Chem.
41:2013.
Van den Berg, C. 1985. Development of

B.E.T.-like models for sorption of
water on foods theory and relevance.
In: Simatos, D. and Multon, J. L.
(eds.). Properties of water in foods.
Nato Asi series, no. 90. Martinus
Nijhoff, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
p. 119-131.
183
SESSION 4:
BIOCONVERSION AND
BYPRODUCT USE
Fermentation in Cassava Bioconversion
CHAPTER 22
FERMENTATION IN CASSAVA
BIOCONVERSION1
M. Raimbault*, C. Ramrez Toro**, E. Giraud***,
C. Soccol., and G. Saucedo
Introduction STD2 Program of the European Union

(EU), otherwise known as Improving
Cassava fermentation is traditionally the Quality of Traditional Foods
practiced in the tropics. But both Processed from Fermented Cassava
technology and product (Raimbault, 1992; Saucedo et al.,
characteristics differ according to 1990).
region and sociocultural conditions:
gari in East and West Africa, When producing gari, lactic
chikwangue or fufu in Central Africa, acidification of cassava is rapid and
and sour starch in Latin America. But detoxification is sometimes
they have in common the aim to incomplete. Controlling through
eliminate the poisonous cyanide inoculation would improve quality.
components and conserve cassava by For fufu or chikwangue, retting is
lactic acidification. essential for texturing and detoxifying
the cassava. Lactic acid fermentation
The essential role of lactic acid is heterolactic, operating in
bacteria in the three products was association with secondary alcoholic
demonstrated by studies carried out and anaerobic fermentation to
by the Institut franais de recherche produce alcohol and organic acids
scientifique pour le dveloppement en such as butyrate, acetate, and
coopration (ORSTOM) through the propionate that develop special
aromatic and organoleptic
characteristics. As for gari,
fermentation for sour starch
(especially in Colombia and Brazil) is
* Institut franais de recherche scientifique homolactic, but takes 3 or 4 weeks.
pour le dveloppement en coopration Amylolytic lactic acid bacteria have
(ORSTOM), stationed in Cali, Colombia.
** Laboratorio de Bioconversin, Departamento been isolated from chikwangue by
de Procesos Qumicos y Biolgicos, Facultad ORSTOM scientists and from sour
de Ingeniera, Universidad del Valle, Cali, starch by CIRAD scientists.
Colombia.
*** ORSTOM, Montpellier, France.
Laboratrio de Procesos Biotecnologia, A. Brauman isolated a new strain,
Departamento de Tecnologia Qumica, Lactobacillus plantarum A6, which was
Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade described by Giraud et al. (1991). Its
Federal de Paran, Brazil.
Departamento de Biotecnologa, Universidad physiological and enzymological
Autnoma Metropolitana (UAM), Iztapalpa, characteristics for cultivation on
Mexico. cassava starch media, amylase
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. production, and biochemical
187
properties have now been described Solid-State Fermentation of

(Giraud et al., 1992; 1993a; 1993b). Cassava and Starchy
Products
ORSTOM scientists have been
researching solid fermentation For more than 15 years, an ORSTOM
cultivation of fungi on cassava and group has worked on a solid-state
amylaceous components for more than fermentation process for improving
10 years. Soccol et al. (1994) showed the protein content of cassava,
that protein enrichment is possible by potatoes, bananas, and other starchy
cultivating various strains of Rhizopus, commodities used for animal feed.
even on crude, nongelatinized cassava Fungi, especially from the Aspergillus
flours. Saucedo et al. (1992a; 1992b; group, are used to transform starch
1992c) studied, at the ORSTOM and mineral salts into fungal proteins
Laboratory, Montpellier, the growth (Oriol et al., 1988a; 1988b; Raimbault
and alcohol fermentation of cassava and Alazard, 1980; Raimbault and
starch in solid-state fermentation, Viniegra, 1991; Raimbault et al.,
using a highly promising amylolytic 1985). Table 1 shows the overall
yeast. changes in composition between the
initial substrate and final products.
Swedish and African researchers Through such techniques a
have described the beneficial effects of cassava-fermented product with an
lactic acid fermentation on the 18%-20% protein content (dry matter
prophylactic and keeping basis) was obtained.
characteristics of those traditional
foodstuffs made from fermented More recently, Soccol et al.
cassava, maize, and mixed cereals, (1993a; 1993b), also at the ORSTOM
and of baby foods. These foods tend Laboratory, obtained good results
to increase childrens resistance to with the Rhizopus fungi, of special
diarrhoea. interest in traditionally fermented
foods. In particular, they studied the
All these studies are being effect of cooking before fermentation
continued in new projects comprising on the availability of starch, protein
the EU-STD3 Program. Other EU content, and the rate of starchs
studies are being conducted on bioconversion into protein (Table 2).
cassava quality, environment, physical They found that a selected strain of
processing, and transformation at a Rhizopus oryzae could transform
low industrial scale to take advantage uncooked cassava, which contains
of the economic and commercial only 1.68% protein, into a fermented
opportunities in Latin America. cassava containing 10.89% protein.
Table 1. Effects of Aspergillus niger on protein and sugar contents of different starches (percentage of dry
matter) after 30 h of fermentation in solid-state culture.
Substrate Initial composition Final composition
Proteins Sugar Proteins Sugar
Cassava 2.5 90 18 30
Banana 6.4 80 20 25
Banana waste 6.5 72 17 33
Potato 5.1 90 20 35
Potato waste 5.1 65 18 28
188
Table 2. Growth of Rhizopus oryzae in solid-state cultivation on cassava granules after various cooking
treatments.
Treatmenta Dry matterb Total sugarc Proteinsc
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
I 60.90 46.48 80.01 46.78 1.20 11.69

II 59.18 45.35 84.11 60.72 1.61 12.40
III 57.95 42.12 82.44 52.57 1.56 13.93
IV 55.63 43.88 82.49 56.62 1.47 11.89
V 45.57 37.88 82.04 56.62 1.68 10.89
a. Treatment:
I = Cassava autoclaved for 30 min at 120 C, frozen, dried, and ground
II = Cassava flour (40% water) autoclaved for 30 min at 120 C
III = Cassava flour (30% water) autoclaved for 30 min at 120 C
IV = Cassava flour (30% water) vapor cooked for 30 min at 100 C
V = Untreated crude cassava flour
b. g/100 g total weight.
c. g/100 g dry matter.
SOURCE: Soccol et al., 1994.
Table 3 shows results of amylase (1971) was adopted and a good

biosynthesis in solid or liquid correlation coefficient for the
culture, using raw or cooked calibration curve was obtained.
cassava. The amount of Table 4 shows the effect of thermic
glucoamylase was 10 to 15 times treatment and microwaves on starch
higher in solid than in liquid culture, gelatinization in cassava flour (water
and higher in raw starch medium content typically lower than 10%).
than in cooked cassava. Where water content was very low,
gelatinization was also low.
This work is being continued in
the EU-STD3 Program at the The same thermic treatment of
Bioconversion Laboratory of the dry cassava flour eliminated the
Universidad del Valle, Cali, natural microflora contained in raw
Colombia. It focuses on simplifying flour, from 109 bacteria/g of dry flour
cassava processing by learning more to fewer than 103 bacteria/g after
about the specificity of Rhizopus heating the flour for 30 min at
strains in degrading the raw starch 90 C. With gelatinization limited to
granule. But clean flours of raw less than 5% under such conditions,
cassava are needed. The common obtaining clean, raw cassava flour is
flours of cassava contain too much possible in the laboratory.
natural microflora to allow microbial
studies with fungi; they must first be Figures 1 and 2 show the effects
sterilized and (unfortunately) of various physical and thermic
gelatinized. Ramrez et al. (1994) treatments on the bacteria content of
developed raw cassava flour with a cassava flour. Cassava flour will be
very low content of bacteria and used as a solid substrate for
fungi, and little gelatinization. cultivating Rhizopus strains, and to
compare the capacity of selected
To measure gelatinization, the strains to grow on raw or gelatinized
simple method of Wotton et al. cassava starch.
189
Table 3. Effect of cooking and type of culture on the growth and amylases of various strains of Rhizopus oryzae cultivated on cassava granules.
190
Strain of Liquid-state culturea Solid-state culturea

Rhizopus
Raw cassava Cooked cassava Raw cassava Cooked cassava
Gluco- Protein Gluco- Protein Gluco- Protein Gluco- Protein
amylase amylase (g/100 g amylase amylase (g/100 g amylase amylase (g/100 g amylase amylase (g/100 g
(U/g DM) (U/g DM) DM) (U/g DM) (U/g DM) DM) (U/g DM) (U/g DM) DM) (U/g DM) (U/g DM) DM)
28168 42.20 9.60 3.90 157.20 3.10 10.00 39.30 55.30 10.60 178.40 46.22 12.30
34612 40.40 7.30 4.60 168.50 5.70 9.30 55.00 70.00 12.60 170.00 47.00 14.10
28627 76.00 7.80 4.00 145.40 3.30 9.60 98.00 108.00 11.40 167.00 37.00 13.80
a. DM = dry matter; U = enzyme units.
SOURCE: Soccol et al., 1994.

Table 4. Effect of temperature and microwaves on starch gelatinization of cassava flour.
Temperature Time Gelatinization rate (%)a

(min)
Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Exp. 3 Mean
Test 1 75.439 84.063 88.911 82.80

(80% gel.)
Test 2 25.411 26.184 29.702 27.10

(20% gel.)
80 C 60 3.529 3.444 2.714 3.23
85 C 30 3.529 3.357 3.487 3.46
85 C 3.444 3.486 3.444 3.46
90 C 30 3.572 3.444 3.572 3.53
90 C 60 9.454 9.064 9.107 9.21
95 C 30 6.961 5.546 5.803 6.10
100 C 30 4.965 4.602 4.001 4.52
105 C 30 6.961 5.503 5.301 5.92
120 C 30 4.816 4.730 4.473 4.67
140 C 30 4.773 3.100 3.100 3.66
160 C 30 3.529 3.487 4.301 3.77
Autoclaving 15 3.572 3.100 4.301 3.66

(121 C)
Microwaves 5 2.886 2.410 2.842 2.71

(Pot. 70)
Microwaves 5 2.971 2.242 2.242 2.49

(Pot. 100)
Microwaves 15 3.879 3.057 3.915 3.62

(Pot. 30)
a. Exp. = Experiment. Mean is across the experiments.
1010 123123
109
123123
123123
109
108 123
123123
123
Viable bacteria (n/g of flour)
Viable bacteria (n/g of flour)
8
123
123123
123
10 107
123
123123
123123
123
123123
7
10 106
123
123123
106 105 123123
123
123123
105 104 123
123123
123123
123
123
123123
123123
123123
104 103 123
123123 123123 123123
123123123
123 123123
123123
123123123
123123
123123
103 102 123
123123 123123 123123 123 123123
102 101
123123123123123123123123
123 123123 123123 123 123123
123123123
0 30 60 90 120 0 80 85 90 95 100 105120 140 160 180
Duration of treatment (minutes) Temperature (C)
Figure 1. Total microflora (plate count analysis) Figure 2. Effect of temperature on bacterial
in cassava flour, according to population in cassava flour.
treatment. ( = ultra-violet radiation;
= microwaves; = 80 C; = 85 C;
= 90 C.)
191
Lactic Acid Fermentation The first strain of Lactobacillus

of Cassava plantarum to be described as having
very high amylolytic capacity was
Lactic acid fermentation is important obtained from fermented cassava by
for many traditional fermented foods, A. Brauman in the Congo. Detailed
silage, and animal feed, and for physiological and biochemical
recycling agroindustrial byproducts. characterization of this new strain
Because of its acid, bacteriostatic, is expected to be published soon by
and bactericidal properties, E. Giraud.
fermentation prevents
microorganisms, whether parasitic, Mbugua and Njenga (1991) and
saprophytic, or pathogenic, from Svanberg (1991a; 1991b), working
breaking down vegetable material. in Tanzania and at the Uppsala
University, respectively, have
In tropical countries, lactic reported on the effect of lactic acid
fermentation not only plays an fermentation on the pathogen
important role in the traditional microflora content of traditional
transformation of starchy foods, African foods.
such as cassava, but also in the
transformation and conservation of Some of their results are
other foods, and fish and its reported in Table 5 and Figure 3,
byproducts. Two types of lactic which show how lactic acid
fermentation exist: bacteria reduce the number of
food-poisoning pathogens such as
(1) Homolactic, when more than species of Staphylococcus,
80% of total acidity and Salmonella, and Shigella, and
metabolites formed consists of Escherichia coli. High levels of such
lactic acid, and pathogens are sometimes found in
(2) Heterolactic, when the traditional foods after processing
percentage of acetic acid, under unhygienic conditions,
propionic acid, and ethanol is especially those for malting maize
more significant, and lactic acid during the rainy season in parts of
represents 50%-80% of total tropical Africa.
acidity.
Lactic fermentation of
Lactic bacteria produce two types traditional foods reduces pathogenic
of lactic acid: L(+) and D(-). Only the bacteria from 108 to 103. The same
L(+) form is assimilated by humans. authors also found a significant
correlation between the resistance
Previous studies, realized during of young children to diarrhoea and
the EU-STD2 Program in 1988-1991 eating acidified gruels.
(Raimbault, 1992), consisted of
improving traditional fermented food We are bioconverting, through
made from cassava in Africa and probiotics and bactericides, cassava
Latin America. Three kinds of flour and starch containing
traditional foods were considered: amylolytic lactic acid bacteria to
gari, chikwangue, and sour starch. isolate new strains from traditional
We demonstrated the essential role foods. At the same time, we are
of lactic acid bacteria in all broadening knowledge on the
traditional processes. cultivation of lactic acid bacteria in
starchy substrates. We hope such
Amylolytic lactic bacteria were information will help elaborate new
isolated from fermented cassava. food and feed products.
192
Table 5. Effect of lactic acid fermentation on the content of pathogenic bacteria in traditional fermented
foods in Africa.
Time (h) Log number of bacteria/g food
Control Nonfermented, Fermented food

acidified
food Flour Gruel
(nonviable) (viable)
Shigella flexneri
0 6.8 6.7 6.4 6.0
3 6.6 5.8 5.1 4.0
7 7.0 4.2 5.5 3.3
24 7.0 4.1 3.7 2.7
Salmonella typhimurium
0 8.5 8.1 8.3 7.7
3 8.0 6.7 6.0 7.1
7 7.9 5.3 4.4 6.3
24 8.9 4.0 2.0 2.0
SOURCE: Lorri and Svanberg, 1988.
10
production. This may be because,
first, cassava cultivation yields
9
Log viable bacteria (n/g gruel)
relatively few, commercially significant

8
byproducts, compared with, for
example, sugarcane which yields
7 enormous quantities of bagasse, a
valuable source of energy for
6 distillation. Second, cassava starch
needs to be hydrolyzed into sugar for
5 bioconversion into ethanol by the
common Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
4 This implies an additional, costly step.
3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
For cassava to be an economically
viable energy source, its processing
Time (h)
costs must be reduced. Solid-state
Figure 3. Evolution of pathogenic bacteria during fermentation is one, simple, and new
the lactic fermentation of uji, a method of reducing costs: the use of an
fermented cassava gruel (after Mbugua amylolytic yeast that eliminates
and Njenga, 1991). ( = Staphylococcus
aureus; = Salmonella typhimurium; hydrolysis.
= Escherichia coli; = Shigella
dysenteriae.) At the ORSTOM Laboratory,
Saucedo et al. (1992a; 1992c)
developed a new process for the solid
Alcoholic Fermentation of culture of an amylolytic yeast,
Cassava and Starch Products Schwanniomyces castelii (Figure 4).
The main advantage of this technique
Cassava is a potential producer of is its continuous recuperation of
ethanol, considering its potentially ethanol in a cold trap condenser. The
high yields and low costs. Yet few gas produced in the reactor is pumped
reports concern the industrial throughout the system, thus ensuring
application of cassava for ethanol its continual removal from the medium
193
and limiting its toxic effects on the potential of cassava as a substrate

yeasts metabolism. The results for ethanol production. The solid-
obtained by Saucedo et al. (1992a; state technique has to be carefully
1992b; 1992c) were promising, but considered. Results obtained with
the technology and feasibility of the the fungus Rhizopus koji are
process for commercial operation particularly significant. The
need further research. potential of Schwanniomyces is also
interesting because amylolytic yeast
Table 6 shows the results would be easier to control at the
obtained by various authors on the small-scale industrial level.
Pump
Continuous
extraction of
ethanol
Cold trap
condenser
Reactor
Ethanol
Column to
humidify gas
Figure 4. Producing ethanol through solid-substrate fermentation of cassava starch. The reactor contains
a solid support impregnated with a starchy suspension and inoculated with the fermentation
agent, an amylolytic yeast known as Schwanniomyces castelii. The resulting gas is pumped to a
condenser where ethanol is extracted. The residual gas is sent to a humidifier.
Table 6. Comparison of various processes for ethanol production from cassava in liquid or solid substrate.
Process Hydrolysis Sugar Ethanol Recovered Theoretical

(g/L) (g/L) (g/L) (%)
Liquid substrate,
using S. cerevisiae a, b + 145 72.50 72.50 83.2
Solid substrate,
using S. cerevisiae b, c + 165 41.73 41.73 65.0
Solid substrate,
using Rhizopus koji d - 200 110.00 110.00 83.0
Solid substrate,
using Schw. castelii e, f - 300 68.40 212.60 64.0
a. Saraswati, 1988.
b. S. = Saccharomyces.
c. Jaleel et al., 1988.
d. Jujio et al., 1984.
e. Schw. = Schwanniomyces.
f. Saucedo et al., 1992a.
194
Conclusions on __________; Gosselin, L.; and Raimbault, M.

Bioconverting Cassava and 1992. Degradation of cassava
linamarin by lactic acid bacteria.
Potential Products Biotechnol. Lett. 14(7):593-598.
To bioconvert cassava starch and __________; __________; Marn, B.; Parada,

flour to elaborate new products, J. L.; and Raimbault, M. 1993a.
ORSTOM, CIRAD, and collaborating Purification and characterization of
an extracellular amylase from
institutes are emphasizing two lactobacillus plantarum strain A6.
approaches: solid-state fermentation, J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75:276-282.
and lactic acid fermentation.
__________; __________; and Raimbault, M.
The first is of great interest 1993b. Production of a
Lactobacillus plantarum starter with
because of its potential to simplify linamarase and amylase activities for
processes and reduce costs, and its cassava fermentation. J. Sci. Food
large reactor volume. Both Rhizopus Agric. 62:77-82.
and Schwanniomyces (or other
amylolytic) yeasts can be used in a Jaleel, S. A.; Srikanta, S.; Ghildyal, N. P.;
and Lonsane, B. K. 1988.
solid-state cultivation process. This Simultaneous solid phase
implies a three-phase reactor with a fermentation and saccharification of
solid fiber support, a liquid phase cassava fibrous residue for
containing the substrate in production of ethanol. Starch/Strke
suspension and salts, and a gaseous 40(2):55-58.
phase for exchanging volatile Lorri, W. S. M. and Svanberg, U. 1988.
components, that is, oxygen, water, Improved protein digestibility in
and ethanol. cereal based weaning foods by lactic
acid fermentation. Harare, Zimbabwe.
In lactic acid fermentation, we
Mbugua, S. K. and Njenga, J. 1991.
are investigating the culture control Antimicrobial properties of fermented
of amylolytic lactic acid bacteria in UJI as a weaning food. In: Westby, A.
mixed and composite starters able to and Reilly, P. J. A. (eds.). Traditional
remain competitive in a natural, African foods: quality and nutrition.
nonaxenic environment. The International Foundation of Science
(IFS), Sweden. p. 63-67.
prophylactic role of lactic acid
bacteria is also of great interest.
Oriol, E.; Raimbault, M.; Roussos, S.; and
Viniegra-Gonzlez, G. 1988a. Water
Finally, we are studying and water activity in the solid state
microorganisms able to degrade fermentation of cassava starch by
native cassava starches without Aspergillus niger. Appl. Microbiol.
need of gelatinization, as in in Biotech. 27:498-450.
natural biotransformation and
__________; Schetino, B.; Viniegra-Gonzlez,
biodegradation. We will also
G.; and Raimbault, M. 1988b. Solid
study the amylolytic capacity of state culture of Aspergillus niger on
Rhizopus spp., yeasts, and lactic acid support. J. Ferment. Technol.
bacteria. 66:1-6.
Raimbault, M. 1992. Etudes physiologiques

et gntiques des bactries
References lactiques dans les fermentations
traditionnelles du manioc. Final
Giraud, E.; Brauman, A.; Klke, S.; Lelong, report CEE/STD2, no. TS2A-00226.
B.; and Raimbault, M. 1991. Institut franais de recherche
Isolation and physiological study of scientifique pour le dveloppement en
an amylolytic strain of Lactobacillus coopration (ORSTOM), Montpellier,
plantarum. Appl. Microbiol. France. p. 1-53. (Internal
Biotechnol. 36:379-383. document.)
195
__________ and Alazard, D. 1980. Culture __________; __________; and Raimbault, M.

method to study fungal growth in 1992c. Maintenance of heat and
solid fermentation. Eur. J. Appl. water balance as scale-up criterion
Microbiol. Biotechnol. 9:199-209. for production of ethanol by
Schwanniomyces castelii in solid
__________ and Viniegra, G. 1991. In: state fermentation system. Process
Chahal, D. S. (ed.). Modern and Biochem. 27:97-107.
traditional aspects of solid state
fermentation in food, feed and fuel Soccol, C.; Iloki, I.; Marn, B.; and
from biomass. p. 153-163. Raimbault, M. 1994. Comparative
production of alpha-amylase,
__________; Revah, S.; Pina, F.; and Villalobos, glucoamylase and protein
P. 1985. Protein enrichment of cassava enrichment of raw and cooked
by solid substrate fermentation using cassava by Rhizopus strains in
molds isolated from traditional foods. submerged and solid state
J. Ferment. Technol. 63(4):395-399. fermentations. J. Food Sci. Technol.
31:320-332.
Ramrez, C.; de Stouvenel, A.; and Raimbault,
M. 1994. Effect of physical treatments __________; Marn, B.; Roussos, S.; and
on microflora content in cassava flour. Raimbault, M. 1993a. Scanning
Poster presented at the International electron microscopy of the
Meeting on Cassava Flour and Starch, development of Rhizopus arrhizus
held in January 1994 at Cali, on raw cassava by solid state
Colombia. fermentation. Micol. Neotrop. Apl.
6:27-39.
Saraswati. 1988. The experience of pilot plant
of ethanol from cassava in Indonesia. __________; Rodrguez, J.; Marn, B.;
Regional Workshop on Upgrading of Roussos, S.; and Raimbault, M.
Cassava/Cassava Wastes by 1993b. Growth kinetics of Rhizopus
Appropriate Biotechnologies, Bangkok, arrhizus in solid state fermentation
Thailand, 1987. Thailand Institute of of treated cassava. Biotechnol.
Scientific and Technological Research, Tech. 7(8):563-568.
Bangkok, Thailand. p. 41-49.
Svanberg, U. 1991a. Lactic fermentation of
Saucedo, G.; Gonzlez, P.; Revah, S.; Viniegra, cereal-based weaning gruels and
G.; and Raimbault, M. 1990. Effect of improved nutritional quality. In:
Lactobacilli inoculation on cassava Westby, A. and Reilly, P. J. A. (eds.).
(Manihot esculenta) silage: Traditional African foods: quality
fermentation pattern and kinetic and nutrition. International
analysis. J. Sci. Food Agric. Foundation of Science (IFS),
50:467-477. Sweden. p. 53-60.
__________; Lonsane, B. K.; Navarro, J. M.; __________. 1991b. The potential role of
Roussos, S.; and Raimbault, M. fermented cereal gruels in
1992a. Potential of using a single reduction of diarrhoea among
fermenter for biomass build-up, starch young children. In: Westby, A. and
hydrolysis and ethanol production: Reilly, P. J. A. (eds.). Traditional
solid state fermentation system African foods: quality and nutrition.
involving Schwanniomyces castelii. International Foundation of Science
Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 36:47-61. (IFS), Sweden. p. 33-38.
__________; __________; __________; __________; Wotton, M.; Weedon, D.; and Munck, N.
and __________. 1992b. Importance of 1971. A rapid method for estimation
medium pH in solid state fermentation of starch gelatinization in processed
system for growth of Schwanniomyces foods. Food Technol. Aust.
castelii. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 23:612-614.
15:164-167.
196
Cassava Lactic Fermentation in Central Africa:...
CHAPTER 23
CASSAVA LACTIC FERMENTATION IN

CENTRAL AFRICA:
MICROBIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL
ASPECTS
A. Brauman*, S. Klke**, M. Malonga***,
O. Mavoungou***, F. Ampe, and E. Miambi***
Summary cyanogenic compounds (e.g.,

concentration decreased from
Retting is a lactic fermentation during 400 ppm in fresh cassava to 20 ppm
which cassava roots are soaked for in fermented mash); (2) a significant
long periods in water. Despite the lysis of cassava cell walls due to the
importance of this fermentation, no simultaneous action of endogenous
kinetic study of it has been pectin methylesterase and bacterial
undertaken. Our study therefore pectin lyase; and (3) the production of
examined the biological and physical organic acids (C2 to C4), mainly lactate
changes of cassava roots during and butyrate, that contribute to the
retting to provide a basis for its typical flavors of chikwangue and
possible mechanization. fufu.
The study was carried out to In the study, most microflora

(1) enumerate and characterize the involved in retting were facultative,
main microorganisms of the process; anaerobic, fermentative bacteria,
(2) determine the evolution of among which lactic bacteria were
physicochemical parameters during predominant. From the second day of
retting; and (3) measure the fermentation, endogenous
production of organic products and Lactobacillus species were totally
some principal enzyme activities. supplanted by Leuconostoc
mesenteroides and Lactococcus lactis.
Retting can be characterized by Anaerobic bacteria such as
three essential transformations of the Clostridium butyricum were also found
roots: (1) a degradation of endogenous and seemed responsible for initiating
butyrate production. Yeasts played
no significant role, but their
increasing number at the end of the
* Institut franais de recherche scientifique process (Candida species) probably
pour le dveloppement en coopration influenced the conservation of end
(ORSTOM), Paris, France.
** Laboratoire de microbiologie, Direction products.
gnrale de la recherche scientifique et
technique (DGRST), Brazzaville, Congo. Despite the significant number of
*** Laboratoire de biologie cellulaire, Facult des amylolytic bacteria (105-106 b/ml), the
sciences, Universit Marien-NGouabi,
Brazzaville, Congo.
amylase activity found in the retting
Laboratoire de microbiologie et de juice came from the roots and
biotechnologie, ORSTOM, stationed in disappeared after 48 h of
Brazzaville, Congo. fermentation. The main enzymes of
197
this process were cassava pectin Significant differences exist in

methylesterase, bacterial pectinase, retting processes throughout Central
and endogenous linamarase. Africa and even in the Congo. Peeled
or unpeeled roots are retted in rivers,
The pH became stable at about standing water, large barrels of water,
4.5 after 48 h and the partial oxygen or even buried in soil. The
pressure dropped to 0.2 mg/L after fermentation temperature varies with
10 h. season and location. Such
differences, combined with the low
These results suggested that reproducibility of the local processors,
retting is a typical heterolactic lead to a variability in quality and
fermentation with a significant taste of cassava foods (Trche and
production of butyrate. Massamba, n.d.a).
To increase the quality of these

Introduction traditional products and provide a
basis for the possible mechanization
Processed cassava (Manihot of the process, the European Union
esculenta Crantz) is eaten in West (EU) Program-STD2, known as
and Central Africa in such forms as Improving the Quality of Traditional
gari, lafun, fufu, chikwangue, and Foods Processed from Fermented
tapioca. In the Congo, the worlds Cassava was set up in 1990 in
second largest cassava consumer Central Africa and South America.
after Zare (Trche, n.d.), cassava Our laboratory was to describe the
roots account for 47% of the calorie mechanisms of root transformation
intake (Trche and Massamba, during retting with a view to
n.d.b). optimizing product quality and
fermentation speed.
The two main products associated
with fermented cassava are fufu and In this paper, we present the main
chikwangue. The former is a flour results obtained during this EU
obtained from sun-dried cassava program, describe the microbiological
mash that is pulverized. This flour and biochemical evolution throughout
may be mixed with boiling water and the process, and define the origin
served in bowls with sauce and fish or (vegetal or microbial) of the main
meat. Chikwangue, a cassava bread, enzymes.
is obtained after multiple
postfermentation steps, including
defibering and pugging (Trche and Material and Methods
Massamba, n.d.a).
Origin of plant material
Both products require a
fermentation in which the roots soak Cassava roots (Manihot esculenta var.
for 3 to 6 days in tap water. During MM 86, or Ngansa) were harvested
this process, cyanogenic compounds near Brazzaville, Congo, 18 months
are eliminated, flavor compounds after planting.
are elaborated, and the roots soften
(Okafor et al., 1984; Oladele Retting procedures
Ogunsa, 1980). Softening is
indispensable for further root About 100 kg of washed and peeled
processing but the mechanisms roots were placed in a barrel and the
involved are not yet fully volume made up to 50 L with rain
understood. water. A second barrel, filled only
198
with rain water, was used as control Bacterial enumeration

for physicochemical measurements
(T C, pH, pO2). Samples were taken Lactic acid bacteria (l.a.b.).
every 12 h for the first 2 days and The l.a.b. were enumerated on MRS
then every 24 h until retting was agar medium (de Man et al., 1960),
completed. supplemented with 0.1% of aniline
blue. In each petri dish, 0.1 ml of
Sample preparation for bacterial appropriate root sample dilution was
enumeration covered with medium and kept at
45 C. Enumeration was carried out
Sampling was carried out by after a 48-h incubation at 30 C.
randomly selecting six root sections, Subcultures were further purified by
which were then cut into 0.5-cm repeated plating.
cubes and mixed under sterile
conditions. Of this mixture, 60 g Strains were differentiated into
were extracted and diluted in 540 ml various bacterial groups by the
of sterile, peptonized water (dilution following tests: microscopy
10-1). The solution was then mixed in examination, gram reaction, catalase
a Blendor (Turnmix ME 88, test, and oxygen metabolism
SOFRACA, France) and serially (fermentative or oxidative) test in soft
diluted in sterile, peptonized water for MRS agar. Strains which were gram
aerobic counts and in anaerobic positive, catalase and oxidase
Hungate tubes containing sterile, negative, nonmotile rods or cocci, and
reduced water, flushed with 20% CO2 colored by aniline blue were
and 80% N2 for anaerobic counts. considered as lactic bacteria.
Methods of bacterial quantification Glucose- and lactate-fermenting

bacteria. These bacteria (g.f.b. and
Two types of enumeration were l.f.b., respectively) were enumerated
performed: most probable number on a basal medium that contained the
(MPN) enumeration and plate counts equivalent of 2 g/L glucose or 5 g/L
on solid medium. The MPN method of lactate (used as a carbohydrate
was used to either ascertain the source); 0.5 g/L of trypticase and
growth of fermentative and yeast extract; 0.5 g/L of cysteine HCl
pectinolytic bacteria or count the (used as a reductive agent); 0.1 g/L
metabolites produced during growth of sodium acetate; 0.005 g/L of
on appropriate media for anaerobic, resazurine; 20 ml of Widdel mineral
lactate-using bacteria. For each MPN solution (Widdel and Pfennig, 1984);
determination, four successive and 1 ml of Widdel trace element
dilutions of root samples were solution (Widdel and Pfennig, 1984).
inoculated in three or four tubes per
dilution. Results were calculated The Hungate technique (Hungate,
according to the McCready tables 1969), modified for using syringes
(McCready, 1918). (Macy et al., 1972), was used
throughout the study. After boiling,
For plate counts, 0.1 ml samples the medium was cooled under a
of appropriate dilutions were continuous flow of oxygen-free N2,
inoculated in triplicate on agar adjusted to a pH of 7.2 with NaOH
medium in plates. All the plates solution, and distributed
were incubated at 30 C and the anaerobically into Hungate tubes.
number of colony-forming units The medium was sterilized for 35 min
determined after 48 or 72 h of at 110 C. Before inoculation, 1% of
incubation. Na2S-9H2O (5%) was added as a
199
reductive agent to each tube. sample was added to a Waring

Inoculations were performed with blender and mixed with 120 ml
syringes filled with oxygen-free N2, distilled water at low speed for 15 s
using a gas manifold. and at high speed for 1 min. The
mixture was then filtered through a
Yeast. A potato-dextrose agar GF/A filter and the volume made up
medium (PDA, DIFCO Laboratory) was to 200 ml with distilled water.
prepared, containing 0.05 g/L of Extracts were taken in duplicate at
chloramphenicol and with a final pH 0 h, 48 h, and at the end of retting.
of 3.5, adjusted with tartaric acid Acidity was titrated with 0.01 M
(10%). The agars surface was then NaOH.
dried. From an appropriate microbial
dilution, 0.1 ml was spread, in Biochemical analysis
triplicate, on plates containing the
medium. The plates were then Enzyme assays. A sample of
incubated for 72 h at 30 C. 40 g of cassava mash was added to a
Subcultures were further purified by Waring blender, together with 80 ml
repeated plating on PDA. Isolates of 0.1 M citrate buffer (pH = 6.5) and
were characterized to the genus level, the mixture homogenized. The
and Api tests (API 5030 strips mixture was held overnight at 4 C
Biomerieux, France) were used to and centrifuged at 12,000 g for
determine fermentation carbohydrate 30 min. The supernatant was
sources. lyophilized and resuspended in 1/10
volume of citrate buffer.
Physicochemical parameters
-glucosidase activity. This
Penetrometry index. was measured with a chromogen,
Penetrometry was used to indicate p-nitrophenol--d-glucopyranoside,
root softening during retting. A at 20 mM in 0.1 M of Na-phosphate
previous study showed that a buffer (pH = 6.8) for 1 h at 25 C.
penetrometry index of 15 mm/5 s The reaction was stopped by adding
corresponded to the end of retting as an equal volume of 0.2 M sodium
it is traditionally evaluated (Brauman borate (pH = 9.8), and p-nitrophenol
et al., n.d.). A penetrometer (PNR was determined with a
10-SUR, Berlin) was used to measure spectrophotometer at 400 nm (Hosel
the consistency of the roots. Every and Bartz, 1975).
10 h, and for each experiment, six
root sections were randomly chosen. Linamarase. This was assayed
Penetrometry depth was estimated with linamarin as substrate and by
with six repetitions for each root measuring the appearance of CN-
section. (Giraud et al., 1992). To 400 l of
extract, 100 l of 50 mM linamarin
The pH and partial oxygen in 0.1 M citrate buffer (pH = 6.0)
pressure of the retting juice. Every were added. At regular intervals,
10 h, 50 ml of retting juice was 50 l aliquots were added to 50 l of
extracted to test the pH (measured 0.1 M NaOH to stop the reaction,
with CG 838 pH-meter from SCHOTT and stored at 4 C. Cyanide was
Gerte, Germany) and estimate liberated by adding 50 l of 0.1 M
partial oxygen pressure (measured H2SO4 and 850 l distilled water to
with OXI 91 from WTW, Germany). each aliquot, and was measured
with a spectroquant kit (Merck,
The pH and partial oxygen Darmstadt, Germany). One unit of
pressure of the roots. A 20-g linamarase was defined as the
200
amount of enzyme that released buffer (pH = 5.0). Penetrometer

1 mol of CN- per minute. readings were estimated after 24 h
and 48 h at 30 C.
Activity of pectinesterase (PE;
pectin pectylhydrolase, Cellulase, amylase, and
EC 3.1.1.11). This was assayed by xylanase activities. These activities
titrating 1 ml of extract in 1% pectin were also assayed at 37 C and pH of
at 30 C (Grindsted RS400-DM 74%), 5.8, using the Somogyi procedure
and in 0.1 M NaCl and 1 mM NaN3. (Somogyi, 1945). The substrates were
pH was increased to 7.0 with 0.01 M microcrystalline cellulose (100 mg)
NaOH. One unit corresponds to the and xylan (18 mg/ml).
neutralization of 1 mol of COO-/min.
Other analytical methods
Polygalacturonate lyase (PGL)
activity. PGL activity was assayed Total and free cyanides were assayed
by the Starr et al. (1977) procedure. by the Cooke et al. method (1978).
This assay does not differentiate Protein was determined with a
between endo-PGL (poly (1,4--d- modified Lowry procedure (Bensadoun
galacturonide) lyase, EC 4.2.2.2) and and Weinstein, 1976).
exo-PGL (poly (1,4--d-galacturonide)
exolyase, EC 4.2.2.9). One unit of Organic compounds
PGL corresponds to the formation of
1 mol of one unsaturated bond in Sugars, volatile fatty acids (VFA), and
galacturonide between C4 and C5. lactate and ethanol concentrations in
the roots were determined by
Polygalacturonase (PG; poly high-performance liquid
-d-galacturonide)
(1,4- chromatography (HPLC) of the
glycanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.15). supernatant, as described by Giraud
This was assayed by viscometry. To et al. (1991). The resulting columns
40 ml of 1% pectin in 100 mM of (BioRad Laboratories, Richmond,
acetate buffer (pH = 4.7), 0.5 ml of California) were:
extract was added. The rate of
reduction in viscosity was measured (1) Fast carbohydrate column for
at 25 C in a viscometer (Haake monosugars analysis (100 x 7,
model; VT 500, rotation: 150.93 s-1 8 min) with 0.6 ml flow of milliQ
and system MV-MV1). One unit water (pH = 6.0) at 70 C;
corresponds to the release of 1 mol (2) Aminex HP 42 A (300 x 7.8 min
of hexose/min. Total activities are Biorad) for polyosides analysis
expressed as units per 100 g of with 0.3 ml flow of milliQ water
cassava. (pH = 6.0) at 70 C;
(3) Aminex HP x 87H column with
Action of pectic enzymes in 0.8 ml/min flow of H2SO4 6 mM at
vivo. Sterilized slices of cassava were 60 C.
inoculated with 50 l of enzyme
extract or 5 l of purified pectolytic Results and Discussion
enzymes (endopolygalacturonase
P-5146 from Aspergillus niger; Kinetic studies of retting
pectolyase P-3026 from A. japonicum;
and pectinesterase P-0764 from We now present the results of our
orange peel) (Sigma, Saint-Quentin global study of lactic fermentation.
Fallavier, France). The inoculated Kinetic parameters such as total and
slices were placed in sterile beakers fermentative microflora,
containing 10 ml of 0.01 M of citrate physicochemical parameters, and
201
12 7 5
10 4
Penetrometry index 8 6
pO2 (mg/L)
3
pH
6
2
4 5
1
2
0 4 0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (days)
Figure 1. The evolution of physicochemical parameters during retting. ( = pH; = pO2;

= penetrometry index.)
substrates and metabolites produced 300

have been measured throughout the
process. These results are the mean
of seven rettings performed in barrels
200
under the same conditions.
ppm
Evolution of physicochemical
parameters 100
The main physicochemical

parameters were assayed throughout
the process (Figure 1). The partial 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
oxygen pressure dropped to well
Time (days)
below 1 mg/L after 10 h and the pH
became stable (at 4.5) within 48 h.
Conversely, root softening, indicated Figure 2. Total cyanide evolution.
by the penetrometry index, appeared ( = linamarin; = cyanhydrines +
free cyanides; = free cyanides.)
after 2 days of fermentation and
evolved exponentially. This process
seems to require anaerobic and acidic
conditions to proceed. Microscopic basis) in fresh cassava to 20 in the
examination shows that the cassava fermented mash (Figure 2). In all
cell walls were extensively disrupted assays, total cyanogens were
at the end of the process, almost eliminated (90%). These
demonstrating the attack of results demonstrated that, under
depolymerizing enzymes. the standard conditions of local
transformations in Central Africa,
The concentration of endogenous detoxification occurred normally
cyanogenic compounds decreased without need of an additional
from 300 mg/kg as HCN (dry matter process.
202
Evolution of substrates and The main organic acid produced

metabolites was lactate. However, significant
levels of ethanol, acetate, and
The main substrates degraded butyrate were also found (Figure 4).
(Figure 3) were oligosaccharides They seem to be generated mostly by
(fructose, glucose, and saccharose). the heterolactic fermentation of the
The low level of polyosides generated oligosaccharides present in the
by starch degradation (e.g., cassava roots, except for butyrate,
maltotriose and maltose) underline which could have come from an
the weak degradation of the starchy anaerobic fermentation mediated by
mass during retting. Saccharose Clostridium species. Butyrate
seems to be the main substrate concentration could vary from 0.4 to
degraded by the fermentative 2.5 g/100 of dry matter in different
microflora. fermentations carried out under the
4.5 123
Conc. g per 100 g of dry matter
123
123
4.0 123
123
123 123
3.5 123
123 123 123
123
123
123 123
123 123
123
3.0 123
123 123
123 123
123
123 123 123
123
123 123
123 123
123
2.5 123 123 123
123 123 123
2.0 123
123 123
123 123
123
123 123 123
123
123 123 123
123 12
1.5 123
123123 123
123
123 123
123
123 123 12 123
123
123
123
123
12 123
123
123
123 123 123
123
123
123
123
123
12
12123 123
123
1.0 123123
12 123
123
123 123
123123 12123 123 12
123 12
123
123123 123
123
123 123 123
123
123 123 12123 123123 12
123 12 123
123 123 123
123 123 12
123 123 123123 12123
0.5 12
123123
12
123 123
123 123
123
123 123
123123
123 123
12
123
12123 123
123123
123 12
123 123
123 12
123123
123
123
123 123 123
123123
123 12123
123
123 123 123 123
123123
123
12
12123
123
123 123
0
0 12 24 36 48 62
Time (hours)
Figure 3. Oligo- and monosaccharide

12 evolution
12 during retting. ( = maltotriose; = maltose;
123
123 = saccharose; 12 = glucose; 12 = fructose.)
Conc. g per 100 g of dry matter
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1234
123123 1234
123 123
0.5 123
123 123
1234
1231234 123
1234 123 1234
123 123
1231234
123
123123
1234
123
1234 123 123
1234 1234 123
1234 123 1234
1234 1234 1234
1234 123 1234123
123
123 123
0
0 12 24 36 48 62
Time (hours)
123
123 123
Organic acids and alcohol evolution during retting. ( 123 = butyrate; 123= ethanol;
Figure 4. 123
123
123= acetate; = lactate.)
203
same conditions. Because of their anaerobic spore formers (Clostridium

organoleptic qualities, butyrate and species). To evaluate this population,
lactate seem to be the most typical enumeration was done anaerobically
products of this process. on lactate because (1) lactate is the
major substrate found in retting; and
Microflora evolution (2) it is not used as a substrate by the
l.a.b. Surprisingly, the results of this
Fermentative and lactic enumeration showed that the
microflora. In the enumerations, population of lactate-fermenting
only fermentative bacteria were bacteria remained constant and at
counted because retting was seen as low levels (103 b/g of DM) throughout
largely anaerobic (Figure 1). The the retting (Figure 5). The presence of
fermentative microflora evolved butyrate and acetate in the positive
during the first 2 days of fermentation tubes, and the isolation of strictly
and remained stable to the end. The anaerobic, sporulating, gram-positive
total fermentative microflora rods with the same fermentation
represented by the glucose-fermenting pattern as Clostridium butyricum,
bacteria was dense, reaching 1012 b/g confirmed that Clostridium species are
after 48 h of fermentation. The next present in retting. However, their role
most predominant flora were the in the process remains to be studied
l.a.b. (Figure 5), reaching 104 to because of their reduced numbers in
108 b/g of DM on fresh roots. The the enumeration and lactate does not
variation of endogenous l.a.b., seem to be their natural substrate in
composed mainly of Lactococcus and retting.
heterolactic Lactobacillus species, did
not influence the evolution of l.a.b. Yeasts. The only flora that
during fermentation. appeared after 48 h of fermentation
and still developed until the end of
Lactate-fermenting bacteria. retting were yeasts. Their
One metabolite formed during metabolisms allow them to grow at
fermentation is butyrate (Figure 4). the low pH imposed by the l.a.b.
This compound is a typical product of Their numbers remained low during
carbohydrate fermentation by the fermentation (about 103 b/g of
14
1234
1234
123 1234 1234
12 123 1234 1234
123
123 1234
1234 1234
1234
Log. b/g of dry matter
123 1234 1234

123 1234 1234
10 123 1234 1234
123 1234123 1234
1234 123 1234 1234
1234
1234
123
123123 1234
1234
123
123 1234
1234
1234
1234
8 1234 123123 1234123 1234
1234
1234
1234 123
123123 1234
1234123 1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234 123123
123 1234123
123 1234
1234
1234
1234
1234 123123 1234123 1234
1234
1234 123 1234 1234
6 1234
1234
1234
1234
123
123
123
123 1234
1234
123
123 1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234123 1234
1234
1234 123
123123 1234
1234123 1234
1234
1234
1234123
1234 1234
1234 123123 1234123 1234
1234 123
4 1234
123
1234 1234 123
1234
1234
123 123 1234
123
123
1234 1234123
123 1234
1234
1234123
123
1234123
1234 1234
1234
123 123123
1234 1234123
1234 1234
1234123
1234 1234 123 1234 1234
1234123
1234 1234
1234 123 123123
1234 1234123
1234 1234
1234 123
2 1234123
1234
1234123
1234 1234
1234
1234 123
1234
123
123
123123
1234
123
1234
1234
1234123
1234
123
1234 1234
1234
1234
1234123
123
1234
1234123
1234 1234
1234
1234 123 123
123123
1234 1234
1234123
1234 1234
1234
1234 123
1234123
1234
123
1234 1234
1234 123
1234
123 123123
1234 1234123
1234 1234
1234123
1234
0 1234 1234 123123
1234 1234123
1234 1234 123
0 24 48 60 72
Time (hours)
123
Figure 5. Evolution
12 microflora during retting. (123
of fermentative123 123 = glucose-fermenting bacteria;
12 123
12 = lactic acid bacteria;123 = lactate-fermenting bacteria; = yeast.)
204
DM), suggesting that they do not Origin of softening. No

play a significant role in retting. softening was obtained in sterile
When the retting finished, the yeasts fermentation (Figure 6). High
covered the entire water surface and endogenous pectin methyl esterase
became the main flora of the activities were found in cassava
postretting stage. Their increasing extracts from both fermentations
numbers at the end of the process (Figure 7). Depolymerizing enzymes,
(mostly Candida species) may endopolygalacturonase (active at
therefore influence the conservation low pH), and pectate lyase were
of end products. found only in the natural
fermentation (Figures 8 and 9). No
Origin of enzymes involved in other depolymerizing enzymes, such
retting. The main enzymes found as cellulase or xylanase, nor other
in this process were pectinase and hydrolases were found. Moreover,
linamarase, and to a lesser extent, softening could be performed by
amylase (data not shown). No inoculating commercial
cellulase or xylanase activities were pectinesterase and depolymerizing
found in retting. To elucidate the pectolytic enzymes on fresh and
origin of cyanogen elimination and sterile cassava roots.
the mechanism of root softening,
two fermentations were carried out We suggest, therefore, that root
simultaneously: one natural, used softening is a result of the combined
as a control (CF), and one sterile action of both endogenous pectin
(SF). pH and oxygen pressure of SF methyl esterase and exogenous
were set on those of CF. Pectinase bacterial depolymerizing enzymes.
and linamarase activities were But further studies are needed to
assayed throughout the experiment. show the precise contribution of
For SF, cassava roots were sterilized each pectic enzyme to root
with HgCl2 and soaked in sterile softening.
water.
mol of COO- per min/mg of proteins
123
1.0 123
123
15
123 123
123
Penetrometry index (mm/s)
123 123
0.8
123
123 123
123
123
1234
123
1234
123
123
1234 123 123
1234
1231234
123
10
0.6 123 1234
123 1234
123
1234 1234
1231234
123
123
123 123
1234
123
1234 123
1234
123
1234 123123
123 123
1234
123
1234
123 1234
123 1234
123 123 1231234
1234
1234
1234
1234
123 1234
123
1234
1234
123
1234
1234
123
123
123 1231234123
1234
123
1234
0.4
123
1234
123 123
1234
123 123
1234
123 123 123
123 123
1234
1231234123
5 1234 1234 1234 123 1234
123 1234
1234
1234 123
1234 123
1234
1234
123
123 123
1234
0.2
123
1234
123
1234
123
1234
123
1234
123
1234
123
1234
123
123
123
123 123
1234
123
1234
123
1234
1234
123
1234
123
1234
1234
123
1234
123
1234
1234
123
1234
123
123
123
123
123 123
1234
1234
123
1234
0 123 1234
1234
1234 123 123
1234
123123
123 123
1234
0 20 40 60 80 0 123 1234
123 1234
123 1231234123
0 9.5 20 27 44
Time (hours)
Time (hours)
Figure 6. Comparative evolution of softening 12 retting.

Figure 7. Pectinesterase activity during
123
between a sterile ( ) and a natural ( 123= sterile fermentation;12 = control
retting ( ). fermentation.)
205
mol of COO- per min/mg of proteins 50 Origin of cyanogen elimination.

Of total cyanogenic compounds, 50%
1234567 were eliminated in SF and 97% in
1234567
40 1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567 CF (Figure 10). Enzyme assays
1234567
1234567 further confirmed endogenous
1234567
1234567
12345678
12345678
30 1234567 12345678
1234567 12345678 linamarase activity (Table 1).
1234567 12345678 1234567
1234567 12345678 1234567 Linamarase activity (measured as
1234567 12345678 1234567
1234567
1234567 12345678
12345678 1234567
1234567
20 1234567
1234567
12345678
12345678
1234567
1234567 -glucosidase activity) in CF was
1234567 12345678 1234567
1234567 12345678 1234567 significant in fresh roots (specific
1234567 12345678 1234567
1234567 12345678 1234567
1234567 12345678 1234567 activity 9.4 units/mg protein). This
1234567 12345678 1234567
10 1234567
1234567 12345678
12345678 1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567 12345678
12345678 1234567
1234567
total activity then decreased after a
1234567
1234567 12345678
12345678 1234567
1234567 few hours. In SF, total activity
1234567 12345678 1234567
1234567 12345678 1234567
0 remained constant, but at a low level.
0 9.5 20 27 44
The difference in -glucosidase
Time (hours) activity in the fresh roots between SF
and CF may be attributed to the
Figure 8. Pectate lyase activity during natural inhibitory effect of the HgCl2 used to
fermentation.
sterilize the roots. However, as nearly
25% (Table 1) of the total
-glucosidase activity present in the
sterile roots can degrade more than
mol of galacturonic acid per
0.3 50% of the total cyanide content of

the fresh roots, we can assume that
min/mg of proteins
the level of linamarase activity

1234567 present in the intact roots was
1234567
1234567
0.2 1234567 sufficient to detoxify the roots.
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567 1234567 Origin of the amylolytic activity.
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567
0.1 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 The amylase activity remained
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
1234567
constant in SF, but disappeared after
1234567 1234567 1234567 1234567 36 h of fermentation in CF (Figure 11).
1234567 1234567 1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567 1234567 1234567
1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 1234567
1234567 Our data suggest that the amylase
0
0 9.5 20 27 44 activity detected in retting does not
have a bacterial origin as suggested
Time (hours)
by different authors (Collard and Levi,
Figure 9. Endopolygalacturonase activity during 1959; Oyewole and Odunfa, 1992;
natural fermentation. Regez et al., 1987).
120
Percentage of total cyanide
1234512345
12345
100 12345
1234512345
1234512345
1234512345
12345
80 12345
1234512345
12345
1234512345
12345 12345
1234512345 12345
1234512345
60 1234512345 12345
12345 12345
12345
1234512345 12345 12345
12345 12345 12345
1234512345 1234512345 123456 12345
40 1234512345
12345 1234512345
12345
12345
12345
123456
123456
12345
12345
1234512345 1234512345 12345 123456 12345
12345 12345
1234512345
12345 1234512345
12345 1234512345
12345
123456
123456
12345
12345
20 12345
1234512345
12345
12345
1234512345
12345
12345
1234512345
12345
12345
123456
12345
123456
12345
12345
1234512345 1234512345 1234512345 12345
123456 12345
1234512345 1234512345 1234512345 12345
123456 1234512345
0 1234512345 1234512345 1234512345 123456
12345 1234512345
0 9.5 20 27 44
Time (hours)
12 123
Figure 10. Total cyanide evolution in control ( 12
12 ) and sterile ( 123
123 ) fermentations.
206
Table 1. -glucosidase activities in control and communication) suggest that

sterile fermentations. (Activities are
expressed in mmol per min/100 g of
Clostridium species (such as
dry matter). Clostridium butyricum) could be
involved with Bacillus species (such
Time (h) Fermentation as Bacillus polymyxa) in root
Control Sterile softening as pectinase producers. We
did not see any involvement of
0 9.12 2.15 Geotrichum spp. or Corynebacterium
9.5 5.58 2.55
spp., as have other authors (Collard
20.0 6.10 1.75
and Levi, 1959; Okafor et al., 1984;
27.0 7.68 2.30
44.0 7.24 1.38
Regez et al.,1987). Yeasts (mostly
Candida species) were more involved
in postretting.
Our biochemical analyses showed

that retting is a fermentation in which
20,000
both endogenous and microbial
enzymes coact to soften the roots and
Total activity (U/L)
degrade cyanogenic, endogenous

compounds. Our results suggested
10,000 that cell-wall degradation is initiated
by endogenous pectinesterase, located
in intercellular spaces and released
by pH decrease. This is followed by
microbial polygalacturonase and lyase
0
0 20 40 60 80
depolymerizing pectic chains. The
presence of pectic enzymes in cassava
Time (hours)
retting has previously been reported
(Okafor et al., 1984; Oyewole and
Figure 11. Amylase activity in control ( ) and
sterile ( ) fermentations.
Odunfa, 1992). But this work gives
the first evidence of the vegetal origin
of pectinesterase and of the in vivo
activity of depolymerizing enzymes.
Conclusions
The amylase activity measured in
These results suggest that retting is a retting seems to be of vegetal origin.
complex heterolactic fermentation, But its low level of activity and
with an interaction between lactic disappearance within the first 30 h of
bacteria, Clostridium species, and retting suggest that it is not
possibly Bacillus species. Heterolactic important to the retting process.
bacteria (such as Leuconostoc
mesenteroides) are the most Results of cyanide measurements
important and numerous microflora indicate that endogenous linamarase
in the process; they are responsible (measured as -glucosidase activity) is
for the physicochemical properties of the main enzyme responsible for
retting (e.g., pO2 and pH) and the detoxification. We can assume, as
production of the main organic acids Maduagwu (1983) suggested, that the
(acetate and lactate). Clostridium level of linamarase activity present in
species seem to be involved in intact roots is sufficient to detoxify
butyrate formation, which is essential them of their cyanogen content
for the organoleptic properties of the without help from any microbial
final products. Moreover, recent linamarase. Nevertheless, if bacteria
results (S. Klke, 1994, personal do not directly detoxify cassava roots,
207
they could help degrade linamarin by Giraud, E.; Brauman, A.; Klke, S.; Lelong,
destroying cell walls. B.; and Raimbault, M. 1991. Isolation
and physiological study of an
amylolitic strain of Lactobacillus
Findings from our study have plantarum. Appl. Microbiol.
helped other researchers: Biotechnol. 36:379-383.
(1) Isolate and characterize the first __________; Gosselin, L.; and Raimbault, M.
1992. Degradation of the cassava
amylolitic Lactobacillus plantarum linamarin by lactic acid bacteria.
(strain A6) (Giraud et al., 1991); Biotech. Lett. 14(7):593-598.
(2) Improve fufu processing by
significantly reducing retting time, Hosel, W. and Bartz, W. 1975. DF
and increase the organoleptic glucosidases from Cicer arientum L.
Eur. J. Biochem. 57:607-616.
qualities of the final product
(Ampe et al., 1994); Hungate, R. E. 1969. A roll tube method for
(3) Adapt the process for areas with the cultivation of strict anaerobes. In:
low water availability (Miambi et Norris, J. R. and Ribbons, D. W.
al., n.d.). (eds.). Methods in microbiology,
vol. 3B. Academic Press, NY.
McCready, M. H. 1918. Tables for rapid

References interpretation of fermentation tube
results. Can. J. Public Health 9:201.
Ampe, F.; Brauman, A.; Trche, S.; and
Agossou, A. 1994. The fermentation Macy, J. M.; Snellen, J. E.; and Hungate,
of cassava: optimization by the R. E. 1972. Use of syringe methods
experimental research methodology. for anaerobiosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
J. Sci. Food Agric. 65:355-361. 25:1318-1323.
Bensadoun, A. and Weinstein, D. 1976. Maduagwu, E. N. 1983. Differential effects on

Assay of protein in the presence of the cyanogenic glycoside content of
interfering materials. Anal. Biochem. fermenting cassava root pulp by
70:241-250. -glucosidase and microbial
activities. Toxicol. Lett. (Amst.)
Brauman, A.; Klke, S.; Mavoungou, O.; 15:335-339.
Ampe, F.; and Miambi, E. n.d. Etude
synttique du rouissage traditionnel Miambi, E.; Machicout, M.; Trche, S.; and
des racines de manioc en Afrique Brauman, A. n.d. Le rouissage sans
centrale (Congo). In: Agbor, E.; eau, une nouveau procd de
Brauman, A.; Griffon, D.; and Trche, transformation des racines de
S. (eds.). Cassava food processing. manioc. In: Agbor, E.; Brauman, A.;
Institut franais de recherche Griffon, D.; and Trche, S. (eds.).
scientifique pour le dveloppement en Cassava food processing. Institut
coopration (ORSTOM) Editorials, franais de recherche scientifique
Paris, France. (In press.) pour le dveloppement en coopration
(ORSTOM) Editorials, Paris, France.
Collard, P. and Levi, S. 1959. A two-stage (In press.)
fermentation of cassava. Nature
(Lond.) 183:620-621. Okafor, N.; Ijioma, B.; and Oyolu, C. 1984.
Studies on the microbiology of
Cooke, R. D.; Blake, G. G.; and Battershill, cassava retting for fufu production.
J. M. 1978. Purification of J. Appl. Bacteriol. 56:1-13.
cassava linamarase. Phytochemistry
(Oxf.) 17:381-383. Oladele Ogunsa, A. 1980. Changes in some
chemical constituents during the
de Man, J. C.; Rogosa, M.; and Sharpe, M. E. fermentation of cassava roots
1960. A medium for the cultivation of (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Food
Lactobacilli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Chem. 5:249.
23:130.
208
Oyewole, O. B. and Odunfa, S. A. 1992. __________ and Massamba, J. n.d.a. La

Extracellular enzyme activities consommation du manioc au Congo.
during cassava fermentation for In: Agbor, E.; Brauman, A.; Griffon,
fufu production. World J. Microbiol. D.; and Trche, S. (eds.). Cassava
& Biotechnol. 8:71-72. food processing. Institut franais de
recherche scientifique pour le
Regez, P. F.; Ifebe, A.; and Mutinsumu, M. N. dveloppement en coopration
1987. Microflora of traditional (ORSTOM) Editorials, Paris, France.
cassava foods during processing and (In press.)
storage: the cassava bread
(chikwangue) of Zaire. Microb. __________ and __________. n.d.b. Les modes
Aliment. Nutr. 5:303-311. de transformation traditionnels du
manioc au Congo. In: Agbor, E.;
Somogyi, M. 1945. Determination of blood Brauman, A.; Griffon, D.; and Trche,
sugar. J. Biol. Chem. 160:61-68. S. (eds.). Cassava food processing.
Institut franais de recherche
Starr, M. P.; Chatterjee, A. K.; Starr, P. B.; scientifique pour le dveloppement en
and Buchanan, G. E. 1977. coopration (ORSTOM) Editorials,
Enzymatic degradation of Paris, France. (In press.)
polygalacturonic acid by Yersinia and
Klebsiella species in relation to Widdel, F. and Pfennig, N. 1984.
clinical laboratory procedures. J. Dissimilatory sulfate- or
Clin. Microbiol. 6:379-386. sulfur-reducing bacteria. In: Krieg,
N. R. and Holt, J. G. (eds.). Bergeys
Trche, S. n.d. Importance du manioc en manual of systematic bacteriology,
alimentation humaine dans vol. 1. Williams and Wilkins, MD,
differentes rgions du monde. In: USA. p. 663-679.
Agbor, E.; Brauman, A.; Griffon, D.;
and Trche, S. (eds.). Cassava food
processing. Institut franais de
recherche scientifique pour le
dveloppement en coopration
(ORSTOM) Editorials, Paris, France.
(In press.)
209
CHAPTER 24
A LACTIC ACID BACTERIUM WITH

POTENTIAL APPLICATION IN CASSAVA
FERMENTATION
E. Giraud*, A. Brauman**, S. Klke***,
L. Gosselin*, and M. Raimbault
An amylolytic lactic acid bacterium, Lactic microflora play an important

identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, role in the preparation of traditional
was isolated from cassava roots foods based on fermented cassava,
(Manihot esculenta var. Ngansa) during such as gari, chikwangue, fufu, and
retting. Cultured on starch, the strain sour starch. But this microfloras
displayed a growth rate of 0.43 per function in preserving foods,
hour, a biomass yield of 0.19 g/g, and eliminating cyanogenic compounds,
a lactate yield of 0.81 g/g. The growth and improving organoleptic qualities is
kinetics were similar on starch and not yet clear. Traditional technologies
glucose. Enough enzyme was are still used to manufacture these
synthesized, and starch hydrolysis foods. As fermentation occurs
was not a limiting factor for growth. naturally with lactic microflora, the
The synthesized amylolytic enzyme quality of the food products is not
was purified by fractionated uniform.
precipitation with ammonium sulfate
and by anion exchange The mass inoculation of cassava
chromatography. It was identified as roots with one or several selected
an -amylase with an optimal pH of strains would permit a better control
5.5 and an optimal temperature of over natural fermentation, thus
65 C. The use of such a strain as a resulting in a product of improved
cassava fermentation starter for gari quality. Because cassava contains
production had the following effects: a mainly starch (more than 80% of dry
change from a heterofermentative matter), the selection of a lactic acid
pattern observed in natural bacterium capable of metabolizing
fermentation to a homofermentation starch (i.e., amylolytic) is essential.
one, a lower final pH, a faster pH
decline rate, and a greater production But few lactic acid bacteria can
of lactic acid (50 g/kg of dry matter). convert starch into lactic acid.
Examples of amylolytic lactic acid
bacteria are Streptococcus bovis, S.
* Laboratoire de biotechnologie, Institut equinus, Lactobacillus amylophilus, L.
franais de recherche scientifique pour le
dveloppement en coopration (ORSTOM), amylovorus, L. acidophilus, L.
Montpellier, France. cellobiosus, and others isolated from
** ORSTOM, Paris, France. animal digestive tracts and plant
*** Laboratoire de microbiologie, Direction wastes (Champ et al., 1983; Cotta,
gnrale de la recherche scientifique et
technique (DGRST), Brazzaville, Congo. 1988; Nakaruma, 1981; Nakaruma
ORSTOM, stationed in Cali, Colombia. and Crowell, 1979; Sen and
210
A Lactic Acid Bacterium...
Chakrabarty, 1986; Sneath, 1986). (8) fermentation of different carbon

Almost no information exists on the sources (API 50CH #5030 strips,
physiology of these microorganisms. Biomrieux, France).
Below we describe how we isolated Bergeys Manual (Sneath, 1986)

and identified a new amylolytic lactic was used to evaluate results and
acid bacterium from fermenting identify the different strains.
cassava roots. We also investigated the
physiology of this bacterium and the Strains and culture media
properties of the amylase produced.
Three strains were used as reference:
Lactobacillus plantarum (Lacto Labo,
Methods France), Streptococcus equinus
CNCM 103233, and Lactobacillus
Isolating and identifying strains amylophilus CNCM 102988T.
Peeled roots were immersed in rain JP2 medium (g/L). This

water. Sampling was carried out consisted of:
4 days after fermentation by randomly
selecting six roots cut into 0.5-cm M66 universal peptone 2.5
cubes and mixed under sterile Soya peptone obtained
conditions. A sample of 60 g was by papain digestion 5
diluted in 540 ml of sterile peptone Casein peptone obtained
solution. Then 0.1 ml of decimal by pancreatic digestion 2.5
dilutions were spread on JP2 medium
(see below) in petri dishes. After Yeast extract 5
incubation for 48 h at 30 C, the Meat extract 2.5
dishes were exposed to iodine vapor to MgSO4,7H2O 0.1
detect the starch hydrolysis areas. NaCl 3
Isolated strains were then purified by (NH4)2SO4 2
three successive transfers on JP2
K2HPO4 0.2
medium, and cultures routinely
checked for purity by microscopic Prolabo soluble starch 3
observation. Tween 80 (in ml) 0.4
Microorganisms were identified The pH was adjusted to 6.75

by: before sterilization.
(1) the configuration of the lactic Physiological studies were

acid produced after treatment performed, using a de
(Ivorec-Szylit and Szylit, 1965) Man-Rogosa-Sharpe (MRS) basal
with the enzymes dehydrogenase medium (de Man et al., 1960) and
l and d (Boerhinger Mannheim); changing the carbon sources to 5%
(2) the microorganisms homolactic or glucose and 5% starch.
heterolactic character, as
determined by acetic acid or Culture conditions. Strains were
(3) presence or absence of catalase; cultured in a 2-L bioreactor
(4) microscopic and macroscopic (Biolafitte, France) at 30 C and
examination of morphology, agitated at 200 rpm. The pH was
mobility, and spores; adjusted to 6.0 by adding NaOH (5 N).
(5) Gram stain; Inoculation at 10% v/v was performed
(6) arginine dissemination; with a 20-h pre-culture in the same
(7) growth at 15 and 45 C; and medium used for fermentation.
211
Analytical methods Bradford (1976) method, using a

Biorad Kit (Cat No. 500-0001,
The biomass concentration was Ivry-sur-Seine, France) and bovine
determined by measuring the optical serum albumin as standard.
density (OD) at 540 nm related to the
dry weight measured after two Purification of amylase.
washing and centrifugation cycles and Fermentation was stopped after
drying at 105 C for 24 h. For starch culture for 9 h. Cells were removed by
cultures, hydrolysis of residual starch centrifugation (at 15,000 g for 15 min
was performed with a mixture of at 4 C), and the supernatant fluid
amylases (thermamyl + dextrosyme, (750 ml) filtered through a cellulose
supplied by Novo). The dry weight filter (0.45 m pore size, HAWP type,
and OD were then determined as Millipore, Saint Quentin les Yvelines,
above. Lactic acid, glucose, acetic France) to remove cell debris.
acid, and ethanol concentrations in
the supernatant were assayed Powdered ammonium sulfate was
by high-performance liquid then slowly added to the supernatant
chromatography (HPLC). Compounds fluid under constant stirring at 4 C.
were separated by using an Aminex Most of the amylase activity was
HPX 87H column (Bio Rad precipitated at between 50% and 70%
Laboratory) with a 0.8 ml/min flow saturation.
(pump LDC 3200) of H2SO4 (0.012 N)
solution at 65 C. Analyses were After the ammonium sulfate
carried out with a refractive index fractionation, the precipitated
detector (Philips PU 4026). Total protein collected by centrifugation
sugars in media containing starch (at 15,000 g for 30 min at 4 C) was
were also determined with anthrone, resuspended in 50 mmol/L KH2PO4/
using the Dubois et al. (1956) Na2HPO4 standard buffer (pH = 6.8).
method. The enzyme solution was washed and
concentrated with a PM-10 Amicon
Amylase assay. The -amylase ultrafiltration membrane. It was then
activity was measured by incubating loaded onto a diethylaminoethyl
0.1 ml of appropriately diluted (DEAE) cellulose column (DE-52;
enzyme solution with 0.8 ml of a Whatman Laboratory Sales, Hillsboro,
solution containing 1.2% of Prolabo Oregon, USA). The column
soluble starch in 0.1 mol/L (25 x 250 mm, flow rate 2.5 ml/min,
citrate-phosphate buffer (pH = 5.5) at 25 C) was previously equilibrated
55 C. The reaction was stopped by with the standard buffer. The enzyme
adding 0.1 ml of 1 mol/L H2SO4. After was eluted, using a concave, sodium
incubation, residual starch contents chloride gradient (0-1.0 mol/L).
were determined colorimetrically after Fractions (5 ml) were collected. The
different periods at 620 nm by adding fractions that were enzymatically the
0.1 ml of the reaction mixture to most active were pooled, dialyzed
2.4 ml of an iodine solution overnight at 4 C against the standard
containing 30 g/L of KI and 3 g/L of I2 buffer, and used for further studies.
and diluted to 4% with distilled water. They were kept at -30 C. No activity
was lost for at least 3 months under
An enzyme unit is defined as the such conditions.
amount of enzyme that permits the
hydrolysis of 10 mg of starch in Polyacrylamide gel
30 min under the conditions electrophoresis. This was carried out
described above. Protein according to Laemmlis method (1970),
concentration was estimated with the with a 10% running gel and 4%
212
stacking gel. Electrophoresis under physiological solution before cassava

nondenaturating conditions was inoculation.
performed in the absence of
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and A container from each batch was
-mercaptoethanol in any buffer. Gels monitored every day to test the following
were run at a constant 150 V for 1 h at parameters:
25 C. Proteins were stained by the
silver method (Oakley et al., 1980). (1) The pH was measured on a 10-g
sample and homogenized in
Amylase stain. After distilled water (20 ml). Moisture
electrophoresis, gel was incubated was measured by drying a 10-g
for 1 h at 30 C in 0.1 mol/L sample at 105 C for 24 h.
citrate-phosphate buffer (pH = 5.5), (2) The number of lactic acid bacteria
containing 1% of soluble starch. After (l.a.b.) was estimated on a 10-g
two washes with distilled water, light sample homogenized in
lanes (representing starch hydrolysis 90 ml of physiological sterile
areas of amylase activity) were detected solution. Colonies were
by immersing the gel in Lugols counted on MRS agar, using a
solution. spread-plate technique on petri
dishes and after incubation at
Molecular mass determination. 30 C and 48 h.
SDS-PAGE electrophoresis was used to
determine the approximate molecular
mass of amylase. Marker proteins Results and Discussion
(Biorad, Cat. No. 161-0315) used were
myosin (200,000), galactosidase Isolation and identification of
(116,250), phosphorylase-b (97,400), Lactobacillus plantarum A6
bovine serum albumin (67,000), and
ovalbumin (45,000). Seven amylolytic microorganisms were
isolated on JP2 medium from retted
Assays on gari. Fresh imported cassava roots. Two were revealed
cassava roots from Cameroon were by HPLC to have a capacity to
obtained from Anarex (Paris, France). produce lactic acid from starch.
Gari was prepared from peeled, washed Table 1 lists their morphological,
cassava roots, which were chopped and physiological, and biochemical
minced in a food mixer (SEB). The characteristics. The ability of these
pulp obtained was packed tightly into cultures to use 49 different
plastic, sterile, screw-capped carbohydrates was studied with
containers (60 ml; OSI, A12.160.56) API 50CH #5030 strips. The results
and placed at 30 C. were compared, by computer, with the
percentage of positive reactions of
Three batches were prepared: different Lactobacillus species as per
(1) natural fermentation, using the API. A 99.9% rate of similarity with
endogenous microflora present; L. plantarum was observed and hence
(2) fermentation after inoculation with identifying these cultures as strains of
L. plantarum A6 (108 cfu/g of dried L. plantarum. The two strains, A6 and
cassava), which had been cultured in A43, displayed precisely the same sugar
bioreactors on cellobiose MRS medium; degradation profiles, which suggests
(3) fermentation after inoculation with that they are probably the same.
L. plantarum Lactolabo (108 cfu/g of
dried cassava), which had been The amylolytic activities on JP2
cultured in bioreactors on MRS medium of L. plantarum A6, S. equinus,
cellobiose. Cells were washed in and L. amylophilus indicated that the
213
Table 1. Characteristics of Lactobacillus plantarum strains A6, A43, and Lacto Labo (check).
Strain A6 A43 Check
Ratio of d:l lactic acid 69:31 66:34 73:27

Homolactic + + +
Catalase - - -
Bacterium shape Short rod Short rod Short rod
Gram stain + + +
Spore - - -
Mobility - - -
Dissemination of arginine - - -
Growth at 15 C + + +
Growth at 45 C - - -
starch hydrolysis zone was largest for almost identical. The strain therefore
L. plantarum A6. It was therefore does not seem to require nutrients
selected for further studies. other than those of the common
strain, suggesting that mass
Lactobacillus plantarum A6 growth production is possible.
kinetics
On starch MRS medium, the
The growth of L. plantarum A6 on strain exhibits the same kinetic
glucose MRS medium (Figure 1) is fully profiles (Figure 2) and the same yields
comparable with that of L. plantarum as the standard strain. The rate of
(Lacto Labo). The growth rate (0.43/h) starch hydrolysis was greater than the
and biomass productivity (0.75 g/L per uptake rate, leading to a 3 g/L
hour) were slightly lower than those of maltose peak during the seventh hour
the standard (Lacto Labo) strain, but of fermentation (results not shown).
the biomass and lactate yields were Thus, hydrolysis of starch is not a
limiting factor.
Characterizing the amylolytic

50 25 enzyme
40 20
To characterize the amylolytic activity
Glucose, lactate (g/L)
exhibited by L. plantarum A6, a

Biomass (g/L)
comparison was made of the HPLC

30 15
profiles after starch hydrolysis by the
cell-free extract and commercial
20 10 amylolytic enzymes (Aspergillus oryzae
-amylase, Sigma A0273; potato
10 5 -amylase, Sigma A7005, and
Aspergillus niger amyloglucosidase,
Sigma A3514). Under these
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 conditions, the main products of
Time (hours)
starch hydrolysis analyzed by HPLC
were glucose from amyloglucosidase,
Figure 1. Fermentation of Lactobacillus maltose from -amylase, and a
plantarum A6 on MRS glucose
mixture of glucose, maltose, and
( = glucose; = lactic acid;
= biomass ). Temperature = 30 C; oligosaccharide (retention time of
pH = 6.0. 5.2 min) from -amylase. The
214
50 25 5
40 20 4
Amylase activity (U/ml)

Starch, lactate (g/L)
Biomass (g/L)
30 15 3
20 10 2
10 5 1
0 0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (hours)
Figure 2. Fermentation of Lactobacillus plantarum A6 on starch MRS medium ( = starch ; = lactic acid;
= biomass; = amylase activity). Temperature = 30 C; pH = 6.0.
breakdown profile of starch by the purified fraction possessed an

enzyme from L. plantarum A6 is amylase activity. These procedures
similar to that of -amylase, thereby were therefore considered sufficient
indicating that the enzyme for purifying the extracellular
synthesized by L. plantarum A6 is amylase activity of L. plantarum A6.
extracellular -amylase. The SDS-PAGE analysis of the
purified fraction resulted in a
Purification of amylase distribution between a clearly
defined band (50 kDa) and a diffuse
The results of purifying the amylase band with a molecular weight of
produced by the strain L. plantarum close to 150 kDa.
A6 are summarized in Table 2. The
first step in purification was Hypotheses. Several hypotheses
conventional (NH4)2SO4 fractionation. can explain these many amylase
The 50%-70% fraction revealed forms. We find the most satisfactory
maximum enzyme activity and was is that which suggests that the
selected for further purification by purified extract consists of a
DEAE-cellulose. The elution profile population of aggregates of a
displayed only one amylase activity 50-kDa amylase. This interpretation
peak. The purification procedure is based on the fact that most of the
described above makes it possible, in bacterial amylases described have a
only two stages, to obtain a protein molecular weight of this order
fraction containing most of the (Fogarty, 1983). This type of
amylase activity of L. plantarum A6 aggregation of purified enzyme was
enriched by a factor of nearly 20. observed in Bacillus subtilis amylase
(Robyt and Ackerman, 1973), with
Testing the homogeneity of the zinc being the factor inducing
fraction by electrophoresis under clumping. The clumping factor
native conditions revealed a major remains to be defined in our case.
protein and three others that were
quantitatively unimportant. However, Further study is needed to
all the proteins detected in the support this hypothesis. The
215
Table 2. Purification of -amylase of Lactobacillus plantarum strain A6 cultivated in a modified MRS

medium containing 2% (w/v) soluble starch and 0.5 g/L CaCl2 at 30 C.
Materials Volume Protein Activity Specific activity Yield Purification

(ml) (mg) (U) (U/mg) (%) (fold)
Culture filtrate 750.0 82.5 35100 425 100.0 1.0
(NH4)2SO4
(50%-70% fraction) 39.0 18.1 25935 1433 73.9 3.4
Ultrafiltrate 8.8 10.4 16016 1540 45.6 3.6
DEAE-cellulose
(117-130 fractions) 61.8 1.5 12484 8270 35.6 19.5
amount of enzyme isolated was not amylase from L. plantarum A6 are very
large enough for further investigation. similar to those of Bacillus subtilis
Immunological characterization would (Fischer and Stein, 1960; Fogarty,
probably determine the type of relation 1983; Robyt and Ackerman, 1973;
between the different amylase forms and Welker and Campbell, 1967):
observed and thus confirm the extracellular enzyme, identical
hypothesis. optimal pH (5.5), identical optimal
temperature (65 C), presence of
Effects of pH and temperature tyrosyl phenolic groups at the active
on amylase activity. The effect of pH site, and presence of multiple forms
on enzyme activity was studied in a (aggregates).
3.0 to 7.5 pH range with 0.1 mol/L
citrate-phosphate buffer at 55 C. The We speculated that the
enzymatic activity profile according to exceptional capacity of L. plantarum
temperature was determined within a A6 to break down starch might have
10 to 80 C temperature range under
standard conditions (see above). The
optimal pH was 5.5 and the optimal
temperature was 65 C (Figures 3 100
and 4).
Compared with the characteristics 80

of the lactic acid bacterial amylases
Relative activity (%)
described in the literature, the

properties of the enzyme synthesized 60
by L. plantarum A6 are different. The
enzyme from a Leuconostoc spp.
studied by Lindgren and Refai (1984) 40
had a pH optimum of 6.0 and a
temperature optimum of 40 C. Two
active enzyme fractions were clearly 20
separable by isoelectric focusing. The
enzyme isolated from L. cellobiosus
(Sen and Chakrabarty, 1986) had a 0
molecular weight of 22.5 to 24 kDa, a 3 4 5 6 7 8
pH
pH optimum from 6.3 to 7.9, and a
temperature optimum of 40 to 50 C. Figure 3. Effects of pH on amylase activity at
But the characteristics of the 55 C.
216
100 A
90
80
5
70
Inactivity (%)
B
Relative activity (%)
4
60
3
50
2
2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6
40
1,000/T (K-1)
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (C)
Figure 4. Effects of temperature on amylase activity at pH = 5.5. (A) Relative activity versus temperature;
(B) Arrhenius plot.
been a result of transfer of genetic fermented cassava showed a steep fall

material between Bacillus subtilis and from 6.2 to 4.3 (assay 1), and both
L. plantarum, which could be possible, inoculation assays (2 and 3) from
because both are microorganisms 6.2 to 3.9. This pH shift was
found in the natural microflora of correlated with lactic acid production,
fermented cassava (Nwanko et al., which was the principal metabolite
1989), and whose amylase activities produced (Figure 6). These data
are very similar. Further investigation confirm that the lactic acid bacteria
would answer this question. are the predominant fermentative
microflora. In all three assays, this
Inoculation effect of Lactobacillus flora reached 5.109 cfu/g after 24 h of
plantarum A6 on cassava fermentation (Figure 5).
fermentation
In the natural cassava
Three different assays were carried fermentation, within the first 24 h, a
out: (1) natural cassava fermentation, simultaneous production of lactic and
(2) cassava inoculated with L. acetic acids and traces of propionic
plantarum A6, and (3) cassava and butyric acids and ethanol were
inoculated with a control strain, L. observed. But, although the acetate
plantarum Lacto Labo. content reached its maximum level
(10 g/kg DM) and remained constant
Evolution of pH, organic acids, after the first day of fermentation, the
and lactic acid bacteria. In all lactate concentration began
three assays, a rapid pH decrease was increasing from the second day of the
observed from the start of process. This suggests that
fermentation (Figure 5). The naturally fermentation is primarily related to
217
7 10.0 an heterolactic flora growth, which is

supplanted by a more acid-tolerant
9.5 homolactic flora.
Log 10 lactic acid bacteria/g

6
9.0 This hypothesis is supported by
Oyewole and Odunfa (1990), who
studied the characteristics and
pH
5 8.5
distribution of lactic acid microflora
during the preparation of fufu. They
8.0 reported a predominant development
4
of Leuconostoc mesenteroides, which
was subsequently replaced by
7.5
L. plantarum. They suggested that
this sequence resulted because
3 7.0 L. mesenteroides was unable to
0 20 40 60 80 100
tolerate increasing acidity.
Time (hours)
Figure 5. Changes in pH and numbers of In the inoculated fermentations,

lactic acid bacteria (l.a.b.) during the lactic acid content was higher.
cassava fermentation. ( = pH and The production kinetics of this acid
= l.a.b. in natural fermentation;
= pH and = l.a.b. in fermentation
were identical in both L. plantarum
inoculated with Lactobacillus strains during the first 24 h. But, on
plantarum A6; = pH and = l.a.b. the second day, this concentration
in fermentation inoculated with L.
reached its maximum (40 g/kg DM)
plantarum Lacto Labo.)
and remained constant in the control
strain. In contrast, in the amylolytic
6 strain (L. plantarum A6), lactate
production continued to rise,
increasing by 25%.
Concentration (g/100 g of dry matter)
5
Traces of ethanol, propionate, and
butyrate were also found in the
4 inoculated fermentation assays.
Furthermore, the lower acetate
production showed that a massive
3
inoculation with an L. plantarum
strain inhibited the development of the
2 natural heterolactic microflora.
1 Conclusions
The presence of amylase in lactic acid
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 bacteria has already been reported.
Time (hours) But, as far as we know, no author has
described any amylolytic strain of L.
Figure 6. Evolution of lactate and acetate plantarum. When investigating the
concentration during cassava
fermentation. ( = lactate and
bacterial microflora of fermented
= acetate in natural fermentation; cassava roots, Regez et al. (1988)
' .'= lactate and = acetate in isolated numerous L. plantarum
fermentation inoculated with strains, but did not report any
Lactobacillus plantarum A6; = lactate
and = acetate in fermentation amylolytic strains. Scheirlinck et al.
inoculated with L. plantarum Lacto Labo.) (1989) studied the integration of the
218
-amylase gene of Bacillus Fischer, E. H. and Stein, E. A. 1960.

stearothermophilus in the genome of an -Amylases. In: Boyer, P. D.; Lardy,
H.; and Myrbck, K. (eds.). The
L. plantarum strain, but did not verify enzymes, vol. 4. Academic Press, NY.
the expression, stability, and p. 313-343.
competitiveness of the transformed
strain in a natural medium. Fogarty, W. M. 1983. Microbial enzymes and
biotechnology. Applied Science
Publishers, Barking, Essex, UK.
In our research, we had isolated
a natural amylolytic strain of L. Ivorec-Szylit, O. and Szylit, M. 1965.
plantarum from cassava roots. Our Contribution ltude de la
data, as reported here, suggest that dgradation des glucides dans le
this new lactic acid bacterium is of jabot du coq: mise en vidence et
dosage des stro-isomres d et l
particular interest, not only for its lactates. Ann. Biol. Anim. Biochim.
taxonomy, but also for its capacity to Biophys. 5:353-360.
develop rapidly and massively in
starch-based media. Laemmli, U. K. 1970. Cleavage of structural
proteins during the assembly of
the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature
Finally, preliminary trials of (Lond.) 227:680-685.
inoculating cassava with L. plantarum
A6 for gari production demonstrate Lindgren, S. and Refai, O. 1984. Amylolytic
that this strain may play a significant lactic acid bacteria in fish silage.
role in developing organoleptic J. Appl. Bacteriol. 57:221-228.
qualities, and in standardizing and Nakaruma, L. K. 1981. Lactobacillus
preserving the final product because of amylovorus, a new starch-hydrolyzing
the large amounts of lactic acid species from cattle waste-corn
produced and the resulting faster and fermentations. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.
significant drop in pH values. 31:56-63.
__________ and Crowell, C. D. 1979.

Lactobacillus amylophilus, a new
References starch-hydrolyzing species from
swine waste-corn fermentation. Dev.
Bradford, M. M. 1976. A rapid and sensitive Ind. Microbiol. 20:531-540.
method for the quantitation of
microgram quantities of protein, Nwanko, D.; Anadu, E.; and Usoro, R. 1989.
utilizing the principle of protein dye Cassava-fermenting organisms.
binding. Anal. Biochem. 72:248-254. MIRCEN J. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 5:169-179.
Champ, M.; Szylit, O.; Raibaud, P.; and
Ait-Abdelkader, N. 1983. Amylase Oakley, B. R.; Kirsh, D. R.; and Morris, N. R.
production by three Lactobacillus 1980. A simplified ultrasensitive
strains isolated from chicken crop. silver stain for detecting proteins in
J. Appl. Bacteriol. 55:487-493. polyacrylamide gels. Anal. Biochem.
105:361-363.
Cotta, M. A. 1988. Amylolytic activity of
selected species of ruminal
bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. Oyewole, O. B. and Odunfa, S. A. 1990.
54:772-776. Characterization and distribution of
lactic acid bacteria in cassava
de Man, J. C.; Rogosa, M.; and Sharpe, M. E. fermentation during fufu production.
1960. A medium for the cultivation of J. Appl. Bacteriol. 68:145-152.
lactobacilli. J. Appl. Bacteriol.
23:130-135. Regez, P. F.; Zorzi, N.; Ngoy, K.; and
Balimandawa, M. 1988. Evaluation
Dubois, M.; Gilles, K. A.; Hamilton, J. K.; de limportance de quelques souches
Rebers, P. A.; and Smith, F. 1956. de Lactobacillus sp. pour
Colorimetric method for determination lacidification de differents aliments
of sugars and related substances. Anal. base de manioc. Lebensm.
Chem. 28:350-356. 21:288-293.
219
Robyt, J. F. and Ackerman, R. J. 1973. Sneath, P. H. A. (ed.). 1986. Bergeys manual

Structure and function of amylase. of systematic bacteriology, vol. 2.
II. Multiple forms of Bacillus subtilis Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD,
-amylase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. USA.
155:445-451.
Welker, N. E. and Campbell, L. L. 1967.
Scheirlinck, T.; Mahillon, J.; Joos, H.; Dhaese, Comparison of the -amylase of
P.; and Michiels, F. 1989. Integration Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus
and expression of -amylase and amyloliquefaciens. J. Bacteriol.
endoglucanase genes in the 94:1131-1135.
Lactobacillus plantarum chromosome.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
55:2130-2137.
Sen, S. and Chakrabarty, S. L. 1986. Amylase

from Lactobacillus cellobiosus D-39
isolated from vegetable wastes:
purification and characterization.
J. Appl. Bacteriol. 60:419-423.
220
Cassava Wastes:...
CHAPTER 25
CASSAVA WASTES:
THEIR CHARACTERIZATION, AND
USES AND TREATMENT IN BRAZIL1
M. P. Cereda* and M. Takahashi**
Introduction cluster in certain areas or cities. For

example, sour or fermented-starch
Cassava is widely grown in Brazil. It factories are concentrated by the
is used fresh, that is, directly, in hundreds in two districts of Minas
cooking; processed into a typical Gerais State: Divinpolis and Pouso
flour, known as farinha; and for Alegre. Paranav, a district of Paran
starch extraction. All the resulting State, has a concentration of about
food products have no or nontoxic 150 flour factories of different sizes.
levels of cyanide (Table 1). Most
cyanide is carried away by the wastes,
whether liquid or solid. Cassava Structure and
Composition
The crop is grown in diverse
production systems, ranging from The literature on cassavas structure
small farms to plantations. and chemical composition is variable.
Depending on their quantity and Nevertheless, the data overall suggest
composition, cassava residues can that the cassava root is caloric, and
damage the environment and even generates about 1,500 cal/kg from
constitute profit losses. Culinary use, about 350 g/kg of carbohydrates.
for example, does not produce The average values of other
significant amounts of residues. In components are about 50 g/kg.
contrast, industrial use may cause Phosphorus and calcium contents are
environmental problems. Even tiny higher. Iron may occur, but in low
factories such as the casas de farinha quantities. Hegarty and Wadsworth
can produce significant quantities of (1968) state that raw cassava usually
residues, because of their tendency to has an iron content of 1 to
2 mg/100 g of dry matter, but warn
that if the analytical equipment used
is made of iron, then such content
may reach as high as 3.2 mg/100 g.
* Faculdade de Cincias Agronmicas (FCA),
Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Table 2 shows the differences in
Paulo, Brazil. composition when cassava leaves are
** Instituto Agronmico do Paran (IAPAR),
considered. Oke (1968) details
Paran State, Brazil.
cassava root composition, mainly as
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. mineral contents, as follows:
221
Humidity: 71.50% The literature differs on the

Dry matter (g/100 g): nitrogen fraction of cassava roots. The
crude protein = 2.60 traditional methodology evaluates
crude fiber = 0.43
ash = 2.40 proteins by multiplying crude nitrogen
lipids = 0.46 by a factor. Cereal or other, vegetable,
carbohydrates = 94.10 factors are calculated in this way. Oke
Ash minerals (g/kg): (1968) does not consider this accurate
nitrogen = 0.84 enough because a factor for cassava
potassium = 1.38
phosphorus = 0.15 amino acids has yet to be established.
calcium = 0.13 Despite being low, cassava proteins
Other minerals (mg/kg): are overestimated because root
sodium = 56.00 nitrogen fractions include both a
iron = 18.00 proteinic fraction and nonproteinic
boron = 3.30
molybdenum = 0.90 compounds. The nitrogen of the
magnesium = 12.00 linamarin radical (CN), for example,
copper = 8.40 could be wrongly considered as part of
zinc = 24.00
the protein evaluation of raw cassava
aluminum = 19.00
or cassava fractions.
Other components:
oxalate = 0.32%
phytic acid = 76.00% Sreeramamurthy (1945) reports
HCN = 38.00 mg/100 g that the traditional solvents of protein
methodology fail to extract some
nitrogen, part of which is of a proteinic
The potassium content is greater nature. For example, copper
than that of calcium, phosphorus, hydroxide separates and precipitates
and iron. The idea that cultivating only 10% of total protein. The cassava
cassava weakens the soil is probably proteinic fraction contains arginine,
based on this fact. tryptophan, and cystine, and
important amino acids. Cassava root
Group B vitamins occur in protein is small in quantity rather
cassava varieties with yellow pulp. than low in quality when compared
These varieties are normally used by with casein, egg albumin, and the
factories only in the northern states of protein fractions of cabbage and
Brazil. Cassava roots have high sweetpotatoes. In contrast, Rogers
vitamin C content, but it can be (1965) suggests that cassava protein is
destroyed in factory processing or low in histidine, proline, glycine, and
cooking. amino acids containing sulfur (e.g.,
Table 1. Composition (in percentage) of some typical cassava products, Brazil. Numbers are rounded.
Component Product
Farinha Starch Sour Chips

flour starch
Humidity 1.2 1.1 1.6 0.9

Dry matter:
Carbohydrates 93.0 97.3 95.6 94.0
Proteins 1.3 0.6 1.5 1.7
Lipids 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3
Crude fiber 3.3 0.6 0.7 1.1
Ash 1.1 0.1 0.3 0.4
Cyanide 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6
SOURCE: Faculdade de Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), unpublished data.
222
Cassava Wastes:...
Table 2. Central American cassava cultivars: root and leaf composition. Numbers are rounded.
Component Root size Leaves
Long, thin Medium Short, thick
Humidity (%) 62.10 61.10 62.10 77.20

Dry matter (g/100 g):
Fiber 1.60 1.25 1.14 2.54
Lipids 0.65 0.20 0.24 1.31
Nitrogen 0.32 0.17 0.11 1.10
Carbohydrates 32.95 34.18 34.70 10.33
Ash 1.20 1.20 0.86 1.77
Other components (mg/kg):
Calcium 46.00 27.00 27.00 206.00
Phosphorus 78.00 66.00 43.00 95.00
Iron 1.60 0.50 0.50 3.50
Carotene 0.01 0.01 0.01 4.53
Thiamine 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.15
Riboflavin 0.04 0.04 0.30 0.30
Niacin 0.82 0.72 0.60 2.02
Ascorbic acid 32.00 40.75 41.40 211.00
SOURCE: Calculated from Martelli, 1951.
methionine, cystine, threonine, of which 1.79% is composed of

isoleucine, and tryptophan). reducing sugars (0.93% glucose,
0.43% fructose, and 0.43% maltose)
Cassava juice is milky, smells of and 1.71% nonreducing sugars
cyanide, and consists of 91.00% (1.70% saccharose and 0.01%
water, 0.13% essential oils containing raffinose). Oke considers starch
sulfur, 2.30% gum, 1.14% saponins, content as being 35% of the fresh
1.66% glycosides, and 3.80% matter, and possibly higher if total
nonspecified components. carbohydrates are calculated by
difference. Amylase hydrolyzes
Oke (1968) reported cassava lipids cassava starch to 48% in its granular
from 0.1% to 1.0%, made up of 35% or raw form and to 78% when
palmitic, 3% stearic, 39% oleic, 18% previously boiled.
linoleic, and 5% linolenic acids.
Sugar originating from starch may
The literature rarely mentions increase if fermentation takes place.
cassava fiber. Despite cassava roots According to Amido (Um novo
being fibrous, the processing method caminho..., 1973), fermentation
that uses acid and alkaline during starch extraction and
hydrolysis yields only about 2.0% purification causes loss of starch
fiber, whereas other methods (such as because it turns into soluble sugars.
neutral detergent analysis or
enzymatic analysis) yield almost 20%. Sreeramamurthy (1945) concluded
that cassava roots are mainly starchy.
Carbohydrate is the highest They contain less than 1% protein,
fraction of cassava root composition, have a very low lipid content, and are
with starch constituting the largest poor in minerals and group B
part. Oke (1968) puts the nonstarchy vitamins, although fresh roots have
fraction of the carbohydrates at 3.5%, considerable vitamin C content.
223
Toxic Cassava Glycosides oxidative phosphorylation pathway,

combining with cytochrome-oxidase
Cooke (1979) describes both to inhibit electronic transportation
lotaustralin and linamarin, the toxic and thus the formation of adenosine
glycosides found in the cassava plant triphosphate (ATP).
(Table 3), as being able to generate
hydrocyanic acid. Although free For animals, calculating the
cyanide is well known to be toxic, the quantity sufficient to cause death
toxicity of glycocyanide is still (lethal dose) is done by experiment
unknown. and expressed in mg per kilo of live
weight. Oke (1969) mentions that
Oke (1969) reported that 1 mg/kg of live weight is considered
linamarin is a -glucoside of acetone the limit for humans, and is used to
cyanohydrin, and lotaustralin of classify cassava roots into poisonous
ethyl-methyl-ketone-cyanohydrin. or nonpoisonous, according to the
The more representative glucoside is amount of cyanogenic potential in the
linamarin, which constitutes 80% of root. The literature mentions values
total glucosides. He also suggested ranging from 15 to 400 mg of
that glucosides in linked form are not hydrocyanic acid per kg of fresh
toxic to the plants themselves. cassava roots, although average
values are 30 to 150 ppm (Carvalho
Oke hypothesized that the and Carvalho, 1979).
glucosides are intermediate
compounds in protein synthesis, such Oke (1969) suggests that, in
as from amino acids that are processed foods made from cassava,
constituted from the nitrate absorbed the hydrolytic enzyme of the plant
by roots. Thus, the cyanogenic linamarase remains active and
glucosides are stable intermediates catalyzes a reaction that releases
that do not accumulate if conditions molecules of glucose, acetone, and
for protein synthesis are favorable. hydrocyanic acid in proportions of
Glucoside synthesis probably starts 1:1:1. Linamarase has an optimal pH
with glycine. of 5.5 to 6.0. Glucose can act as an
antidote because it changes the
The toxic action of cyanide reactions direction and cooperates
(released when cell walls are with glucoside synthesis.
damaged) on animals is explained by
the cyanides affinity to iron, Microorganisms consume free
combining with hemoglobin to form glucose in preference to glucoside.
cyanohemoglobin. In higher plants Coop and Blakey (1948), cited by Oke
and microorganisms (Cereda et al., (1969), confirmed this hypothesis.
1981), cyanide interferes with the When an extract of cassava in a
solution containing 1 to 3 ppm of HCl
with a pH of 6.5, was placed in the
Table 3. Cyanogen glycoside concentration presence of 2% glucose, the released
(mg/kg of tissue) in cassava tissues of cyanide content did not change. Nor
sweet and bitter cultivars (Manihot was the extract toxic when incubated
esculenta Crantz).
with rumen liquid. Determining the
Cultivars Seeds 10-day-old Mature Roots pH is important, because reaction
plantlets leaves rate depends on it. Animals, in
general, have a detoxification
Sweet 0 285.0 468.0 125.0
mechanism that can prevent death
Bitter 7.5 245.0 310.0 185.0
when reaction is slow. It operates in
SOURCE: Nartey, 1981. swine, whose stomachs are
224
Cassava Wastes:...
monogastric, with a pH of 3.0, but flour making by pressing bulk

does not effectively prevent death in quantities of cassava roots. It is also
bovines, which have polygastric formed during starch extraction, but
stomachs, with a pH of 7.0. the water used in the process dilutes
the manipueira, reducing its organic
Microorganisms can develop on load and cyanide content, but vastly
substrates that contain cyanide if increasing its output. Water from
they have an anaerobic metabolism washing roots is also considered as
an alternative mechanism to the liquid waste. Figures 1 to 5 show the
respiratory chain (Cereda et al., relationships between cassava
1981)or if they can detoxify cyanide
by splitting the radical into carbon
and nitrogen (Jensen and 891
Abdel-Ghaffar, 1969). This fact may
explain the related fertilizing effect of 193
waste-water spillage from cassava
processing.
65
Cassava Wastes
75
Cassava wastes are plant residues
generated by processing. Waste
quality and quantity vary greatly 127
because of such factors as plant age,
time after harvesting, kind of 51 152
industrial equipment, and its
adjustment. Water waste Roots
In Brazil, cassava roots are mostly Sieved mass Chips

processed into flour (which generates
Pressed mass Leaves
more solid residues) and starch (more
liquid residues). Some solid wastes Ground mass
are brown peel, inner peel, unusable
Figure 1. Cyanide content (ppm of HCN) of plant
roots, crude bran, bran, bagasse, and parts, products, and wastes of
flour refuse. Among the liquid wastes processing cassava cultivar
is manipueira, which is formed during IAC 12 829.
200 250
123456 123456
123456 123456
160 123456
123456 200 123456
123456
123456
123456 123456
123456 123456
123456
Free cyanide
Total cyanide
120 123456
123456 150 123456
123456 123456
123456
123456 123456 123456
123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456 123456
123456
80 123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456
100
123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456
123456 1234567 123456 123456 1234567 123456
40 123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456 50 123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456
123456 1234567 123456 123456 1234567 123456
123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456 123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456
0 0
Waste Ground Roots Waste Ground Roots
water mass water mass
Figure 2. Free and total cyanogens (ppm of HCN) in products of a cassava flour factory (Equipamento
Zaccharias), using cassava cultivar IAC 12 829 at 24 months old, So Paulo, Brazil.
225
Peelings Roots Discards

196 kg 1,000 kg 90 kg
47% m.c. 52% m.c. 57% m.c.
Ground mass
714 kg
58% m.c.
Waste water
(manipueira) Pressed mass
289 kg, 90% m.c. 425 kg
Total cyanide = 120 ppm 36% m.c.
Crueira Evaporated
Oven-drying water
(type of solid waste)
40 kg, 48% m.c. 133 kg
Flour
(farinha)
253 kg
0.74% m.c.
Figure 3. Mass balance of a fermented-starch factory, Colombia. (m.c. = moisture content.)

(After Arguedas and Cooke, 1982.)
Peelings Roots Discards

68 kg 1,000 kg 3 kg
68% m.c. 52% m.c. 55% m.c.
Waste water
(diluted manipueira)
10,620 L Bran
Grinder + water
95% m.c. 1,120 kg
Sieve + water
Total cyanide = 60 ppm 85% m.c.
5,000 biological oxygen
demand
Wet starch
149 kg
52% m.c.
Figure 4. Mass balance of a fermented-starch factory, which used cassava variety Branca de Santa
Catarina at 24 months old, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. (m.c. = moisture content.)
226
Cassava Wastes:...
Drying floors
3.5
123
123
123
3.0
123
123
2.5 123
123
123
123
123
123
123
2.0
123
123 123
123 1234
123
1234
123
123
123
123 123
123
1234
123
1234
1234
1234123
1.5 123
123 123
123
123
123
123
123
123 1234
123
1234
1234
1234
12
121234
1234123
123
123 123
123
123
123 123
123
1234
123
1234
1234
1234 121234
123
1234
123
1.0
123
123 123
123
123
123
123
123
123
123
123 1234
123
1234
1234
1234
12
121234
123
1234
123
123
1234
123
123
1234
123
1234
123
123
123
123
123
123
123
123
123
123
1234
123
1234
123
1234
1234
1234
123
1234123
12
12
1234
123
1234
123
1234
123
123
1234
123
1234
123 123 123
123
123
123 123
123
1234
123
1234 123
1234
1234123
123 121234
123
1234
123
0.5
1234
123 123
1234
123
123
123123
123
123
123
123
123
123 1234
123
1234
123
1234
1234123
123 123
12
121234
123
1234
123
123
1234
123
1234
123 123123
123
123
123 123
123
1234
123
1234 123
1234
1234123
123 121234123
1234123
Cyanide (ppm)
0
Mibo Grounted Foster Hand cut Average
Covered trays
5.0
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
4.0 1234
1234 1234
1234
1234 1234
1234
1234 1234
1234
1234 1234
3.0 1234
1234
1234
1234 1234
1234
1234
1234
1234 1234
1234
1234
1234 123
123
12345
12345
1234 1234
1234
1234 1234 1234
1234
1234 123 12345
12345
12345
2.0 1234
1234 1234
1234
1234
123412341234
1234
123
123 12345
12345
1234 1234
12345
12345
1234 12345 1234
12341234
1234 123 12345
1234
12345
1234 1234
12345 12341234
1234 1231234
123412345
12345
1234
12345
1234 1234
12345 123412341234 123123412345
1.0 1234
12345
1234
1234
12345
1234
12345
1234
1234
12345
1234
12345
1234 1234
12345
1234
12341234
12341234
123412341234
1234
1231234
123412345
123123412345
12345
1234
12345
1234
12345
1234 1234 1234
12345
1234
12345
1234 1234 123412341234
123412341234
1234 123123412345
123123412345
1234
12345
1234 12345
1234 1234 12345
0
Mibo Grounted Foster Average
123 reduction123
Figure 5. Cyanide in cassava chips processed at three factories and by hand cutting, Brazil.
1234
(123= 5 kg/m2 123
123= 10 kg/m
2 1234= 15 kg/m2
1234 = Average.)
processing, cultivars, and wastes in factories, if the inner peel is highly

the material balance of cassava flour fibrous, it is best taken off. In
and sour starch production. industrial terms, peelings are
residues and refer to the mixture of
Solid wastes both inner peel and bark. Table 4
shows the average composition of
Peelings. The brown peel, several samples of peelings. Peelings
sometimes called bark, of cassava can be used as fertilizer or animal
roots corresponds, in technical terms, feed.
to the periderm and varies between
2% and 5% of the root total. It is thin Discards. These are produced
and cellulosic, and although usually during selection, so as not to
dark brown, can be white or overwork the rasper. Their
cream-colored. A small quantity of composition is similar to that of
inner peel, or cortical parenchyma, cassava roots but is more fibrous
may come off with the bark, causing because they contain the peduncle.
losses in starch factories. In farinha Moisture content is 55%-60%. The
227
Table 4. Chemical composition of cassava peelings. Average values of several samples are given. Dashes
indicate that no data were available.
Component Peelings
Outer (bark) Inner Mixture
Humidity (%) 48.3 65.6 72.3

Dry matter:
Volatile solids (%) - - 26.2
Ash (%) 4.0 3.0 1.4
Soluble carbohydrates (%) - - 7.9
Starch (%) 0 58.0 32.0
Lipids (%) 3.0 2.0 0.6
Nitrogen (%) 0.6 1.3 2.1
Fiber (%) 41.0 6.0 -
Lignin (% SV) - - 6.5
Free cyanide (ppm) - - 23.9
Total cyanide (ppm) 0 320.0 120.0
Phosphorus (ppm) 60.0 - 60.0
Potassium (ppm) 430.0 - 430.0
Calcium (ppm) 280.0 - 280.0
Magnesium (ppm) 80.0 - 80.0
Iron (ppm) 5,538.0 - 26.0
Copper (ppm) 9.0 - 9.0
Zinc (ppm) 21.0 - 21.0
Manganese (ppm) 104.0 - 103.0
Sulfur (ppm) 110.0 - 320.0
Boron (ppm) 18.0 - 18.0
Volatile acidity (mg acetic acid/L) - - 5,548.0
Alkalinity (mg bicarbonate/L) - - 2,191.0
C/N ratio - - 6.4
C/P ratio - - 0.3
SOURCE: Motta, 1985.
quality of discards depends on the the composition of sun-dried bran

cultivar and on root age. Together from fermented-starch factories in
with bran, discards may be used raw Minas Gerais, Brazil.
as animal feed, thus bringing extra
income for the industry. The values Crude bran. Another type of
shown in Figures 3 and 4 may be solid waste is crude bran (farinho or
overestimated, because the process is crueira), which is made up of pieces of
still being investigated. root and inner peel. In cassava-flour
processing (at Equipamento
Bran or bagasse. This solid Zaccharias, So Paulo State), these
waste is made up of fibrous root are separated out by sieving before
material, and contains starch that being oven-dried. Table 7 (p. 231)
physically could not be extracted. It shows the composition of such waste.
is produced as starch is separated. It At other factories (e.g., Mdia, Paran
has a large absorption capacity and State), these residues are replaced by
may contain about 75% moisture. fine threads (fiapos) made up of
Table 5 shows the chemical cassava fibers. Another solid residue
composition of bran after partial is cassava-flour refuse, the grated
drying, with differences according to mass that daily falls and collects on
the technology used. Table 6 shows the floor.
228
Cassava Wastes:...
Table 5. Differences in chemical composition of bran according to technology adopted. Dashes indicate
that no data were available.
Componenta Type of technology
Royalb Minasc Fiaposb
Humidity (%) 9.42 14.82 9.52

Dry matter:
Ash (%) 0.83 3.77 0.66
Soluble carbohydrates (%) 0.01 - -
Starch (%) 69.76 74.99 63.85
Lipids (%) 0.65 0.28 0.83
Nitrogen (%) 0.24 1.86 0.32
Fiber (%) 11.08 7.81 14.88
Total cyanide (ppm) 0 0 -
Phosphorus (ppm) - 30.00 -
Potassium (ppm) - 280.00 -
Calcium (ppm) - 90.00 -
pH 4.00 - -
a. No data were available for the following components: volatile solids, lignin, free cyanide, magnesium, iron,
copper, zinc, manganese, sulfur, boron, volatile acidity, alkalinity, C/N and C/P ratios, chemical oxygen
demand, or titratable acid.
b. Large factory.
c. Small, traditional factory.
Table 6. Average composition of sun-dried bran these are sun-dried and used as
from 20 fermented-starch factories
(traditional) from Pouso Alegre and
fertilizer. The use of thin starch is
Divinpolis, Minais Gerais, Brazil. also uncommon.
Component Average values (%)a Manipueira. Diluted

Pouso Alegre Divinpolis manipueira is a liquid waste from
cassava starch extraction and
Starch 63.6 2.78 sour-starch manufacture. It may be
Soluble carbohydrates b 0.2 0.10
waste water from root washing,
Protein 2.3 0.34
after the washer/husker has
Phosphorus 0 0.01
Calcium 0.1 0.03
removed soil and peelings and the
Potassium 0.3 0.06 water is decanted or filtered. The
Lipids 0.6 0.35 average factory volume is 2.62 m3.
Fiber 8.3 2.06 Waste water may also be extracted
from pressed and grated cake in
a. Numbers are rounded.
flour manufacturing and from the
b. Expressed in percentage of glucose.
roots themselves. It is also a
SOURCE: Escola Superior de Agricultura de Lavras byproduct of starch extraction
(ESAL), unpublished data.
(average factory volume is 3.68 m3).
The average composition of

Liquid wastes manipueira sampled from different
starch factories in So Paulo State is
Lagoon mud. Table 7 also shows variable, as shown in the following
the composition of sedimented lagoon list (numbers are rounded):
mud and liquid wastes. Sometimes
229
Component Value existing in the disintegrated root

mass.
Humidity (%) 93.7
Dry matter (g %):
The water used in starch factories
Total solids 6.3
Volatile solids 5.2
carries high concentrations of these
Starch 0 glycosides (linamarin and
Soluble carbohydrates 0.5 lotaustralin) (Sobrinho, 1975). They
Lipids 0.5 are hydrolyzed by linamarase enzyme
Ash 1.1 and acid, making the cyanide a free
Crude nitrogen 0.5 radicle (CN) (Williams, 1979).
Fiber 0.3
Lignin 6.0 According to Sobrinho (1975),
Free cyanide 43.7
liquid waste thrown onto soil or into
Total cyanide 444.0
waterways causes pollution. If the
Dry matter (ppm): pollution rate of starch factories is
Phosphorus 160.8 expressed as biological oxygen
Potassium 1,863.5 demand (BOD) over 5 days, at 20 C,
Calcium 227.5 and calculated as 24 g per habitant
Magnesium 405.0 per day, it would be equivalent to that
Iron 15.3 caused by 150-250 habitants per
Copper 1.1 dayvery high. In Santa Catarina
Zinc 4.2
State, the pollution caused by these
Manganese 3.7
Sulfur 19.5
wastes corresponds to 460 habitants
Boron 5.0
per day (Anrain, 1983).
Chemical oxygen demand 6,365.5

Conclusions
Volatile acidity
(mg acetic acid/L) 2,703.7
Cassava wastes can be used in
Alkalinity different ways. The solid residues can
(mg bicarbonate/L) 1,628.0 be used as animal feed; the literature
shows that cassava waste can replace
C/N ratio 7.6 a part or all of the feed components.
Manipueira can be used in agriculture
C/P ratio 34.4
as a herbicide, nematicide,
insecticide, or fertilizer. Anaerobic
Titratable acidity
(ml NaOH N%) 3.3 digestion is well studied in Brazil and
is more advantageous than aerobic
pH 4.1 digestion. Manipueira comes from
flour industries, and the best
processing method uses the separated
phases reactor. We now need to
Cyanogen content tends to be study how to optimize the acidic
high, but varies according to cultivar. phase.
The organic load is also high, and
varies with the type of processing Cassava waste can also be used
used (Table 8). All residual starch is for biomass production. The yeast
removed from manipueira before Trichosporon sp. can be isolated by
treatment. It has most soluble and natural fermentation with a
some insoluble substances in cyanide-resistant respiration
suspension and this residue carries pathway, and potentially can produce
almost all the cyanogenic glycosides both a proteinic and a fat biomass.
230
Cassava Wastes:...
Table 7. Chemical composition of different types of cassava wastes, averaged over several analyses.
Numbers are rounded. Dashes indicate no data were available.
Componenta Type of waste
Farinhob Varredurac Lagoon mud
Humidity (%) 11.7 - 4.9

Dry matter (g %):
Soluble carbohydrates 1.1 - 61.4
Lipids 68.5 - 1.8
Nitrogen 1.7 - 0.1
Fiber 0.5 0.5 1.8
Lignin (% SV) - - 9.7
Dry matter (ppm):
Free cyanide - - 0
Total cyanide - - 0
Phosphorus 70.0 70.0 540.0
Potassium 700.0 640.0 240.0
Calcium 130.0 90.0 140.0
Magnesium 60.0 50.0 60.0
Iron 41.0 32.0 23,800.0
Copper 2.0 3.0 63.0
Zinc 8.0 8.0 75.0
Manganese 20.0 18.0 105.0
Sulfur 30.0 30.0 46.0
Boron 20.0 7.0 14.0
pH 5.4 - 5.4
Titratable acidity (ml NaOH N %) 3.7 - 3.9
a. No data were available for volatile solids, ash, and starch.

b. Farinho = solid waste made of pieces of cassava roots and inner peels.
c. Editors note: No explanation of this term was provided by the authors.
Table 8. Composition of extraction water (mg/L) The microorganisms can also be

from the Fleischmann-Royal factory,
Conchal, So Paulo State, Brazil.
used to produce such biomasses as
organic acids (citric or lactic),
Component Range measured biological insecticides, and
enzymes.
Chemical oxygen demand 6,280 -51,200
Biological oxygen demand 1,400 -34,300
Solid wastes also have a
Total solids 5,800 -56,460
Soluble solids 4,900 -20,460
potential use for foodstuffs. The
Suspended solids 950 -16,000 production of high-fiber biscuits
Fixed solids 1,800 -20,460 from bagasse is being studied at the
Organic matter 1,500 -30,000 Faculdade de Cincias Agronmicas
Reducing sugars 2,800 -8,200 (FCA) of the Universidade Estadual
Total phosphate 155 -598 Paulista (UNESP).
Total nitrogen 140 -1,150
Ash 350 -800
Sedimentable solids (1 h) 11 -33
Cyanide content 22.0 -27.1
pH 3.8 -5.2
SOURCE: Lamo and Menezes, 1979.
231
References Motta, L. C. 1985. Utilizao de residuos de

industrias de farinha de mandioca
em digesto anaerobia. Thesis for
Anrain, E. 1983. Tratamento de efluentes de
Master of Agriculture. Julio de
fecularia em reator anaerbico de
Mesquita Filho, Universidade
fluxo ascendente e manta de lodo. In:
Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, SP,
Anais do XII Congreso Brasileiro de
Brazil. 130 p.
Engenharia Sanitaria Ambiental,
Balnerio de Camburiu. Fundao de
Nartey, F. 1981. Cyanogenesis in tropical
Amparo Tecnologia e ao Meio
feeds and feedstuffs. In:
Ambiente, Balnerio de Camburiu,
Vennesland, B.; Conn, E. E.;
SP, Brazil. p. 1-21.
Knowles, C. J.; Westley, J.; and
Wissing, F. (eds.). Cyanide in biology.
Arguedas, P. and Cooke, R. D. 1982.
Academic Press, London, UK.
Concentraciones de cianuro residual
p. 115-132.
durante la extraccin de almidn de
yuca. Yuca Bol. Inf. (Cent. Int. Agric.
Oke, O. L. 1968. Cassava as food in Nigeria.
Trop.) 10:7-9.
World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 96:227-250.
Carvalho, V. D. and Carvalho, J. G. 1979.
__________. 1969. The role of hydrocyanic
Princpios txicos de mandioca.
acid in nutrition. World Rev. Nutr.
Inf. Agropecu. 5:82-88.
Diet. 11:170-98.
Cereda, M. P.; Brasil, O. G.; and Fioretto,
Rogers, D. J. 1965. Some botanical and
A. M. C. 1981. Actividade respiratria
ethnological considerations of
em microorganismos isolados de
Manihot esculenta. Econ. Bot.
lquido residual de fecularias. Paper
19(4):369-377.
presented at the 11 Congresso
Brasileiro de Microbiologa,
Sobrinho, P. A. 1975. Auto-depurao dos
Florianpolis, Bazil.
corpos dagua. In: Curso
Poluio das Aguas, So Paulo.
Cooke, R. D. 1979. Enzymatic assay for
Companhia de Tecnologia de
determining the cyanide content of
Saneamento Ambiental (CETESB),
cassava and cassava products.
Associao Brasileira de Engenharia
Cassava Information Center, CIAT,
Sanitria (ABES), and Banco
Cali, Colombia. 14 p.
Nacional de Habitao (BNH), So
Paulo, SP, Brazil.
Hegarty, J. V. and Wadsworth, G. R. 1968.
The amount of iron in processed
Sreeramamurthy, V. V. 1945. Investigations
cassava (Manihot esculenta). J. Trop.
on the nutritive value of tapioca
Med. Hyg. 71:51-52.
(Manihot utilissima). Indian J. Med.
Res. 33:229-238.
Jensen, H. L. and Abdel-Ghaffar, A. S. 1969.
Cyanuric acid as nitrogen sources for
Um novo caminho para a mandioca: Qumica
microorganisms. Arch. Mikrobiol.
y derivados. 1973. Amido (So Paulo)
67:1-5.
32:26-28.
Lamo, P. R. and Menezes, T. J. B. 1979. Williams, H. J. 1979. Estimation of hydrogen
Bioconverso das guas residuais do cyanide released from cassava by
processamento de mandioca para organic solvents. Exp. Agric.
produo de biomassa. Col. Ital. 15(4):393-400.
10:1-14.
Martelli, H. L. 1951. Mandioca, planta de

valor. A. Fazenda, NY. 46:40.
232
Cassava Starch Extraction:...
CHAPTER 26
CASSAVA STARCH EXTRACTION:

A TYPICAL RURAL AGROINDUSTRY WITH A
HIGH CONTAMINATION POTENTIAL
Olga Rojas Ch.*, Patricia Torres L.*, Didier Alazard**,
Jean-Luc Farinet***, and Mara del Carmen Z. de Cardoso*
Abstract effluents. Its operating principle is

based on immobilizing microorganisms
Every year, about 5,500 t of starch are on a lignocellulose support. The
produced in Colombia from about hydrodynamic characteristics of three
27,000 t of cassava roots. Starch types of supportssugarcane bagasse,
production usually involves simple bamboo, and paja de monte
technology, consuming an average of (underbrush straw)were determined
23 m3 of water per ton of cassava. in the laboratory. Paja de monte
This generates a contaminating load showed the best characteristics.
of about 180 kg of chemical oxygen
demand (COD) per ton of roots. An These studies will be
average of 13.5 t of COD is discharged complemented with the monitoring of
into Colombian rivers each day. existing microflora as changes occur in
operational parameters.
Processing generates two liquid
residues: the first results from the
washing and peeling of cassava roots, Introduction
and generally contains a large amount
of inert material with low COD; the Agroindustrial processes generate
second results from draining the large volumes of waste waters and
starch sedimentation tank, and has a solid residues whose quality varies
high contaminating load of COD and according to the process used.
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Generally, farm activities use
abundant water to wash and treat
A pilot project was proposed to products, at which point the water is
treat waste waters, using an anaerobic loaded with harmful elements and
filter and a transfilter. The transfilter compounds. These are directly
technology has been tested in France, discharged into rivers and streams,
yielding good results with household representing a risk for the
environment, and the reduced quality
makes the water less suitable for other
* Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad del Valle
uses.
(UNIVALLE), Cali, Colombia.
** Institut franais de recherche scientifique Colombia is a mainly agricultural
pour le dveloppement en coopration country, with small and medium-sized
*** Dpartement des cultures annuelles (CA), agroindustries widely scattered. This
CIRAD, Montpellier, France. makes conventional water treatment
233
systems onerous to use, given the Waste Waters from Cassava

small volumes of products processed. Starch Extraction
But versatile water treatment systems
are now available at low cost and are Production and identification of
attractive alternatives within the reach waste waters
of small industries.
About 200 cassava-starch production
The feasibility of applying factories are located in the Cauca
transfilter systems (anaerobic Department, most in the north. Their
processing) to purify these discharges annual consumption of cassava roots
is being studied by the Universidad is about 27,000 t, from which they
del Valle (UV), Cali, Colombia, in extract about 5,500 t of starch. Plant
collaboration with the Institut franais processing capacity ranges from 500
de recherche scientifique pour le to 2,500 kg fresh roots per day
dveloppement en coopration (Janssen and De Jong, 1981).
(ORSTOM), France, and is financially
supported by the European Union Cassava-starch extraction involves
(EU). A pilot reactor will be located in several stages: root washing and
a starch factory in the Cauca peeling, rasping, screening, starch
Department. The Corporacin sedimentation, and, for sour starch,
Autnoma Regional del Valle del fermentation (Figure 1). Roots are
Cauca (CVC) will build a pilot washed in a tank or drum. They can
anaerobic filter at the same site, so also be peeled in a drum, but this
both can be evaluated from technical operation removes only 60% to 70% of
and economic viewpoints. the peel, the remainder being peeled
Cassava
(1 t)
Wash water Peelings

180 kg
Peeled cassava
(820 kg)
Waste water
Rasped cassava
(820 kg)
Water Bran
(20 m3) (60 kg)
Starchy slurry
(20 m3)
Sedimentation Waste water

(15 m3)
Starch
(0.27 m3)
Dried scum
(26 kg)
Dried starch
(230 kg)
Figure 1. Characterization of waste water from cassava starch extraction.
234
by hand. This first stage of washing The use of anaerobic digestion to

and peeling generates the first waste purify waste waters from cassava
waters. starch extraction
The roots are rasped, and the pulp The results of characterizing the
sieved through a nylon mesh that drainage water from sedimentation
covers the inside of the screening tanks permitted an analysis of the
drum. The starchy slurry is left to possibility of applying anaerobic
settle for 20 to 24 h in sedimentation treatment to this type of residue. The
tanks, until the starch layer is 25 to average COD value (900 mg/L) is
30 cm thick. The liquid is drained and high compared with that of BOD
discarded, and the extracted starch (300 mg/L), suggesting a high
passes to fermentation tanks, which COD-to-BOD ratio and the presence of
are completely filled and then covered a high COD content, resistant to
with a thin layer of water. biological degradation. But the UV and
Fermentation takes about 4 weeks CVCs preliminary research indicates
(Pinto, 1978). that this factor is less important in
terms of anaerobic biodegradation.
Use of solid residues When specifically tested to determine
the percentage of organic matter
When water is separated from starch biologically degradable under
in the sedimentation tank, a layer of anaerobic conditions, the percentage of
greyish material is formed over the biodegradability was found to be 83%.
starch, called mancha by starch
manufacturers. This film, or The results of waste water analyses
proteinaceous fraction, can be easily show that a sufficient amount of
removed and dried. It is frequently nitrogen, a major element in biomass
used as animal feed and is widely growth, is present in the residues. But
accepted in the market. the amount of phosphorus, another
essential macronutrient, is deficient
Characteristics of waste waters (Table 1).
Waste water results from two The pH of drainage water from the
processing stages: the washing of sedimentation tank ranges from 3.9 to
peeled cassava and the draining of the 4.7, which means the residue must be
sedimentation tanks (Figure 1). The neutralized before being fed to the
former contains a large amount of inert reactor.
material and has a low COD, and the
latter, high organic loads of BOD and The low cyanide concentration in
COD. the waste water (average 2.12 mg/L)
suggests that the microbial biomass
Analyses of waste water samples can adapt to this inhibitor.
taken from sedimentation tanks at Methanogenic bacteria first react by
different starch factories were carried reducing methane (CH4) production,
out by the UV and the CVC. Average but, within a few days, they adapt to
values were obtained to indicate the the cyanide and finally decompose it.
approximate composition of such
water. According to this information, Based on this finding, the UV and
the volume of waste water discharged the CVC conducted studies to see if
per processing plant per day ranges anaerobic processes are applicable for
from 18 to 48 m3. The average overall treating this type of discharge
contaminant load is about 13.5 t of (Table 2). Additional studies are now
COD per day, or 3.45 t of BOD per day. being conducted on a pilot scale.
235
Table 1. Characteristics of waste waters resulting from cassava starch extraction (average values).
Parameter Average value Rangea
CODb (mg O2/L) 9,100 4,000 - 12,800

BODc (mg O2/L) 3,100 1,500 - 8,600
COD/BOD (ratio) 2.9 -
Cyanides (mg CN-/L) 2.12 1.2 - 4.04
Total solids (mg/L) 5,740 2,680 - 10,020
Volatile solids (mg/L) 4,870 2,020 - 9,320
Total organic carbon 2,420 870 - 5,300
pH (units) - 3.9 - 4.7
Temperature (C) - 19 - 22
Sedimentation (ml/L) 29 15 - 47
Nitrogen (mg.N/L) 105 29 - 233
Phosphorus (mg.P/L) 2.34 0.3 - 6.0
a. This range is broad due to the amount of material processed.

b. COD = Chemical oxygen demand.
c. BOD = Biochemical oxygen demand.
SOURCE: Raddatz, 1986.
Table 2. Results of laboratory and pilot studies on the feasibility of anaerobic treatment of waste water
from cassava processing, carried out by the Universidad del Valle and the Corporacin Autnoma
Regional del Valle del Cauca, Colombia.
Descriptiona 12-liter reactor 23-liter reactorb

n Average n-1 n Average n-1
Effluent flow (ml/min)c 52 16.8 6.40 14 10.8 4.6

CODAf (mg/L)c 52 3,294 2,732 14 1,640 1,263
CODEf (mg/L)c 52 659 56 12 105 26
OVL (kg COD/m3.day)c 52 5.02 2.46 12 4.31 3.2
Removal COD (%)c 36 95 2 12 85.4 12.1
Biogas production (L/day) 53 16.4 8.4 - - -
a. CODAf = chemical oxygen demand in affluent flow; CODEf = chemical oxygen demand in effluent flow;
OVL = organic volume load.
b. The effluent was recycled by about 30%.
c. These units refer to average values of the COD.
SOURCES: Escandn, 1988; Hernndez, 1987.
Methanogenic activity in mud was particulate material present in the

measured in the 12-liter reactor, waste water, and to fix those
increasing significantly from an initial microorganisms responsible for
rate of 0.063 kg COD-CH4/kg VSS biodecomposing waste organic matter.
(volatile suspended solids) to a rate of The support bed decomposes with
0.188 kg COD-CH4/kg VSS. Although time so it has to be changed regularly;
cyanide concentration was measured this also prevents silting.
only a few times, it was calculated as
decreasing by about 69%. Three operations occur
simultaneously within the transfilter:
(1) waste waters are purified by
Transfiltering filtration and the organic material
present in the waste is digested;
This is a type of anaerobic treatment, (2) biogas (an energy resource) is
using a lignocellulose base to filter produced; and (3) the lignocellulose
236
material (a solid waste appropriate for de monte. No load loss was observed
compost) is digested. Figure 2 is a in bamboo (Gotin, 1993). Technically,
diagram of a transfilter reactor any of these materials can therefore be
(Farinet, 1993). used, if due attention is paid to the
operating criteria.
The UV is conducting laboratory
research on the transfilter process To complement the research on
based on waste waters from cassava types of support, further studies on
starch extraction. A pilot reactor will the filtration capacity of paja de monte
later be built at a starch factory in the will be made at a pilot starch factory.
Cauca Department. The aim is to determine the maximum
compression of the support at which
So far, with sugarcane bagasse, optimal filtration efficiency is obtained
paja de monte, and bamboo as support for a given volume and period in
beds, the following hydrodynamic relation to time of silting the filter.
characteristics were determined: The supernatant effluent from the
volume of waste water eliminated from starch sedimentation tanks will be the
the supports, and load loss from clean waste water treated.
water flowing through the filtering
medium, as affected by water velocity To define constraints to designing
and density of medium (compression). the pilot reactor, feasibility studies on
methanizing the filter effluent will be
Results showed very low load conducted in the laboratory, based on
losses for higher velocities (35 m/h), previous results.
and for stronger compressions
(120 kg/m3 for bagasse and Bacterial microflora will also be
100 kg/m3 for paja de monte). studied for their composition,
Maximum load loss was 7 cm for distribution, and nature of the
bagasse 1 m long and 6.3 cm for paja different groups of bacteria involved
Waste
water
Fermented (digested)
Support support material
Biogas Biogas
Purified
water
Piston
Figure 2. A transfilter reactor, used for the anaerobic treatment of waste water from cassava starch
extraction. (From Farinet, 1993.)
237
and their interactions. Considerable Gotin, G. 1993. Caractrisation

knowledge is already available on the hydrodynamique de supports naturels
en vue de les employer en biofiltration.
metabolic pathways of the Thesis. Ecole nationale suprieure de
microbiological process of anaerobic biologie applique la nutrition et
fermentation (hydrolysis, lalimentation (ENSBANA), Dijon,
acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and France. 43 p.
methanogenesis).
Hernndez, L. I. 1987. Tratamiento anaerobio
We will quantify and characterize de las aguas residuales del proceso de
produccin de almidn de yuca y
the active bacterial microflora desechos del caf. Convenio
responsible for biodegrading the Universidad del Valle-Corporacin
effluent at each stage of the process. Autnoma Regional del Valle del
The evolution, and the density, of Cauca (CVC), internal publication.
each group of bacteria will also be Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia.
assessed throughout the operation of
the digestor. Janssen, W. and De Jong, G. 1981. Cassava
and cassava starch: the production,
processing, and marketing of cassava
and sour cassava starch in Mondomo,
References Colombia. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
177 p.
Escandn, F. 1988. Tratamiento de aguas
residuales del proceso de Pinto, R. 1978. Extraccin de almidn de yuca
elaboracin de almidn de yuca, en en rallanderas. ICA (Inst. Colomb.
un reactor de flujo ascendente y Agropecu.) Informa 12(9):3-6.
manto de lodos. Convenio
Universidad del Valle-Corporacin Raddatz, W. 1986. The possibility of anaerobic
Autnoma Regional del Valle del treatment of wastes and
Cauca (CVC), internal publication. wastewater from small and medium
Universidad del Valle, Cali, agroindustries: sisal and cassava
Colombia. starch production. Convenio de
Cooperacin, Corporacin Autnoma
Farinet, J. L. 1993. Traitement des eaux Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC)-
uses par le procd transfiltre. Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische
Rapport dessais sur prototype. Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). CVC, Cali,
Dpartement des cultures annuelles Colombia.
(CA), CIRAD, Montpellier, France.
238
SESSION 5:
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Improving Cassava Sour Starch Quality in Colombia
CHAPTER 27
IMPROVING CASSAVA SOUR STARCH

QUALITY IN COLOMBIA1
C. Brabet*, G. Chuzel**, D. Dufour*,
M. Raimbault, and J. Giraud
Introduction Bread-making potential (BMP) is

the main criterion of quality for sour
Fermented or sour starch extracted starch and is defined as the ability of
from cassava is used in Colombia to the starch to swell during baking
prepare traditional, gluten-free, (Laurent, 1992).
cheese breads such as pandeyuca
and pandebono. Starch extraction Although quality and rapidity are
consists of peeling, washing, and two major issues in cassava starch
grating fresh cassava roots. The pulp production, sour starch is still
is then screened under running water produced according to traditional
to obtain starch milk or lechada. The methods. Hence, sour starch is
starch is then sedimented out and highly variable in product quality,
placed into wooden or tiled tanks limiting its use in food industries.
(about 1 m3), where it ferments
naturally over 20 to 30 days under Fermentation and sun-drying
anaerobic conditions and at an critically influence the BMP of sour
average temperature of 21 C. The starch (Brabet and Dufour, 1996;
resulting sour starch is then Larsonneur, 1993). Developing
sun-dried to obtain a stable product adequate control of and suitable
with 10%-15% moisture, and is practices for these two processing
marketed (Brabet and Dufour, 1996; steps would help stabilize and
Jory, 1989). improve sour starchs economic value
and strengthen the status of this
agroindustry.
Cassava processors sometimes

improve sour starch quality by
* CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Cassava inoculating batches with surface
** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Faculdade de
water from fermentation tanks in
Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade which good quality products have
Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Paulo, been produced. But this practice still
Brazil. results in irregular quality of sour
Institut franais de recherche scientifique
pour le dveloppement en coopration starch.
Laboratoire de microbiologie et biochimie We therefore studied the natural
industrielles (GBSA), Universit de
Montpellier II, Montpellier, France.
fermentation of cassava starch in
detail, in an attempt to relate the
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. nature of microflora and their effect
241
on final product quality. We then 1988; Crdenas and de Buckle, 1980;

carried out a cassava starch Larsonneur, 1993; Nakamura and
inoculation trial, using amylolytic Park, 1975).
lactic acid bacteria (ALAB), isolated
and selected from previous Effect of a starter culture on
fermentation kinetic studies. Our cassava starch fermentation and
purpose was to standardize product quality
quality and reduce fermentation time.
A fermentation with starch
We also carried out studies to inoculation was carried out at the
confirm the role of sun-drying in the SDT Agroindustrial, a
acquisition of BMP, and to determine starch-processing plant in La
the key factors responsible. The trials Agustina, Cauca Department,
involved sun-drying kinetic studies, Colombia, using cassava variety
oven-drying at 40 C and at 55 C, CM 523-7. An amylolytic lactic acid
drying under cover, oven-drying at bacterial strain, ALAB 20, used for
40 C under ultraviolet (UV) light, and the starch inoculation trial, was
drying with water added. isolated from a previous natural
cassava starch fermentation and
identified as Lactobacillus crispatus,
Cassava Starch Fermentation using the Gmez (1993) API 50CH
system. Flores (1993) studied the
Natural fermentation physiological parameters of this ALAB
20 strain during a lactic acid
Natural fermentation of cassava fermentation on an MRS-starch
starch is characterized by the medium in a bioreactor. (The glucose
presence of a predominantly lactic in the medium was replaced by
acid flora (108-109 cfu/g dry matter of soluble starch.)
starch), confirmed by the rapid and
drastic decrease of pH (7 to 3.5 in The fermentation tank was
5 days), while total acidity increases partitioned into two: one part for
because of a mainly lactic acid natural fermentation and the other
production (Brabet and Dufour, for inoculated-starch fermentation.
1996). Lactic acid flora has an active Inoculated and noninoculated
catabolism but its level is constant lechadas (aqueous starch
during fermentation. suspensions) were first sampled.
Then, samples of inoculated and
At the start of fermentation, noninoculated starch were taken at 1,
starch is the main source of 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 14, and 20 days of
fermentable sugar. Gmez (1993) fermentation.
isolated 75 lactic acid bacterial
strains, exhibiting good amylolytic Changes in amylolytic and
activity, from natural cassava starch total lactic acid flora. Total lactic
fermentation. This ALAB strain bank acid flora on MRS medium showed no
is currently being molecularly and significant difference between
biochemically characterized. inoculated and noninoculated starch
(Figures 1 and 2). This flora reached
Previous works have shown 108-109 cfu/g of dry matter of starch
modifications of cassava starch on the second day and remained
physicochemical and rheological constant until the end of
characteristics during fermentation fermentation. In contrast, as a
(Brabet and Dufour, 1996; Brabet proportion of total flora, amylolytic
and Mestres, 1991; Camargo et al., flora on MRS-starch medium (MRS
242
medium where glucose was replaced pH and lactic acid production.

by 20 g/L of soluble starch) were in In the inoculated-starch fermentation,
a higher proportion in inoculated acidification was more notable during
starch than in noninoculated the first 5 days of fermentation, but
(Figures 1, 2, and 3). Furthermore, pH value finally stabilized at 3.5 (pKa
flora were heterogenous during the of lactic acid) in both fermentations
natural fermentation, whereas the (Figure 4). The inoculated
inoculated fermentation resulted in fermentation produced slightly more
a predominance of the ALAB 20 lactic acid (Figure 5) during the first
strain. days of fermentation.
Proportion of amylolytic flora (%)

Log (cfu/g dry matter of starch)
10 120
100
9
80
8
60
7
40
6 20
5 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Days of fermentation Days of fermentation
Figure 1. Changes in anaerobic microflora on Figure 3. Evolution of amylolytic flora as

MRS and MRS-starch media in proportion of total flora on
natural fermentation. ( = total lactic MRS-starch medium during cassava
acid flora on MRS agar; = total flora starch fermentation. ( = natural
on MRS-starch agar; = amylolytic fermentation; = inoculated-starch
flora on MRS-starch agar.) fermentation.)
10 6.0
Log (cfu/g dry matter of starch)
5.5
9
5.0
8
pH
4.5
7
4.0
6 3.5
5 3.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Days of fermentation Days of fermentation
Figure 2. Changes in anaerobic microflora on Figure 4. Evolution of pH during cassava starch

MRS and MRS-starch media in fermentation. ( = natural
inoculated-starch fermentation. fermentation; = inoculated-starch
( = total lactic acid flora on MRS fermentation.)
agar; = total flora on MRS-starch
agar; = amylolytic flora on
MRS-starch agar.)
243
Lactic acid (mmol/100 g 12 Sour starch specific BMP increased

dry matter of starch)
10
from 2 cm3/g (wet starch) to at least
5 cm3/g in 4 h of sun-drying
8 (Larsonneur, 1993). The same starch
sample, when oven-dried at 40 C
6
(slow drying) or 55 C (rapid drying),
4 or dried under cover for 8 h, did not
expand (specific BMP of 2-2.5 cm3/g).
2
These results demonstrate the
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 need for sun-drying if sour starch is
Days of fermentation to acquire BMP, and the importance
of solar radiation. The results also
Figure 5. Evolution of lactic acid content during explain why Brazilian plants
cassava starch fermentation.
( = natural fermentation; producing cassava sour starch do not
= inoculated-starch fermentation.) artificially dry starch during the rainy
season but ferment it instead for
various months until the dry season
6 arrives.
Specific volume (cm3/g)
Oven-drying trials of sour cassava

5
starch at 40 C and under a UV lamp
(Cole-Palmer, G-09817-20, 4 W,
4 254 nm and 366 nm) were conducted
for 8 and 16 days. Under UV
radiation, the sour starchs capacity
3
for bread making increased to a value
close to that of the sun-dried starch
2 control, whereas oven-dried samples
0 5 10 15 20 25
expanded little:
Days of fermentation
Figure 6. Evolution of cassava starch Treatment Bread-making

bread-making capacity during potential (cm3/g) at:
fermentation. ( = natural
fermentation; = inoculated-starch 8h 8 days 16 days
fermentation.)
Sun-drying 6.82 6.82
Bread-making potential of Oven-drying at 40 C 2.46 3.18

starch. Inoculation of cassava starch
with ALAB 20 allowed the final BMP Oven-drying at 40 C
to be reached 10 days earlier, and under UV:
compared with natural fermentation.
254 nm 3.94 4.95
But the final BMP of the starch was
not improved (Figure 6). 366 nm 3.78 4.75
Sun-Drying Cassava Sour These results show that UV

Starch radiation is one of the different types
of sun radiation able to develop the
Importance of ultraviolet radiation BMP of cassava sour starch.
Compared with 8 h of sun-drying, the
Kinetic studies of drying cassava sour lengthy period (8 and 16 days) needed
starch in the sun (8 h) were realized. to increase the bread-making capacity
244
of sour starch may be explained by The preliminary results of starch

the low power (4 W) of the UV lamp inoculation trial demonstrated that
used. the use of ALAB 20 as a starter
culture helped reduce fermentation
The role of water in sun-drying time. Replicated starch inoculation
sour starch trials, using the same strain, will be
undertaken to confirm these results.
Water content of cassava sour starch Other lactic inocula will also be
during sun-drying plays an important investigated for reducing fermentation
role in improving the starchs time and improving cassava sour
bread-making capacity. For example, starch quality.
cassava sour starch oven-dried at
40 C for 8 h, then rehumidified to From the results cited above, the
50% and sun-dried for another 8 h, concept of an artificial drying
had a higher bread-making capacity apparatus, using UV radiation and
(5.10 cm3/g) than the same starch controlling starch moisture, can be
sample dried under the same visualized. This would make
conditions but without the additional standardizing sour starch drying and
water (3.75 cm3/g). quality possible, which would no
longer be at the mercy of the weather.
Better results are obtained
(7.4 cm3/g) if sour starch is sun-dried Studies are being conducted to
at 40 C for 8 h, then sun-dried for evaluate the influence of cassava
another 8 h, but with water added variety and root storage on sour
every hour for 3 h. In contrast, the starch quality. Climatic conditions
expansion of the starch in the and the water used during production
sun-dried control (8 h) was may also have effects.
5.03 cm3/g.
Acknowledgments
Conclusions
We wish to thank J. Mayer and
To improve the quality of cassava A. L. Chaves (Biotechnology
sour starch, the following Laboratory, CIAT, Cali, Colombia) for
recommendations should be made to their cooperation in analyzing organic
the rallanderos (cassava sour starch acids, using high-performance liquid
producers): chromatography (HPLC). We also
thank F. Alarcn (CIAT) and
(1) To ferment. Starch should be A. Beitz (Universidad del Valle, Cali,
fermented for at least 20 days. Colombia) for their active
The pH should be controlled at participation in the starch inoculation
3.5. The fermentation tank should trials. We specially thank A. L. Jaime
be covered with about 5 cm of (Universidad del Valle) for her help.
water to ensure anaerobic
conditions and lactic acid
fermentation. References
(2) To dry. Sour starch should be
dried under sunny conditions. Brabet, C. and Dufour, D. 1996. El almidn
Starch samples should be turned agrio de yuca: produccin y estudios
de los propiedades fisicoqumicas. In:
over to ensure exposure of all Proceedings of the Simposio en
starch granules. Carbohdratos, del 4 al 6 octubre
1993, Quito, Ecuador. p. 197-203.
245
__________ and Mestres, C. 1991. Evaluacin Jory, M. 1989. Contribution ltude de deux
de las modificaciones estructurales processus de transformation du
del almidn de yuca durante la manioc comportant une phase de
fermentacin: medida de la fermentation: le gari au Togo,
viscosidad intrnseca y tcnica de lamidon aigre en Colombie. Mmoire
cromatografa de permeacin en gel. de Mastre en technologie alimentaire
In: Proceedings of the taller Avances rgions chaudes. Ecole nationale
sobre Almidn y Yuca; abstracts, suprieure des industries agricoles et
17-20 June, Cali, Colombia. CIAT, alimentaires (ENSIA) and CIRAD,
Cali, Colombia. p. 1-6. Montpellier, France. 45 p.
Camargo, C.; Colonna, P.; Buleon, A.; and Larsonneur, S. 1993. Influence du schage
Richard-Molard, D. 1988. solaire sur la qualit de lamidon
Functional properties of sour cassava aigre de manioc. Projet de fin dtudes.
(Manihot utilissima) starch/polvilho Gnie biologique, produits biologique et
azedo. J. Sci. Food Agric. 45:273-289. alimentaires, Universit de technologie
de Compigne, France. 87 p.
Crdenas, O. S. and de Buckle, T. S. 1980.
Sour cassava starch production: a Laurent, L. 1992. Qualit de lamidon aigre de
preliminary study. J. Food Sci. manioc: validation dune mthode
45:1509-1512, 1528. dvaluation du pouvoir de panification
et mise en place dune preuve
Flores, C. 1993. Estudio preliminar del descriptive danalyse sensorielle.
comportamiento fisiolgico y Projet de fin dtudes. Gnie biologique,
enzimtico en bioreactor de cuatro produits biologiques et alimentaires,
bacterias amilolticas aisladas del Universit de technologie de
almidn agrio de yuca (Manihot Compigne, France. 68 p.
esculenta Crantz) en Colombia.
Informe de trabajo. CIAT, Cali, Nakamura, I. M. and Park, Y. K. 1975. Some
Colombia. 22 p. physico-chemical properties of
fermented cassava starch (polvilho
Gmez, Y. 1993. Bacterias lcticas azedo). Starch/Strke 27(9):295-297.
amilolticas presentes en la
fermentacin del almidn agrio de
yuca. Thesis. Facultad de Ciencias,
Departamento de Biologa,
Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia.
69 p.
246
Investigating Sour Starch Production in Brazil
CHAPTER 28
INVESTIGATING SOUR STARCH

PRODUCTION IN BRAZIL
R. C. Marder*, R. de Araujo Cruz**, M. A. Moreno***,
A. Curran*, and D. S. Trim*
Abstract countries. Areas identified for future

development and improvement
In sour starch producing countries include quality definition and
such as Brazil and Colombia, most standardization, marketing and
production is from small and promotion, and pollution abatement
medium-sized plants. If the sector is measures.
to develop, it must adapt to changing
circumstances, environmental factors,
and market demand for improved Introduction
product quality. Data on current
processing operations are essential for Production of sour starch
identifying and prioritizing
development and modernization In Brazil, sour starch (polvilho azedo)
needs. is manufactured principally in the
State of Minas Gerais (MG), with
This paper presents the results additional production in So Paulo
of a detailed, in-depth investigation and Paran States. Plants are
of sour starch production in southern typically small to medium-sized,
Brazil. We first describe the processing about 10-20 t/day of
major processing operations: root roots, although larger plants can
preparation, disintegration, screening process as many as 50 t/day.
for fiber removal, sedimentation, and
drying. Then we discuss the inputs An estimated 80 plants operate in
and outputs for each operation, the municipalities of Cachoeira da
the composition of products and Minas and Conceio dos Ouros, in
intermediates within the process, the region of Pouso Alegre, southern
and, in particular, the volume and MG. Typical plants produce about
composition of waste watersa factor 3 t/day of starch, although some
of increasing environmental concern. larger plants produce 10-15 t/day.
The Empresa de Assistncia Tcnica e
The data are then related to starch Extenso Rural (EMATER) (personal
production technology used in other communication, 1993) suggests that
the region produced about 18,000 t
in 1986, and is now producing
12-13 thousand tons per year.
* Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Kent, UK.
** APTA Consultancy Group, So Paulo, Brazil.
*** Universidad del Valle (UNIVALLE), Cali, Sour starch production is also
Colombia. concentrated around Divinpolis
247
where about 10 small plants operate, processing methods. Before changes

each employing three to four people can be made, accurate and detailed
and producing more than 100 t of data are needed on current processing
starch per year (EMATER, personal operations. Cereda and Takahashi
communication, 1993). These exist (Ch. 25, this volume) have gathered
alongside more than 100 very small information on processing operations
starch production units, based on in farinha and native starch industries
family farms, which sell to the local in Brazil. But comprehensive data are
market, supermarkets, bakeries, and unavailable on operations and
households. The total 1985 problems experienced in small and
production in the Divinpolis region medium-sized sour starch plants. We,
was estimated to be about 10,000 t. therefore, conducted a detailed
Current production is probably below analysis of plant operations in two
this figure if trends mirror those of the plants in Minas Gerais.
Pouso Alegre region. No apparent
change has occurred in the number
of the regions plants during the last Production Technology
3 years.
The small- to medium-scale
Sour starch is used in certain production of sour starch in Brazil is
snacks, mainly po de quiejo and schematically similar to that of sour
biscoitos, on sale in public eating starch in Colombia as described by
places such as cafs and bus stations. Salazar de Buckle et al. (1971)
The market for these products is (Figure 1).
stagnating, because of increasing
competition from other snack Lorry loads of fresh roots are
products and the effects of the current delivered to the plant and fed into a
economic climate on consumer rotary washer fitted with overhead
spending. However, po de quiejo has water sprays for part of its length. As
recently begun to be marketed well as washing off dirt and debris,
through a fast-food chain which the tumbling action of the roots
specializes in the product, and as they pass along the washer also
supermarkets have begun stocking it removes most of the bark. Washed
as a frozen product. roots are transferred to the
hopper-fed, root disintegrator, via
Although this expanded market an inspection conveyor, at which an
has resulted in a more buoyant operator cuts up excessively large
demand for sour starch, it has not had roots, and removes remaining bark
the kind of effect on the industry that and stems.
might have been expected. In Paran
State, especially, producers of po de All plants employ similarly
quiejo are increasingly replacing sour constructed disintegrators known as
starch with industrially produced, the Jahn rasper (Grace, 1977;
unfermented, sweet starch (fecula), or Radley 1976). This machine consists
sun-dried sweet starch (polvilho doce). of a hollow, cylindrical drum, with
tooth-edged steel blades sandwiched
If the local sour starch industry is between local hardwood slats fixed
to survive, it must adapt to changing longitudinally to its surface. The
circumstancese.g., increased drum is mounted between two
demand for an improved quality circular steel endplates on a central
product, increasing costs of inputs, shaft and housed inside a steel
and concern for environmental casing, the base of which includes a
conservationby improving its screening plate.
248
Roots
Water Washing Waste water
Disintegration Recycled
liquor
Water
Separation Separation Pulp

(First stage) (Second stage)
Starch Water
milk Water
Screening
Water Fermentation
Milling
Drying Water vapor
Milling
Packaging
Figure 1. Sour starch manufacture in a typical plant in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.
Recycled liquor from the starch tapering from front to back. The
separators is continuously fed into the conical screen is a metal frame
disintegrator. The resultant slurry of covered with a nylon mesh. The
crushed roots passes through the narrow end of the cone is closed with
screening plate into a sump tank from a fixed metal plate connected to the
which it is pumped to the separators. drive shaft. Slurry is pumped into the
center of the separator (toward the
All plants employ a two-stage fixed plate) and forced through the
separation process to remove the screen to an outlet at the bottom of
liberated starch from the fibrous pulp the casing into a sump tank. Water is
(massa). The majority of plants sprayed into the slurry from jets
employ two centrifugal separators, positioned around the screen.
which have replaced the traditional,
rotating brush-and-screen washers. In the sump tank, the slurry
receives extra water to facilitate
The centrifugal separator consists pumping it over a flatbed reciprocating
of a rotating conical screen, housed screen to remove any remaining fiber
inside a shaped, mild-steel casing, (larger plants employ an additional
249
centrifugal separator). The slurry then sacks laid on raised, drying tables,
enters a second separator for further usually made of bamboo. The drying
starch extraction. Liquor discharged starch is agitated manually at regular
from the second separator is returned intervals. When dry, the starch is
to the disintegrator, and the collected, milled to a powder, and
suspension of pulp, or starch milk, packaged into 50-kg bags or, in some
is discharged to storage tanks. plants, into packs for direct sale to
retailers.
The milk then flows into
sedimentation channels or tables
(Bruinsma et al., 1981). Dimensions Monitoring Plant Operations
for the channels vary considerably
from plant to plant: in length, from Measuring process parameters and
150 to 200 m; in width, from 0.6 to sampling procedures
1.0 m; and in depth, from 0.4 to
0.6 m. The channels are usually lined With the agreement and cooperation
with ceramic tiles because both starch of plant management and staff,
and starch milk attack concrete. The processing operations at two plants
channels are roofed to protect the were monitored for 3 weeks.
starch from rain or sunlight. Monitoring activities were:
The milk is directed into one end (1) Measuring water flows within
of the channels and the supernatant processing operations to determine
liquor flows over a weir at the other water consumption at each stage;
end to be discharged as waste water (2) Periodic sampling of fresh roots,
into nearby watercourses, seepage disintegrator slurry, starch milk,
pits, or infiltration channels. waste fibrous pulp, fermented and
dried starch;
After overnight settling, (3) Sampling of water supplies and
supernatant remaining in the generated effluents throughout the
sedimentation channels is discharged process to characterize pollution
by removing the weir. The surface of loads.
the settled starch is sometimes
washed to remove those uppermost During monitoring, no attempt
layers containing high concentrations was made to influence plant
of dirt, protein, and fiber impurities. management and staff in their work.
Over several days, the channels are
allowed to fill with successive layers
of starch until space is available in Sample analysis
the fermentation tanks. The starch
is then dug out of the channel, Moisture content of root, starch cake,
transferred to the tanks, covered with and pulp samples were determined by
water, and left to ferment for a oven drying at about 45 C to constant
minimum of 30 days. The tanks are weight. Dried samples were stored
also lined with ceramic tiles and are and later analyzed for starch content,
usually constructed in series adjacent using enzyme hydrolysis (AOAC, 1965)
to the sedimentation channels. They, and crude fiber (Harris, 1970).
too, are roofed to prevent exposure to
sunlight and rain. Immediately after collection, the
pH of all water and effluent samples
After fermentation, the starch is was measured with a hand-held meter
removed from the tanks, broken up (CIBA Corning Diagnostics Ltd.,
with a spike mill, and dried on hessian Halsted, UK). The samples were then
250
taken to a local laboratory and shaft, which was driven at 150 rpm by
analyzed for chemical oxygen demand a 2.2-kW (3 HP) motor. In plant A, the
(COD), and suspended and dissolved trough was fitted with an overhead
solids. water spray for the latter two-thirds of
its length, whereas in plant B, the
spray covered only the last third.
Results and Discussion
The flow of roots through the
Root washing washers was, in effect, the same for
both plants at 0.55 kg/s of fresh
Table 1 shows the proportions of dirt, roots. But plant A used a much larger
bark, peel, and parenchyma in the volume of water for washing: about
roots received at the two plants and 1.95 L/s (or 3.55 m3/t of roots),
Table 2 shows the composition of the compared with 0.70 L/s (or 1.27 m3/t)
washed roots. for plant B (Table 3). The washers
performance at plant A, as measured
The root washers employed in the by the percentage removal of bark,
two plants had a similar design: a was considerably more effective (about
semicircular, slatted trough, 7 m long 95%), compared with that of plant B
with a 0.95-m diameter. It had fixed, (78% to 80%). At plant B higher levels
4-bladed paddles, mounted 0.3 m of dirt and bark fragments were visibly
apart on an overhead, central rotating observable in the sedimented starch.
Large sweet-starch plants in Brazil

and India employ similar washers. In
Table 1. Composition (%) of residues from smaller Brazilian and Colombian
washing fresh cassava roots at two plants, root washing is performed in
plants producing sour starch, Minas
batches, using rotating, slatted drums
Gerais, Brazil.
with a continuous supply of water.
Component Plant A Plant B But in medium-sized plants in India,
roots are passed through a flatbed
Dirt 0.50 0.49 conveyor washer, removing only the
Bark 2.35 1.84
dirt and leaving the bark (Trim et al.,
Peel 15.01 17.47
1993). For sago production, both the
Parenchyma 82.14 80.20
bark and peel are removed manually.
Table 2. Composition of roots, starch, and pulp at two plants producing sour starch, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Sample Component (% DM)a
Total Starch Crude Fat Protein Ash

solids (%) fiber
Plant A:
Washed roots 34.45 89.35 1.92 0.44 2.55 1.32
Dried starch 88.10 96.59 0.35 - - -
Pulp 7.70 85.59 8.45 0.16 1.36 0.96
Plant B:
Washed roots 36.85 90.11 2.16 0.19 2.68 1.10
Dried starch 88.73 96.43 0.41 - - -
Pulp 7.23 82.21 12.14 0.24 1.79 1.26
a. (% DM) = percentage of dry matter.
251
Table 3. Total water consumption at two plants to that reported by Trim et al. (1993)
producing sour cassava starch, Minas
Gerais, Brazil.
of 83% for an Indian sago plant.
However, in the Indian plant, two
Operation Water consumption perforated drum disintegrators were
m3/t of m3/t of
used in series to improve starch
roots product extraction.
Plant A: The operation of the disintegrator

Root washing 3.55 15.24
at plant B was much smoother, with
Starch extraction 3.78 16.22
less notable strain on the motor,
Total 7.33 31.46
because of variation in feeding the
Plant B: roots. Furthermore, the plant operator
Root washing 1.27 4.70 thought that the throughput of
Starch extraction 4.50 16.67
roots in the disintegrator could be
Total 5.77 21.37
increased, thus increasing maximum
output.
Starch separation
Root disintegration
Plant A employed two identical
The drums in the disintegrators at centrifugal separators, both
the two plants were of similar belt-driven from a common 3.7-kW
construction, 0.32 m in diameter and (5 HP) motor and rotating at 650 rpm.
0.28 m in width. The blades were The rotating conical screen in each
longitudinally spaced, at about was 0.70 m in length, 0.25 m in
12 mm, around the circumference of diameter at the narrow end, and
the drum. Each drum had 80 to 0.76 m at the wider end. It
85 blades. The disintegrators were was covered with nylon mesh
both directly driven by an electric (PA-120-125/ASTM1). The steel
motor and rotated at 2,500 rpm. casing was 1 m squared in front,
However, plant A employed a smaller tapering to 0.5 m squared at the back.
motor (11.2 kW or 15 HP) than did
plant B (18.6 kW or 25 HP). Both Water was fed to the first
plants employed 1.5-kW (2 HP) separator at 0.90 L/s and to the
centrifugal pumps to transfer the second at 0.72 L/s. Fresh water was
slurry from the disintegrator sump to also added to the sump tank between
the separators. the separators at a rate of 0.44 L/s.
The total water added was therefore
The total solids content of the 2.06 L/s (3.78 m3/t of roots). Starch
disintegrated root slurry at plant A milk was discharged from the
was 8.2% and at plant B, 7.6%. first separator directly into the
Although these values are similar, the sedimentation channel at a rate of
disintegrator at plant B produced a 1.99 L/s with a concentration of solids
much finer slurry, indicating a higher at 7.1%.
degree of root maceration. This was
reflected in the starch extraction Plant B used a single centrifugal
efficiency (i.e., the fraction of starch separator, identical to those at plant
released in disintegration) at plant A A, for the primary stage, and a
(81%), compared with plant B (84%). rotating brush-and-screen washer for
These figures are considerably higher
than those quoted by Bruinsma et al.
(1981) of 61% to 68% for small- to 1. ASTM = American Society for Testing and
medium-scale production, but close Materials.
252
the second stage. The operating 0.4 m deep. Plant B had four similarly
speed of the centrifugal separator at constructed channels, each 45 m long,
760 rpm was higher than at plant A, 0.82 m wide, and 0.5 m deep. Both
although using a similarly powered sets of channels had a weir, 0.15 m
motor. high, at one end. The residence time
for starch milk flowing into empty
The brush-and-screen washer channels was 3.0 h for plant A and
consisted of a semicircular, screened 2.4 h for plant B. The solids content
trough (5.65 m long and 0.42 m in of batches of sedimented starch
diameter), above which a shaft, removed from the channels averaged
rotating at 530 rpm, was centrally 59.9% for plant A and 59.1% for
mounted. Plastic brushes were plant B.
spaced at 90 mm intervals along the
shaft, which was rotated by a 2.2-kW In India, tanks are used instead of
(2 HP) centrifugal pump. channels for sedimentation, largely
because of historical reasons (Trim et
Water was sprayed into the al., 1993). After overnight settling and
separator at a rate of 0.74 L/s and removal of the supernatant liquor, the
into the washer at 0.55 L/s; 1.20 L/s starch cake had a concentration of
of water was fed into the sump solids at 50%, but after washing, the
tank between the two. Total water concentration was 55%.
consumption was therefore 2.48 L/s
(4.51 m3/t of roots). Starch milk was Starch and crude fiber
discharged from the washer at a rate concentrations of the settled cake in
of 2.52 L/s with a concentration of the two plants were similar, averaging
solids at 6.80%. 96.7% for starch and 0.3% for crude
fiber (dry matter basis).
The solids content of the waste
pulp was 7.70% in plant A and 7.23% The changes occurring in the
in plant B (Table 2). The starch starch as a result of fermentation are
content of the pulp at plant A was the subject of much recent research
85.59% and at plant B, 82.21%. The (e.g., Brabet et al., Ch. 27, this
higher concentration from plant A volume) but were not studied in this
again indicates less efficient investigation. Although a minimum
disintegration of the roots. Trim et al. fermentation time of 30 days is
(1993) measured a starch necessary, starch often remained in
concentration of 72% in the pulp the tanks at the two plants for longer
discharged from a system of periods because of the lack of
reciprocating screens. available drying space. Such
prolonged fermentation had no
The concentration of free starch in detrimental effect on starch quality.
the waste pulp was very low at both The temperature of the fermenting
plants (0.32% at plant A and 0.18% at starch at the two plants ranged
plant B), indicating a high efficiency of between 12 and 13 C.
extraction of free starch from the pulp.
Drying
Sedimentation and fermentation
Both plants employed traditional
Plant A used six channels, drying tables, raised about 1 m from
constructed side by side and the ground. They were essentially
connected in series to minimize space bamboo mats (esteiras), 4.0 m long
and ease unloading. Each channel and 1.2 m wide, tied to bamboo beams
was 32 m long, 0.74 m wide, and mounted on wooden stakes. Plant A
253
had 600 esteiras, with a total drying Material balance

area of 2,800 m2, and plant B had
760 esteiras (3,650 m2). The fermented The material balance for the
starch was spread on cotton sacks processing operations at the two
stretched across the tables with a wet plants was calculated from the
starch loading of about 1.8 to measured data of process flows and
2.0 kg/m2. from results of laboratory analyses
(Figures 3 and 4). Figure 3 shows that
In summer, drying may take 6 to the total mass flow of dried starch in
7 h, but in winter it may take 2 plant A was 23% and Figure 4, 27% in
working days or 13 h. Starch that is plant B. A more accurate comparison
still damp by the end of the day is is that of starch recovery efficiency
gathered up in cotton sacks and placed the fraction of starch in the roots
in storage sheds overnight. recovered in the product. The overall
starch recovery was about 67% for
Figure 2 shows the drying curves plant A and 72% for plant B.
for batches of starch dried at the two
plants (moisture contents are given on Product quality
a wet basis). As calculated from
Table 2, the moisture content (dry Table 2 gives the composition of the
basis) of the dried starch produced at starch products. The results indicate
plant A was 11.9% and that at plant B, no significant difference in starch
11.3%. The dried starch contents were purity in products from the two
96.6% at plant A and 96.4% at plant B plants, especially in root washing,
(dry matter basis) (Table 2). despite their different processing
procedures.
Many plants in the area are
investing in drying tables made of wire Processors commonly define
mesh within wooden frames. The mesh quality in terms of the degree of
provides improved ventilation around whiteness and the acid taste of the
the starch and so reduces drying time. sour starch, but no data exist to
confirm that these criteria are linked
to commercial value. Producers
50 believe quality improves the more the
processing environment is clean, the
45
more water used, and the purer the
40 processing water. Spring water is
Moisture content (% wb)
usually preferred to well or river water.

35
The lower temperature of spring
30 water is also believed to improve
25 fermentation. Intense sunlight and
agitated air movement around the
20
starch on a second or third days
15 drying may deteriorate quality by
encouraging growth of mold.
10
5 Water consumption and

characteristics of waste water
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Drying time (hours) Plant A used more water for root
washing (3.55 m3/t of roots) than did
Figure 2. Sour starch drying curves at two plants
in Minas Gerais, Brazil. ( = plant A; plant B (1.27 m3/t) (Table 3).
= plant B.) However, plant A used appreciably
254
less water for root disintegration and effluents from the plants. These data
starch separation (3.78 m3/t) than confirm the highly polluting nature of
did plant B (4.50 m3/t). Total water these waste waters. The COD of the
consumption was 7.33 m3/t for plant waste waters from plant A was
A, and 5.77 m3/t for plant B. The 4,800 mg/L and from plant B,
flow of water recycled from the 3,500 mg/L. The CODs of the
separators to the disintegrator was supernatant liquor discharged from
marginally different in the two the sedimentation channels were
plants: plant A recycled 3.50 m3/t 11,500 mg/L for plant A and
and plant B, 4.22 m3/t. In sago 14,800 mg/L for plant B, that is,
production in India (Trim et al., much higher than the 6,700 mg/L
1993), water consumption was noted in liquor discharged from
6.40 m3/t, of which 4.10 m3/t was sedimentation tanks in India (Trim et
used for disintegration and al., 1993).
separation.
Analyses also indicated that the
Table 4 shows the results of supernatant liquors contained
analyses of the two principal significant levels of cyanide
Roots
T-1000, W-637, S-299, N-64
Water Waste water

Washing
W-3550 T-3640, W-3591, S-18, N-31
Washed roots
T-910, W-596, S-281, N-33
Disintegration
Root slurry
T-4410, W-4038, S-327, N-45 Recycled liquor
T-3500, W-3442, S-46, N-12
Water Separation
W-3780 Pulp
T-1150, W-1070, S-67, N-13
Starch milk
T-3540, W-3306, S-214, N-20

T-3200, W-3171, S-15, N-14
Starch cake
T-340, W-135, S-199, N-6
Fermentation
Starch cake
Water vapor
Drying
W-109
Dried starch
T-233, W-28, S-199, N-6
Figure 3. Material balance, based on 1,000 kg of roots, for plant A in Minas Gerais, Brazil. (T = total mass
flow; W = water flow; S = starch flow; N = flow of nonstarch components.)
255
Roots
T-1000, W-617, S-324, N-59
Water Waste water

Washing
W-1270 T-1360, W-1313, S-21, N-26
Washed roots
T-910, W-574, S-303, N-33
Disintegration
Root slurry
Recycled liquor
T-5130, W-4740, S-343, N-47
T-4220, W-4166, S-40, N-14
Water Separation
W-4500
Pulp
T-950, W-882, S-56, N-12
Starch milk
T-4460, W-4192, S-247, N-21

T-4060, W-4032, S-14, N-14
Starch cake
T-400, W-160, S-233, N-7
Fermentation
Starch cake
Drying Water vapor

W-130
Dried starch
T-270, W-30, S-233, N-7
Figure 4. Material balance, based on 1,000 kg of roots for plant B in Minas Gerais, Brazil. (T = total mass
flow; W = water flow; S = starch flow; N = flow of nonstarch components.)
Table 4. Characteristics of waste waters at two plants processing cassava sour starch in Minas Gerais,
Brazil.
Sample Characteristica
COD DS SS pH HCN
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/kg)
Plant A:
Waste waters 4,778 401 1,297 5.93
Supernatant liquor 11,538 1,516 7,351 5.11 43
Plant B:
Waste waters 3,475 618 1,797 6.21
Supernatant liquor 14,778 3,370 4,979 5.38 62
a. COD = chemical oxygen demand; DS = dissolved solids; SS = suspended solids.
256
compounds, measured at organized and the equipment usually

43-62 mg/kg. These values are much well maintained. Some significant
higher than those measured in India changes in processing have been
(20-35 mg/kg). The roots used in adopted over recent years, most
India for sago production are peeled notably the introduction of centrifugal
before disintegration, thus carrying separators for the recovery of starch
away larger quantities of cyanogens. from the macerated roots. An
effective means of technology transfer
Effluent treatment exists through the localized nature of
the industry, the local equipment
The effluent problem is a major supply and maintenance workshops,
environmental issue in both Pouso and plant workers setting up their
Alegre and Divinpolis. Many plants own processing plants.
discharge their effluent directly into
small streams feeding the local river. Plant operators see the most
Fish and animals have been killed by important issues as being:
polluted watercourses, and the State
Water Authority is concerned about Availability and price of cassava
the dangers of polluting drinking roots;
water supplies. Access to soft loans to finance
working capital;
Federal legislation requires that Labor costs;
plants install effluent treatment Packaging costs;
systems capable of removing at least Marketing and promotion;
85% of the pollution load. Some local Perception of improved quality by
authorities have threatened legal consumers;
action against plants that do not Efficient and cost-effective effluent
install treatment systems, despite the treatment systems.
fact that no effective treatment
systems are available that are also Processors also consider
economically feasible. In reality, fermentation and drying to be
however, plant closures are unlikely processing bottlenecks. The long
because of local socioeconomic fermentation periods tie up scarce
factors, and pollution will continue working capital, and sun-drying is
until cost-effective solutions are sometimes unreliable and requires
found. considerable space. But, if improved
technology for rapid fermentation and
The most commonly used disposal artificial drying become reality, then
systems include seepage pits (usually large-scale industrialists in other
three pits used in series) or infiltration areas may be able to undercut
channels, which allow water to seep small-scale producers in product
through the soil. The solid material is price by having access to cheaper root
removed periodically and used supplies and reaching economies of
as fertilizer. Some plants use the scale. Such undercutting would
effluent for irrigating their cassava mean the collapse of a large
crop. The long-term effects of these proportion of the industry in Minas
methods are unknown. Gerais.
The market for sour starch

Conclusions products is growing slowly, but
competition in supply is intensifying
The two plants studied, and most of and quality is becoming more
the others visited, were efficiently important. Producers in Minas
257
Gerais may well encounter future Bruinsma, D. H.; Witsenburg, W. W.; and
problems as a result of increasing Wurdemann, W. 1981. Cassava. In:
Selection of technology for food
competition from new producers processing in developing countries.
(especially in So Paulo State), who Centre for Agricultural Publishing and
have greater financial resources, Documentation (PUDOC), Wageningen,
access to higher levels of technology, the Netherlands. p. 113-158.
and are located near cheap and
Grace, M. R. 1977. Cassava processing. FAO
abundant supplies of roots.
plant production and protection series.
Food and Agriculture Organization of
Future priorities for research the United Nations (FAO), Rome. 155 p.
should be concentrated in three
areas: Harris, L. E. 1970. Determination of cell wall
(neutral detergent fiber) and cell
contents. In: Nutrition research
(1) Product quality. Quality factors techniques for domestic and wild
need to be clearly defined and animals, vol. 1. Utah State University,
standards established. Logan, UT, USA. p. 2801-2802.
Relationships between process
inputs, operations, and quality Radley, J. A. 1976. Starch production
technology. Applied Science
factors need to be identified and
Publications, London, UK. 587 p.
evaluated.
(2) Markets. Promotional efforts are Salazar de Buckle, T.; Zapata M., L. E.;
required to expand consumer Crdenas, O. S.; and Cabra, E. 1971.
awareness of sour starch and its Small-scale production of sweet and
specialized properties and uses. sour starch in Colombia. In: Weber,
E. J.; Cock, J. H.; and Chouinard, A.
(3) Water pollution. Affordable
(eds.). Cassava harvesting and
technology for water conservation, processing; proceedings of a workshop
waste reduction, and treatment held at CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
operations needs to be developed International Development Research
to minimize pollution. Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada.
p. 26-32.
Trim, D. S.; Nanda, S. K.; Curran, A.;

References Anantharaman, M.; and Nair, J. 1993.
Investigation of cassava starch and
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical sago production in India. Paper
Chemists). 1965. Official methods presented at the International
of analysis. 10th ed. Arlington, VA, Symposium on Tropical Root Crops,
USA. 6-9 Nov., Thiruvananthapuram, India.
258
Implementing Technological Innovations...
CHAPTER 29
IMPLEMENTING TECHNOLOGICAL
INNOVATIONS IN CASSAVA FLOUR AND
STARCH PROCESSING:
A CASE STUDY IN ECUADOR1
Vicente Ruiz*
Background de Asociaciones de Trabajadores

Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores
Before 1985, the only cassava de Yuca (UATAPPY). This team copied
processing technology known in and adapted some prototype
Ecuador was mechanical rasping and equipment and tools on-site in the
hand-sieving to extract starch from Associations processing plants. The
the roots. Since then, new productscassava starch and flour
technologies have been introduced, were efficiently produced and
and existing ones improved, to entered national and international
increase processing efficiency and markets.
open new markets for both cassava
starch and flour.
Flour Processing
These new technologies include
chipping, drying, and grinding Technology introduced from
cassava roots to produce meal and Colombia
flour from peeled cassava roots, and
sieving coarse-grained flours to In late 1985, trials showed that
produce fine ones. Improved cassava meal could be technically and
equipment for starch processing economically produced, using a
include raspers with saws, technology introduced from CIAT,
continuous flow washer-peelers, Colombia. The technology consisted
vibrating screens, and sedimentation of chipping, drying, and grinding
channels. dried cassava. Chips, produced by a
Thai-type, mechanical, disc chipper,
In Manab, Ecuador, a are dried on outdoor concrete floors
participatory approach has been used and then ground in hammer mills.
to facilitate the adoption of improved
technologies. The first step was to Technology currently used by
train the technical team of the Unin UATAPPY
In addition to cassava meal, three

other types of flour are produced:
white industrial flour, table flour, and
* Unin de Asociaciones de Trabajadores sieved whole-grain flour. The
Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores de
Yuca (UATAPPY), Manab, Ecuador.
technology used to produce these
flours differs from that for cassava
1. No abstract was provided by the author. meal (Table 1). To produce white
259
Table 1. Comparison of steps in the processing of different cassava flours, once roots are received, using
current technology, Manab, Ecuador.
Process Flour
(technique)
Cassava White Table Sieved
meala industrial flour flour whole-grain flour
Peeling
(manual) X X X
Washing
(manual, mechanical) X X
Chipping
(Thai-type disc chipper) X X X X
Drying
(concrete floors) X X
Drying
(trays) X X
Milling
(hammer mill) X X X X
Sieving
(vibrating or centrifuge screen) X X
Packaging
(polypropylene) X X X X
a. Original technology, introduced from Colombia. The other products are produced with more recent
technology.
industrial flour, the roots are peeled mechanically with an engine-driven

by hand before being fed to the wooden drum covered with a
chipper. The rest of the process is the perforated zinc plate, then sieved by
same as for cassava meal. To hand. Sedimentation is carried out in
produce table flour, the roots are wooden or concrete tanks, and the
peeled and washed before chipping, starch dried on concrete floors or on
and then dried naturally on trays, or paper (Figure 1).
artificially. Once the dried chips are
ground, the resulting flour is sieved Technology currently used by
through a vibrating or centrifuge UATAPPY
screen. Sieved whole-grain flour is
produced by passing the meal The UATAPPY is currently extracting
through a vibrating screen as for cassava starch with mechanized
table flour. technology developed with the
technical assistance of CIAT and the
Fundacin Adelanto Comunitario
Starch Processing (FACE), and with the financial
support of the Fundacin para el
Traditional technology used in Desarrollo Agropecuario
Ecuador (FUNDAGRO). Cassava roots undergo
the following procedures: washing
Manual starch extraction in Ecuador and peeling, in either batch or
dates back about 50 years. continuous flow, with Brazilian-type
Traditionally, to extract cassava washers; mechanical rasping with
starch, roots are peeled and washed Brazilian-type saw blades; sieving,
by hand, grated by hand or both by hand and vibrating screens;
260
Implementing Technological Innovations...
Roots received
Traditional technology Current technology

batch system gravity system
Process Technique Process Technique
Peeling Manual
Washing Manual Washing Continuous-flow washer

Batch washer
Grating Manual Rasping Rasper with blades

Mechanized
Sieving Manual Sieving Mixed (manual and

mechanical)
Vibrating screen
Sedimentation Concrete tanks Sedimentation Channels
Drying Concrete floors Drying Plastic

Paper Concrete floors
Zinc
Packaging Paper Packaging Paper

Polypropylene
Products:
Starch for human consumption

Industrial starch (first grade)
Industrial starch (second grade)
Figure 1. Differences in traditional and current technologies for cassava starch extraction, Manab,
Ecuador. Current technologies include innovations introduced from Colombia and Brazil.
and sedimentation in concrete Experiments

channels lined with ceramic tiles.
Drying is carried out naturally on Sour starch production trials were
plastic sheets placed on bamboo first carried out in December 1992
platforms. When a finer quality and renewed in November 1993 at
product is required, milling is two starch factories, both UATAPPY
done in hammer mills (Figure 1). members. Artificial drying trials with
261
a flash dryer will be conducted, elements of processing and

together with mechanized sieving, technology.
using vibrating or centrifuge screens.
Results
Training and Institutional
Support (1) Product quality (flours and starch)
has improved, allowing new
To introduce and adapt new cassava markets to be opened at national
processing technologies, especially for and international levels.
starch, UATAPPY received technical (2) Higher yields have been obtained
and financial support from and efficiency has improved.
FUNDAGRO and CIAT. Its technical (3) Production capacity, especially of
team has received training nationally starch, has increased.
and in Colombia and Brazil on
262
The Influence of Variety and Processing...
CHAPTER 30
THE INFLUENCE OF VARIETY AND

PROCESSING ON THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL
AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF
CASSAVA STARCH AND FLOUR
A. Fernndez *, J. Wenham **, D. Dufour ***,
and C. C. Wheatley
Abstract This chapter outlines the results so

far.
The influence of certain processing
conditions on the quality, functional
properties, and product potential of
flour made from three cassava cultivars
The cassava cultivars used in this
are being evaluated as part of a
research were selected after the
project (DGXII) funded by the
cassava core collection, held at CIAT,
European Union (EU). The
Cali, Colombia, was evaluated
collaborators in this project are the
(Wheatley et al., 1993). Cultivars were
Universidad del Valle (UNIVALLE),
selected to represent a broad
Colombia; CIRAD-SAR, France; the
variability in root contents of
Natural Resources Institute (NRI), UK;
cyanogens, dry matter, and amylose.
and CIAT, Colombia.
Experiments were designed to
The influence of drying
determine how flour preparation
temperature (40, 60, and 80 C),
influences the resultant quality of the
milling procedure (hammer, roller, pin,
end product. In October 1992,
and paddle), and particle size
1,500 kg of fresh roots of the cassava
(< 250 m and < 160 m) on the
cultivar CM 3306-4 were harvested at
quality, functional properties, and
CIAT. The roots were processed into
product potential of flour from three
flour as outlined:
cassava cultivars are being evaluated.
The influence of genetic variability on
Fresh roots > Washing and peeling
starch quality is also being evaluated,
using starches made from cultivars Milling < Drying < Chipping <
chosen from the cassava core collection > Sieving > Flour
established at CIAT.
In August and September 1993,
two more cultivars of cassava
* Universidad del Valle (UNIVALLE), Cali, (CM 3306-4, M Ven 25) were harvested
Colombia. 10 months after planting and similarly
** Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Kent, UK. processed.
*** CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Cassava
Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Before drying, the chips from each
stationed at Bogor, Indonesia. cultivars were divided into three lots of
263
475 kg. They were then dried in a including the same 29 cultivars,
layer, about 15 cm thick, on the floor harvested at CIAT in July 1993
(3 m2 area) of an airflow bin dryer. 9 months after planting.
Drying temperatures used were 40,
60, and 80 C. The starch samples extracted from
the cassava cultivars in 1992 were
Four different types of mill were analyzed with a BA. Gelatinization
used to grind the resultant dry chips: profiles were determined from
(1) hammer mill (set at 5,800 rpm and 6%-starch solutions as described
with a 18 -inch screen), (2) roller mill above. The amylose contents were
(first pass with rollers set at 300 m determined, using an iodo-colometric
apart and second pass with rollers set test and a calibration curve prepared
at 30 m), (3) pin mill, and (4) a from potato amylose and amylopectin.
paddle auger in a cylindrical sifter The crystallinity of the starch granules
with a 5-mm and 250-m screen. The was determined with an X-ray
flours produced were divided into two diffraction system. The diffraction
sieve fractions to give two particle data were collected over an angular
sizes: smaller than 250 m, and range from 4 to 32 20.
smaller than 106 m.
Starch samples from both harvests
The flours produced by the will be examined for granular size
different treatments were analyzed distribution,.amylose-to-amylopectin
with a Brabender amylograph (BA). ratio, chain length, degree of
Gelatinization profiles were polymerization, X-ray diffraction
determined from 6%-starch solutions, patterns and absolute crystallinity,
using a heating and cooling rate of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
1.5 C/min. The temperature was analysis, pasting and rheological
increased to 95 C, held for characteristics, swelling power and
20 min, and cooled at a rate of solubility, and water-binding capacity.
1.5 C/min to 50 C. The viscographs
obtained were used to calculate the
following parameters: the initial Results
temperature of gelatinization, peak
viscosity, ease of cooking, gel Flour
instability, and gelatinization index.
The various processing procedures
In October 1992, 29 cassava used in these experiments all
cultivars were harvested at CIAT 10 influenced the gelatinization profiles
to 12 months after planting. Starch of the resultant flours (Figures 1 to 4;
samples were extracted as outlined: Table 1). Whether the differences
obtained in gelatinization properties
Fresh roots > Washing and peeling
are enough to significantly influence
the potential uses of the flours is yet to
Starch removed < Rasping < be determined. At the time of writing,
by adding water the flours prepared from the cultivars
and filtering harvested and processed in August
> Starch > Drying
and September 1993 were not yet
sedimentation analyzed.
Starch < Starch
Starch samples were also prepared Figure 5 shows a sample of the X-ray
from another 33 cassava cultivars, diffractograms obtained from starches
264
350
Brabender viscosity units

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 64 74 84 94
Time (minutes)
Figure 1. Viscoamylograph of cassava flour in relation to drying temperatures ( .. = 40 C; = 60 C;

= 80 C). Brabender curves were obtained from flour suspension at 6% of dry matter. The
flour had a particle size smaller than 250 m, after milling with rollers.
400
300
200
100
0
0 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 64 74 84 94
Time (minutes)
Figure 2. Viscoamylograph of cassava flour in relation to drying temperatures ( .. = 40 C; = 60 C;

= 80 C). Brabender curves were obtained from flour suspension at 6% of dry matter. The
flour had a particle size smaller than 250 m, after milling with a hammer mill.
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 64 74 84 94
Time (minutes)
Figure 3. Viscoamylograph of cassava flour in relation to particle size ( = 250 m; = 106 m).
Brabender curves were obtained from flour suspension at 6% of dry matter. Chips were dried at
60 C and milled in a hammer mill.
265
500

400
300
200
100
0
0 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 64 74 84 94
Time (minutes)
Figure 4. Viscoamylograph of cassava flour in relation to milling method ( = hammer mill; ...... = pin mill;
.. = roller mill; = paddle mill). The flour was made from chips dried at 60 C, and flour
particle size was smaller than 250 m. Brabender curves were obtained from flour suspension at
6% of dry matter.
M Col 1132
M Col 72
M Col 22
M Bra 897
M Bra 881
M Bra 162
10 20 30
Angle (2-theta)
Figure 5. A sample of wide-angle, X-ray diffractograms of native starches from cassava cultivars harvested
at CIAT, October 1992.
266
Table 1. Cassava flour functionality characteristics in relation to its particle size, the drying air
temperature, and the milling procedure of the chips.
Flour characteristic Milling equipment and drying temperatures (C)
Hammer Roller Pin Paddle
40 60 80 40 60 80 40 60 80 40 60 80
Flour composition:
Flour Aa:
Starch (%, db) 83 82 79 85 83 81 84 82 81 88 86 82
Fiber (%, db) 0.9 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.6 1.2 0.7 1.3 1.0 1.2 1.3
Ash (%, db) 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4
Flour Bb:
Starch (%, db) 87 85 83 86 86 86 86 86 85 92 91 87
Fiber (%, db) 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.6 0.8 1.1
Ash (%, db) 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.5
Gelatinization temperature (C):
Flour A 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 64.0 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5
Flour B 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 64.0 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5
Maximum viscosity:
Flour A 371 380 380 255 323 295 380 380 340 408 410 410
Flour B 385 420 380 285 350 327 387 405 360 400 430 425
Viscosity at 95 C:
Flour A 365 365 366 251 321 289 377 363 340 390 380 385
Flour B 375 387 367 284 338 320 377 380 358 380 390 385
Viscosity after 20 min at 95 C:
Flour A 172 175 185 102 152 131 202 183 239 168 180 190
Flour B 177 190 185 119 160 152 177 190 228 170 185 200
Viscosity at 50 C after cooling:
Flour A 285 300 322 180 252 210 292 313 319 295 318 350
Flour B 308 327 320 180 285 260 297 340 335 305 340 380
Ease of cookingc:
Flour A 19 17 16 20 18 20 19 17 16 17 16 15
Flour B 18 16 16 20 17 16 18 17 15 17 16 14
Gel instabilityd:
Flour A 199 205 185 153 171 164 178 197 101 240 230 220
Flour B 208 230 195 166 190 175 210 215 132 230 245 225
Gelatinization indexe:
Flour A 113 125 137 78 100 79 90 130 80 127 138 160

Flour B 131 137 135 61 125 108 120 150 107 135 155 180
a. Flour A = flour with particles smaller than 250 m.

b. Flour B = flour with particles smaller than 106 m.
c. Ease of cooking = time to maximum viscosity - time to gelatinization.
d. Gel instability = maximum viscosity - viscosity after 20 min at 95 C.
e. Gelatinization index = viscosity at 50 C after cooling - viscosity after 20 min at 95 C.
267
made from the roots of the October crystallinity and amylose content,
1992 harvest. All spectra of the 29 together with the analysis reported by
cultivars analyzed showed an A-type, CIAT of root dry matter and cyanogen
X-ray diffraction pattern. Table 2 gives contents. Table 3 gives the
values calculated for starch gelatinization profiles of starch
Table 2. Dry matter of fresh roots, cyanogen content of fresh parenchyma, amylose content, and
crystallinity of starch obtained from 29 cassava cultivars harvested at 10-12 months at CIAT,
Palmira, Colombia, October 1992.
Cultivar Dry matter Total cyanogens Amylose Crystallinity

(%) (as HCN, mg/kg, db) (% in starch) (%)a
M Bra 162 32 1,012 17 39

M Bra 881 31 832 20 41
M Bra 897 36 98 21 38
M Col 22 35 85 23 37
M Col 72 33 248 22 41
M Col 1132 21 69 26 39
M Col 1486 37 120 22 43
M Col 1684 37 752 23 38
M Col 2066 30 58 24 43
M Col 2215 43 243 25 44
M CR 35 45 17 24 41
M Mal 1 38 411 25 39
M Mal 2 27 413 24 40
M Mex 59 34 311 21 39
M Nga 2 22 632 23 47
M Per 196 33 393 21 42
M Tai 1 33 629 22 38
M Ven 25 27 1,628 22 43
M Ven 77 32 223 23 40
CG 1-37 35 182 22 44
CG 165-7 23 402 22 44
CG 402-11 18 169 20 45
CG 915-1 37 149 24 41
CG 1118-121 27 27 25 39
CG 1141-1 40 337 24 44
CM 489-1 23 86 41
CM 2766-5 32 82 43
CM 2772-3 27 114 42
CM 3306-4 39 82 43
a. Based on the separation and integration of the areas under the crystalline and amorphous X-ray diffraction
peaks.
268
Table 3. Values of total cyanogen content in parenchyma, amylose content, starch crystallinity, and
starch functionality characteristics for six cassava cultivars harvested in October 1992 at CIAT,
Palmira, Colombia.
Characteristic Cultivar
CM 3306 CG 1-37 M Ven 77 CG 165-7 M Tai 1 M Ven 25
Total cyanogen in 82 182 223 402 629 1,628

parenchyma
(as HCN, mg/kg, db)
Amylose (%) 26 22 23 22 22 22
Crystallinity (%) 43 44 40 44 43 43
Gelatinization 64.0 64.0 65.5 62.5 62.5 62.5

temperature (C)
Maximum viscosity 975 775 610 800 780 730
Viscosity at 95 C 415 320 330 350 340 310
Viscosity after 20 min 260 225 195 220 230 190

at 95 C
Viscosity at 50 C 520 460 380 435 410 330

after cooling
Ease of cookinga 4 4 7 5 5 5
b
Gel instability 715 550 415 580 550 540
Gelinization indexc 260 235 185 215 180 140
a. Ease of cooking = time to maximum viscosity - time to gelatinization.

b. Gel instability = maximum viscosity - viscosity after 20 min at 95 C.
c. Gelatinization index = viscosity at 50 C after cooling - viscosity after 20 min at 95 C.
samples analyzed. The results Reference

obtained show a similar trend to that
reported by Wheatley et al. (1993). Wheatley, C. C.; Orrego, J. I.; Snchez, T.;
Differences in starch viscosity and Granados, E. 1993. Quality
characteristics were observed between evaluation of the cassava core
cultivars with high and low cyanogenic collection at CIAT. In: Roca, W. M.
content. and Thro, A. M. (eds.). Proceedings of
the First International Scientific
Meeting of the Cassava Biotechnology
Research is continuing with the Network, Cartagena de Indias,
33 starch samples obtained from Colombia, 25-28 August 1992.
cultivars harvested in July-August Working document no. 123. CIAT,
1993. Cali, Colombia. p. 255-264.
269
CHAPTER 31
ESTABLISHING AND OPERATING A

CASSAVA FLOUR PLANT ON THE
ATLANTIC COAST OF COLOMBIA1
Francisco Figueroa*
Background price structures of cassava and wheat

in Colombia, producing cassava flour
CIAT has developed a strategy to at a price competitive with that of
design and implement cassava wheat flour was economically feasible
projects, integrating aspects of the (Tables 1, 2, and 3). Hence, the next
crops production, processing, and phase, that of the pilot-project, was
commercialization in northern initiated.
Colombia. Within this framework,
three phases of development can be In the research phase, baked
distinguished: products had been considered as the
main market, where cassava flour
(1) Research: developing technology would substitute 15% of wheat flour.
for cassava processing, and But, because bakers saw a high risk
studying in detail the technologys of decreased product quality when
market opportunities, both on a using cassava flour, phase II was
national and regional basis. focused on other food categories
(2) Pilot project or market test: where cassava flour would not
producing and marketing on a present high risks.
small scale under real market
conditions. With phase II, the production,
(3) Commercialization or expansion: processing, and marketing
consolidating the market for new components of the cassava flour
products and replicating the system were integrated under the real
processing units. conditions of a cassava-growing
region in Colombia. These results
A project to develop, under this can be used by both public and
strategy, a rural cassava flour private enterprises to promote the
industry was begun, and its progress replication of rural, cassava
so far is reported here. flour-producing plants and the
products use in the national food
Results of phase I (research) industry.
indicated that, under the cost and
The institutions participating in
the project are CIAT, Cali;
* Fundacin para la Investigacin y el Universidad del Valle, Cali; the Fondo
Desarrollo de Tecnologas Apropiadas al Agro
(FUNDIAGRO), Colombia. de Desarrollo Rural Integrado (DRI) of
the Colombian Ministry of
1. No abstract was provided by the author. Agriculture; and the Fundacin para
270
Establishing and Operating a Cassava Flour Plant...
Table 1. Variable costs (US$) of cassava flour in January 1994, Chin, Colombia.
Item Unit/t Unit cost Cost/t
Raw material 3.5 t 43.00 150.50

Labor 60 man-hours 0.40 24.00
Package 25 units 0.30 7.50
Electricity 140 kW/h 0.10 14.00
Mineral coal 550 kg 0.04 22.00
Water 7 m3 0.40 2.80
Variable costs 220.80
Table 2. Fixed costs (US$) of cassava flour, carried out by small-scale, rural
Chin, Colombia, January 1994. producers and inhabitants. It is
Item Cost/month Cost/t
implemented in three phases, and
promotes cassavas transformation in
Managera 123.00 6.15 agroindustry by integrating functions
Production chief b
12.00 0.60 of production, processing, and
commercialization. It is supported by
Watchman 121.00 6.05
governmental and nongovernmental
Maintenance 125.00 6.25 organizations.
Other expenses 15.00 0.75
Fixed costs 396.00 19.80

Phase I of the Flour Project:
a. The cost is shared by the chip and flour plants. Research (1985-1987)
b. Bonus for production.
Colombias economic situation, the
prospects for cassava, and the
Table 3. Production costs (US$) of flour in national potential for cassava-based
Chin, Colombia, January 1994. products were studied to select the
most promising product and choose
Item Cost/t an appropriate site. The Atlantic
Variable costs 220.80 coastal region (northern Colombia)
was also studied as having the
Fixed costs 19.80 greatest potential for developing the
Total production costs 240.60 project. Aspects such as cassava
production, farmer organizations,
and markets were taken into
account to choose the best site for
the pilot plant.
la Investigacin y el Desarrollo de
Tecnologas Apropiadas al Agro Aim
(FUNDIAGRO). The donor agency is
the International Development The objective of this phase was to
Research Centre (IDRC), Canada. determine the economic and technical
conditions required for the project.
Methodology Used in the Activities

Integrated Cassava Project
Studies were made of the cassava
The integrated cassava project is a production and marketing systems on
rural development strategy. It is Colombias Atlantic coast. On-farm
271
trials were conducted with compete with wheat flour in

improved cassava production Colombia.
technology. Economic studies
were made of the wheat milling
and baking industries. The Phase II: Pilot Project
experimental cassava flour plant (1988-1992)
was designed and developed.
Trials were made of equipment A pilot plant was set up in Chin,
and processing. Laboratory trials Department of Crdoba (Figure 1),
were made on flour quality and with technical conditions for
consumer acceptance. semicommercial operation under real
market conditions.
Results
Aims
The results demonstrated the
technical and economic feasibility The major objective was to validate
of producing cassava flour to the technology under real field
Atlantic
Ocean Barranquilla
Cartagena 120 km
220 km
Sincelejo
30 km
Panama Chin 80 km
Montera Venezuela
367 km
Medelln
Pacific 258 km
Ocean
473 km Santaf de Bogot
Cali
Ecuador
Brazil
Peru
Figure 1. Site for the cassava-flour production pilot plant in northern Colombia. The pilot plant is part
of phase II of a project to develop new, market-oriented, cassava-based products and their
markets.
272
conditions, integrating production, were contacted, and test trials

processing, and marketing. Other conducted with them.
objectives were to (1) gather reliable Commercializing cassava flour in the
data on production costs and on the meat processing and adhesive
investment needed to establish this industries began.
type of plant; (2) produce enough
cassava flour to promote its use At the time of writing, project
among consumers; and (3) use the expansion to other areas of Colombia
plant as a display model to expand had not yet started, market
this technology to other regions of expansion was still to come, together
Colombia. with a further consolidation of the
new rural agroindustry.
Activities
Aim
The main activity was to establish
the pilot plant. Criteria for site The objective was to market cassava
selection included aspects of flour and consolidate a rural
cassava production, land agroindustry that would benefit
availability, potential for increasing farmers, not only in northern
cassava yields, processing, raw Colombia, but also in other regions.
material availability (production,
seasonality, access to fresh market), Activities
service infrastructure (water,
electricity, roads), proximity to A marketing plan was designed and
terminal markets, institutional executed, and market segments
presence and support, potential selected. A bibliographical review
project impact, and socioeconomic was made of cassava flour uses.
importance of cassava. Commercial contacts were
established and sales volume and
Alternative sites were surveyed, conditions determined.
four potential zones selected, then a
site, with farmer organizations close Results
by, was chosen. The pilot plant was
redesigned, in which combined Commercialization of cassava flour
natural and artificial drying was has begun. The model has been
eliminated. A designer and builder evaluated and adjusted and new
were contracted and the redesigned sites selected. The project is
plant built. expanding to other zones.
Results
A Cooperative Carries Out
The pilot plant began operating the Project
with adjustments in production,
processing, and marketing. A The Cooperativa de Productores de
viable and functional model was los Algarrobos (COOPROALGA),
obtained. based in Chin, is a first-order
organization with 43 members, all
small-scale farmers dedicated to
Phase III: Commercial growing cassava intercropped with
Expansion (1993 Onward) maize or yam. Most members pay
rent for land and the remaining 20%
A market study for the new product own it.
was designed and developed, clients
273
COOPROALGA manages two Universidad del Valle and CIAT

plants, one producing cassava chips designed the main processing
for animal feed, and the other the equipment, which was built in Cali.
pilot cassava flour plant (Figure 2).
Processing
Characteristics of the Plant, A batch process was implemented

Process, and Product and includes the following
operations: harvest, transport,
The flour plant reception, weighing, selecting,
preparing, washing, chipping,
The cassava flour plant is a drying, premilling, and milling. The
warehouse with an office, bathrooms, resulting cassava flour is then
a tool room, a coal storage room, and packaged and stored (Table 4 and
areas where cassava roots are Figure 3).
received, washed, chipped, and dried.
The ground area of the plant is Each batch is processed in
2,058 m2. 2 days. On the first day, the roots
are harvested, transported, selected,
The plant has two water storage and prepared. On the second day,
tanks, one underground with a they are washed, chipped, dried, and
capacity of 39 m3 and the other milled, and the resulting flour
elevated, holding 6 m3. All the plants stored.
residual waters flow in two
independent lines. The plants walls The product
are of concrete blocks, and the roof
has a metal framework and is tiled Before harvesting, the farmer prunes
with asbestos. the cassava plant, removing aerial
parts, and on the next day he
Construction of the plant had cost harvests and packs the roots, and
US$29,484.00 in March 1990. The takes them to the plant.
Second-order
organization
Other cooperatives COOPROALGA
Accountant Manager Head of Marketing
Treasurer Production chief Coordinator for

purchases
Workers (4),
Watchman (1)
Figure 2. The organization of the pilot cassava flour plant set up in Chin, northern Colombia.
274
Table 4. Processing 1 t of cassava flour in a pilot plant, Chin, northern Colombia.
Day Hours Activity Man-hours (no.) Workers (no.)
1 5:00 - 11:00 Harvest (3.5 t) - -

9:00 - 14:00 Root transportation - -
9:00 - 14:00 Reception and weighing 2 1
14:00 - 18:00 Selection and preparation 20 5
2 7:00 - 11:00 Washing and chipping 8 2

7:00 - 11:00 Loading the drying chamber 4 1
6:00 - 7:00 Cleaning the burners 1 1
7:00 - 8:00 Drying starts 1 1
8:00 - 20:00 Drying (chip turning) 20 3
3 6:00 - 7:00 Cleaning and maintenance 2 2

6:00 - 7:00 Unloading the dryer 1 2
7:00 - 8:00 Milling and packaging 1 2
Total 60 6
Figure 3. Procedures in cassava flour processing at the pilot plant, Chin, northern Colombia.
(Dotted lines refer to secondary processes.)
Cassava roots are received in 50 After washing, chipping, drying,

to 60 kg sacks, and should have been milling, and sieving through 150
harvested on the day of receipt. They microscreens, cassava flour is finally
should also be free of diseases, obtained.
deterioration, or severe mechanical
damage, and should be from varieties
containing high dry matter content.
275
CHAPTER 32
IMPROVING PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

FOR HIGH-QUALITY CASSAVA FLOUR
D. M. Jones*, D. S. Trim*, and

C. C. Wheatley**
Abstract limited scope for other crops, because

of harsh climate, poor soils, or both.
The potential of cassava flour to Markets for fresh roots for direct
diversify markets for cassava consumption are stagnant or
producers is investigated. The effects diminishing in many places because
of different root processing regimes on of increasing urbanization and
cyanogen contents and microbiological changes in eating habits. Demand for
countsmajor factors governing roots for starch and chips for animal
quality in cassava flourwere feed, although existing where such
investigated at CIAT. Chipping, industries operate, is limited. Cassava
rasping, and different drying flour is a product that could help
technologies were evaluated in terms diversify and strengthen cassava
of product quality. Three types of markets for these small producers.
chippers, five raspers, and drying by
sun, oven, or bin were used. Rasping The main industrial market
and drying reduced the cyanogenic opportunities for cassava flour are in
glucoside contents of the roots by 90% the substitution of other raw
to 100%, but microbiological counts materials, primarily wheat flour or
were high for all drying technologies. starches, for further processing into
The chipping trials indicate that sun final products. In some areas, smaller
drying on trays produced chips of regional markets exist for local,
similar microbiological quality to cassava-based food specialties. To
artificial drying. penetrate these markets, cassava flour
must be of at least comparable quality
to the product it is potentially
Introduction replacing. Possible clients are unlikely
to risk changing feed stocks if it is at
Cassava is grown in many parts of all possible that the quality of their
the developing world, mainly by end product will be adversely affected.
small-scale farmers, for both food and
income. Often such farmers have
Factors of Flour Quality
Microbiological quality
Wheat flour tends to be of high

* Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Kent, UK.
** Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), microbiological quality, because the
stationed at Bogor, Indonesia. economic product (the grain) develops
276
Improving Processing Technologies for High-Quality Cassava Flour
above the ground; is cultivated with glucosides (CG), cyanohydrins, and

modern, large-scale, farming practices; hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The
and is harvested at relatively low glucosides initially present in the
moisture content. In contrast, cassava fresh roots are broken down, during
roots are usually cultivated with basic processing, to the other cyanogens
farming practices, picking up a given above (Bokanga, 1992).
microbial load from the soil, and have Cyanogen concentrations are
a much higher moisture content than expressed as mg HCN equivalent per
grains. Hence, cassava flour is likely kg of dry matter, unless otherwise
to have higher levels of microbiological stated. Nonglucosidic cyanogen (NGC)
growth. concentration describes the combined
concentrations of cyanohydrins and
Table 1 gives selected flour HCN. The cyanogen levels remaining
standards. The Colombian standard vary with the raw material
permits the same maximum bacterial concentration and the processing
loads for both wheat and cassava technologies employed (Fish and Trim,
flours. Cassava flour has a lower 1993). These levels are not a major
maximum permitted moisture than concern for nonfood use.
wheat flour, because of its perceived
greater susceptibility to contamination. Hydrogen cyanide is toxic, but
is usually present only in small
Cyanogens quantities because of its volatility.
Evidence suggests that cyanide
Cassava flour also contains residual poisoning and intoxication resulting
levels of cyanogenic compounds from consumption of cassava flour
(cyanogens), mostly cyanogenic may be caused by high residual
Table 1. Quality standards for selected flours.
Quality criterion Cassava flour Wheat flour

a b
Colombian African Colombianc Tanzaniand
Chemical composition
(maximum permitted levels):
Moisture (%) 120 130 1400

Starch (% minimum) 620
Ash (%) 20 30 0.700
Crude fiber (%) 2.50 20 200
Sand (%) 30 100
Crude cellulose (%) 50
Total HCN (mg/kg) 500
Microbial content (cfu/g):
Aflatoxins 00
Aerobic plate count at 35 C 2 x 105 2 x 105 1 x 105
Coliform bacteria 1 x 102 1 x 102
Escherichia coli 00 00 00
Salmonella 00 00 00
Molds and yeasts 1 x 103 1 x 103 1 x 103
a. ICONTEC, 1990.
b. FAO and WHO, 1992.
c. ICONTEC, 1967.
d. Tanzania Bureau of Standards, 1989.
277
cyanohydrin levels, which then the standard, and would increase

decompose after ingestion (Banea, the range of varieties that the
1993; Mlingi et al., 1992). The effect plants processing operations can
of consuming CG on health is less satisfactorily detoxify. Manually
clear and has not yet been peeling the roots was not
thoroughly investigated. investigated at this stage.
(2) To investigate means of processing
Few official standards exist high cyanide varieties of cassava
specifically for cassava chips and into flour with safe residual
flour for human consumption. The cyanogen levels.
Colombian standard for dried High cyanogen varieties are more
cassava sets a maximum total suited to some agroecological
cyanogen content of 50 mg/kg (fresh zones, and are preferred to low
basis), measured as HCN (ICONTEC, cyanogen varieties in some
1990). The regional standard being regions. The operations of
developed for Africa (FAO and WHO, chipping and drying do not
1992) sets a maximum total eliminate enough cyanogens to
cyanogen content of 10 mg/kg (fresh process high cyanogen varieties
basis). The standards are expected satisfactorily.
to evolve with the product, and
further guidance may be found in
the proceedings of the Cassava Effect of Chip Size on
Safety Workshop held in 1994. Residual Cyanogens in
Bin-dried Chips
Research on Processing Methods
Technologies
Trials were carried out with three
The quality of the cassava flour different chipping disks: the
produced at the CIAT pilot plant was standard disk (CIAT-designed); a
rigorously evaluated in terms of modified version with reduced chip
residual cyanogens and aperture to give thinner chips; and a
microbiological quality (results not grating disk designed by the Ecole
shown). Research was then carried nationale suprieure des industries
out at CIAT, with the following agricoles et alimentaires (ENSIA),
objectives: France (Monroy-Rivera, 1990). Roots
11 months old were harvested the day
(1) To investigate the modification of before the trial and stored outdoors
chip size as a means of overnight (normal factory plant
increasing the elimination of practice). The roots were washed in a
total cyanogenic potential (CNP) drum washer, which also effectively
during flour production. dehusks the roots, and chipped. The
The degree of cyanogen wet chips were bin-dried at 60 C, at
elimination achieved by the pilot loading densities of 75 and 85 kg/m2
plant effectively sets the (Figure 1). Six samples were taken
maximum initial cyanogen from both fresh and dried chips, and
concentration in the feed roots analyzed with the modified Cooke
acceptable by a plant of this method (OBrien et al., 1991).
type. Increasing the elimination
of cyanogens without Results
fundamentally changing the
process would ensure that the Table 2 gives the cyanogen contents
cassava flour produced meets measured during these trials.
278
Fresh roots
Washer
30 L/min
for 5 min
Standard Modified chipping Grating

chipping disc disc disc
Bin dryer Bin dryer

75 kg/m2 85 kg/m2
60 C 60 C
Air flow: Air flow:
0.5 kg/s.m2 0.5 kg/s.m2
Figure 1. Procedures used in cassava-chipping trials.
Standard disk. The total CNP shorter period, and earlier

in the fresh chips were reduced by termination of cyanogenic reactions.
about 34% by chipping with the
standard disk, followed by drying The low degree of elimination
within 5 hours. This figure is obtained with the modified chips
consistent with the results obtained indicates that the effect of fast
by using the same disk at the pilot drying is masking any effect of
plant, where proportionally greater chipping, which would be more
reductions in CNP were achieved obvious at the slower drying rates
with longer drying times. This was obtained at higher loading densities.
despite processing a different variety
under different climatic conditions. Grating disk. The grating disk
showed a higher reduction (56%)
Modified disk. The modified than the standard chipper (34%) of
disk achieved a similar level of CNP, with chipping and drying.
reduction in CG, but with a lower This is consistent with the greater
overall CNP reduction of 28%. extent of tissue damage achieved.
Reduction of CG with chipping and
The modified chips had an drying was consistent at 59%-61%.
average thickness of 4.3 mm, The reduction in CG is dictated by
compared with 6.1 mm for the the quantity of glucosides brought
normal chips, providing a greater into contact with linamarase
cut-surface area. A greater initial enzyme, which, in turn, depends on
elimination of the CG was therefore the extent of tissue damage.
expected in the modified fresh chips Cyanogenic glucosides in
because of the higher percentage of undamaged tissue remain intact.
damaged root tissue. Under The chips produced by the grating
suitable conditions, a faster drying disk were more fragile than the pilot
rate was also expected, leading to plant ones and less suitable for bin
surface drying of the chips in a drying.
279
280
Table 2. Cyanogen concentrationsa measured during cassava chipping trialsb.
Cyanogenic contents Standard disk at loading density Modified disk at Grating disk at loading density
(kg/m2): loading density of (kg/m2):
85 kg/m2
85 75 85 75
CNP NGC CG CNP NGC CG CNP NGC CG CNP NGC CG CNP NGC CG
Fresh chips 1,269 253 1,016 1,096 172 924 832 152 680 858 320 539 1,118 198 920
(mg HCN equiv./kg dry matter)
Dried chips 812 35 776 746 38 709 598 7 591 396 40 356 480 41 439
(mg HCN equiv./kg dry matter)
Reduction with chipping (%) 20 16 18 37 18
Reduction with chipping and drying (%) 36 39 32 35 28 29 54 59 57 61

a. CNP = total cyanogen potential; NGC = nonglucosidic cyanogen content; CG = cyanogenic glucoside content.
b. Each value is an average of six samples; percentage of reduction in both CNP and CG is based on fresh chips CNP; all trials used roots of M Ven 25, a high cyanogen variety.
Summary (5) A plastic, Jahn rasper

(experimental), in which metal
Elimination of CNP from chips made serrated blades are mounted
by the standard disk increased with laterally on a plastic drum.
drying time, regardless of cassava
variety or location. Four of the rasper drums tested
were interchangeable within the
The grating disk eliminated 22% same rasper frame, designed to
more CNP than the pilot plant disk at investigate their relative starch
the same loading density. Grated extraction efficiency. The drums
chips, however, are more fragile than were 400 mm in length and 270 mm
standard chips and less suitable for in diameter. The plastic Jahn rasper
bin drying. drum was a smaller, self-contained
unit, 275 mm in length and 200 mm
in diameter. An ordinary 5-HP motor
Effect of Different Raspers was used for all the raspers. The
on Residual CNP in wooden Jahn rasper and the
Tray-Dried Pulps punched-drum rasper are in common
use in the cassava starch industry.
The effect of different raspers on the
degree of cyanogen elimination Roots were harvested at
achieved with rasping and drying was 9 months and stored as for the
investigated. Rasping almost chipping trials. The roots were
completely destroys the root tissue washed in clean but untreated water
structure, much more so than and dehusked manually. Fifteen
chipping. The trials used roots of kilograms of the washed roots were
M Ven 25, a very high cyanogen rasped without adding water. The
variety, to establish the upper limits resulting pulp was mixed and
of cyanogen elimination. dried at 8 kg/m2 on two trays
in a despatch tray dryer at
Methods 60 C (Figure 2). Four samples each
of the fresh and dried pulps were
Five different raspers were used: taken for evaluation of cyanogen
concentrations. This procedure was
(1) A conventional, wooden Jahn followed for each rasper.
rasper, in which serrated blades
are mounted laterally on a wooden Results
drum.
(2) A punched-drum rasper, Table 3 gives the cyanogen
consisting of a metal sheet with concentrations measured during this
outward facing jagged holes trial.
(punched through with a nail),
fixed around a wooden drum Cyanogen contents of rasped
frame. pulps. The reduction in CG with
(3) A pin rasper (experimental), a rasping only was variable, with both
metal drum scored diagonally in the Jahn raspers reducing the CG by
both directions across its length 65%, and the punched drum by 43%.
with metal pins protruding about When the pulps were both rasped
5 mm from the drums surface. and dried, the CNPs were reduced
(4) An abrasion rasper (experimental), by 94%-96% for all raspers,
with a layer of carborundum, regardless of the degree of reduction
about 10 mm deep, fixed around a effected by rasping alone. The
drum. residual CNPs in the pulps ranged
281
282
Table 3. Cyanogen concentrationsa during cassava-rasping trials, measured in mg CN equiv./kg dry matterb.
Rasper drum Fresh roots Fresh pulp Dried pulp Reduction of Reduction with
CG with rasping rasping and drying (%)
(%)
Type Feed CNP NGC CG CNP NGC CG CNP NGC CG CNP CG
(kg/min)
Wooden Jahn 28.6 2,318 271 2,047 2,195 1,409 786 104 29 74 66 96 97
Punched drum 32.6 2,417 243 2,175 2,267 968 1,299 152 88 64 46 94 97
Abrasion 2.1 2,024 235 1,789 1,932 1,372 559 132 29 103 72 94 95
Metal pin 15.0 2,608 315 2,293 2,236 881 1,355 163 27 137 48 94 95
Plastic Jahn N/A 2,234 293 1,941 2,045 1,358 687 111 25 87 69 95 96
a. CNP = total cyanogenic potential; NGC = nonglucosidic cyanogen content; CG = cyanogenic glucoside content.
b. Each value is an average of six samples of fresh roots and four samples of pulp; percentage of reduction in both CNP and CG is based on fresh root CNP; all trials used roots of
M Ven 25, a high cyanogen variety.

Fresh roots
Manual washing
Wooden Jahn Punched-drum Abrasion Metal Plastic Jahn

rasper rasper rasper pin rasper rasper
Tray dryer
8 kg/m2
60 C
Figure 2. Procedures used in cassava-rasping trials.
from 104 to 163 mg/kg. In previous reduction in CNP achieved with the
milling trials, the residual CNP abrasion rasper was not significantly
concentration in first-grade flour was different to that achieved with the
about 36% of the level in freshly dried other raspers. The pulp was also more
chips. Assuming this to hold true for liquid and difficult to handle than the
pulps, the flours would have CNPs others.
between 38 and 58 mg/kg, thus
mostly meeting the Colombian Summary
standard of 50 mg/kg.
Except for the abrasion rasper, the
This level of total cyanogen raspers evaluated were suitable for
elimination probably approaches the processing roots with high cyanogen
maximum possible in practice, given contents to flour with low cyanogen
that variations occur because of content. The wooden Jahn and the
fluctuating conditions. No significant punched-drum raspers are
differences in the overall elimination of commercially available.
CNPs was found between the raspers.
Root throughput. The abrasion Effect of Different Drying

raspers root feed was 10% below that Techniques on Residual
of the Jahn or punched-drum raspers, Cyanogens and the
thus making it unsuitable for Microbiological Quality of
commercial flour production. The Dried Pulps and Chips
shredding action employed by both the
Jahn and punched-drum raspers The effects of different drying
removes a deeper layer of root tissue techniques (sun and artificial) on the
with each contact than does the microbiological quality and on the
erosive action of the abrasion rasper, cyanogen concentrations of chips and
resulting in a larger root feed. rasped pulps were evaluated.
The pulp produced by the Rasped pulp is not suitable for bin
abrasion rasper was finer and more drying, and the effect of rasping on the
homogenous than the other pulps, microbiological quality of the dried
indicating a greater degree of tissue product is unknown. Because smaller
comminution. However, the final operations may not be able to justify
283
the investment and cost of artificial sun, and in an oven at 60 C. The

drying, the effect of sun drying on the final trial was carried out with the
microbiological quality of products was modified chipper, with the chips dried
also evaluated. at 5 kg/m2 in the same way (Figure 3).
Chips were also bin-dried at 70 kg/m2
Methods and 60 C (Figure 4). The chips and
pulps were mixed manually every
Three trials were carried out on 2 h during drying. Three composite
10-month-old roots of cassava variety samples of each dried product were
M Ven 25. The first two trials used the taken for microbiological analysis.
wooden Jahn and punched-drum The samples were analyzed for aerobic
raspers for root comminution. The plate counts (APC) (35 C), spore
roots were washed and dry-rasped as counts (35 C), and yeasts and molds
in the rasping trials described above. the following day (ICMSF, 1978). Four
The pulps were dried at loading samples each of the fresh and dried
densities of 5 and 10 kg/m2 on raised pulps were also taken for cyanogen
trays and on a concrete floor in the evaluation.
Fresh roots
Washer
30 L/min
for 5 min
Wooden Jahn Punched-drum

rasper rasper
Oven Oven Sun Sun Sun Sun

60 C 60 C Raised tray Raised tray Concrete floor Concrete floor
5 kg/m2 10 kg/m2 5 kg/m2 10 kg/m2 5 kg/m2 10 kg/m2
Figure 3. Procedures used in cassava rasping and drying trials.
Fresh roots
Washer
30 L/min
for 5 min
Modified
chipper
Oven Bin Sun Sun

60 C 60 C Raised tray Concrete floor
5 kg/m2 70 kg/m2 5 kg/m2 5 kg/m2
Figure 4. Procedures used in cassava chipping and drying trials.
284
Results drop with storage and may also be

reduced by the heat generated by
Table 4 gives the cyanogen milling to flour.
concentrations measured during the
trials and Table 5, the microbiological Microbiological quality of dry
counts. pulps and chips. All of the dried,
rasped, pulp samples had high APCs
Cyanogenic contents of dried (108 cfu/g), as did the chips which
chips and pulps. Compared with were sun dried on a concrete floor.
the rasping-only trials, the punched The oven-dried, and raised-tray,
drum reduced CG (88%) more than sun-dried chips were of acceptable
the wooden Jahn rasper (53%). quality (105 cfu/g), and the bin-dried
Rasping and drying reduced the CG chips had only slightly higher
by 90%-100%. Sun-dried pulps counts. The rasped pulps provide a
tended to have higher residual NGC better substrate for microbial growth
than did oven-dried pulps, possibly than the chips, as the cell contents
because of the higher rate of removal (e.g., sugars and proteins) have all
of HCN during forced-circulation oven been released by rasping.
drying, which would increase the rate
of breakdown of cyanohydrin to HCN. However, the APCs of fresh chips
Residual cyanohydrin levels tend to have been measured at around
Table 4. Cyanogen concentrationsa during drying trials (rasped pulp only), measured in mg CN equiv./kg
dry matterb.
Cyanide Pulp sample from:

concentration
Wooden Jahn rasper Punched-drum rasper
CNP NGC CG Reduction with CNP NGC CG Reduction with

rasping and rasping and
drying (%) drying (%)
CNP CG CNP CG
Fresh pulp 1,302 696 606 54 1,562 1,383 179 87
Dried pulp:
Oven, 5 kg/m2, 154 30 124 88 91 37 17 20 98 99

60 C
Oven, 10 kg/m2, 105 31 74 92 94 33 28 5 98 >99

60 C
Sun, 5 kg/m2, 99 47 52 92 96 53 45 7 97 >99

raised tray
Sun, 10 kg/m2,
raised tray 67 51 15 95 99 60 50 9 96 99
Sun, 5 kg/m2,
concrete floor 84 77 8 94 99 68 61 7 96 >99
2
Sun, 10 kg/m ,
concrete floor 85 82 3 95 >99 81 73 8 95 99
a. CNP = total cyanogenic potential; NGC = nonglucosidic cyanogen content; CG = cyanogenic glucoside content.
b. Each value is an average of six samples of fresh roots and four samples of pulp; percentage of reduction in both
CNP and CG is based on fresh pulp CNP; all trials used roots of M Ven 25, a high cyanogen variety.
285
Table 5. Microbiological quality of dried pulp and chips generated in cassava-drying trials.
Rasping and drying Loading density Microbiological counta

method (kg/m2)
Aerobic Spore count Yeast and mold
plate count at 35 C count
at 35 C
Wooden Jahn rasper:

Oven, 60 C 5 3.43 x 108 3.18 x 105 4.99 x 104
8 5
Oven, 60 C 10 3.58 x 10 2.61 x 10 5.40 x 104
8 4
Sun, raised tray 5 4.57 x 10 6.63 x 10 8.18 x 104
Sun, floor 5 5.64 x 108 9.20 x 104 1.03 x 105
8 4
Sun, floor 10 3.51 x 10 3.28 x 10 3.08 x 104
Punched-drum rasper:
Oven, 60 C 5 1.01 x 108 8.02 x 104 6.33 x 103
Oven, 60 C 10 2.12 x 108 3.74 x 104 2.65 x 104
8 4
Sun, floor 5 1.13 x 108 1.38 x 104 1.15 x 105
Sun, floor 10 5.93 x 108 1.87 x 104 7.13 x 104
Modified chipper:
Oven, 60 C 5 5.45 x 105 4.50 x 102 2.67 x 102
Bin, 60 C 70 2.04 x 106 8.67 x 102 7.33 x 102
5 2
8 5
Sun, floor 5 4.01 x 10 1.71 x 10 2.15 x 105
a. Counts expressed as colony forming units per gram (cfu/g), wet weight basis; average of three composite
samples.
105 cfu/g (Table 6). Previous Summary

pilot-plant experience has shown
that, with long drying times (22 h), Rasping and drying of cassava roots
the APCs of the chips are at is an effective means of reducing the
108 cfu/g, but reducing the drying CNP present in high cyanogen cassava
time to 10 h reduces the APCs to varieties. However, the greater degree
105 cfu/g. Faster drying of the pulp of root disintegration leads to
may therefore offer a means of increased microbiological growth.
reducing the counts. The shortest
pulp drying time of 6 h was
insufficient to affect the counts. Conclusions
Raised-tray sun drying of chips Processing with the grating disk
gave a product of good reduced CNP by 22% more than the
microbiological quality with APCs standard disk. However, drying grated
similar to those of oven-dried chips. chips at high loading densities may be
Thus, this method may have difficult.
potential for reducing costs under
suitable climatic conditions (site Fast drying stopped the
specific). elimination of cyanogens early in the
286
Table 6. Microbiological quality of processed samples from pilot plant and CIAT trials, November 1991.
Sample Microbiological countsa
Aerobic plate Spore count Coliforms Fecal coli-forms

count at 35 C at 35 C (MPNb) (MPNb)
CIAT:
Soil 7.7 x 107 8.1 x 105 >1.1 x 103 15
Root peelc 3.0 x 107 6.2 x 104 >1.1 x 103 <3
Parenchyma 1.2 x 103 1.5 x 102 <3 <3
Pilot plant:
Soil 6.8 x 107 5.7 x 107 >1.1 x 103 40
Root peelc 1.4 x 107 3.0 x 105 >1.1 x 103 7
Well water 4.6 x 103 8.3 x 101 <3 <3
Tank waterd 4.7 x 103 2.6 x 102 <3 <3
5
Fresh chips 4.9 x 10 2.8 x 103 1.1 x 103 500
a. Counts expressed as cfu/g (wet weight basis) for processed samples and as cfu/ml for water samples.
b. MPN = most probable number.
c. Root peel includes bark and peel.
d. Tank water treated with 10-20 mg/L free chlorine.
SOURCE: D. S. Trim and P. Wareing, 1991, personal communication.
drying period of the modified-disk Bokanga, M. 1992. Mechanisms of the

chips, masking any effect chip size elimination of cyanogens from cassava
during traditional processing. In: Westby,
might have had. Greater reduction
A. and Reilly, P. J. A. (eds.). Proceedings
in CNP is likely at higher loading of a Regional Workshop on Traditional
densities. African Foods - Quality and Nutrition,
25-29 Nov. 1991, Dar es Salaam.
Rasping and drying is an International Foundation for Science
(IFS), Uppsala, Sweden. p. 157-162.
effective means of processing even
very high cyanogen roots to a flour
FAO and WHO (Food and Agriculture
that meets the Colombian standard. Organization of the United Nations and
Further work is needed to improve World Health Organization), Codex
the products microbiological Alimentarius Commission. 1992. Codex
quality. standard for edible cassava flour
African regional standard
CODEX STAN 176-1991. Eighth session
In suitable climatic conditions, of the Codex Committee on Cereals,
raised-tray sun drying of chips gives Pulses and Legumes, CX/CPL 92/9,
a product of good microbiological June, 1992. FAO/WHO Food Standards
quality. Program, Rome, Italy. 17 p.
Fish, D. M. and Trim, D. S. 1993. A review of

research into the drying of cassava
References chips. Trop. Sci. 33:191-208.
Banea, M. 1993. Cassava processing, ICMSF (International Commission on

dietary cyanide exposure and konzo Microbiological Specifications for
in Zaire. Thesis for Master of Foods). 1978. Microorganisms in foods,
Medical Sciences degree. 1: their significance and methods of
International Child Health Unit enumeration. 2nd ed. Academic Press,
(ICH), Uppsala, Sweden. 65 p. London, UK.
287
ICONTEC (Instituto Colombiano de Normas Monroy-Rivera, J. A. 1990. Eliminacin de

Tcnicas). 1967. Harina de trigo para compuestos cianognicos durante el
panificacin. In: Industrias secado de yuca. Informe de los
alimentarias, 2nd rev., vol. 10. trabajos realizados en el CIAT. Ecole
NTC 267. Bogot, Colombia. p. 55-67. nationale suprieure des industries
agricoles et alimentaires (ENSIA),
__________. 1990. Yuca seca para consumo Massy, France. 51 p.
humano. In: Frutas, legumbres y
hortalizas. NTC 2716. Bogot, OBrien, G. M.; Taylor, A. J.; and Poulter,
Colombia. N. H. 1991. Improved enzymic assay
for cyanogens in fresh and processed
Mlingi, N. L. V.; Assey, V. D.; Poulter, N. H.; cassava. J. Sci. Food Agric.
and Rosling, H. 1992. Cyanohydrins 56:277-289.
from insuffiiently processed cassava
induces KONZO, a newly identified Tanzania Bureau of Standards. 1989.
paralytic disease in man. In: Westby, Tanzania wheat flour specification.
A. and Reilly, P. J. A. (eds.). TZS 439:1989. Dar es Salaam,
Proceedings of a Regional Workshop Tanzania.
on Traditional African Foods - Quality
and Nutrition, 25-29 Nov. 1991, Dar
es Salaam. International Foundation
for Science (IFS), Uppsala, Sweden.
p. 163-169.
288
Cassava Flour in Malawi: Processing, Quality, and Uses
CHAPTER 33
CASSAVA FLOUR IN MALAWI:

PROCESSING, QUALITY, AND USES
J. D. Kalenga Saka*
The quality of flour processed from Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is
cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) by a major root crop in the tropics, and
two methods commonly used in its starchy roots are a significant
Malawi was determined. The first, source of calories for more than
simple sun-drying, gives a flour 500 million people worldwide (Cock,
known as ntandaza; the other 1985). In Malawi, cassava is the
soaking in water, followed by sun second most important staple after
dryingprovides kondowole flour. maize (DEPD, 1987): about 30% of
Processing affects both the nutritional the population depends on cassava
quality and cyanogen content of the for calories (Sauti, 1982). The crop
final products. The soaking step grows easily in all parts of the
significantly reduces mineral and country, but especially along the
protein contents and raises the shores of Lake Malawi where it is the
carbohydrate level (P > 0.05) to most important staple food. Since the
91.1% 1.1% for ntandaza flour and 1991/92 drought, which devastated
95.3% 0.7% for kondowole. Malawi, the Government has
intensified the countrys production of
The soaking step, followed by sun cassava, a drought-resistant crop, to
drying, reduces the cyanogen content guarantee food security.
more than sun drying alone. In
soaking + sun drying, less than 10 mg Cassava is eaten in various
HCN/kg dry wt were detected in the forms; these determine the methods
final products, representing a of processing, which aim to
98.0% 1.6% reduction of initial (1) provide products that are
cyanogen content. Simple sun drying storable and easy to transport to
reduced total cyanogen content by market; (2) improve the taste of final
82.9% 5.2%. products; (3) reduce potential
cassava toxicity; and (4) provide
The uses of cassava flour in products such as flour for
bakery, brewing, and making cassava subsequent conversion to a variety
sima are described. of end products (Hahn, 1989;
Lancaster et al., 1982). In Malawi,
two methods are employed to make
cassava flour, resulting in two kinds
* Chemistry Department, Chancellor College, of flour: kondowole and ntandaza
University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi. (Saka, n.d.; Williamson, 1975).
289
Kondowole flour is prepared by cassava-based products improves

soaking peeled cassava roots for 2 to (Sauti et al., 1989).
7 days; sun drying the soft mass
(called maphumu) and pounding the Ntandaza flour is made by sun
dried mass to make the flour drying peeled and/or partially peeled
(Figure 1). This product is popular roots for 1 week or several months.
among lakeshore populations living in The roots may be dried whole, as cut
Karonga District to as far south as pieces, or after pounding; the last
Nkhotakota District (Figure 2). The dries fastest. The dried product is
soaking of unpeeled roots is also called makaka and the resultant flour
practiced, but the flour gives products is commonly known as ntandaza.
which taste bitter and appear darker. The flour is also referred to as
The flour is used in its pure form or is ntandasha and mtandasha,
mixed with cereal flours (maize, depending on the locality.
sorghum, millet, wheat, or rice).
This method of processing
Among other things, the flour is cassava is predominant in central and
used to make sima. Its preparation southern Malawi (Figures 2 and 3). A
involves adding the flour to variation of the methodology involves
simmering water and stirring the first covering the cassava roots with
paste to consistency. Both pure and banana leaves to induce mold
composite flours are used for brewing formation. The moldy product is then
sweet and alcoholic beverages. When sun dried to provide a darker and
mixed with wheat flour, the composite moldy makaka (Van Drongelen,
flour is widely used to bake breads, 1992).
scones, cakes, and biscuits. The pure
kondowole flour is also used in Although the ntandaza flour is
baking. When mixed with cereal used in the same way as kondowole
flour, the nutritional value of the flour, its most important use is in
Whole roots or
Peel
Cassava Peeled cut pieces
roots roots Soft mass (maphumu)
Soak
Squeeze or
Soak Sun dry pound
Pounded mass
Soft roots (1) Peel
(unpeeled) Dried mass
(2) Sun dry
(1) Sun dry (as balls or small pieces)
Pound (2) Pound
Sweet or alcoholic Ferment Kondowole Mix with maize, Composite Ferment Sweet or
beers flour sorghum, rice, flour alcoholic
Cook or millet flour beers
Bake Cook
Bake
Sima
Sima
(a cooked Bakery (cakes,
paste) bread, scones)
Figure 1. Processing kondowole flour from cassava roots, and its uses, Malawi.
290
Tanzania
Zambia
Likoma and Chizumulu

Islands (Mozambique)
Mozambique
Figure 2. Cassava-growing areas in Malawi ( = major growing areas; = scattered crops;

= lake). 1 = Karonga District; 2 = Nkhotakota District; 3 = Zomba District; = town of
same name as district. (After Nyirenda.)
Cassava Peel and

roots Peeled roots (whole roots or cut pieces)
wash
(1) Sprinkle (1) Cover Sun dry (1) Pound
water with
banana
leaves
(2) Sun dry (2) Sun dry (2) Sun dry
(1) Add millet, sorghum,

or maize flour Composite
Dried mass (makaka) Sima
(2) Mill or pound flour
Ferment
Bake
Pound
Bakery
Sweet or
products
alcoholic beers
Bake
Bake
Mix with sorghum, Ferment
Ntandaza flour
Sweet or Ferment maize, or millet flour
(ntandasha, Composite flour
alcoholic beers mtandasha)
Cook
Cook
Sima (a cooked paste) Sima
Figure 3. Processing ntandaza flour from cassava roots, and its uses, Malawi.
291
brewing. The resulting beer is 12-month-old plants, whereas those

reported to be of superior quality. processed into kondowole and
ntandaza flours for cyanogen
Information on the quality of determination varied from 20 to
cassava flour produced in Malawi was 22 months in age.
limited until 1986, when our work
began (Saka, n.d.). The processing of Processing the flours
cassava into various forms affects the
nutritional value of the final products Kondowole. Four roots from
(Longe, 1980). The levels of total each of three plants, totalling 12,
cyanoglucosides, linamarin and from each of three varieties were
lotaustralin are also affected during peeled, washed, and soaked in
processing (Lancaster et al., 1982). deionized water (volume not recorded)
in plastic wash basins for 7 days.
Hydrolysis of cyanoglucosides by The resulting soft mass was washed
an endogenous enzyme, linamarase, with clean water, broken down (by
liberates the highly toxic substance, hand) into small pieces while
hydrocyanic acid (HCN) via removing floury material in the
acetocyanohydrin (de Bruijn, 1971). process, and left to dry on trays in the
The presence of nonglucosidic sun for 7 days. The dried product
cyanogens (NGC; acetocyanohydrin was then ground in a blender and
and HCN) limits cassava use (Nartey, sieved.
1978). Cyanide has a lethal dose of
0.5 to 3.5 mg HCN/kg of body weight. The data (Tables 1 and 2)
Although the reports of acute cyanide obtained for kondowole flour were
intoxication and death among taken from 20 to 22-month-old plants
cassava-eating populations are and the soft, soaked roots were made
infrequent, ample evidence exists that into balls and sun dried for 67 h.
goiter and cretinism (due to iodine Samples of kondowole flour were
deficiency) are exacerbated, and that provided by the Cassava Commodity
diseases such as tropic ataxic Team, Makoka Agricultural Research
neuropathy and epidemic spastic Station.
paraparesis (konzo) are caused by
long-term ingestion of cyanide from Ntandaza. Twelve roots were
cassava (Rosling, 1987). selected as above, peeled, and either
pounded or cut longitudinally and
We studied the nutritional value transversely to produce chips. The
and cyanogen content of the two chips were sun-dried on trays and the
Malawian cassava flours to ascertain dried material (makaka) was
their quality. processed into flour, using a blender
and sieve. The pounded roots were
sun dried for 2 to 3 days (Table 1).
Material and Methods
Chemical analysis
Cassava samples
Analar grade chemicals and solvents
Tuberous roots were obtained from were used. Fresh roots and cassava
the Makoka Agricultural Research flours were analyzed for moisture,
Station, Zomba, and from the D. C. ash, crude fiber, fat, crude protein,
Munthali Research Farm, Biology and minerals (Ca, P, Mg, and K),
Department, Chancellor College, using standard procedures (Osborne
Zomba. The roots analyzed for and Voogt, 1978). The carbohydrate
nutritional value were from content was calculated by difference.
292
Table 1. Cyanogen content of cassava flours (mg HCN/kg dry wt) produced in Malawi. Values are means
of samples, with SE in parentheses.
Flour type Moisture Cyanogens Total cyanogen

(%) reduction
Total Non- Free (% of initial content)
glucosidic
Kondowole (n = 21) 11.8 2.91 0.75 0.69 98.0
Ntandaza (n = 8):
Poundeda, 11.4 116.8 25.5 1.6 79.7

sun dried (1.2) (6.2) (0.7) (0.2) (1.3)
Poundedb, 4.88 54.4 4.80 0.39 80.0

sun dried (0.12) (2.5) (0.20) (0.06) (2.5)
Chipsc, 14.6 51.6 12.4 3.05 88.9

sun dried (0.5) (3.1) (0.6) (0.20) (1.0)
a. Nyambi, a bitter variety, was peeled, pounded, and sun dried at 30 1 C for 48 h.
b. Gomani, a bitter variety, was peeled, pounded and sun dried at 30 1 C for 72 h.
c. TMS 1230158 (OP), a bitter variety, was peeled, cut into chips and sun dried at 30 1 C for 72 h.
Table 2. Composition of cassava roots and products from our work and some literature sources (on dry
wt basis). Each value is the mean of 12 roots with SE.
Component Roots Ntandaza flour Kondowole flour

(Malawi study)
Malawi Longe, Malawi Williamson, Longe,
study 1980 study 1975 1980
Moisture (%) 55.9 4.9 13.44 2.66 11.80 10.77 2.72 12.00 12.00
Ash (%) 2.21 0.45 2.15 0.18 2.05 0.91 0.30 1.79
Crude fat (%) 1.23 0.44 0.87 0.33 0.46 0.70 0.30 0.24
Crude fiber (%) 2.29 0.39 2.30 0.70 1.62 0.30
Crude protein (%) 3.17 0.62 3.39 0.73 2.04 1.46 0.30 1.70 1.51
Carbohydrate (%) 91.1 1.2 91.0 1.1 90.30 95.3 0.66 95.50 94.40
P (mg/100 g) 82 35 93 27 40 20
Ca (mg/100 g) 54 27 26 12 17 8 63.00
Mg (mg/100 g) 40 17 58 16 32 13
K (mg/100 g) 768 354 877 358 330 138
Cyanogen extraction and analysis were then centrifuged at 8 x 103 g for

10 minutes. The supernatant was
To 30 g of flour (60 g fresh roots) in a collected in sample bottles and
blender was added 0.1 M of chilled deep-frozen until analysis. The fresh
orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) cassava was extracted in four
(200 cm3), with subsequent extraction replicates and the processed cassava
according to Cookes (1978) method. in duplicates. For the assay of total
The milky liquid was poured into cyanogen content, samples were
centrifuge tubes. Their weights were prepared according to the acid
adjusted until equal and the tubes hydrolysis method of Bradbury et al.
293
(1991). For NGC (cyanohydrin plus fresh roots. Whereas the dry matter
free HCN) and free cyanide, the and Mg contents were increased, the
procedure of OBrien et al. (1991) was fat and Ca levels were decreased.
used. In all cyanogen assays, a
sodium isonicotinate-sodium Soaking and subsequent sun
dimethylbarbiturate coloring reagent drying of cassava provided kondowole
was used (Saka, 1992). flour, whose composition was
significantly different (at both P =
The moisture contents of fresh 0.05 and 0.01) from that of fresh
and processed cassava were roots. During this process, the
determined gravimetrically after oven carbohydrate content became
drying three replicate, 10-g-sample significantly higher while the rest of
aliquots at 110 5 C for 16 h. the analyzed constituents decreased.
These were lost as dissolved material
during soaking. These findings are
Results and Discussion consistent with those reported by
Longe (1980).
Table 2 presents the mean chemical
data for kondowole and ntandaza Table 1 provides the levels of
flours and the literature data for total, nonglucosidic, and free
cassava flours similarly processed. cyanogens of kondowole and
The results show that, despite certain ntandaza flours and presents the
similarities, the chemical percentage reductions in total
compositions of the two flours were cyanogen content. The results show
significantly different at P = 0.05. that the method used to prepare
kondowole flour (involving a
At 1% level, neither the fat values submerged fermentation stage) was
nor the Ca content were significantly more efficient in reducing total
different. The chemical data in Table cyanogen content than that employed
2 reveal that, compared with fresh for ntandaza flour. The production of
roots, the two cassava flours are kondowole resulted in 98.0% 1.6%
equally important sources of loss in the total cyanogen content
carbohydrates, but with generally while an 82.9% 5.2% reduction was
lower values in protein, fat, and fiber. achieved during the processing of
Their mean nutritional values ntandaza flour.
compare well with published data
(Longe, 1980) but higher fat levels Mahungu et al. (1987) also noted
were obtained by Saka (n.d.). The a 99% reduction in cyanogen content
present data fill several gaps and also with methods that involve soaking
confirm the limited available roots in water. Saka (1992) recently
information on Malawi cassava flour eliminated 70% to 80% of total
(Williamson, 1975). cyanogen content by sun drying
1-cm3 cassava chips for 48 h. The
Comparison of the chemical residual, total cyanogen content of
composition of fresh roots (Saka, n.d.) kondowole flour was 2.91 1.44 mg
and the two cassava flours (Table 2) HCN/kg dry wt and of ntandaza flour,
indicates that sun drying alone, and 51.6 3.1 to 116.8 6.2. Thus, the
soaking in water followed by sun ntandaza flour contained much
drying, affect the nutritional value of higher residual cyanogen content
cassava. Simple sun drying produced than did the kondowole. The final
ntandaza flour, whose dry matter, fat, cyanogen content depends on
Ca, and Mg levels were significantly whether the variety contains low
different (at P = 0.05) from those of (sweet) or high (bitter) cyanogen.
294
The less bitter, or sweet, varieties was high. The final products may
have lower residual cyanogen remain potentially toxic for human
content when sun dried (Saka, n.d.). consumption. Pounding of fresh
cassava and its subsequent sun
The composition of the three drying seem to offer better prospects
forms of cyanogens indicates that in achieving low cyanogen content.
free HCN is a major component of
the NGC in kondowole flour. In
contrast, in ntandaza, cyanohydrin Acknowledgments
is the major component.
Cyanoglucosides also predominate I wish to thank the Research and
in ntandaza flour. Publications Committee, University of
Malawi; R. F. N. Sauti, Team Leader,
High levels of acetocyanohydrin Cassava Commodity Team; the
in sun-dried chips have also been Malawian Ministry of Agriculture; the
observed by others (Mlingi et al., International Foundation for Science,
1992). Consumption of this type of Sweden, for funding; and Mrs. L. C.
cassava appears to lead to high Saka for typing the manuscript.
thiocyanate levels in human urine
(Mlingi et al., 1992). Plans are
currently under way to develop or References
upgrade methods for reducing total
residual cyanogen and cyanohydrin Bradbury, J. H.; Egan, S. V.; and Lynch,
to levels comparable with those in M. J. 1991. Analysis of cyanide in
cassava using acid hydrolysis of
kondowole flour.
cyanogenic glucosides. J. Sci. Food
Agric. 55:277-290.
Conclusions Cock, J. H. 1985. Cassava: new potential for

a neglected crop. International
Agricultural Development Service
Cassava and its flours are major (IADS) development-oriented
sources of carbohydrates, but have literature series. Westview Press,
low values in protein, fat, and Boulder, CO. 191 p.
minerals. The protein content could
be improved by fortifying with cereal Cooke, R. D. 1978. An enzymatic assay for
the total cyanide content of
and legume grains. The use of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz).
cassava flour in Malawi remains J. Sci. Food Agric. 29:345-352.
restricted to cooking sima, baking,
and brewing. Diversifying and de Bruijn, G. H. 1971. Etude du caractre
promoting cassava flour use is cyanogenetique du manioc. Papers.
Wageningen Agricultural University,
desirable. Wageningen, the Netherlands.
140 p.
Soaking and subsequent sun
drying of cassava roots greatly DEPD (Department of Economic Planning
reduce the high cyanogen levels to and Development). 1987. Agriculture
low, safe values for human and animal husbandry. In: Republic
of Malawi Statement of Development
consumption. This method Policies 1987-1996. Government
increased the carbohydrate content Printer, Zomba, Malawi. 22 p.
of the cassava, but other nutrients
were reduced considerably. Simple Hahn, S. K. 1989. An overview of African
sun drying was less effective in traditional cassava processing and
utilization. Outlook Agric.
reducing total cyanogens, especially 18(3):110-118.
when the initial cyanogen content
295
Lancaster, P. A.; Ingram, J. S.; Lim, M. Y.; Saka, J. D. K. 1992. Determination of

and Coursey, D. G. 1982. cyanogen content of cassava (Manihot
Traditional cassava-based foods: esculenta Crantz), using sodium
survey of processing techniques. isonicotinate-sodium
Econ. Bot. 38:12-45. dimethylbarbiturate. Paper presented
at the Fifth International Chemistry
Longe, O. G. 1980. Effect of processing on Conference in Africa, 27-31 July,
the chemical composition and energy University of Botswana.
value of cassava. Nutr. Rep. Int.
21(6):819-828. __________. n.d. Nutritional value and
hydrocyanic acid content of Malawi
Mahungu, N. M.; Yamaguchi, V.; Almazan, cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
A. H.; and Hahn, S. K. 1987. and cassava flour. Malawi J. Sci.
Reduction of cyanide during Technol. (In press.)
processing of cassava into some
traditional African foods. J. Food Sauti, R. F. N. 1982. Country report: Malawi.
Agric. 1:11-15. In: Root crops in East Africa:
proceedings of a workshop held at
Mlingi, N. L. V.; Assey, V. D.; Poulter, N. H.; Kigali, Rwanda, 23-27 Nov. 1980.
and Rosling, H. 1992. Cyanohydrins International Development Research
from insufficiently processed cassava Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada.
induces konzo, a newly identified p. 104-106, 122-128.
paralytic disease in man. In: Westby,
A. and Reilly, P. J. A. (eds.). __________; Saka, J. D. K.; and Kumsiya,
Proceedings of a Regional Workshop E. G. 1989. The composition and
on Traditional African Foods - Quality nutritive value of cassava-maize
and Nutrition, 25-29 Nov. 1991, Dar composite flour. In: Alvarez, M. N.
es Salaam. International Foundation and Hahn, S. K. (eds.). Proceedings of
for Science (IFS), Uppsala, Sweden. the Third Eastern and Southern
p. 163-169. Africa Regional Workshop Root and
Tuber Crops, 7-11 Dec., 1988,
Nartey, F. 1978. Manihot esculenta (cassava): Mzuzu. International Institute of
cyanogenesis, ultrastructure and Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan,
seed germination. Munksgaard Nigeria. p. 71-75.
International Pubs., Copenhagen,
Denmark. 262 p. Van Drongelen, A. 1992. Reasons for choices
in cassava processing, the case of
OBrien, G. M.; Taylor, A. J.; and Poulter, Mulanje. Wageningen Agricultural
N. H. 1991. Improved enzymic assay University, Wageningen, the
for cyanogens in fresh and processed Netherlands. 67 p.
cassava. J. Sci. Food Agric.
56:277-289. Williamson, J. 1975. Manihot esculenta
Crantz: useful plants of Malawi.
Osborne, D. R. and Voogt, P. 1978. The University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi.
analysis of nutrients in foods. p. 155-157.
Academic Press, London, UK. 251 p.
Rosling, H. 1987. Cassava toxicity and food

security. Tryok Kontakt Pubs.,
Uppsala, Sweden. 40 p.
296
SESSION 6:
NEW PRODUCTS
The Potential for New Cassava Products in Brazil
CHAPTER 34
THE POTENTIAL FOR NEW CASSAVA

PRODUCTS IN BRAZIL1
G. Chuzel*, N. Zakhia**, and M. P. Cereda***
Introduction Given the various intermediate

products of cassava (e.g., chips,
Cassava is an important crop in flours, and starch); the array of
Brazil, with an annual production of current applications in human and
22-25 million tons. Production animal nutrition and in industry;
systems, processing methods, and the and the numerous traditional
degree of technology employed vary cassava preparations, it is possible
between the four major cassava to visualize a broad range of
regions (Amaznia, Northeast, cassava-based markets. The key
Central South, South), according lies with new technologies and the
to agroecological location and development of novel products to fit
socioeconomic conditions. Farinha, a current and potential markets.
toasted flour, comprises the principal
market, accounting for 70%-80% of To innovate products within
cassava production, but price and the existing matrix of traditional
demand fluctuate greatly. and new products and their
respective markets, the following
Price fluctuations influence the factors should be considered:
area of land cultivated, adoption of
new technology for production, and (1) The evolution of a successful
income of cassava producers, mainly starch sector such as that of
small-scale farmers. Diversification France during the last
would help stabilize prices of both 20 years;
cassava flour and fresh roots. (2) Current trends in Brazil toward
Establishing new markets for cassava product diversification; and
and its products would enhance the (3) Proposed strategies for the
value of cassava cultivation and short and medium terms.
establish important links between
small-scale agriculture and expanding
markets. The Evolution of the
Starch Sector in France
* CIRAD/SAR, stationed at the Faculdade de The modern French starch
Cincias Agronmicas (FCA), Universidade industry, based on maize or potato
Estadual Paulista (UNESP), So Paulo,
Brazil.
starch, provides a relevant example
** CIRAD/SAR, Montpellier, France. of an industry evolving in search of
*** UNESP/FCA. new products and markets in both
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. food and nonfood sectors.
299
250,000
1234
1234
1234
200,000 1234
1234
Starch (t) 150,000
1234
1234 123
1234
1234 123
123
1234 123
100,000 1234
1234 123
123 123
1234
1234 123
123 123
123 123
123
50,000
1234 123 123 123 123 1234
1234
1234 123 123 1234 123 123 123 1234
0
Food industry
Paper
Corrugated paper
Textiles
Adhesives
and chemicals
Foundry
Others
Pharmaceuticals
Markets
12
12
Figure 1. Starch markets in France, 1954-1987 ( = 1954; 12= 1987). Nonfood uses in 1954 comprised
52% of starch production, which totalled 145,000 t; in 1987, 58% of 710,000 t.
Note: Others include such markets as drilling muds, flocculation agents, building materials,
and mining.
Before the 19th century (1) An almost five-fold increase in

starch utilization. The annual
Only wheat starch was produced in growth rate in the last decade of
France, principally for starching starch utilization in the European
fabrics, powdering wigs, and gluing Community (now the European
papyrus or paper, that is, exclusively Union) remained above 3.8%;
nonfood uses. The convergence of (2) A steadily increasing quantity of
glucose production, and that of beet starch (from 52% to 58%) is
sugar, with the industrial revolution of destined for nonfood uses;
the 19th century, transformed this (3) A profound change in user
small-scale activity into a large markets: increased use by paper
industry, providing a wide range of industries, and pure chemistry
raw materials suited to a considerably and pharmaceutical sectors, with
broadened range of applications. The a reduced use in the textile
discovery of dextrins in the 1830s, industry.
then of linters in the 1890s, and, most
significantly, modified starches in the To confront these developments,
1940s gave rise to the industry of the starch industry has had to adapt
today. completely its product range, creating
new products and seeking new
1960s to 1980s applications. The industry has
learned how best to add value to,
The approach adopted by the adapt, or modify the functional and
developing starch sector was new and physicochemical properties of starches
traditional products for new and (e.g., viscosity, capacities for binding,
traditional markets. For example, the thickening, adhesion, flocculation,
market for starch products in France and dispersion). A matrix of product
from 1954 to 1987 (Figure 1) was versus market, and new versus
characterized by: traditional can be observed:
300
Traditional products New products
Traditional markets Native and modified starches: Cationic starch:

Food Paper
Paper
Textiles Borated dextrins:
Adhesives
New markets Native starch: Isoglucose:

Corrugated paper, ceiling Beverages
tiles, wall panels
CM starch:
Pregelatinized starch: Pharmaceuticals
Flocculation agents
Lipophilic starches:
Crosslinked, stabilized starches: Beverage emulsions,
Frozen and microwave foods encapsulation
Organic acids, AA, enzymes
Approach adopted by the French starch industry during the 1960s to 1980s.
From the above matrix, the (c) Reticulated and stabilized

following points are worth noting: starches which prevent
undesirable effects associated
(1) Traditional markets for new with certain modes of cooking
products: The development of (e.g., heating by microwave
cationic starches with increased causes phase separations,
retention capacity has varying degrees of swelling,
considerably strengthened breakage of the crust, and
existing markets in the paper nonuniformity of flavors and
industry. aromas).
(2) Traditional products in new
markets: The food marketing (3) New markets for new products:
sector has largely evolved during The development of isoglucose has
the last few years, opening new opened up large markets, especially
markets for such modified in the U.S. drinks industry.
starches as: Likewise, fermentation techniques
using starch as a substrate
(a) Pregelatinized starches, have opened up chemical,
cold-soluble starches; pharmaceutical, and other markets,
reticulated starches (more providing a wealth of derived
stable under cooking products.
conditions, in the
preparation of For the next decade
ready-to-use foods);
(b) Oxidized starches, resistant The starch industry is now following a
to retrogradation, for frozen similar approach to strengthen and
products; diversify its markets for the next decade:
301
Traditional markets Native and modified starches: Fat and sweetner substitutes:
Food Paper (retention rate)
Paper Low calorie foods
Textiles
New markets Starch, pregelatinized starch: PHB/V, Polylactic acid:

Biodegradable plastics Biopolymers
Carboxylic starches, surfactants: Bioconversions

Thermoplastic starches
Detergents Cyclodextrins
Approach adopted by the French starch industry for the next decade.
Responding to future demands These new products and

applications depend on previously
This approach enables the starch well-identified target markets: the
sector to respond to emerging demands Brazilian cassava industries still
from existing or potential users such as have not moved toward new
nutritional considerations, quality products for new markets. This is
requirements, or environmental highly risky in terms of research
concerns. and development, whether
generating new technologies or
identifying new markets and
The Cassava Industry in Brazil marketing strategies, particularly
as these industries lack the
Traditionally, cassava is consumed as necessary human and financial
fresh roots, or processed into farinha, resources.
polvilho azedo, or starch for food,
paper, and textile industries. Although The French starch sector, to
farinha remains the principal market develop as described above, devotes
for cassava, the Brazilian cassava more than 2% of its turnover to
industry has taken a series of research and development
initiatives to diversify markets: impossible to imagine in the
current Brazilian context.
(1) New markets for traditional
products: A new market for In an attempt to overcome this
polvilho azedo (sour starch), a lack of resources, the Centro Raizes
naturally fermented starch with Tropicais (CERAT), together with
bread-making properties, is the Universidade Estadual Paulista
developing urban fast-food outlets; (UNESP), brought together about
and for farinha in mining. 50 researchers from several
(2) New products for traditional Brazilian research institutions and
markets: In particular, the food development-support institutions,
industry is increasing its use of to help the industrial sector follow
native or modified cassava the new products for new markets
starches, such as cationic starch approach, along the lines of the
and maltodextrins. Frozen cassava following matrix:
chips is another new product.
302
Traditional markets Quality and new cassava varieties: High-fiber biscuits

Fresh consumption
Fat substitutes:
Farinha Meat products, ice-creams
Polvilho azedo Cyclodextrins
Starch:
Food, paper, textiles
New markets Farinha, native starch: Glucose syrups:

Grits substitutes in Food industry
beer brewing
Polvilho azedo: Maltose syrups (MFT):

Premixes for food industry Brewing, acid-fermented
drinks, polysaccharides,
packaging, uses of
byproducts
Brazilian cassava industry: present and potential future products and markets.
The research initiated under Bibliography

project EU-STD3 (value-added
products, byproducts, and waste Ansart, M. 1990. Le poids et la diversit des
products of small and medium-scale dbouchs industriels de lamidon.
Industrie Agro-alimentaire, juin
cassava primary processing industries 1990. p. 541-545.
in Latin America) falls within the scope
of this initiative, particularly in terms Leygue, J. P. 1992. Les utilisations
of new products for new markets. non-alimentaires des crales: quatre
dbouchs porteurs. Perspect. Agric.
167:40-54.
Some of these research efforts
will transfer to the industrial world of Light, J. 1990. Modified food starches: why,
secondary processing (e.g., use of what, where and how. Cereal Foods
farinha or cassava starch in beer World 35(11):1081-1092.
brewing as a substitute for maize grits,
Swinnels, J. J. M. 1990. Industrial starch
formulation of sour starch-based chemistry: properties, modifications
premixes for production of, for and applications of starches. AVEBE
example, po de queijo). The business no. 05.00.02.006EF.
community has already expressed
interestan indication of the relevance
of the approach adopted.
303
CHAPTER 35
EXTRUSION PROCESSING OF CASSAVA:

FORMULATION OF SNACKS
N. Badrie and W. A. Mellowes*
Acceptable snack-type extrudates Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is
were produced, using flour from grown mainly in tropical developing
cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) as countries where it is a primary source
the main ingredient. Various formulas of carbohydrates for millions of people
of cassava flour blended with other (Coursey, 1978; Nestel, 1973). The
ingredients were tested. Extrusion roots do not store well after harvest
processing was carried out, using a and usually begin to deteriorate
laboratory extruder (Wenger X-5, within 2 to 4 days (Odigboh, 1983).
single-screw) under constant Processing helps solve the storage
conditions, where feed moisture was problem (Sammy, 1971) and
11%, barrel temperature 120-125 C, increases the usefulness of
screw speed 520 rpm, and feed rate cassava.
250 g/min. Sensory attributes of
color, flavor, and texture, and overall Snack foods now comprise an
acceptability were rated by panelists important part of the daily nutrient
on a 5-point scoring system. Analysis and calorie intake of many
of variance indicated significant consumers. They can be sweet or
differences (P < 0.01) for sensory savory, light or substantial, and may
attributes and for formulas. Flavor even be endowed with attributes such
scored the highest, reflecting the as healthy or just for fun
presence of popular spices in the (Tettweiler, 1991). Among West
blends. Formula F4 received the Indians, spicy snacks are especially
highest scores for flavor and color and popular.
for acceptability. All formulas were
acceptable, except for F7 and F8, Extrusion processing is one of the
which contained yeast. Color was fastest growing, and most important,
most attractive when 0.1% turmeric food-processing operations of recent
was added. years (Harper, 1981a; Paton and
Spratt, 1984). The food industry has
invested considerable research in the
extrusion processing of a wide range
of foodstuffs, developing many
successful products (Linko et al.,
* Food Technology Unit, Department of
Chemical Engineering, Faculty of 1981), including snacks, baby foods,
Engineering, University of the West Indies, cereals and starches, and/or
St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies. vegetable proteins (Harper, 1981b).
304
Extrusion Processing of Cassava: Formulation of Snacks
Cooked, extruded snacks are Cassava roots

generally prepared from cereals such
as de-germinated maize meal, and Wash
(remove surface dirt)
rice and wheat flour (Smith, 1976).
Hand-peel
In Trinidad and Tobago, maize (immersing roots in water)
meal is a major imported ingredient
for extruded foods such as ready-to- Slice
eat snacks. Limited work has been (1-3 mm thick with a
done on the extrusion of cassava, 2 to 5-cm diameter)
resulting in the absence of cassava

Dry
extrudates on the local market. The (at 60 C for 3.5 to 4 h)
objectives of this research were to
(1) use cassava flour as the main Grind
ingredient for a snack product under
suitable processing conditions, and Sieve (particle size ranges
(2) determine, by sensory evaluation, from 0.25 to 0.84 mm)
the acceptability of extrudates of
various formulas. Cassava flour
8.5%-9.0% d.b.
Pack (in HDPE bags)

Store (in plastic
Feed ingredients containers with lids)
Cassava roots of the local variety Blend ingredients

Maracas Blackstick were processed (allow to equilibrate)
into flour (Figure 1) within 48 hours
of harvesting. The flour was then Adjust feed moisture
(to 11% d.b.)
blended with small amounts of
additional ingredients to yield a Extrusion
variety of formulas. These ingredients
were powdered spices, such as onion Pack extrudates
(0.2%, 0.5% w/w), garlic (0.2%, (in HDPE bags)
0.5%), chili (0.2%, 0.5%), turmeric
(0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, and 1.0%), and Store (at 4 C in plastic
containers with lids)
paprika (0.2%, 0.5%); sucrose (0.5%);
uniodized salt (1.0%, 1.5%); Sensory evaluation
monosodium glutamate (MSG, 1.0%),
dried skimmed milk (0.5%); soybean Figure 1. Procedures for extruding cassava flour
oil (4.0%); yeast (1.0%, 1.5%), and blends. (HDPE = high-density
defatted soybean flour (5.0%, 10.0%). polyethylene.)
The feed sample of each formula

was left to equilibrate for 24 h and plastic containers. Extrudates were
adjusted to the targeted feed moisture presented to panelists for sensory
of 11% d.b. The samples were again evaluation within 2 days of extrusion.
left to equilibrate at 4 C for 24 h and,
before extrusion, were allowed to A single-screw laboratory
reach ambient temperature. After extruder, with a 2.5-cm diameter, was
cooking, the extrudates were packed used (Wenger X-5, Wenger
in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) Manufacturing Company, Sabetha,
bags and stored at 4 C in sealed Kansas). The screw was of decreasing
305
pitch with a compression ratio experienced in the sensory evaluation

(channel depth in feed zone to of food products. They rated the
channel depth in metering zone) of sensory attributes of color, flavor and
2:1 and length to diameter (L/D) ratio texture, and overall acceptability
of 15:1. The die diameter was according to a scale where
5.0 mm and land length 9.0 mm. The 1 = unacceptable; 2 = poor;
die plate was attached to a breaker 3 = acceptable; 4 = good; and
plate, 6.0 mm thick. The extruder 5 = excellent. In addition, comments
consisted of eight stainless steel, were required.
jacketed head sections. Each section
in the barrel was uniformly supplied Extrudates of uniform size were
with steam generated from a served in sealed polyethylene bags,
Sussman Electric Boiler (Hot-Shot randomly coded by three digits. Two
Model, MB-6, Automatic Steam samples were presented per session
Corporation, NY). Barrel temperature and water was provided for rinsing
was monitored by thermocouples between samples. Scores assigned to
mounted inside the barrel, using a each quality attribute and to the
temperature recorder (Type BD41, formulas were subjected to analysis of
Kipp and Zonen, Holland). A feed variance to determine any significant
hopper with paddle agitator ensured differences. Sensory means were
uniform feed flow into the extruder separated by Tukeys test (Larmond,
barrel. 1977). Sensory evaluation was
conducted at the Universitys Food
Extrusion conditions Technology Laboratory, between
10:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m.
Badrie and Mellowes (1991b) had
already established suitable extrusion
conditions for cassava flour: blends Results and Discussion
should be extruded at constant
conditions of feed moisture 11% d.b., Proximate composition
barrel temperature 120-125 C, screw
speed 520 rpm, and feed rate of The proximate composition of cassava
250 g/min. flour was crude protein, 1.5%-1.6%;
crude fat, 0.6%-0.7%; crude fiber,
Proximate analysis 1.7%-1.8%; ash, 1.5%-1.7%; total
carbohydrate, 85.2%-86.2%; and
The proximate composition of cassava starch amylose, 16.4%. Crude
flour and the crude protein (%) of protein of defatted soybean flour
defatted soybean flour were ranged from 52.1% to 52.2%. When
determined by AOAC (1965) 5% or 10% defatted soybean flour was
procedures, except for crude fiber added to cassava flour, the crude
(AACC, 1983). Total carbohydrate protein content rose from
was determined by difference. 1.38% 0.02% to 5.20% 0.03 or to
Amylose was estimated with a rapid 7.49% 0.05%, respectively.
colorimetric method (Williams et al.,
1970). Low protein (< 3%) staples such
as cassava do not provide adequate
Sensory evaluation protein for human requirements, even
when ingestion exceeds caloric
Extrudates were evaluated by 10 requirements. In contrast, diets with
panelists, who were students and cereals (8%-10% protein) can meet
faculty staff of the University of the adult protein requirements (Cheftel et
West Indies. They were widely al., 1985). Soya protein, rich in
306
amino acid lysine (Harper, 1981b), in bursts. Only at 11% feed moisture
can be used to fortify cassava flour. was a more uniform moisture
distribution and, thus, a more elastic
Soybean flour was added to the dough achieved, resulting in a smooth
cassava flour blend to increase the surface texture. Foods with a lower
protein content, improve quality, and moisture content also tend to be more
increase the yellow color of the viscous, the greater pressure
extrudate. Badrie and Mellowes differential resulting in better puffing.
(1992b) found that soybean flour
makes extrudates more attractive and The optimal expansion of cassava
yellower, resulting in a change of flour extrudate can be related to its
Munsell color notation from 4.62Y microstructure. Scanning electron
6.38/1.75 to 5.04Y 6.46/2.19 at 5% microscopy on cassava flour
soybean flour or to 5.30Y 6.46/3.10 extrudates (Badrie and Mellowes,
at 10%. Thermal processing of food 1991a) at 11% feed moisture revealed
can increase the potential for wide porous air cells with thin cell
interaction between lipids, proteins, walls. Extrudate expansion was
carbohydrates, and their breakdown positively correlated (P < 0.05,
products (Bruechert et al., 1988). r = 0.80) to the water solubility index
Maillard browning appeared the most (WSI). At 11% moisture, the lowest
likely reason for the color change. texture values were recorded.
Low-moisture extrusion, according to
Badrie and Mellowes (1992b) also Harper (1989), can cause more
found, however, that adding soybean mechanical damage (shear stress) to
flour reduced extrudate expansion the feed, resulting in a softer texture.
and increased bulk density. At 11% moisture, a more intense and
Extrudate expansion was negatively attractive color (4.62Y 6.38/1.75) was
correlated with crude protein also obtained.
(P < 0.01, r = -0.88).
Extrusion was stable between 100
Establishing processing conditions and 125 C, producing uniform,
puffed products. Temperature
Sensory attributes of extrudates increases from 100-105 C to
depend on extrusion conditions and 120-125 C brought corresponding
feed material. Badrie and Mellowes increases in extrudate expansion. At
(1991b) established suitable higher temperatures (130-155 C),
processing conditions, evaluated on extrudates became increasingly
the bases of extruder performance irregular, degenerating to rapidly
and the physical and chemical ejected fragments. Temperatures
properties of extrudates. above 125 C probably resulted in a
weakened structure and led to a
Optimal expansion (2.82) rougher extrudate surface texture.
occurred at a feed moisture of
11% d.b.the minimum moisture Establishing formulas
necessary to obtain a flow of the
extrudate through the die (at Because spicy snacks are a particular
120-125 C, screw speed 520 rpm, favorite of West Indians, powdered
and feed rate 250 g/min). Lower feed flavorings of onion, garlic, chili,
moisture either blocked the rotation paprika, and turmeric were included
of the screw (there was no transition in the blends. Turmeric, a major
from the original floury nature to the ingredient of curry powder,
melted state typical of extrusion) or also lent a more appealing yellow
the extrudates emerged from the die color. Other flavor enhancers were
307
sucrose, salt, and monosodium For the second formula, F2,

glutamate. Dried skimmed milk adjustments were made to F1: the
provided both protein and flavor. level of turmeric was reduced from
Soybean oil was added at 4% levela 1% to 0.5%, and salt was reduced
level at which Badrie and Mellowes from 1.5% to 1.0%. Panelists again
(1992b) showed that lowest bulk found the extrudates hard, too spicy,
density and highest extrudate too yellow, and tasting of turmeric,
expansion resulted, linked to although all sensory scores were
increases in the WSI and total acceptable (Table 1).
reducing sugars. Hsieh et al. (1990),
working with maize meal extrudate For formula F3, turmeric and
produced by a twin-screw extruder, paprika were reduced from 0.5% to
reported that adding salt and sugar 0.2%. A significantly better flavor
enhanced radial and axial expansion and more acceptable color resulted
but reduced bulk density and (Table 1), but extrudates of F4 (0.1%
breaking strength. turmeric and 1.5% spices) gained the
highest overall acceptability, scoring
For the first formula (F1), sensory highest in both color and flavor.
scores for all parameters were better
than acceptable, that is, higher than For F5, spice content was further
3 (Table 1). But panelists comments reduced to 0.9%, but panelists found
revealed that the color was unevenly the extrudates too bland, and the
distributed and too yellow. flavor rating dropped from 4.25 (for
Extrudates were also too spicy and F4) to 3.83.
too salty, with a distinct taste of
turmeric. Expansion was acceptable, To improve texture of the
but texture was slightly hard and the extrudates, the percentage of defatted
extrudate overly dense. soyflour was increased from 5% to
Table 1. Sensory attribute scoring of cassava flour blend extrudates.
Formula Color Flavor Texture Overall Overall mean

acceptability for formula
F1 3.18 bcdef 3.20 ef 3.42 abcd 3.24 bcdef 3.26 bcdef
F2 3.23 bcde 3.27 e 3.43 abc 3.30 bcde 3.37 bcde
F3 3.50 abc 3.92 ab 3.45 abc 3.59 ab 3.62 ab
F4 3.69 a 4.25 a 3.40 abcd 3.82 a 3.79 a
F5 3.58 ab 3.83 bcd 3.42 abcd 3.57 abc 3.60 abc
F6 3.48 abcd 3.81 bc 3.50 abc 3.55 abcd 3.59 abcd
F7 2.85 efg 2.91 efg 2.10 e 2.60 g 2.62 g
F8 2.95 efg 3.07 efg 2.67 e 2.88 efg 2.89 efg
Overall mean 3.31 a 3.53 ab 3.17 abc 3.32 bc

of attribute
Columns: scores followed by the same letter are not significantly different among formulas at P < 0.05.
Rows: values of overall mean attribute followed by the same letter are not significantly different among
attributes P < 0.05.
LSD of formulas = 0.43; LSD of attribute = 0.25.
On a scale where 1 = unacceptable, 3 = acceptable, and 5 = excellent.
Mean of 10 replications.
308
10% (F6), thereby reducing the total Table 2. Analysis of variance of sensory scores
for cassava flour blend extrudates.
carbohydrate level. The result was a
reduced extrudate expansion and an Source of df MS F
increased bulk density, but no variation
significant change in texture. Adding
Attributes 3 0.18 5.63**
cassava starch to cassava flour (i.e.,
increasing the total carbohydrate) Formulas 7 0.65 20.31**
tended to increase all textural Error 21 0.032
attributes, the extrudate becoming
Total 31
less elastic or springy (Badrie and
Mellowes, 1992b). ** Significant at P < 0.01.
Badrie and Mellowes (1992b)

showed that when soybean flour was acceptable), with texture (3.17)
added to cassava flour, the registering the lowest, although also
percentage of noncarbohydrate better than acceptable. Only F7 and
components (in particular, crude F8 proved unacceptable (Table 1).
protein) increased. Extrudate Panelists commented on the unique
expansion was negatively correlated flavor of cassava extrudates.
with crude protein (r = -0.88, However, they tended to rate texture
P < 0.01). Bulk density was lower because of their tendency to
negatively correlated (r = -0.96, compare cassava extrudates with the
P < 0.05) to extrudate expansion and popular maize extrudates. Cereals
positively correlated to crude protein have excellent expansive properties
(r = 0.89). and are well suited to thermal
extrusion.
To reduce the bulk density of the
extrudates, instant dry yeast was As Stanley (1986) observed,
incorporated in the blend at 1.0% (F7) texture is the major obstacle in
and 1.5% (F8). However, these remodelling ingredients into
additions resulted in unacceptable acceptable foods. To produce
sensory scores. The effectiveness of products in the highly acceptable or
sodium bicarbonate (baking powder) excellent categories, panelists
or maize amylose on reducing recommended lightening texture and
extrudate bulk density will be reducing bulk density and surface
assessed in a later study. Although irregularity of extrudates.
amylose tends to provide surface
regularity and lightness, cassava The F4 overall rating of 3.79 was
starch or flour has too low an amylose significantly (P < 0.05) higher than
content (16.4%) and produces denser, other formulas.
less radially expanded extrudates
(Badrie and Mellowes, 1992a).
Conclusions
Sensory scores
Distinctive and acceptable extrudates
Analysis of variance indicated can be produced, using cassava flour
significant differences at both 5% and as the main ingredient. The study
1% level for sensory attributes and pointed to texture, bulk density, and
formulas (Table 2). surface regularity as areas requiring
attention. Flavor achieved the
Flavor received the highest overall highest overall rating, attributable to
mean score (3.53, i.e., better than the 1.5% spice in most formulas.
309
Except for F7 and F8, to which dry __________ and __________. 1992b. Soybean
yeast had been added, all formulas flour/oil and wheat bran effects on
characteristics of cassava (Manihot
were acceptable. Formula F4 esculenta Crantz) flour extrudate.
emerged as the best overall product, J. Food Sci. 57(1):108-111.
having scored the highest for flavor
and color. Color was found to be Bruechert, L. J.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, T. C.;
most attractive when 0.1% turmeric Hartman, T. G.; Rosen, R. T.; and
Ho, C. T. 1988. Contribution of lipids
was added. to volatiles generation in extruded
corn-based model systems. J. Food
Other formulas, especially those Sci. 53(5):1444-1447.
incorporating local ingredients, can
be tried. Successful development of Cheftel, J.; Cuq, J. L.; and Lorent, D. 1985.
Amino acids, peptides and proteins.
extruded cassava products for the In: Fennema, O. R. (ed.). Introduction
snack food industry in the West to food chemistry. Marcel Dekker,
Indies could give rise to competition New York, USA. p. 245-369.
with popular, established
maize-based products, the meal for Coursey, D. G. 1978. Cassava: a major food
crop of the tropics. Paper
which must be imported. Extrusion presented at a workshop on cyanide
is a rapidly growing food-processing metabolism by the European
operation and extruded spicy snacks Organization at Canterbury, UK,
are popular in the West Indies, but 14-18 August 1978.
more trials and consumer-type
Harper, J. M. 1981a. Extrusion of foods,
sensory evaluations are necessary vol. 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
before cassava-based extruded snacks USA.
can enter the local market.
__________. 1981b. Extrusion of foods, vol. 2.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
References _________. 1989. Food extruders and their
applications. In: Mercier, C.; Linko,
AACC (American Association of Cereal P.; and Harper, J. M. (eds.). Extrusion
Chemists). 1983. Approved methods, cooking. American Association of
vol. 1. 8th ed. St. Paul, MN, USA. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
p. 1-16.
AOAC (Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists). 1965. Official methods Hsieh, F.; Peng, I. C.; and Huff, H. E. 1990.
of analysis. 10th ed. Washington, DC, Effects of salt, sugar and screw speed
USA. on processing and product variable of
corn meal. J. Food Sci. 55(1):224-231.
Badrie, N. and Mellowes, W. A. 1991a.
Texture and microstructure of Larmond, E. 1977. Laboratory methods for
cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) sensory evaluation of foods.
flour extrudate. J. Food Sci. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
56(5):1319-1322, 1364. ON, Canada.
__________ and __________. 1991b. Effect of Linko, P.; Colonna, P.; and Mercier, C. 1981.
extrusion variables on cassava High temperature - short time
extrudates. J. Food Sci. extrusion cooking. In: Pomeranz, Y.
56(5):1334-1337. (ed.). Advances in cereal science and
technology, vol. 4. American
__________ and __________. 1992a. Cassava Association of Cereal Chemists, St.
starch or amylose effects on Paul, MN, USA. p. 145-235.
characteristics of cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz) flour extrudate.
J. Food Sci. 57(1):103-107.
310
Nestel, B. 1973. Current utilization and Smith, O. B. 1976. Extrusion cooking. In:
future potential for cassava. In: Altschul, A. M. (ed.). New protein
Nestel, B. and MacIntyre, R. (eds.). foods, vol. 2(B). Academic Press, New
Chronic cassava toxicity, vol. 1. York, USA. p. 86-120.
Proceedings of an inter-disciplinary
workshop held in London. Stanley, P. W. 1986. Chemical and structural
International Development Research determinants of texture of
Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, ON, Canada. fabricated foods. Food Tech.
p. 11-26. 40(3):65-68, 76.
Odigboh, E. U. 1983. Cassava production, Tettweiler, P. 1991. Snack foods worldwide.

processing and utilization. In: Chan, Food Tech. 45(2):58-62.
Jr., H. T. (ed.). Handbook of tropical
foods. Marcel Dekker, New York, USA. Williams, P. C. Z.; Kuzina, F. D.; and Hlynka,
p. 145-200. I. 1970. A rapid colorimetric
procedure for estimating the amylose
Paton, D. and Spratt, W. A. 1984. content of starches and flours. Cereal
Component interactions in the Chem. 47(4):411-420.
extrusion cooking process: influence
of process conditions on the
functional viscosity of the wheat flour
system. J. Food Sci. 49(5):1380-1385.
Sammy, G. M. 1971. Some problems in the

establishment of fruit and vegetable
processing in Trinidad and Tobago.
In: Sammy, G. M. (ed.). Postgraduate
seminar on food technology, session
2. Food Technology Series No. 5.
Faculty of Engineering, University of
the West Indies. p. 1-16.
311
CHAPTER 36
THAI CASSAVA FLOUR AND STARCH

INDUSTRIES FOR FOOD USES:
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT1
Saipin Maneepun*
Introduction Recently, lysine has become available

and is used as a nutrient in feed
Cassava has become a major cash mills. At present, the Thai
crop for Thailand: in 1993, production Government is planning to support
was about 21 million tons, and research that would help diversify the
increasing (TDRI, 1992). About 90% use of cassava starch in various
of total production is exported, mainly industries to prevent falling prices.
to Europe. Although cassava is mostly Cassava starch industries only
processed into pellets and chips for produce 50%-70% of their total
animal feed, the volume of these capacity, and thus have potential for
products has decreased slightly during further development.
the last decade in favor of cassava
flour and starch for domestic industry
and export (Table 1). Production and
Development of Cassava
In 1990/1991, although 96 Flour
cassava starch processing factories
were registered, only 55 were Two kinds of cassava flour-processing
operating. Total production capacity factories operate in eastern Thailand:
was 1.5-1.8 million tons, of which traditional and modern.
50% was for export, 25% for
food-processing, and 25% for nonfood Traditional factories
industries.
Flour-processing factories were first
In 1991, the 55 cassava starch built in the early history of cassava
factories could be classified into 46 production in Thailand. The model of
starch factories and 9 modified-starch operationa family business that
factories. Monosodium glutamate employs now-obsolete technologyis
(MSG) processing ranks highest still common in some parts of
among those cassava starch Thailand. Cassava roots are first
processing industries manufacturing crushed, then soaked in water. The
amino acids (Table 2; Rodsri, 1993). resulting starch is extracted, sun
dried, and pulverized into flour,
which, however, is inferior in quality
* Institute of Food Research and Product and bulk. It is used for making such
Development (IFRPD), Kasetsart University,
products as noodles, desserts, and
Bangkok, Thailand.
sago, most of which are sold on local
1. No abstract was provided by the author. markets.
312
Thai Cassava Flour and Starch Industries for Food Uses:...
Table 1. Export of cassava sago, chips, pellets, and starch from Thailand, 1982-1991, in metric tons.
Year Sago Chips Pellets Starch Total prod.

(x 1000)
1982 2,397 523,059 6,892,786 396,754 17,788

1983 2,948 279,913 4,554,332 359,298 18,989
1984 5,831 137,808 5,975,136 449,183 19,985
1985 7,566 123,702 6,474,503 482,309 19,263
1986 5,243 35,699 5,842,468 435,154 15,255
1987 7,420 72,833 5,777,137 353,594 19,554
1988 6,663 312,460 7,334,446 452,199 22,307
1989 9,223 130,201 9,185,466 501,329 24,264
1990 8,447 210,814 7,316,368 531,365 20,701
1991 10,060 113,205 6,269,458 549,022 19,705
SOURCE: Rodsri, 1993.
Table 2. Use of cassava starch in Thailand. (1) Cassava roots are weighed and
measured for their starch content.
Uses Percentage of
total use (2) The roots are precleaned by a soil
separator, then passed through a
Direct consumption 26 cleaning machine and peeler.
Industry: Peeling makes extracting starch
Monosodium glutamate 19
easier.
Glucose syrup 15
(3) The roots are then crushed and
Paper 9
Food 7
liquid starch is extracted, leaving a
Sago 6 cake, which is sun dried before
Textiles 2 being used as a supplementary
Timber 1 feed or for producing cassava chips
Other 15
and pellets.
(4) The liquid starch is purified by
Total 100 passing it through a sulfur vapor
SOURCE: Rodsri, 1993. to rid the starch of sap.
(5) Water is then filtered out and the
starch dried mechanically. It is
then packed and shipped to
Modern factories markets.
Many flour-processing factories have On the average, 1 kg of fresh roots

been modernized since World War II to yields 200 g of starch and between
produce high-quality cassava flour for 40 and 90 g of cake. Cassava flour
export and use in domestic industry. quality depends on the manufacturing
The role of cassava thus changed process. If the process is efficient and
from being a local crop for domestic clean, the flour will be of high quality.
consumption to a major commercial Quality is judged by granule size; flour
crop for export. At present, modern color, smell, and purity; fiber and ash
processing equipment is being contents of flour; humidity, acidity,
developed for export to neighboring and viscosity of liquid starch; and
countries such as China, Vietnam, cake. At present, a cassava breeding
and Indonesia. The capacity of program has been established to
such equipment ranges from 50 to develop varieties that have high starch
100 t/day (Figure 1). In modern content: 22%-24%, depending on the
processing: growing season.
313
Inclined chain
conveyor Root chopper
Inclined Root sieve
belt Washer
Fresh cassava roots conveyor Rasper
Horizontal Separator
belt conveyor
Extractor Extractor
Pressed pulp
Screw press
Cooling cyclone
Drying cyclone
Sifter and
bagging Flash
Tapioca starch
product dryer
Drying cyclone
Centrifuge
Screw
feeder
Figure 1. Processing tapioca starch, Thailand. (From Thai Tapioca Starch Industries Trade Association,
1976, personal communication.
Standard Specifications for Standards for cassava flour and

Starch for Export and starch used locally were established
Local Markets in 1974 by the Thai Industrial
Standard, Ministry of Industry:
The Ministry of Commerce has Flour/starch obtained from cassava
established specifications for roots (Manihot utilissima) has starch
inspecting and controlling cassava granules of microscopic appearance,
flour and starch for export. consisting of a cluster of two to eight
granules, each granule measuring
Certified products must be 5 to 35 m and having an average
inspected according to Ministry diameter of 15 m. Most starch
standards and/or importer granules are oval or truncated at one
specifications. Cassava end to form a kettledrum shape while
flour/starch is defined as that the other end has a cutting edge with
obtained from cassava root [as] a the inner surface concave or
white or cream-colored powder that irregularly flat. Starch granules
does not include modified starch. clearly show an eccentric hilum with
Cassava flour and starch are graded segment lines. The quality of local
at three levels, each with its own flour and starch is classified into
specifications (Table 3; Ministry of three grades (Table 4; Ministry of
Commerce, 1993). Industry, 1978).
314
Table 3. Export standards for cassava flour and starch at three grades, Thailand, 1993.
Characteristics Supreme grade First grade Second grade
Starch (day basis) (%) 85 83 80

Moisture content (%) 13 14 14
Ash (%) 0.2 0.3 0.5
Fiber (cm3/50 g flour) <0.2 <0.5 <1.0
pH 4.5-7.0 3.5-7.0 3.0-7.0
Particle size (mesh hole = 150 m) (%) 99 97 95
SOURCE: Ministry of Commerce, 1993.
Table 4. Local standards for cassava flour and starch at three grades, Thailand, 1978.
Characteristics Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
Starch (dry basis) (%) 97.5 96.0 94.0

Moisture content (%) 13 14 14
Ash (%) 0.15 0.30 0.50
Ash (acid insoluble) (%) 0.05 0.10 0.15
Protein (%) 0.3 0.3 0.3
Fiber (cm3/50 g flour) 0.2 0.5 1.0
pH 4.5-7.0 3.5-7.0 3.0-7.0
Particle size (mesh hole = 150 m) (%) 1 3 5
SOURCE: Ministry of Industry, 1978.
Both bulk and retail packers can Cassava Flour and Starch in
stamp the appropriate grade mark on Local Food Products
packets for consumers selection.
Retail packs are for home cooking. Studies on incorporating cassava
Information on using composite flour flour into bakery goods for the local
(that includes cassava flour) in market require research on the eating
foodstuffs is readily available at local habits of the population. Because
bookshops. consumers prefer wheat-based
products, industries using cassava
Various food products from rice, flour have developed products made
bean, and wheat flours can improve from mixtures of cassava and wheat
their texture by substituting with flours. Such composite flours impart
cassava flour or starch. a unique taste and texture to the
products.
Because cassava flour and starch
are mostly processed with water, they Sponge cake made with cassava
contain no hydrocyanic acid. The flour
Thai Standard for Cassava/Flour
Starch Committee does not accept the The effect of composite flour on the
codex standard for edible cassava quality of sponge cake has been
flour acceptable to African countries. studied by Saencharoenrat
The African Regional Standard (1990). He tested four kinds of wheat
permits cassava flour to contain flour (chlorinated cake flour = CCF,
10 mg/kg of hydrocyanic acid unchlorinated cake flour, all-purpose
(FAO and WHO, 1992). flour, and bread flour) with different
315
levels of cassava flour: 0%, 20%, 40%, was 40%. Results showed that the
60%, 80%, and 100%. He found that, spread was high, compared with that
when the level of cassava flour of wheat flour. Most tasters found the
substitution was increased, protein composite-flour cookies to be
content, ash content, and damaged palatable.
starch content decreased. Changes in
moisture content and pH, however, Spread in composite-flour cookies
depended on the kind of wheat flour. can be markedly reduced by using
The gelatinization temperature of an emulsifying agent. Patco-3
composite flours was in the same (50% sodium stearic lactylate and 50%
range as that of the type of wheat flour calcium stearic lactylate) and BV-15
used, whereas peak viscosity in gel (commercial cookie improver), used at
formation increased. Water 0.5% (flour basis), produced a cookie
absorption, dough stability, resistance with a spread factor not significantly
to extension, and extensibility also different from that of cookies made
decreased as the mixing tolerance with commercial cookie flour. Nor were
index increased. Sponge cakes made its organoleptic properties significantly
with these composite flours were then different from those of the commercial
evaluated. cookie.
Results showed that the different The storage life of composite-flour

kinds of wheat flour and the levels cookies was not significantly different
of substitution affected several from that of wheat-flour cookies.
characteristics of cakes. Increased Composite-flour cookies could keep an
levels of substitution increased batter acceptable texture for about 3 months
viscosity and specific volume of cake, when stored in polythene bags,
but decreased specific gravity of batter rigid plastic containers (polyvinyl
and palatability of cakes. The kind of chloride [PVC]), or tin boxes. The
wheat flour used affected ease of 40%-composite flour can reduce cookie
cutting the cake (bread flour scored prices by almost 2%, compared with
the highest), pH (lowest with CCF), wheat flour. The production of
and palatability (highest with CCF). composite-flour cookies has been
Palatability scores agreed with total scaled up, using cassava flour as a raw
cake scores. The ideal composite flour material.
was 40% cassava flour and 60% CCF,
that is, no significant differences were Where cookies were made with
found (at P = 0.05) in palatability 15% full-fat soybean flour, cassava
between cakes made from composite flour could substitute wheat flour by as
flour and cakes from 100% wheat much as 50% (Boonyasirikool et al.,
flour. 1987). The product still has more than
10% protein. Palatability tests showed
Cakes stored at room temperature no significant difference between these
could be kept for only 2 days, whereas two types of cookies. Using vanilla and
refrigerated cakes lasted at least cocoa flavors can enhance product
7 days. Ease of cutting increased with quality and make it highly acceptable.
storage time, and moisture content
and palatability decreased.
Chemically Modified Cassava
Cookies made with cassava flour Starch for Use in the Food
Industry
Chananithithum (1986) found that the
maximum substitution of cassava Cassava starch is a typical root starch
flour for wheat flour in baking cookies and is used in the production of
316
foodstuffs and adhesives. Direct use of Various modified cassava starches have
native cassava starch is more frequent been developed and promoted for use in
in home cooking than in industry. the food industry.
Root starch granules, when cooked,
swell more and are more fragile (i.e., Cassava starch phosphate
they break down easily and thin out
during stirring) than are cereal starch Industries manufacturing transparent
granules. The viscosity of these starch noodles, sauces, and custards have
pastes can be determined by using a been encouraged to use cassava starch
Brabender viscoamylograph. After phosphate as a replacement for mung
stirring, tapioca starch shows the bean starch (Maneepun and Sirirojana,
lowest viscosity (Figures 2 and 3). 1990) and as a thickening agent in
When certain chemicals are sauces (Sirirojana, 1987) and custard
introduced, they cross-link within the spreads (Parvet, 1988).
granule, tighten up the molecular
network, restrict granule swelling, and Niyomvit et al. (1990) studied the
so stabilize the viscosity of starch use of premixed cassava starch
pastes against breakdown by agitation. phosphate and native cassava starch
Time (minutes)
30 60 90 120 150
800
700
2
600
Viscosity (BU)
500 1
400
3
300
200
100 4
0
65 95 95 50 50
Temperature (C)
Figure 2. Amylograph of cassava starch, and cassava starch crosslinked with sodium tripolyphosphate
and sodium sulfate at different times. 1 = cassava starch; 2 = cassava starch crosslinked with
phosphate for 2 h; 3 = for 4 h; 4 = for 6 h. (From Sirirojana, 1987.)
Time (minutes)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
1,000
800
Viscosity (BU)
600
400
200
0
35 50 65 80 95 95 95 95 80 65 50 35
Temperature (C)
Figure 3. Amylograms of starches. = acetylated cassava starch (6%); .. = wheat (9%);

= maize = (8%); = potato (4%). (From Saencharoenrat, 1990.)
317
for the traditional Thai dessert, kanom hydrolyzing a hot-water-soluble,

chen. Their experiments showed that acetylated di-starch phosphate
the cassava starches changed their with excess sodium hydroxide (IFRPD,
viscosity after cross-linking with the 1993, unpublished data). The
phosphate (Figure 2). Products were digestion of sodium hydroxide is almost
prepared for tasting panels, who equivalent to acetyl content.
determined that the premixed cassava
starch phosphates, of 15% (2 h), 30% Amylograms showed that the peak
(4 h), or 15% (6 h), were highly viscosity and stability of viscosity were
acceptable. The characteristics higher in A/C starch than in potato,
required were transparency, easily maize, or wheat starch (Figure 4).
separating layers, and stable texture. Swelling power is also greater in A/C
The Instron Food Tester showed that starch than in wheat or maize starch
the texture was 60%-70% more stable but lower than in potato starch
than that of unmodified, mixed (Figure 5). The A/C starch is stable
cassava starch. under conditions of freeze-thaw, high
cold storage, and acidity. It has a short
Acetylated cassava starch texture and high transparency. The
(A starch) product used depends on the viscosity
of final products and is recommended
Most countries permit the use of A for use in sauces made with vinegar or
starch as a direct food ingredient. The fruit juice. Because A/C starch has a
degree of substitution (DS) of starch good affinity with raw meat and is hard
acetate is determined by hydrolyzing to retrograde, it can be used for boiled
with excess sodium hydroxide. The fish paste, deep-fried fish paste, fish
digestion of sodium hydroxide is ham, sausage ham, sausages, and
almost equivalent to acetyl content meat balls.
(Institute of Food Research and
Product Development [IFRPD], Both A and A/C starches can be
unpublished data). Amylograms used for making wheat noodles
showed that the peak viscosity and (oriental type), resulting in smooth
stability of acetylated cassava starch noodles whose texture when cooked is
are comparable with those of starches stable during cold storage.
from potato, maize, and wheat
(Figure 3). The acetyl substitution Cassava starch ether (hydroxypropyl)
lowered the rate of retrogradation of
cooked pastes. The cassava starch ether is used as a
food ingredient in most countries.
When cassava substituted The degree of substitution of
30%-50% of starches from mung bean, hydroxypropyl in starch ether is
potato, or sweetpotato in the ascertained by hydrolyzing with hot
manufacture of jelly bean sticks, the sulfuric acid to propionaldehyde,
resulting product was smooth, and had which is then measured with a
good texture, gloss, and flexibility. spectrophotometer after complexing
with ninhydrin (IFRPD, 1993,
Acetylated and slightly unpublished data). Amylograms
cross-linked cassava starch showed that cassava starch ether has
(A/C starch) a high peak viscosity and good
stability, which means it can reduce
This is called acetylated di-starch retrogradation of cooked paste
phosphate and is usually (Figure 6). This starch ether is being
cross-linked with phosphate. The DS tried out in sauce-making (acid
of acetate can be determined by conditions).
318
Time (minutes)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
1,000
800
Viscosity (BU) 600
400
200
0
35 50 65 80 95 95 95 95 80 65 50 35
Temperature (C)
Figure 4. Amylograms of starches. = acetylated and slightly crosslinked cassava starch (6%);
= wheat (9%); = maize (8%); .. = potato (4%). (From IFRPD Laboratory,
1993-1994, personal communication.)
30
Swelling power (times)
20
10
0
50 60 70 80 90
Heating temperature (C)
Figure 5. Swelling power of starches. = acetylated and slightly crosslinked cassava starch;
= potato; .. = wheat; = maize. (From Saencharoenrat, 1990.)
One gram of starch and 49 g of water were mixed in a centrifuge tube. The tube was then
heated at several temperatures, each fixed for 30 min, while the mixture was stirred. After
heating, the mixture was centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 20 min. The precipitate was then
weighed. Swelling power was measured as the quantity of water 1 g of starch could absorb at a
given temperature.
Time (minutes)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1,000
800
Viscosity (BU)
600
400
200
0
45 63 90 90 50 50
Temperature (C)
Figure 6. Amylogram of cassava starch ether (hydroxypropyl). (From IFRPD Laboratory, 1993-1994,
personal communication.)
319
Standards for modified starch for Products of Chemical and

the food industry Microbial Processing of
Cassava Starch as Ingredients
Standards were introduced to Used by Food Industries
encourage cassava starch factories
to produce modified cassava starch Some industrial processes use cassava
for the local market (Ministry of starch as raw material to manufacture
Industry, 1992). First published in final products that are themselves
January, 1992, these standards are used as ingredients in foodstuffs.
upgrading modified-starch products Such products are typically either
as manufacturers apply for grade seasonings or sweeteners. and have
certification. The standards deal been developed locally and overseas.
with different types of modified Most of the technology has been
starch, physical and chemical brought from developed countries with
additives used for modification, experts as consultants. Local
residues and limiting properties institutions sometimes collaborate to
indicators, and methods of analysis. promote further local development.
Fifteen types of modified The processes are complex,

starches exist: pregelatinized starch, involving chemical and microbial
dextrin, thin boiling starch, alkaline technologies that require sophisticated
treated starch, bleached starch, machinery. The final products are
oxidized starch, di-starch costly. Table 5 shows estimates of the
phosphate, starch succinate, cassava starch consumed by these
hydroxypropyl starch, starch industries (TDRI, 1992).
acetate, monostarch phosphate,
hydroxypropyl di-starch phosphate, The seasoning industry
acetylated di-starch adipate,
acetylated di-starch phosphate, and Thailand has three seasoning
combination chemical process factories, one of which uses cassava
starch. starch and the other two molasses as
Table 5. Estimates of cassava starch use in seasoning and sweetening industries, Thailand, 1992.
Products Cassava starch used Yield from 1 kg

(t/year) cassava starch
(kg)
Seasoning industry:
Monosodium glutamate and lysine (1991) 97,977 0.42
Sweetening industry:
High fructose 15,000 1.00

Liquid glucose 30,000 0.90-0.95
Dextrose (monohydrous) 12,000 1.75
Dextrose (anhydrous) 100 0.50
Sorbitol 28,000 1.20
SOURCE: TDRI, 1992.
320
raw material for processing MSG. reactors for starch digestion. This
MSG and lysine products are process, however, requires new
expected to be in high demand in equipment (such as a digestion tank,
the future, especially from filter technique, and evaporator),
food-processing industries, for both which needs to be designed and
local and export markets. Lysine developed.
processing, a new industry, has
raised the consumption of cassava Sweetening products also need
starch in the last few years. In to be developed and their use
manufacturing MSG, cassava starch promoted in various food industries
is hydrolyzed by using -amylase that manufacture, for example, soft
enzyme and -amyloglucosidase to drinks, beverages, ice creams, canned
change starch into glucose. The foods, and bakery products. Because
fermentation is then continued with of severe competition with the
bacteria Micrococcus glutamicus or sugarcane industry, food-processing
Brevibacterium spp., which are given industries are slow to develop
urea as nutrient supplement. sweeteners from starches, including
Eventually, crystalline MSG is cassava starch.
formed. The process was first
developed in Japan, imported to
Thailand, and promoted within the Conclusions
local food industry.
Because cassava production is
The sweetening industry predicted to increase during the next
decade, research and development are
Thailand first processed glucose needed on cassava use, for both local
syrup in 1950, glucose powder in and overseas markets. The Cassava
1976, and sorbitol in 1980. In 1989, Development Institute Foundation
the total sweetening industry has been established to study the
consisted of seven factories: four nature of the crops production, use,
producing glucose syrup, one and marketing. At present, cassava is
producing sorbitol, and the still faced with falling prices, which
remaining two, various sweetening affect growers, industries, and
products (Sathetkeingkai, 1989). traders. Animal feed and nonfood
products can also be developed as the
At present, the countrys market requires, thus adding value to
production of glucose syrup is about the crop.
76,000 t, which is sufficient for local
needs. Considering the potential
uses of glucose syrup, it could be References
used in the confectionery industry,
which would add value to cassava Boonyasirikool, B.; Ratarpar, V.; and
starch by as much as 55%. The Phuphat, P. 1987. Quality
improvement of Kaset-cookie. In:
consumption of confectionery
Proceedings of 25th Annual Meeting,
products is still low, and needs to be Agroindustry Session, Kasetsart
developed and promoted both locally University, 3-5 February, Thailand.
and regionally. Faculty of Agroindustry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand. p. 27-35.
Glucose syrup can be processed
Chananithithum, P. 1986. Partial
in various ways. At present, a substitution of wheat flour in cookies
continuous process is being with tapioca flour. M.S. thesis.
developed to replace the batch Chulalongkorn University, Thailand.
process by using several types of p. 84-92.
321
Res. Prod. Dev.) 20(2):105-114.

FAO and WHO (Food and Agriculture Parvet, S. 1988. Product development of
Organization of the United Nations and coconut custard spread. M.S.
World Health Organization), Codex thesis. Chulalongkorn University,
Alimentarius Commission. 1992. Codex Thailand. p. 70-90.
standard for edible cassava flour
African regional standardCODEX Rodsri, K. 1993. Trend of cassava
STAN 176-1991. Eighth session of the development in agroindustry.
Codex Committee on Cereals, Pulses J. Agroind. 4(3):16-22.
and Legumes, CX/CPL 92/9, June,
1992. FAO/WHO Food Standards Saencharoenrat, C. 1990. Effects of tapioca
Program, Rome, Italy. 17 p. flour substitution in wheat flour on
the quality of sponge cake. M.S.
Maneepun, S. and Sirirojana, V. 1990. Novel thesis. Chulalongkorn University,
uses of modified cassava starch in the Thailand. p. 90-118.
Asian food industry. In: Cassava
breeding, agronomy and utilization Sathetkeingkai, A. 1989. Trend of
research in Asia: proceedings of the investment of glucose syrup.
Third Regional Workshop, Malang, Northeastern Economic Center,
Indonesia, October 22-27. CIAT, Cali, Industrial Economic Division,
Colombia. p. 388-407. Permanent Secretary Office,
Ministry of Industry, Bangkok,
Ministry of Commerce. 1993. Draft standard Thailand.
for cassava flour/starch. Bangkok,
Thailand. 12 p. Sirirojana, V. 1987. Quality improvement
of tapioca starch by chemical
Ministry of Industry. 1978. Standard for modification. M.S. thesis.
cassava flour/starch. Bangkok, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand.
Thailand. 20 p. p. 70-87.
__________. 1992. Standard for modified TDRI (Thailand Development Research

starch for food industry. Bangkok, Institute). 1992. Cassava: in the
Thailand. 22 p. next decade. Bangkok, Thailand.
. p. 2-1 to 2-37.
Niyomvit, N.; Kanchanapakornchai, A.; and
Rodporn, S. 1990. Production of
Kanom Cham premix from tapioca
and modified tapioca. Food (Inst. Food
322
Yuca Rava and Yuca Porridge:...
CHAPTER 37
YUCA RAVA AND YUCA PORRIDGE:

THE FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES AND
QUALITY OF TWO NOVEL CASSAVA FOOD
PRODUCTS1
G. Padmaja, C. Balagopalan,
S. N. Moorthy, and V. P. Potty*
Introduction relative economy of their preparation

(Balagopalan et al., 1988). Before
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is being promoted in potential markets,
an important food staple for about these two products were evaluated for
500 million people of the tropical their quality, rheological and pasting
world (Cock, 1985). Cassava roots behavior, and residual cyanogen
are processed by several traditional contents. The results are reported in
methods, which vary widely from this paper.
region to region. Usually, these
techniques are intended to reduce the
level of cyanogenic glucosides in the Materials and Methods
roots and improve palatability and
shelf life of the resultant products Yuca rava and porridge were
(Cooke and Maduagwu, 1978). While prepared (Figure 1) from three
fermented food products from cassava cassava varieties: the low-cyanogen
are popular in many African cultivar H 1687; and two
countries, preparations from high-cyanogen cultivars, H 165 and
dehydrated flour and those from H 226 (Table 1). Normally, varieties
cooked fresh roots are preferred in requiring less cooking are preferred
Asian and many Latin American for preparing rava and porridge as the
countries. starch in the roots does not gelatinize
completely within the 10-min cooking
Yuca rava and porridge are two time. This technique of partial
novel food products made from gelatinization, or parboiling, helps in
cassava roots at the Central Tuber the partial swelling of starch
Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), granules. The dried, parboiled chips
Trivandrum, India. These products are powdered to obtain the finer
are likely to capture the Indian food fraction called porridge and the
market because of the ease and coarse fraction called rava.
Conventionally, rava is prepared

from round cassava chips which are
put into boiling water. An attempt
was made to find out whether
* Division of Postharvest Technology, Central cyanogen retention in parboiled chips
Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), could be reduced with a smaller chip
Trivandrum, India.
size. The round chips (1 cm thick)
1. No abstract was provided by the authors. were either quartered to equal
323
Cassava roots
Washing and peeling
Parboiling by
steeping in
boiling water for
10 min at 100 C
Decanting
Parboiled chips
Sun drying for 36 h or

oven drying for 24 h at 70 C
Disintegrator
Sieving
Large fraction Medium-sized Small fraction

fraction (porridge)
(rava)
Figure 1. Manufacturing rava and porridge from cassava, India.
Table 1. Initial content of cyanogens (mg/kg A parallel study was undertaken

DM) in cassava cultivars.
to find out whether an initial
Cultivar Cyanogensa
presoaking of cassava chips for
varying periods helps remove
CG NGC FC
cyanogens from the roots. Round and
H 1687 88.97 37.27 31.21 quartered chips, as well as strips,
were soaked for 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, or
H 165 271.15 45.67 31.25
3 h in standing water (1:4 w/v), then
H 226 214.12 26.81 20.98 the water was drained off. Rava and
a. CG = cyanogenic glucoside; NGC = nonglucosidic
porridge were prepared from these
cyanogen (acetone cyanohydrin + free); FC = free chips as normal.
cyanide.
The total and intermediate

(nonglucosidic, i.e., acetone
portions or cut into strips of uniform cyanohydrin, plus free) cyanogens,
width before being used to make rava and free cyanide were quantified in
and porridge. the rava and porridge prepared from
324
the three cultivars. The methods for preparations from cassava. Yuca rava
extraction and initial stages of and yuca porridge are two novel
cyanogen determination up to the products that can be easily prepared,
formation of cyanogen chloride were have an acceptable shelf life, and are
adopted from OBrien et al. (1991). tasty.
The coupling of cyanogen chloride
was done with the barbituric acid Cyanogen changes
pyridine reagents used in the
Nambisan and Sundaresan (1984) The residual cyanogenic glucosides
procedure. (CG) in rava made from the
low-cyanogen cassava cultivar
The viscographic behavior of rava H 1687 ranged from 17.5-21 mg/kg
and porridge samples from the three DM and, in porridge, from
cultivars was studied with a 14.5-24.5 mg/kg DM, according to
Brabender viscoamylograph. A the type of chips (Table 2). These
concentration of 10%-20% by weight ranges were much lower than those
of sample was studied at a heating for the products made from the two
rate of 1.5 C per minute. The peak high-cyanogen cultivars, H 165 and
viscosity at 97 C and viscosity after H 226. The initial CG values were
cooling were recorded. The swelling much lower for H 1687 roots
volumes were determined by standard (88.97 mg/kg DM), compared with the
procedure (Schoch, 1964). A sample high-cyanogen cultivars (Table 1).
of 400 mg rava or porridge was
suspended in 40 ml water, heated to For each variety, however, the CG
95 C, maintained at that content among the three types of
temperature for 15 min, then cooled chips (round, quartered, and strips)
and centrifuged at 2,200 rpm for did not vary significantly when they
15 min. The volume of the gelatinous were put directly into boiling water,
precipitate obtained was taken as the parboiled for 10 min, dried, and
swelling volume. powdered to make rava and porridge
(Table 2). The lack of variation may
Starch and sugar contents of rava be a result of the rapid loss of
and porridge were determined by a linamarase activity at 100 C as the
standard titrimetric procedure (S. N. roots were directly exposed to this
Moorthy, personal communication). temperature.
Using 80% alcohol, sugars were
extracted from samples by standing The extent of cyanogen removal
overnight. The remaining residue was during the boiling of cassava roots
hydrolyzed with 2N HCl to convert depends on boiling time, volume of
starch to sugars. These released water used, and size of root piece
sugars were quantified through (Padmaja, 1993). Ezeala and Okoro
ferricyanide titration (S. N. Moorthy, (1986) reported that, after 35 min of
personal communication) and the boiling, cyanogens were undetectable
starch value computed, using a factor in the roots they used. The initial
of 0.9. cyanogen level of 218 mg/kg had
dropped to 97 mg/kg within the first
5 min of boiling. However, the
Results and Discussion authors had gradually raised the
chips to boiling point, taking
Of the cassava-consuming areas of 20-25 min. During that time
the world, India is perhaps unique in linamarase could act on the
making pregelatinized, dried glucosides.
325
Table 2. Cyanogen content (mg/kg DM)a of rava and porridge made from different types of cassava chips
(round, quartered, and strips).
Cultivar Rava Porridge

Type of chips
CG NGC FC CG NGC FC
H 1687:
Round 21.0 35.0 25.0 24.5 32.5 20.0
Quartered 19.0 36.0 22.5 21.5 39.5 17.5
Strips 17.5 26.5 17.5 14.5 25.5 19.0
H 165:
Round 86.0 56.0 51.0 74.5 83.5 42.5
Quartered 95.5 46.0 32.0 90.5 56.5 37.5
Strips 108.0 40.5 21.5 100.5 48.5 27.0
H 226:
Round 87.0 44.5 37.0 92.0 53.0 46.0
Quartered 70.0 67.0 47.0 82.5 41.5 30.0
Strips 111.0 31.0 27.5 115.0 24.5 21.0
a. CG = cyanogenic glucoside; NGC = nonglucosidic cyanogen (acetone cyanohydrin + free); FC = free cyanide.
Cooke and Maduagwu (1978) also eliminated if chips were put into
observed that bound cyanogen was boiling water, even after 10 min of
removed at a slower rate only during cooking at 100 C.
boiling and 55% of it was retained
after 25 min of boiling. Nambisan Soaking the different types of
and Sundaresan (1985) reported that cassava chips for varying periods
during 30 min of boiling, only from 30 min to 3 h in standing water
45%-48% of total cyanogen was did not reduce the quantity of
eliminated from the roots (varieties cyanogen compared with unsoaked
H 165, H 2304, and H 1678). roots (Table 3). Nor did chip type
influence cyanogen elimination
We found that the CG content during soaking. Similar trends were
dropped from about 89 to obtained for low- and high-cyanogen
17-21 mg/kg DM in the low-cyanogen cultivars. But cultivar variations are
cultivar H 1678 during 10 min of likely to affect the cyanogen
boiling. For the high-cyanogen elimination during soaking. Fukuba
cultivars, reductions were from 271 to et al. (1984) obtained 54%
86-108 mg/kg in H 165, and from elimination of total cyanogen from
214 to 87-111 mg/kg in H 226. 1-cm diced roots of variety Bogor
397 during 10 min of soaking, while
Fukuba et al. (1984) observed only 5%-6% cyanogen was
that cultivar variations strongly eliminated from other varieties.
influenced cyanogen elimination in
1-cm diced roots during boiling or The reduction in CG during the
soaking treatments. They compared preparation of rava and porridge
the effect of slow with rapid boiling. indicates that cyanogen hydrolysis
They found that, while 70% of total takes place during parboiling. The
cyanogen was eliminated from cubes free cyanide contents of the rava
brought to boiling point, only and porridge obtained from each
30%-35% of total cyanogen was variety by various techniques vary
326
Table 3. Effect of soaking chips on cyanogen content (mg/kg DM)a of rava and porridge made from three
cassava varieties, India.
Variety Hours Rava Porridge

Type of chips
CG NGC FC CG NGC FC
H 1687 (low-cyanogen)
Round: 0.5 24.5 32.5 23.0 25.3 34.8 24.3

3.0 28.5 29.0 22.5 34.3 28.3 19.0
Quartered: 0.5 25.5 29.3 19.8 25.0 29.8 19.0
3.0 32.5 25.0 19.3 32.0 30.8 19.8
Strips: 0.5 27.0 21.8 18.8 27.5 27.5 18.0
3.0 24.0 25.0 18.8 23.0 25.3 17.5
H 165 (high-cyanogen)
Round: 0.5 120.0 66.5 49.5 138.5 68.5 53.0

3.0 116.5 93.0 67.5 108.5 90.5 77.0
Quartered: 0.5 147.5 63.0 51.0 110.5 56.6 49.5
3.0 121.5 58.5 57.0 128.0 48.5 46.0
Strips: 0.5 160.5 67.5 56.0 133.0 60.5 43.0
3.0 105.5 58.5 51.0 144.0 55.0 50.0
H 226 (high-cyanogen)
Round: 0.5 78.0 37.0 17.0 128.0 30.0 19.5

3.0 73.5 21.5 14.5 86.5 30.5 14.5
Quartered: 0.5 78.0 36.5 25.5 122.0 38.5 26.0
3.0 70.0 29.0 19.0 98.5 51.5 40.0
Strips: 0.5 91.5 24.5 17.0 116.0 37.0 26.0
3.0 100.5 21.5 13.5 99.0 39.0 31.0
a. CG = cyanogenic glucoside; NGC = nonglucosidic cyanogen (acetone cyanohydrin + free); FC = free cyanide.
little (Tables 1 to 3). This indicates costs during manufacture of food

that the free cyanide formed is rapidly products.
lost from boiling water, but that a
certain amount of free cyanide is Rheological and swelling
retained in dried, parboiled chips. properties
Rapid parboiling, by adding chips Table 4 shows the rheology of rava

to boiling water, is insufficient to and porridge samples of the three
eliminate cyanogen from varieties. Significant differences in
high-cyanogen cultivars. Rigorous swelling volumes exist among the
processing is needed to minimize porridge samples of the three
cyanogen retention in high-cyanogen varieties. Swelling volumes were
cultivars. But for low-cyanogen highest for porridge made from
cultivars, such as H 1687, rapid H 226 and lowest for that from
parboiling helps reduce operational H 1687. For rava samples, H 165
327
Table 4. Swelling volume and viscosity of rava and porridge made from cassava roots.
Cassava variety Swelling volume Viscosity properties

Type of chips (ml/g) (BU) a
Rava Porridge Maximum viscosity Viscosity breakdown
Rava Porridge Rava Porridge
H 1687:
Round 5.00 3.15 360 650 60 280
Quartered 5.00 3.05 350 700 70 350
Strips 5.35 3.75 320 600 30 190
H 165:
Round 7.00 7.00 140 680 40 320
Quartered 6.20 6.25 160 820 20 400
Strips 6.25 5.75 150 800 30 360
H 226:
Round 3.25 7.00 160 960 20 280
Quartered 3.25 7.50 220 900 30 350
Strips 3.75 7.25 180 870 35 190
a. BU = Brabender units.
had the highest values and H 226, Viscosity data showed rava
the lowest. samples to have a different viscosity
pattern to that of porridge samples.
No relationship was found Porridge showed peak viscosity before
between the shape of the chips used 60 C, whereas rava behaved like a
to prepare rava and porridge and starch, with a peak viscosity around
swelling volume. The values obtained 75-85 C.
were much lower than those normally
observed for corresponding starch Recently, Raja and Ramakrishna
samples which have 3-4 times the (1990) found that parboiling affects
swelling volumes of rava. The lower viscosity properties. Earlier, Raja et
swelling volumes can be attributed to al. (1982) reported that the viscosity
the preliminary swelling of starch of powdered, parboiled chips was
during parboiling of the chips. Most lower compared with powdered, dried
of the starch granules were already chips. This corroborates our findings.
swollen during the rava preparation.
Starch and sugar changes
The swelling volumes observed
also indicate an almost equal starch No significant differences were
distribution in both rava and porridge observed in the starch content of rava
samples. No significant differences in and porridge samples according to
swelling volumes exist according to cultivar. Starch content ranged from
soaking period of chips, which was 52%-66% in the rava samples and
expected. Raja and Mathew (1986) 56%-70% in those of porridge.
observed the sedimentation volume of Neither was a relationship found
powdered, parboiled chips to increase between chip type and starch content
slightly with longer boiling time. But of rava and porridge. Total sugar
we observed swelling volume to content was higher for the rava and
decrease with parboiling. porridge made from H 226 than from
328
Table 5. Starch and sugar changes (g/100 g DM) in rava and porridge made from cassava roots.
Cassava variety Rava Porridge

Type of chips
Starch Sugar Starch Sugar
H 1687:
Round 66.18 14.60 64.38 15.74
Quartered 60.18 13.79 63.38 11.36
Strips 55.21 19.84 53.57 16.95
H 165:
Round 64.29 13.61 70.31 11.90
Quartered 60.00 12.20 59.60 14.71
Strips 64.29 11.76 62.50 9.09
H 226:
Round 67.67 14.81 56.60 20.20
Quartered 52.33 21.05 56.25 17.54
Strips 55.56 20.83 59.21 20.41
H 1687, and lowest for those from Cock, J. H. 1985. Cassava: new potential for
H 165. These parameters did not a neglected crop. Westview Press,
Boulder, CO, USA. 191 p.
seem to influence the rheological or
swelling properties of these food Cooke, R. D. and Maduagwu, E. N. 1978. The
products (Table 5). effect of simple processing on the
cyanide content of cassava chips.
J. Food Technol. 13:299-306.
Conclusions Ezeala, D. O. and Okoro, N. 1986. Processing
techniques and hydrocyanic acid
The rheological and swelling content of cassava-based human
properties of the rava and porridge foods in Nigeria. J. Food Biochem.
fractions made from the three 10:125-132.
cassava cultivars suggest their Fukuba, H.; Igaraschi, O.; Biones, C. M.; and
suitability as a wheat substitute for Mendoza, E. T. 1984. Cyanogenic
breakfast recipes and certain south glucosides in cassava and cassava
Indian sweet dishes. However, the products: determination and
retention of cyanogens were found detoxification. In: Uritani, I. and
Reyes, E. D. (eds.). Tropical root
to be slightly high in the case of the crops: postharvest physiology and
high-cyanogen cultivars. We expect processing. Japan Scientific Societies
to study detoxifying processes in an Press, Tokyo. p. 225-234.
attempt to develop suitable
processing technologies for Nambisan, B. and Sundaresan, S. 1984.
Spectrophotometric determination of
high-cyanogen cultivars, thereby cyanoglucosides in cassava. J. Assoc.
increasing demand for food Off. Anal. Chem. 67:641-643.
products made from such cultivars.
__________ and __________. 1985. Effect of
processing on the cyanoglucoside
content of cassava. J. Sci. Food Agric.
References 36:1197-1203.
Balagopalan, C.; Padmaja G.; Nanda, OBrien, G. M.; Taylor, A. J.; and Poulter,
S. K.; and Moorthy, S. N. 1988. N. H. 1991. Improved enzymatic
Cassava in food, feed and industry. assay for cyanogens in fresh and
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. processed cassava. J. Sci. Food Agric.
205 p. 56:277-289.
329
Padmaja, G. 1993. Cyanide detoxification in __________ and Ramakrishna, S. V. 1990.

cassava for food and feed uses. Crit. Compositional and pasting
Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 35(4)299-339. characteristics of plain-dried and
parboiled cassava (Manihot esculenta
Raja, K. C. M.; Abraham, E. T.; Crantz). Food Chem. 38:79-88.
Sreemulanathan, H.; and Mathew,
A. G. 1982. Studies on improving Schoch, T. J. 1964. Swelling power and
textural quality of cassava (tapioca) solubility of granular starches. In:
flour: proceedings of a symposium on Whistler, R. L. (ed.). Methods in
postharvest technology for cassava. carbohydrate chemistry, vol. IV.
Association of Food Science Academic Press, NY, USA.
Technology (AFST), Trivandrum, p. 106-108.
India. p. 108-116.
__________ and Mathew, A. G. 1986. Effect of

parboiling on hydration and
sedimentation characteristics of
cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
chips. J. Food Sci. Technol. 23:39-41.
330
SESSION 7:
INTEGRATED PROJECTS
Integrated Cassava Research and Development Projects...
CHAPTER 38
INTEGRATED CASSAVA RESEARCH AND

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN COLOMBIA,
ECUADOR, AND BRAZIL:
AN OVERVIEW OF CIATS EXPERIENCES
B. Ospina*, S. Poats**, and G. Henry***
Abstract cassava markets have diversified and

overall demand for cassava has
This paper discusses CIATs 12-year increased. This has reduced price
experience in developing an integrated variability while increasing yields and,
cassava research and development as a result, created incentives for
project (ICRDP) approach. The origin, adopting improved technologies. Poor
justification, methodology, results, farmers incomes and employment
and lessons learned from this opportunities have also improved
approach are presented, using a through the promotion of small-scale,
comparative analysis of CIATs cassava-based, rural agroindustries
experiences in Colombia, Ecuador, with low opportunity costs, especially
and Brazil. The ICRDPs have been for landless producers.
effective vehicles for CIATs Cassava
Program to interact with various
national research, rural extension, Introduction
and development institutions.
Existing production, processing, and In 1973, when CIATs Cassava
marketing technologies have been Program first took shape, few strong
validated and adapted to specific agricultural research programs in
regional conditions with the ICRDP Latin America focused on cassava.
framework. New technologies have Research was well behind, relative to
been generated through the synergy of other crops, and emphasized mainly
research and development that aspects of production (Prez-Crespo,
ICRDPs promote. Results have 1991). The Cassava Program
demonstrated to research and researched germplasm development
development institutions, donors, and agronomic practices from
governments, and policy makers that 1973 to 1982. Results during this
cassava is a crop that can play an period were encouraging, and clearly
important role in achieving demonstrated the technical
development goals. Through the possibilities of significantly increasing
integrated approach, traditional cassava production.
But farmers had no special

interest in adopting new cassava
* Cassava Program, CIAT, stationed at the production technology to raise
Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Mandioca e efficiency or productivity. With an
Fruticultura (CNPMF), Brazil.
** Independent consultant. increasing concentration of Latin
*** Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. Americas population in urban
333
centers, preferences shifted from technology to conserve fresh cassava

cassava as a basic dietary staple to roots for human consumption and on
foodstuffs easier to transport, store, drying technology for the animal feed
and exchange. Thus, increasing industry. Research activities on
cassavas use in Latin America was sun-dried cassava chips at CIAT were
dependent on developing new started in an attempt to solve quality
products that would use cassava in problems in dried cassava chips and
its fresh state or transform it to a pellets produced in Thailand and
storable or higher value product, and Indonesia and exported to the
in developing new markets for these European Union for incorporation into
products (Lynam, 1978). animal feed concentrates. Through
this work, CIAT gained considerable
In 1979, CIAT took an innovative experience in the natural drying
step by adding the Utilization Section techniques used in Asian countries.
to the Cassava Program, thus
extending its responsibilities for crop But this accumulated knowledge
research beyond the development could not be applied to Latin
and transfer of germplasm and American conditions immediately. A
agronomic practices. This move was series of reviews had cast doubts on
similar to that of many earlier the Programs ability to reach farmers
projects in numerous countries, with the technologies generated, and
especially in Southeast Asia, that so attain increased productivity. After
aimed to exploit cassavas industrial a series of internal planning exercises
potential by transforming it focusing on specific social objectives,
agroindustrially into meal, flour, a new research and development
starch, alcohol, or other derived framework was formulated for the
products. In Latin America, relatively Cassava Program. This included the
few of these projects met with the need to be directly involved in
anticipated success: some, trying to cassava-based, rural development
improve production, ran into programs, as a sine qua non
marketing problems; others, condition for the crops development
investing in processing plants, (Cock and Lynam, 1990).
encountered problems with the raw
materials price or availability. At the time the Cassava Program
was searching for Latin American
Analysis of these projects partners and sites to test this
highlighted the need for an integrated approach, the Colombian Ministry of
approach to cassava production, Agriculture, through the Integrated
processing, and market development. Rural Development (DRI) program,
Cassava development could not be was pursuing CIATs collaboration to
expected unless all three areas were solve problems related to increasing
simultaneously addressed in an production and decreasing demand
integrated fashion. Research and and prices for cassava in the North
development activities needed to Coast, an extensive cassava-growing
begin by identifying potential area of Colombia. The two entities
markets for cassava and its products. developed a collaborative program.
Once identified, then product The experiences gained in this and
development, processing, production, similar projects in Asian countries
and commercialization should begin, over the last 12 years has allowed
to develop the market effectively. CIAT to develop the integrated
cassava research and development
The Utilization Section first project (ICRDP) methodology
concentrated on developing discussed in this paper.
334
The Importance of Cassava consists of highly digestible starch.

in Latin America Cassava starch has agglutinant
properties that make it suitable for
Latin America produces 21% of the pelleting in animal feeds, such as
worlds cassava. According to the for shrimp or fish, replacing
Food and Agriculture Organization expensive artificial agglutinants
(FAO, cited in CIAT, 1993), Brazil, (Cock and Lynam, 1990).
Paraguay, and Colombia are
responsible for 92% of cassava The disadvantages of using
production in this region. The fresh cassava roots directly in
crop is generally produced in products such as animal
marginal, rainfed areas and is concentrates are their bulk, rapid
grown by small-scale farmers with perishability, low protein content,
limited access to land, inputs, and and the presence of cyanogens in
improved technology. In areas all root tissues. These
where cassava is grown disadvantages can be overcome by
extensively, farmers often have no simple processing techniques, such
alternative crops because of as chipping and natural drying.
climate and soil limitations. For example, sun drying eliminates
most cyanogens from root tissues.
Marketing channels available Increasing cassavas price
to cassava growers are usually competitiveness with other
limited to one or two traditional carbohydrate sources, and
markets per region for either fresh differentiating the uses of its high
roots or processed products such quality carbohydrate structure and
as farinha da mandioca (toasted composition, help overcome its low
cassava flour) in Brazil. As protein content.
societies urbanize, demand for
processed products may remain Linking small-scale cassava
stable or even increase, creating farmers to potential growth
shortages and high prices. But the markets via new processing
overall demand for cassava tends technology and new product
to decline, creating price development is an important option
fluctuations and increasing that can help meet several social
commercial risks. Lacking policy objectives such as income
additional market opportunities for generation among marginal
fresh cassava, farmers have no farmers and landless poor (Lynam,
incentives to adopt improved 1987). But penetrating alternative
production technologies. markets needs competitive
farm-level prices, investment in
Fortunately, cassava has processing capacity and
several characteristics that allow it management, and a coordinated
to compete as a multiple source of expansion in production,
carbohydrates, especially processing, and use.
compared with other root crops, on
the basis of price, yield, nutritional The integrated project
value, quality, and availability. methodology, developed during the
Root dry matter content in cassava last 12 years, aims at coordinating
is higher than in other root crops changes in farming systems with
(35%-40%), giving optimal changes in the marketing system,
conversion rates of 2.5:1 or better. within the framework of
Over 85% of root dry matter multi-institutional integration.
335
Integrated Cassava Research ensures that the correct target region

and Development Projects and the most promising markets are
(ICRDPs) selected.
Definition Microplanning. Information is

gathered to define market
An ICRDP is defined as an characteristics, production practices
intervention at institutional, and constraints, availability of
technological, social, and institutional support, existing farmer
organizational levels to link organizations, cassava processing
small-scale cassava farmers to new or technologies, and regional government
improved growth markets. Thus, development priorities. Then, the
demand for production technology is target area is selected for the pilot
stimulated with potential to improve project.
small-scale farmer welfare.
Pilot phase. During this stage,
Methodology available technologies can be entirely
reworked and adapted to local
The ICRDP methodology has four conditions. The projects institutional
stages. These must be phased and organizational framework is
sequentially to succeed (Figure 1). determined and serves as the
intersection point for cassava
Macroplanning. The overall production, processing, and product
economic situation of the country or development research. Farmer
region initially targeted for an ICRDP organizations are included at this stage
is analyzed. The potential demand for and become the projects permanent
cassava and derived products, the actors and decision makers. At the
crops ability to compete with other end of this stage, enough reliable
products and markets, and the information is available to test the
potential for cassava production in assumptions made during planning.
different regions are considered. The commercial phase is then either
Information gathered in this phase justified or rejected.
Macroplanning
Microplanning
Production Product
research Pilot phase development
research
Applied field Pilot evaluation
testing of for market and
production product
technology development
Commercial expansion
Figure 1. Planning integrated cassava research and development projects (ICRDPs).
336
Commercial expansion phase. (2) The development of cassava

The use of cassava processing processing and product markets
technology and new or improved as income-generating activities;
products can now be replicated or (3) The creation of demand for
expanded, according to findings of the improved cassava production
pilot phase. The new technologys technology.
commercial costs and the resources
needed to promote its adoption on a Experiences and results
wider scale can now be calculated.
This includes credit lines for crop CIAT joined efforts with national
production, establishing processing counterpart agencies to initiate
capacity and operational capital, and ICRDPs in nine Latin American
institutional requirements to train and countries (Table 1). These projects
give technical assistance to farmers. have included different products,
At the start of the commercial phase, markets, and processing technologies
a monitoring system should be and have reached different stages of
established, based on the information development.
gathering mechanisms begun in the
pilot stage. Finally, it must be In Mexico and Peru, the projects
remembered that the project failed. The Mexican failure was
framework is not a permanent caused by farmers not being
mechanism per se and the end committed and involved from the start
result of this stage should be a and because the production,
self-supporting, economically processing, and commercialization
sustainable, cassava-based activities were insufficiently
agroindustry. coordinated. The Peruvian project
was economically nonviable because
Anticipated outcomes the target area was far from markets
and another, more profitable,
The anticipated outcomes of the enterprise (cocaine processing) was
ICRDPs were: competing.
(1) That national research, extension, In the Colombian, Ecuadorean,

and development agencies would and Brazilian projects, the CIAT
become involved in a concerted Cassava Program, through special
effort to improve small-scale funding, managed to have staff
farmer welfare through activities members directly involved in project
focused on cassava; implementation.
Table 1. Integrated cassava research and development projects in Latin America.
Country Dried chips Flour Starch Fresh roots Leaves

for animal for human for
feed Human Industrial Human Industrial consumption animal
consumption use consumption use feed
Argentina Pilot
Bolivia Pilot
Brazil Commercial Pilot Pilot
Colombia Commercial Pilot Pilot Pilot Commercial
Ecuador Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial
Mexico Failed
Panama Commercial
Paraguay Pilot Pilot Pilot
Peru Failed
337
The Colombian ICRDP that a large and expanding market

for animal feed existed in Colombia,
The North Coast is a major cassava and was analyzing the possible use of
production zone in Colombia. In dried cassava for this market. The
1990, it accounted for 52% of the two entities teamed up to assess the
nations cassava production, possibilities of entering this
representing 13% of total land under alternative market.
cultivation and 20% of the regions
total value of agricultural production Of the various possibilities
(Henry et al., 1994). According to analyzed, the most promising seemed
Janssen (1986), 40% of the total to be that of establishing cassava
small-scale farmer income from producer organizations to operate
agricultural production in this area cassava drying plants and sell the
is derived from cassava cultivation. dried cassava to animal feed
On-farm consumption and fresh factories. This approach appeared
cassava sold to urban markets have attractive for two reasons: first, the
traditionally been the two main resource-poor farmers in the area
commercial outlets for the regions could not individually afford to
cassava crop, although some typical, establish cassava processing
processed, cassava-based products infrastructures, whereas as an
for human consumption also take a organization they could do so; and,
small share of the cassava market. second, the cassava drying process
Industrial uses of cassava have been was proposed as a way to create an
virtually nonexistent in the region. effective floor price for cassava roots,
so that if prices in the fresh market
In the late 1970s, the DRI was were high, farmers could sell into
already promoting cassava as an these markets and make enough
agricultural policy option in the profit to pay off loans on the cassava
North Coast. It provided credit and drying plants. Roots unsuitable for
technical assistance to increase the fresh market could be sold to the
cassava production. drying plants, allowing them to
operate at a low level. Conversely, if
This traditional, the prices for cassava roots dropped,
production-oriented approach was farmers could sell the roots to the
relatively successful. Cassava drying plants and still make a profit.
production increased rapidly, mainly
because of the effect that increased To test this models validity
credit availability had on through a pilot project, the first
intensifying production by farmer cassava natural drying plant to be
beneficiaries of the DRI program. operated by farmers was established
The rapid growth in production in Betulia, Department of Sucre, in
caused saturation in local markets, 1981. The farmers were aided by
and prices dropped to such levels CIAT who already had expertise in
that farmers were unable to find the cassava chipping and drying
buyers to recover their costs. To technology brought from Asia.
resolve this problem, the DRI
program set up a postharvest Despite their total lack of
committee, who contacted CIAT for experience and tradition in cassava
help in finding alternative markets processing activities, the Colombian
for the regions cassava production. farmers quickly assimilated and
adapted the technology. The initial
At the same time, CIATs promising results were used to
Cassava Program had already found formulate the projects expansion,
338
which underwent two additional Throughout the projects span,

phases: the semicommercial cassava producers and processors
(1981-1983), and the replication or received important institutional
commercial (1984 to date). support, especially credit lines,
technical assistance, and training.
By 1991, about 150 cassava Important results were also obtained
drying plants were operating in the in the area of improved cassava
North Coast (Figure 2), of which production technology. The impact of
105 were owned and operated by the Colombian ICRDP can be best
small-scale, cassava producers assessed by considering the added
associations and/or cooperatives. monetary value of dried cassavas
The remainder were exploited by annual production, foreign exchange
private entrepreneurs who, during savings from decreased cereal imports
1987-1991, were rapidly participating for animal feed, added employment
in the industry. The fast, widespread opportunities generated in rural areas
adoption of diverse types of by expanding cassava production and
cassava-drying in the region is now processing activities, and enhanced
making accurate monitoring difficult links with goods sectors and services.
(Henry, 1992).
The Economics Section of CIATs
During 1991, these 150 drying Cassava Program estimated that, from
plants produced about 25,000 t of 1984-1991, the cassava sector in
dried cassava chips, corresponding to northern Colombia benefited by
62,500 t of cassava rootsa demand almost US$22 million (Gottret and
representing 6.6% of total cassava Henry, 1994). These benefits resulted
produced in the region in 1991 and from integrating research to improve
accounting for 5.7% of the total area cassava crop management,
planted to cassava. Project activities processing, marketing, and consumer
led to the rapid penetration of the preferences in the framework of
Colombian animal feed market with cassava-based, development projects
dried cassava chips. with strong farmer participation.
180
160 123456
150
123456
123456
123456
Cassava drying plants (no.)
140 123456
123456
123456
123456
123456
120 123456
123456
123456
123456
100 123456
123456
123456
123456
76 123456
80 123456 123456
123456 123456
123456 123456
123456 123456
60 123456
123456 123456
123456
46 50
123456 123456 123456
41 1234567 123456 123456 123456
123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
40 123456
37 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
22 123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
123456
123456 123456
123456 123456
123456 1234567
1234567 123456
123456 123456
123456 123456
123456
20 123456 123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
8
123456 8
1234567 123456 123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
123456 123456 1234567
1234567 123456
1 123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
0 123456 123456 123456 123456 123456 1234567 123456 123456 123456
1981 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Year
1234
1234
Figure 2. Adoption of cassava drying plants in Colombia, 1981-1990, by farmers groups (1234 ) and private
plants ( ). (After Henry, 1992.)
339
Studies have also shown that organizational arrangements and

adoption of cassava production allowing farmer organizations,
technology components is significantly extension workers, and national
higher in areas with ICRDP activities research and extension staff to play
than it is in areas not so influenced new roles (CIAT, 1992).
(Gottret and Henry, 1994). For
example, 93% of cassava producers in The project in Ecuador was
areas with cassava drying activities implemented in a traditional,
and strong institutional presence cassava-processing area of Manab
adopted the cassava variety Province, a seasonally dry, coastal
Venezolana in 1991. But in areas not region, which accounts for 20%-30%
directly influenced by ICRDP activities, of the national cassava production
only 48% of cassava producers (MAG, 1990). In Manab, family
adopted it (Gottret and Henry, 1994). farming households have extracted
cassava starch for over 100 years
The main lesson of the Colombian with little change in processing
project was that farmers, when technology. The potential of
encouraged to participate in cassava-drying technologies had been
researching and solving their current early identified as a viable alternative
problems and needs, become for promoting alternative uses and
important partners for research-and- markets for the crop. But it was not
development institutions and make until 1985 that conditions became
valuable contributions to identifying, economically favorable to launch the
adapting, and evaluating alternative ICRDP in Manab.
solutions.
A favorable climate for cassava
The Colombian project also processing and sun drying, excess
validated an original hypothesis of the cassava production, and a
ICRDP model: that the integrated predominance of small-farm
project approach, by creating new population characterized the region
markets and better prices for cassava, as optimal for the project.
will increase farmers incentives to Farmers were organized into small
adopt improved production producer-processor associations
technologies. called APPYs (Asociaciones de
Productores y Procesadores de Yuca).
Finally, the project demonstrated From the start, these associations
that small-scale farmer associations joined, as a second-order farmer
are indeed a viable mechanism or organization, known as the Unin de
vehicle for technology diffusion. Asociaciones de Productores y
Procesadores de Yuca (UAPPY).
The Ecuadorean ICRDP The UAPPY changed its legal

status in 1992 to admit associations
From its beginning in 1985, the of rural workers (ATAPYs) and
Ecuadorean ICRDP represented a became the Unin de Asociaciones de
challenge for CIAT in that the Trabajadores Agrcolas, Productores y
Colombian project, successful as it Procesadores de Yuca (UATAPPY).
had been, demanded very high This change allowed small-scale
institutional costs, which had to be farmers, lacking titles to their lands,
brought down. The project in Ecuador and landless rural workers (such as
was therefore conceived as both a women who could easily benefit from
social and technical experiment, processing-generated jobs) to legally
requiring specific institutional and participate.
340
Begun as a marketing industry was such that demand for

committee, the Union now includes cassava flour could be more than
17 associations and performs a variety 8,000 t/year.
of functions including technical
assistance, credit, marketing, Transforming dried cassava chips
accounting, training, product to flour for shrimp feed required new
development, and monitoring. steps in processing because roots had
Farmers meet annually as to be peeled before drying. Peeling
stockholders to evaluate their progress soon became an important source of
and make recommendations to added income for member and
UATAPPY leaders and other project nonmember families, especially
collaborators. women, children, and elderly people,
who usually had no other sources of
Colombian farmer-processors were income.
brought to Ecuador to teach Manab
farmers the new chipping and drying A different management system
technology. These farmer-to-farmer was also needed, in which the
contacts were later reinforced by associations produced dried chips and
Manab farmers visiting Colombia. sold them to the Union. The Union
They were able to see in action was obliged to develop milling capacity
technical, organizational, and and management, using portable
operational features of the Colombian hammer mills to grind the dried chips
cassava processing plants. From the into flour. This process catalyzed the
start, farmer processors played idea of developing a Union-owned
an important role as promoters, and administrated Demonstration
technology transfer agents, teachers, Center, where new cassava
and leaders of the project. Staff from processing technologies could be
local agencies and CIAT joined and designed, adapted, and tested, and
supported farmers efforts. training and demonstrations for
farmers could be held.
The basic chipping technology
adopted was the same as that used In 1993, the Demonstration
in Colombia. Drying trays, a Center became the Central Plant,
CIAT-suggested technology, were reflecting its increasing roles in
quickly adopted as an intermediate transformation, storage, and
step toward building a cement drying transshipment activities. Training
floor. This allowed poorer farmer and research activities were taken
groups to get started quickly with over, to some extent, by specific
fewer initial investment costs. Later, farmer associations, encouraging
profits earned could be used to build increased participation.
the floor.
In 1989, the shrimp industry in
Project leaders and CIAT Ecuador slumped: strong competition
researchers assumed that the market from Asian producers and problems
for dried cassava in Ecuador would be with a shortage of larvae ponds cut
the same as that in Colombia: the shrimp production overnight,
balanced feeds industry for poultry eliminating 95% of the demand for
and livestock. Early in the project, cassava flour. The Union reacted
serendipitously, it was discovered that quickly, launching an all-out
cassava was an ideal substitute for campaign to identify other markets.
imported chemical agglutinants for the The Demonstration Center made it
feed pellets used by the Ecuadorean possible for farmers to rapidly adapt
shrimp industry. The scale of this existing products for new markets.
341
For example, whole-root cassava than in number of processing

flour was refined by passing it through organizations. Initially fueled by
a mechanical vibrating sifter, a strong market demand and reasonable
process yielding a flour of the same funding for construction and
granular size as wheat flour. This operational credit, the processing
refined cassava flour began associations expansion was very
substituting wheat flour in fillers for rapid, from 2 in 1985 to 16 in 1988.
resins used for making plywood, thus By the end of 1988, a scarcity of donor
capturing an important share of this funds for construction and a rapidly
market. Bran, a byproduct from increasing inflation combined to make
sifting, was also sold as a source of promoting the formation of new
fiber to livestock feed industries. associations much more difficult for
the Union. In 1992, there were
In 1989, farmers, collaborating 17 associations in Manab, with a
institutions, and CIAT learned a total of 320 members (Figure 3).
valuable lesson about the importance
of diversifying products and markets. The Ecuadorean ICRDP differed
Since then, the Unions markets and from other ICRDPs by having the
products portfolio continued to UATAPPY as agent of its members
diversify. Today, seven different growth and development. It has
primary products and four byproducts managed and often carried out project
are produced and sold to seven functions normally assigned to
different market sectors (Table 2), supporting state institutions or
reaching more than 40 buyers. nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), including handling
The Ecuadorean cassava projects development funds. This has served
growth has been operational rather to strengthen and promote
Table 2. Market sectors and products in the Ecuadorean cassava project, 1989-1992.
Market sectors Products Total annual output (t)
1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93
Shrimp feed and White industrial flour 574 982b 304b 631b
exports to Colombia
Shrimp feeda Whole industrial flour 1,100 304 258b 464b 127b
Plywood industry Refined whole industrial 200b 170b 292b

flour
Ice-cream cone Refined white food flour 33 6b 33b

factories
Cardboard industry Industrial starch 70 188b 57b 256b

(Ecuador and Colombia)
Bakeries, traditional Food starch 5 10 6b 9b 17b

and large-scale
Livestock feed Starch bagasse and 24 103b 29b 166b

flour bran
Total 1,105 1,015 1,743b 1,033b 1,522b
a. After 1990/91, most of the whole industrial flour was used for other livestock feeds, and not shrimp pellets.
b. Includes starches or bagasse purchased by the Unin de Asociaciones de Trabajadores Agrcolas, Productores
y Procesadores de Yuca (UATAPPY) from private starch processors.
342
20
123 123 (3) Farmer organizationsnot merely
drying plants (no.)
1234
16 1234
1234 16 123
1234
17
123 123
17
123 receiving project benefits but
15 1234 1234123
12341234123 123
123 actively participating with farmers
12341234123 123
Cassava
10 12341234123
1234
1234 12341234 123
123
123
owning their research agenda
10
1234
12341234
12341234
1234123
123 123
123
should be part of the institutional
1234 1234
1234 1234
1234 1234
1234123
123 123
123
strategy of an ICRDP.
5 1234
4 1234 1234 1234123 123 Collaboration between farmer
2 1234123412341234123
1234 123
12341234123412341234123
1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 123 organizations and supporting
0
123 123 institutions in an ICRDP should be
1985 86 87 88 89 90 91
encouraged without creating
Year relationships of dependence among
Figure 3. Expansion of cassava-drying them.
agroindustries in Ecuador, 1985-1991.
The Brazilian ICRDP

sustainability of the project after state
institutions and NGOs withdrew their In 1989, the Kellogg Foundation
support as funds run out. approved a 3-year grant (1989-1992)
to CIAT and collaborating Brazilian
Another difference has been the agricultural research and technical
direct and active participation of assistance institutions and farmer
women from the start in the Union organizations. The grants overall
and in all project activities, as objective was to support the
producers, processors, and managers. introduction of improved cassava
Today, three kinds of processing production, processing technologies,
associations exist: only men, only and appropriate organizational
women, and mixed. Women comprise schemes for institutions and farmer
nearly 33% of total membership. groups throughout the main
cassava-growing areas of Cear State,
The UATAPPY experience with the Northeast Brazil.
integrated cassava project over the
past years has fully validated three In this region, an estimated
guiding principles that can be 110,000 ha of cassava are harvested
considered as part of the culture of the yearly with a total output of almost
projects participants and the criteria 1.2 million tons of cassava roots. For
for their collaborating well: centuries, the main commercial outlet
for production has been the casas de
(1) The transfer of technologies is farinha. These are small communal
more rapid, efficient, and effective processing units used to process
when end-users are directly cassava roots into a toasted flour or
involved and responsible. meal known as farinha de mandioca.
(2) Farmers organizations are This flour is a staple product and
effective intermediaries between source of income, especially in the
farmers and institutions and can rural sectors of Northeast Brazil.
be used as efficient channels for In Cear State, an estimated
project services, credit, and 14,000 casas de farinha produce
information dissemination. A almost 200,000 t of cassava flour per
farmers organization accumulates year, representing about 65% of the
experiences and learning, thus states cassava production.
contributing to the growth,
maturity, and ultimate Northeast Brazils extremely
sustainability of the farmers variable rainfall patterns cause wide
group. fluctuations in cassava yields and so
343
the supply and prices of farinha de project activity coordination and

mandioca vary greatly. Because the integrate the research and extension
main income of the regions collaborating agencies in the projects
small-scale farmers derives from area of influence.
cassava flour, this situation creates
instability. Further, poor quality, the The projects expansion, in terms
small scale of operation, and of number of farmer groups organized,
rudimentary cassava processing was explosive, mainly because
technology further contribute to national and state government
establishing commercial systems agencies strongly intervened to launch
whereby farmer groups are forced to programs of financial aid in the form
sell their product at low prices. of grants, thus allowing rural
communities to build cassava drying
The ICRDPs strategy was to seek a agroindustries. From the 11 that had
large, alternative, market that cassava already existed at the projects start,
could enter, especially in good rainfall the number of farmer groups rose to
years when excess cassava production 158about 75% were established
usually means low prices. Once the during the projects last year (1991)
animal feed market was focused, a (Figure 4).
pilot project was established to
develop the local experience needed to The CCCs and RCCs played a
strengthen local institutional capacity crucial role in the task of approaching
for implementing cassava-based rural different government agencies and
development programs with potential programs to obtain grants on behalf
to benefit targeted groups. A of the farmer organizations. At the
long-term objective was to develop same time, both these committees
national capacity to carry out similar had permanent access to project
development programs in other funds for assisting and supporting
regions of Brazil. farmer activities. Despite the adverse
economic situation the country
Two factors significantly benefited faced during the projects span, the
the project: first, counterpart agencies committees were very active in
in the State had previously worked on identifying sources of financial
relating small-scale cassava farming support and channeling them toward
and processing. And, second, the targeted groups. Project activities
States institutional setup included
top-level administrators, policy
makers, and local agencies staff who
had been exposed to similar 1234
158
160 1234
1234
experiences in other countries. Their
1234
drying plants (no.)
participation was fundamental in 120 1234

1234
1234
Cassava
defining the projects organizational

80
1234
1234
and operational strategies. 1234
1234
40
1234
1234
22 1234 1234
40
A state cassava committee (CCC), 1234 1234 1234
created before the project, was 1234
1234
3 1234
3 1234 12341234
1234
11
1234 12341234 1234
1234
0
strengthened and soon gained general 1986 87 88 89 90 91
recognition as the coordinating body ICRDP
for project activities and all those Year
related to promoting and developing
Figure 4. Expansion of cassava-drying
the cassava crop in Cear State.
agroindustries in Cear, Brazil,
Regional cassava committees (RCCs) 1986-1991. (ICRDP = integrated cassava
were established to decentralize research and development project.)
344
could therefore be executed within the With only 3 years of

proposed goals. Total financial implementation, a complete ex post
support from local agencies during evaluation of the projects impact is
the projects 3 years was almost difficult. The speed with which
1 million American dollars (not cassava drying technologies are
including local staff salaries). adapted for new regions and rural
communities can be assessed through
The project in Cear followed an the pilot projects monitoring and
implementation model similar to that evaluation system model (involving
of other ICRDPs, based mainly on base data on 133 cassava-processing
transferring and adapting available farmer groups), a survey conducted at
cassava processing technologies. This the beginning of the project, and
took advantage of a strong extension another at its end. The assessment
service that allowed rapid cover of the can be done in terms of increased
regions main cassava-growing areas. number of drying agroindustries and
regions of influence, continuous
Project activities also included increase in client numbers for dried
some production technology research. cassava, and the degree of
Initial results indicated that the strengthening of the organizational
adoption of improved technology structure implemented for both
components would help increase the institutions and farmer groups, which,
regions cassava productivity by as by the projects end, included state
much as 50%. However, these results and regional cassava committees and
are suggestive only because farmers farmer organizations.
did not have to pay the expenses.
To what extent small-scale, A preliminary analysis of data
poor-resource farmers would be from the two surveys indicates that
willing to invest in, for example, on-farm consumption and use of
organic fertilizers or weed control, cassava is changing. Farmers now sell
remains to be assessed. a share of their production to the
cassava drying agroindustries, in
The relationship between farinha contrast with the situation before the
de mandioca and dried cassava chips project, when the casas de farinha
as the two main commercial options were the main commercial outlet.
for cassava farmers in Cear Farmers participating in the project
determines the financial success of are starting to adopt the new
the cassava drying agroindustries the processing technology. The new
project promoted. When market market has stimulated them to
prices for farinha de mandioca are transform their patterns of cassava
low, the cassava drying plants use and become more market
function efficiently as an alternative oriented.
market. Conversely, when prices for
farinha de mandioca are attractive, Qualitative information available
then finding adequate supplies of raw on direct impact on community
material for the cassava drying welfare, institutional support, and the
agroindustries becomes difficult. general environment indicates that the
pilot project served as a vehicle to
Skewed land and farm-size increase community development in
distribution, plus climatic general (organization, knowledge,
fluctuations, also strongly influence employment opportunities, incomes),
the seasonal availability of cassava and to strengthen local institutional
roots and thus the performance of the support (technical assistance, working
cassava processing units. capital). However, the projects impact
345
on cassava production and cassava-based farmer organizations.

productivity was rendered negligible This last benefit is available only to
because of the lack of opportunities organization members, whereas the
for farmers to purchase or rent other three apply to any member of
additional land. Adoption of improved the larger community within which
production technology was slow the agroindustry operates.
among the projects beneficiaries.
The total income of farmer
The Cear ICRDP proved that members of the Cear cassava
small, cassava-based, farmer processing groups during 1989-1992
organizations were attractive to reached US$163,887.00, of which
cassava producers. These groups first 37.3% corresponded to cassava root
had to improve their marketing sales, 10.0% to processing wages, and
schemes. Early success indicates 52.7% to sharing annual profits
potential for consolidation through (Figure 5). Another source of benefits
stronger institutional commitment the project generated was captured by
to support efforts by farmer nonmembers responsible for selling
organizations. Those cassava-based 61.6% of the 7,080 t of cassava roots
agroindustries able to operate during processed during the project. In
the project helped create additional contrast, in the Ecuadorean project,
employment opportunities, opened farmer members of the cassava-based
alternative markets, stimulated local agroindustries earned, over 6 years,
industry, raised farmer incomes, and an average annual income of US$225,
encouraged overall community whereas nonmembers earned US$89
development. (Figure 6).
Funds are now being sought for Regarding direct economic

a second phase: to consolidate the benefits, for the Colombian ICRDP,
results obtained during the pilot almost 75% (US$16.2 million) of the
project and to demonstrate these total project benefits was estimated to
technologies and results to other accrue to cassava farmers (producers
regions and farmer groups. and processors) (Gottret and Henry,
1994). But considerable indirect
benefits have also been generated:
Benefits and Beneficiaries backward linkages to several small
of the ICRDPs industries supplying materials for
constructing and operating the drying
Benefits generated by the ICRDPs are plants; forward linkages include
captured principally by farmer especially the income-generating effect
members of the cassava-based from increased rural incomes. This
agroindustries (Gottret and Henry, will have a multiplier effect in that
1994). Members can receive benefits increased rural demand for goods and
from (1) a new market available for services will boost urban
their cassava roots at more stable manufacturing. As such, rural
prices; (2) more employment (and agroindustries have a strong, positive
training) opportunities in the effect on overall economic
cassava processing agroindustries; development.
(3) value-adding second-rate cassava
roots which previously had no market The ICRDPs also represent an
value and were basically written off important source of benefits for
before the introduction of cassava groups such as women and landless
processing; and (4) the annual farmers, who usually do not benefit
share of profits generated by the significantly from projects. For
346
200
123456
163,887
123456
US$ (in thousands)

150 123456
123456
123456
123456 52.7%
100 123456
95,277
123456 123456
123456
123456 123456
123456
123456 123456
48,741 123456
123456789
123456 10.0%
123456789
50 123456
123456789 123456 123456789
123456
123456789
123456
19,869
123456
123456
123456789
123456789
123456
123456
123456789
123456
123456 37.3%
123456789
123456789
123456
123456789 123456789 123456789
0
123456 123456789
123456789 123456 123456
123456789 123456
123456789
1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 Total
1989-1992
Year
Figure 5. Total 123 123

123 Cear, 1989-1992. Sources of income
incomes for cassava-processing group members,
123
were 123 = cassava sales; = processing wages;123= annual profits.
400
Annual average income
321
123456
123456
123456
per farmer (US$)
300
123456
123456
123456
123456
123456 1234567
225
1234567
200 123456
123456 1234567
1234567
123456 1234567
1234567
133
1234567 123456
123456 1234567
1234567
1234567 123456
12345
103 1234567
12345
1234567 123456 1234567
100 12345
1234567
1234567 75
12345
12345
123456
12345
123456 12345
1234567 89
12345
1234567
1234567
12345
1234567 123456
12345
123456 1234567
12345
1234567
12345
1234567
1234567 12345
123456
123456 12345
1234567
1234567
0
1985-88 1988-91 Total
1985-1991
Periods
1234 123
Figure 6. Income earned by members (1234) and nonmembers (123) of cassava-based agroindustries,
1234
Ecuador, 1985-1991.
example, in the Ecuadorean project, strengthening of community spirit.

US$15,000 was paid in 1990/91 for Increases in local income during the
peeling cassava roots, 80% of which dry season resulted in increased
went to poor, nonmember, women and purchases of foodstuffs and other items
children who peeled cassava as their from local shops in rural communities,
sole off-farm income. In the 1991/92 stimulating local economic growth. In
processing season, this amount even some Manab communities, the
increased to 90%. In Cear, Brazil, cassava-processing activity lessened
the distribution of income earned by migration of men to other coastal
farmers during the 3-year pilot project regions to work in the banana
was 58.9% for smallholders, 32.4% for industry. The cassava-processing
renters, and 8.7% for sharecroppers. infrastructure can be used for other
commercial and cultural activities. For
Other important benefits passed example, in Ecuador, cassava-drying
to the community in which the patios are rented to dry other products
cassava-based agroindustries (maize, castor beans, cocoa, rice).
operated. Among these were easier Associations hold community fiestas,
access to credit programs and charging entry to earn money. The
training opportunities, integration drying patios make excellent dance
of institutional presence, and floors!
347
In several communities, the Recommendations for

cassava-based associations have Successfully Implementing
motivated the creation of day-care ICRDPs (Lessons Learned)
centers, and encouraged the
building of roads and bridges, The ICRDPs now under way in several
sponsored with government funds. Latin American countries have
In Cear, the wives of ICRDP provided a dynamic framework within
members started small, poultry which CIATs Cassava Program has
fattening operations beside the been interacting with various national
cassava-drying floors to generate institutions, whether research- or
complementary income. development-oriented, and with
farmer groups. This interaction has
made it easier to validate and adapt
Types of Institutions existing production and postharvest
and Their Functions in technology, together with the
ICRDPs techniques developed for market
analysis. Hopefully, these generalized
The ICRDPs, in which different methodologies for implementing
activities have to be developed ICRDPs will be adaptable to different
simultaneously (e.g., production, economic conditions, farming
processing, marketing, organization, systems, institutional capacities, and
training, and monitoring), are markets. Based on the experiences
integrated by nature. Because they that the Cassava Program has built
are based on farmer organizations, up over the past years, some critical
they generate demand for factors have been identified, which
substantial resources and need to be addressed if ICRDPs are to
coordinating mechanisms from other be successfully implemented.
institutions. The organizational
structure of any ICRDP must be Product and market development
sufficiently flexible and adaptable to
incorporate different farmer Until now, for marketing cassava
organization schemes and roots, ICRDPs have depended on the
institutional configurations. Table 3 traditional market (human
shows the range of institutions consumption) and a new market
currently participating in projects in (animal feed). Recently, they have
Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil and begun to diversify considerably, both
the different functions each consolidating the markets for existing
performs. cassava products and creating new
products for new markets. This, in
In Brazil, state institutions turn, has forced attention on
played leading roles, while improving market financial
second-order farmer organizations management and quality control.
were slow to form. In contrast, in The long-term viability of the model
Colombia, the second-order farmer depends on the farmer organizations
organizations led the ability to move their products into a
commercialization activities and wider range of markets or to develop
some large-scale input buying. But a broader range of end uses for the
few other activities, such as product, especially those that can
research, were coordinated. In offer a high margin of profitability
Ecuador, a wide range of institutions (added value). This not only applies
played a multitude of roles, but the to cassava but also to other
UATAPPY was the key player for commodities produced by farmer
virtually all ICRDP functions. organizations.
348
Table 3. Types of organizations and their functions in integrated cassava research and development
projects (ICRDPs).
Function of organization Region in countrya
North Coast Manab Cear

(Colombia) (Ecuador) (Brazil)
Agricultural research ICA INIAP EMBRAPA

EPACE
Technical assistance ICA EMATERCE
Rural development DRI FODERUMA SUDENE
Credit Caja Agraria Banco Nordeste
Farmer organizations:
First order 180 groups 18 groups 165 groups
Second order ASOCOSTA
ANPPY UATAPPY COOPEMUBA
COPROMA
Nongovernmental FUNDIAGRO Esplar
International CIAT
ACDI USAID CIAT
IBRD
Kellogg Foundation
Governmental:
National Min. of Agriculture Min. of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture
Regional Sec. of Agriculture Sec. of Agriculture Sec. of Agriculture
Sec. of Industry and
Commerce
a. Colombia: ICA = Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario; DRI = Fondo de Desarrollo Rural Integrado;
ASOCOSTA = Asociacin de Cooperativas de la Costa; ANPPY = Asociacin Nacional de
Productores y Procesadores de Yuca; FUNDIAGRO = Fundacin para la Investigacin y el
Desarrollo de Tecnologas Apropiadas al Agro; ACDI = Agricultural Cooperative Development
International.
Ecuador: INIAP = Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias; FODERUMA = Fondo para el
Desarrollo Rural del Ministerio de Agricultura; UATAPPY = Unin de Asociaciones de Trabajadores
Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores de Yuca; USAID = United States Agency for International
Development.
Brazil: EMBRAPA = Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuria; EPACE = Empresa de Pesquisa
Agropecuria do Cear; EMATERCE = Empresa de Pesquisa, Assistncia Tcnica e
Extenso Rural do Cear; SUDENE = Superintendncia do Desenvolvimento do Nordeste;
COOPEMUBA = Cooperativa de Productores de Mandioca de Ubajara; COPROMA =
Cooperativa de Productores de Mandioca de Aarau; IBRD = International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank).
Crop production technology and strengthened. This requires

research introducing adapted genetic materials,
carefully exploring additional
Developing and adopting cassava alternatives to maintain and enhance
production systems that will sustain soil fertility, and adapting ecologically
or increase productivity and reduce sound, crop protection practices.
costs are critical to the ICRDPs
success. For cassava to continue Sufficient evidence exists to prove
competing, more intensive farm that small, cassava-based, farmer
practices may have to be introduced, organizations can function as efficient
thus risking increased pressure on the and effective enterprises and, as a
natural resource base. Research and result, as vehicles for adapting and
development on suitable production transferring production technology.
systems must be initiated, continued, The challenge is to make them
349
efficient and dynamic private sector range of services, from marketing,

enterprises. through technical assistance, to
applied research, and (2) represent
Interinstitutional coordination their members in dialogue with other
collaborating institutes or with
Institutions. Interinstitutional government policy makers (creation of
coordination is important to bring lobbying power). In Ecuador and, to a
together the expertise needed to lesser extent, in Colombia, farmer
support the farmer organizations in second-order organizations are playing
the different areas and activities these roles and giving authority and
handled by the ICRDPs. At their autonomy.
inception, these projects involve
diverse activities, beyond the scope of The interests of farmer,
any single institution. The cooperative-based, agroindustries
interinstitutional coordination must be reconciled with those of small
mechanisms that an ICRDP requires or medium-sized entrepreneurial
are usually new to local organizations, agroindustries. In the Colombian
who will need an adjustment period to project, conflicts have already arisen.
function appropriately and efficiently.
To ensure smooth coordination, one The organizations, including
institution should be designated as cooperatives and associations, need to
coordinator among the rest, and be efficient, dynamic, and market
sufficient funds should be allocated. oriented to be commercially
successful. The social objectives of
In summary, successful these groups are seen principally
interinstitutional coordination must by the way profits are distributed.
include at least (1) the identification Long-term sustainability depends
of a coordinating institution, heavily on commercial survival.
(2) agreement on the necessary
functions of each participating
institution, and (3) development of Human resource development
coordinating mechanisms at project,
regional, and national levels. Poor human resource development is a
well-known constraint to the
Farmer group, or organization, implementation of any rural program.
or enterprise? Small, cassava-based, Training and networking are two
organizations has proved attractive to important strategies to counteract it.
cassava producers who rapidly build
their organizations. But first-order Training. Establishing ICRDPs in
farmer organizations are usually several Latin American countries has
exceptionally weak in business highlighted the regions deficiency in
management and administration. institutions and personnel specialized
Suitable instruments and in postharvest research and
methodologies for improving these development, including marketing.
skills are not always available, and if Thus, a great demand exists for
they are, their use is often hindered by training research and extension
very low levels of education. personnel and farmers in such areas
as cassava processing, crop
If the ICRDPs are to achieve management, basic accounting,
autonomy in the medium term, then production technology, human and
they must help form second-order financial resource management,
farmer organizations that can marketing, market analysis,
(1) support their members with a wide monitoring, and evaluation.
350
Experiences accumulated in having an explicit UATAPPY training

various countries where ICRDPs have function. It designated a UATAPPY
been implemented, especially Brazil member (farmer) to manage this
and Colombia, show that training function and trained this person to
activities have been mainly oriented carry it out in a highly professional
toward building capacity among local manner.
agency staff rather than among
farmers, given the class structure and Networking. Forging links within
organizational profile of their and among regions and countries is
institutional environment. Ecuador one important aspect of implementing
has been an exception to the ICRDPs. At a regional or national
tendency: the UATAPPY and level, it is sometimes hard to achieve
collaborating institutions carried out the interinstitutional and
farmer training. Training strategies interdisciplinary approach needed to
for technicians should link training translate new or improved production
and work, using current and real and postharvest technologies into
work-related problems as the training commercially viable activities. The
issues, and work groups as the basic project framework, within which
training unit. The sharing of training, ICRDPs are usually implemented,
management, delivery, and facilitates integrating several national
participation has resulted in greater institutions into a network that
collaboration among partner provides a forum for interchanging
institutions. experiences and methodologies and for
resolving problems common across
Educational and organizational regions and projects.
needs of cassava producers are much
greater than those of project staff. The Cassava Program at CIAT
High rates of illiteracy and lack of and its partners in many national
organizational skills (particularly institutions have developed
those related to handling funds, methodologies over the last 12 years
keeping records, organizing meetings) that have been operationally,
are among the major constraints to economically, and technically viable.
increased farmer participation in Regional and national networking
ICRDPs and to a more efficient, seems to be the best way of ensuring
two-way information flow between that accumulated experiences and
them and project staff. knowledge can be made available to
other regions and countries facing
The current farmer-training similar problems and opportunities.
strategies that local agencies and
technicians use in most ICRDPs tend Monitoring and evaluation
to include mainly formal training and
mass communication activities Project monitoring and evaluation
centered on extending technological (M&E) has been an integral part of the
services rather than on training and ICRDPs methodology from the start.
education. As such, these training Besides its use in defining potential
methodologies tend to be useful only markets, research priorities and sites,
for those farmers with the needed and beneficiaries, it has proved
skills. This results in segregating the essential for short-term decision
rest of the community, making it more making in refining specific objectives,
difficult to develop a broader then undertaking appropriate actions.
leadership base at the community
level. The Ecuadorean ICRDP, During the early 1980s, an M&E
however, tried to improve this by system was designed to be carried out
351
at three levels, using different An improved model of M&E was

methodologies: (1) continuous update developed for the Ecuadorean and
of a database on farmer organizations; Brazilian projects. First, key to several
(2) an annual survey of a large sample of the M&E limitations, was the models
of collaborating farmers; and organizational structure and execution,
(3) intensively monitoring a subsample which had to be based in house. That
of farmers (Bode, 1991). is, the second-order farmer organization
had to internally analyze the M&E
For the first ICRDP in Colombia, system and coordinate its operation.
the M&E system worked well in the Collaborating institutions should adopt
beginning, but as the project matured, only technical assistance roles. An
the database updating and subsequent effective feedback of appropriate
annual reports based on its data information is thus delivered in timely
became the only activities and outputs fashion to relevant audiences.
of the M&E system, with much of the
data underused. Furthermore, the Second, the M&E system should
annual report was circulated to only a allow for the dynamics of the project
few collaborating institutions, with itself. Parameters of interest during
insufficient feedback to the farmer the projects early stages may not be
organizations themselves. The relevant for its expansion phases.
monitoring model was seen as Adoption and impact studies need to
suitable only for the pilot phase of a be included, but only at later stages.
cassava-based development project, Different M&E activities thus become
being too static to evolve with the important as the project matures
projectdifferent levels of project (Henry and Best, 1994). Table 4 shows
maturity required different emphases how different monitoring activities are
and aspects for M&E. introduced according to the projects
Table 4. A modified monitoring and evaluation model for an integrated cassava research and development
project.
Activity Sourcea Pilot stage Commercial

stage
Experimental Semicommercial
Short-term monitoring:
Technical 1, 2 X X X
Financial 1, 2 X X X
Social 2 X X
Commercial 2 X X X
Institutional 2 X X
Long-term monitoring:
Markets 2, C X X
Models 2, C X
Adoption:
Processing plants 2 X X
Production technology 2, C X X
Other technologies 2, C X X
Impact:
On-farm/processing plant 2, C X X
Community C X
Aggregate C X
a. 1 = first-order farmer organizations; 2 = second-order; C = collaborators such as institutions, universities, and

nongovernmental organizations.
SOURCE: Henry and Best, 1994.
352
evolution. For example, market production credit. This has meant

studies need to be conducted at the that traditional starchy staples, such
experimental phase to suggest viable, as cassava, have had to compete with
potential markets for the project. But grains at a substantial disadvantage.
markets are dynamic so the market
studies need to be repeated later to Exploiting postharvest
ensure a sustainable market potential opportunities for root and tuber crops
or, as in the case of the Ecuadorean is currently less of a technological
experience, to look for product and problem, given the extensive expertise
market diversification opportunities available. The central issue in
(Brouwer, 1992; CENDES, 1993). developing cassava-based markets
and products is the economics of the
Another feature of the new M&E whole production and marketing
model is that the intensiveness of data system. This is directly affected by
collection diminishes as the speed of policy interventions oriented toward
adoption increases. strengthening the bargaining power
and the organizational levels of
The new M&E model has already cassava producers.
proved to be superior in that it is both
more usefully effective and has In the Colombian project, policy
increased efficiency in using resources issues were present from the very
while contributing to the projects start. The pilot project was begun in
sustainability. In Colombia, for an area where an on-going land reform
example, results of adoption and program was operating: farmers were
impact studies have been fed back to receiving credit and technical
research managers, scientists, assistance aimed at increasing
second-order farmer organizations, cassava production in the region.
policy makers, and donors for different Farmer organizations even had access
specific uses. In Ecuador, more to credit for cassava production and
market studies have been recently processing and for constructing
conducted, which generated evidence processing infrastructure. The
of potential demand for alternative Government controlled cereal imports
cassava flour uses in nonconventional, and included dried cassava in the
industrial products (CENDES, 1993). policy of minimum prices for
In Brazil, cooperative-level processed agricultural products. This latter
data have been fed back to farmer policy was first established, on a
organizations within a month, six-monthly basis, in 1990 by the
allowing them to assess their own Ministry of Agriculture.
performance and relate it with that of
other farmer groups. Policy issues became even more
important during 1993/94 when
Policy support and decisions decreased import duties (a result of
Colombias economic aperture) allowed
From their very inception, ICRDPs high-quality cassava pellets from
have been closely related to and Indonesia to be imported at dumping
affected by policy decisions and prices. This act set off a series of
support. For example, all countries in high-level discussions that brought
tropical Latin America are net together representatives of government
importers of cereals and most research and extension institutes, the
governments in the region have tried private sector, second-order
to supply this increasing demand for cassava-processing organizations,
carbohydrates through policy and CIAT. They then discussed the
interventions and subsidized framework, individual responsibilities,
353
and an action plan for a collaborative, any one cassava activity in isolation
long-term effort to optimize the from the others.
economic sustainability of the
cassava sector in the North Coast in The ICRDPs provide an appropriate
general and of the ICRDP in mechanism to bring together these
particular. activities in a context where several
kinds of institutionsincluding farmer
In the Ecuadorean project, the organizationscan collaborate
lack of government intervention to effectively.
provide small-scale credit has been
crucial in impeding the establishment For CIAT, as an international
of cassava-based agroindustries, research center, the ICRDPs have
preventing project activities provided a crucial testing-ground for
expanding to other potential regions linking production and processing
and cassava-producing areas. technologies, and for developing
appropriate socioeconomic tools for
In the Brazilian project, cassava market and monitoring research. The
farmers benefited from policy feedback from the results has served
decisions. Ten financial programs to shape priorities for future CIAT
provided grants that helped establish research directions. To maintain
cassava-processing plants. Two relevance to cassava farmer and
credit programs for cassava processor needs, CIAT must preserve
production and processing, based on strong links with ICRDPs activities and
price variation of cassava products, an equally strong human and technical
provided a certain stability of credit resource capacity in the areas of
for farmers within the countrys production, postharvest, and
highly unstable economic situation, socioeconomics. Partnerships and
typified by inflation rates of 25%-30% collaborative arrangements between
per month. CIAT and national entities are a must
for future activities.
Conclusions Strengthening farmer organizations

and their links to research and
Three key conclusions result from the development are critical objectives for
comparative analysis of the three the future. The ICRDPs offer both
ICRDPs (North Coast region, international and national institutions
Colombia; Manab Province, Ecuador; a framework on which to build
and Cear State, Brazil). collaborative working arrangements
with farmers through their
(1) Integrating production, processing, organizations.
and marketing research and
development activities (2) Providing important social and
economic benefits
The ICRDPs clearly demonstrate that
research and development must be The ICRPDs fulfill this role to holders
integrated if the cassava crops full of small and medium-sized farms and
potential is to be effectively realized. landless rural workers in marginal
The intertwined relationships and farming sectors with few alternatives.
dependencies of production, Cassavas exceptional adaptability to
processing, and marketing make it such marginal areas makes it a natural
inefficient and illogical for indicator for poorer households and an
institutionswhether national or appropriate vehicle for organizing
internationalto work exclusively on farm-level, income-generating,
354
productive activities. The ICRDPs appropriate training materials. These,

act as magnets for other types of in turn, will provide the vehicles by
development efforts and can provide a which others will learn how to plan
base to anchor and integrate these, and implement ICRDPs in other
thus contributing to increased social cassava-producing regions in Latin
stability and economic growth. America, Africa, and Asia.
Concomitantly, such materials need
(3) Farmer investment in improved to be dynamic, that is, created in a
production technologies format that allows new lessons and
experiences from more recent projects
The ICRDPs have clearly proved that (on all three continents) to be assessed
when increased value for the cassava and incorporated.
crop is created through identifying new
markets and developing new products Third, the ICRDPs would gain time
to suit these markets, farmers will and reduce duplication of negative
invest in improved production experiences through networking and
technologies. Providing an appropriate exchanging visits between projects and
incentive for farmers to invest in their through training and technical
cassava production systems has assistance between technicians and
profound implications for using new farmers. But no structure exists to
technologies to increase productivity continue such exchange and
and to induce resource sustainability. collaboration. Funding and leadership
are needed to create this structure.
CIAT could contribute significantly by
Future Steps establishing norms for such
interactions to take place.
Looking beyond the immediate
conclusions drawn from the ICRDPs Technology generated by public
current experiences, one can see funds and agencies must remain freely
several important tasks yet to be accessible in the public domain. At the
accomplished. same time, private sector participation
must be encouraged and its interests
First, despite the many years of understood and accommodated in an
collaboration between national equitable fashion. This will require
programs in ICRDPs, there is relatively considerable international diplomacy
little consolidation of the experiences and negotiation.
and lessons learned from the individual
projects, and what has been written is If a networking program is first
not yet widely available for public use. placed within an existing,
Most of the experiences remain lodged agroindustrial, regional network
in the minds of practitioners who (e.g., Programa para el Desarrollo
dedicated considerable portions of their Agroindustrial Rural [PRODAR] in
professional careers to these projects. Latin America and the Caribbean), then
CIAT must make a concerted effort to administrative costs would be reduced
document these experiences, analyze and duplication of efforts prevented.
the results, and make them available The ICRDP experience would be passed
for wider consumption. to other productive sectors or
commodities that could benefit from
Second, there is a crucial need to this integrated approach. Likewise, the
couple this documentation with ICRDPs would benefit from connections
training programs that distill the to other possible agroindustrial
ICRDP methodologies from case technologies that could diversify
experiences, and transform them into current farmer organizations outputs.
355
Linking an ICRDP from Latin America References

and the Caribbean region with those of
similar interests in Africa and Asia may Bode, P. 1991. Monitoring and evaluation
create further possibilities for internal systems for cassava drying projects.
In: Prez-Crespo, C. A. (ed.).
growth, lessen duplication, and reduce Integrated cassava projects.
technology development lag time. It Working document no. 78. Cassava
could create greater horizontal Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
exchange across regions where similar p. 214-246.
cassava problems and opportunities
Brouwer, R. 1992. The cassava flour demand
exist. These efforts may encourage in the plywood industry in
farmer-to-farmer communication and Ecuador. Thesis research report.
assistance across large distances and Department of Market Research,
perhaps enable cassava development Agricultural University, Wageningen,
to occur in areas where other, more the Netherlands. 108 p.
costly, institutional efforts have failed. CENDES (Centro de Desarrollo). 1993.
Estudio de mercado para conocer la
Finally, because cassava is often demanda potencial de productores
grown in marginal environments where elaborados de yuca. Unin de
the resource base is rapidly being Asociaciones de Trabajadores
Agrcolas, Productores y Procesadores
degraded, ICRDPs offer an ideal de Yuca (UATAPPY) and CENDES,
opportunity to explore with farmers the Quito, Ecuador.
questions and problems of long-term
sustainability for cassava-integrated CIAT. 1992. Cassava Program Report
systems. Farmer-processors who have 1987-1991. Working document
learned and earned the value that new no. 116. Cali, Colombia. 477 p.
markets can give their cassava crops __________. 1993. Trends in CIAT
have an incentive to conserve their commodities. Working document
resource base and ensure that its no. 128. Cali, Colombia.
productivity will endure. Such farmers p. 173-182.
and their organizations can become
Cock, J. H. and Lynam, J. K. 1990. Research
willing collaborators in expanding the for development. In: Howeler, R. H.
ICRDPs focus to a landscape (ed.). Proceedings of the 8th
perspective where the longer term Symposium of the International
management of cassava is but one part Society for Tropical Root Crops
(ISTRC), Oct. 30-Nov. 5, 1988,
of a complex resource management
Bangkok, Thailand. CIAT, Bangkok,
system. Thailand. p. 109-119.
Mature ICRDPs must now turn Gottret, M. V. and Henry, G. 1994. La

toward these more complex problems importancia de los estudios de
adopcin e impacto: el caso del
and begin to focus attention on longer
proyecto integrado de yuca en la
term sustainability. Explicit attention Costa Norte de Colombia. In: Interfase
must be directed to the systemic entre los programas de la yuca en
impact of cassava production and Latinoamrica. Working document
processing, including work on no. 138. CIAT, Cali, Colombia.
p. 193-223.
productive capability, water and waste
management, and relationships with Henry, G. 1992. Adoption, modification and
complementary and competing impact of cassava drying
systems. If ICRDPs can indeed widen technology: the case of the Colombian
their horizons and incorporate these North Coast. In: Scott, G. J.;
Ferguson, P. I.; and Herrera, J. E.
issues and problems, then they may (eds.). Product development for root
achieve a long-term, positive impact on and tuber crops, vol. III. Centro
the lives of rural people depending on Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima,
cassava. Peru. p. 481-493.
356
__________ and Best, R. 1994. Impact of Lynam, J. K. 1978. Options for Latin American
integrated cassava projects among countries in the development of
small-scale farmers in selected Latin integrated cassava production
American countries. In: Ofori, F. and programs. In: Fisk, E. K. (ed.). The
Hahn, S. K. (eds.). Tropical root crops adaptation of traditional agriculture:
in a developing economy: proceedings socioeconomic problems of
of the Ninth Symposium of the urbanization. ANU Development
International Society for Tropical Root Studies Centre monographs, no. 11.
Crops (ISTRC), 20-26 October 1991, Australian National University,
Accra, Ghana. ISTRC, Wageningen, the Canberra, A.C.T., Australia.
Netherlands. p. 304-310. p. 213-250.
__________; Izquierdo, D.; and Gottret, M. V. __________. 1987. Cassava consumption in

1994. Proyecto integrado de yuca en la evolution in Latin America: staple or
Costa Atlntica de Colombia: Adopcin vegetable. International Food Policy
de tecnologia. Working document Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington,
no. 139. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. DC. 38 p.
Janssen, W. 1986. La demanda de yuca seca MAG (Ministerio de Agricultura), Departamento

en Colombia. In: Best, R. and Ospina, de Programacin, Instituto Nacional de
P. B. (eds.). El desarrollo agroindustrial Estadsticas y Censos. 1990. Encuesta
del cultivo de la yuca en la Costa de superficie y produccin por
Atlntica de Colombia: Cuarto informe muestreos de reas: Resultados de
sobre las investigaciones realizadas en 1990, vol. 1. Portoviejo, Manab,
apoyo al establecimiento de las plantas Ecuador.
de secado natural de yuca, perodo
julio 1984-junio 1985. Proyecto Prez-Crespo, C. A. (ed.). 1991. Integrated
Cooperativo Fondo de Desarrollo Rural cassava projects. Working
Integrado (DRI)-CIAT. CIAT, Cali, document no. 78. Cassava Program,
Colombia. Vol. 2, p. 41-50. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. 242 p.
357
CHAPTER 39
THE CASSAVA FLOUR PROJECT IN

COLOMBIA:
FROM OPPORTUNITY IDENTIFICATION TO
MARKET DEVELOPMENT
Carlos F. Ostertag, L. Alonso, Rupert Best*,
and C. C. Wheatley**
Abstract Product development

concentrates on three main areas:
The cassava flour project in Colombia first, the generation, evaluation, and
began in 1984 with financing from selection of ideas for new products,
the International Development in this case cassava based; second,
Research Centre (IDRC). It seeks to the development of a product
increase the income of small farmers prototype and process design,
in cassava-growing areas by creating accompanied by industrial and/or
an agroindustry focused on the consumer research; and, third,
production of cassava flour for human product presentation, that is, quality
and industrial consumption. specifications, product name, and
packaging.
The following discussion of the
project Production and marketing of The term integrated cassava
cassava flour in Colombia outlines project describes a rural
the underlying methodological development strategy, executed in
framework, and describes the project three phases by rural inhabitants, to
activities executed during the promote the agroindustrial
research, pilot project, and expansion transformation of cassava through
phase. Emphasis is given to the pilot the integration of production,
project. processing, and marketing functions
and supported by governmental and
nongovernmental organizations.
Methodological Framework
The research phase is in two
The project uses integrated project parts: national analysis, in which the
and product development national economy, the commercial
methodologies. During the research outlook for cassava, and the
stage, activities can be seen as potential of ideas for new
belonging to one or the other cassava-based products are studied
methodology (Figure 1), but as to select new products and a region.
blending in the pilot project. In the second partregional
analysisthe selected region is
studied in greater detail, especially
regarding cassava production, farmer
* Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. organizations, and nearby markets,
** Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), to select the best scenario for a pilot
stationed at Bogor, Indonesia. project.
358
The Cassava Flour Project in Colombia:...
Phase
I Research Integrated project Product development
National analysis Ideas

Regional analysis Research
Project design
II Pilot project Plant construction
Plant operation
Experimental
Semicommercial
Test
market
Feasibility study
III Expansion Expansion phase
Figure 1. Outline of the integrated project and product development methodologies.
During the second phasepilot Colombia. The main use anticipated

projecta pilot plant is established for cassava flour was in the
and operated semicommercially under preparation of a wheat and cassava
real market conditions to determine composite flour for bread making.
the feasibility of the agroindustry.
The region selected, the North
In the final phaseexpansion Coastalso known as the Atlantic
the processing units are replicated Coastis the main cassava-producing
and the market for the product is area in Colombia, with the root grown
expanded to consolidate the new mostly by small-scale farmers.
agroindustry. Accordingly, the economy of cassava
production in the North Coast was
studied, along with the wheat-milling
Evolution of the Cassava and bread-making sectors. The
Flour Project equipment for small-scale rural
processing of cassava was adapted
Research phase and developed. In addition, the
influence of cassava varieties on the
The objective of this first phase was to quality of cassava roots and derived
determine the technical and economic products was examined. Surveys
conditions required for developing the among consumers and bread makers
cassava flour agroindustry in were conducted to evaluate the
359
acceptability of breads made from 42 t of dried chips were produced and

composite flours of wheat and transported by road to be milled in a
cassava. commercial wheat mill in Medelln.
The research concluded that the An information system for

development of a cassava flour production was developed and
agroindustry was viable because implemented, and control parameters
cassava flour could be sold at lower established. Specifications for the
prices than wheat flour, and quality of raw material and sanitary
consumers found the composite bread controls were drawn up. The
acceptable. However, bakers saw a microbiological quality of the cassava
high risk in lowering the quality of flour was monitored, and variable
their products by using cassava flour. costs of production closely
supervised.
The decision was made to
continue with the pilot project, on the Support research was conducted,
understanding that alternative with the collaboration of the
markets for cassava flour were Universidad del Valle (UNIVALLE) and
identified. the Natural Resources Institute (NRI),
UK. Areas investigated included the
Pilot project phase improvement of processing
equipment, control of microbiological
In this phase a pilot cassava flour quality of cassava flour, development
plant was set up and operated under of a small-scale milling system for
real market conditions to assess the cassava chips, research on storage of
feasibility of establishing the new cassava products, and development of
agroindustry. The following activities moisture-measuring equipment for
were carried out: cassava products.
Adjusting and evaluating Testing and demonstrating an

production. A set of criteria (such as improved cassava production
stability of farmer organizations or technology for the North Coast.
performance of cassava crops) was Since 1989, 120 farmer-managed
determined and used to select the site pre-production plots for
for the pilot plant at Chin, Crdoba. demonstration were established on
The Cooperativa de Productores de los the North Coast with cassava-maize
Algarrobos (COOPROALGA) was and cassava-maize-yam
chosen as the executing farmer combinations; farmers were
organization. The pilot plant was supervised by an agronomist.
designed, and a local civil engineering
firm built it within 3 months. Most of The recommended technologies,
the equipment and machinery was which improved maize and cassava
manufactured in a Cali workshop but yields, combined adjustments in the
the metallic coal burner was available use of preemergent herbicides,
commercially. A well was dug to fertilization of maize and yam, more
supply the plant with water. intensive use of human labor, and
use of improved maize varieties.
Workers and administrative
personnel were selected and trained. Identifying markets for cassava
A daily and weekly timetable of flour and product promotion. As
activities was drawn up and an described above, the focus on bread
almost year-round supply of fresh making was modified after the
cassava roots coordinated. In total, research phase. Market opportunities
360
were sought in other food industry with a graphic design. The flour was
categories where cassava flour would priced at 15% below wheat flour.
have an equal or better functional
advantage or where it could be Feasibility of the agroindustry:
substituted, partially or completely, pilot project phase. A computerized
for other flours or starches. financial model of the pilot plant was
designed and updated periodically to
A market study was conducted monitor production costs, plant
nationally among food companies of efficiency, and profitability. At the
different sizes. The study first end of the pilot project phase, the
focused on products marketed and feasibility of the cassava flour
raw materials; then, flour samples agroindustry was seen as follows:
were distributed for substitution
trials; and, finally, feedback was (1) Technical feasibility. The artificial
obtained on the trials and buying drying process was inefficient; and
intention was gauged. The study the microbiological quality of
showed that potential markets for cassava flour was substandard.
cassava flour included processed (2) Commercial feasibility. Additional
meats, cookies, ice-cream cones, technical information was
pasta, pastry, soup and sauce mixes. required. The physicochemical
Cassava flour exhibits functional and microbiological qualities
advantages in most of these products. needed improvement.
More than 80% of the volume would (3) Cooperative-management
be destined to replace wheat flour. feasibility. Sales and marketing
Assuming that cassava flour could be personnel were needed to handle
sold for 10% less than wheat flour product marketing.
and that there would be adequate (4) Economic feasibility. The financial
promotion, the estimated mid-term rate of return (FRR), a profitability
market demand would be parameter, was calculated at 22%,
20,000 t/year. which was considered low.
The promotional effort Expansion phase

concentrated on Medelln, which had
milling facilities and the largest The project could not proceed with a
single market detected in the study. formal expansion phase because of
Sixteen firms were visited and given the constraints described above, but
free samples of flour. The some action could be taken in
subsequent trials were closely preparation for a future expansion.
monitored. Inferences from this A hybrid pilot/expansion phase was
experience were that the developed to convert the pilot plant
microbiological quality was not into a commercial operation with
acceptable to most companies, that improved profitability.
the food industry was conservative,
and that sales efforts would benefit Artificial drying costs were greatly
from better technical information on reduced by doubling heat generation
cassava flour. and switching from coke to mineral
coal. This resulted in a shorter
The flour developed was drying period and improved flour
yellowish white and contained about microbiological quality.
80% starch. Its granule size was
smaller than that of wheat flour. It The plant received a small
was called Yukaribe, and packaged cassava-chip mill, developed jointly
in polypropylene sacks, complete by CIAT and UNIVALLE. The mill
361
consisted of a premilling component involved a team of architecture

that reduced chip size and two students from UNIVALLE, supervised
cylindrical screens that also by a member of the university staff.
functioned as mills. The output was
a first-grade flour (70%-85% Training materials, including
extraction) and bran. In-plant milling videos and manuals on production
reduced variable costs and and management, were developed.
contributed toward satisfying local
demand for the product. Feasibility of the agroindustry:
expansion phase. By the end of
Members of COOPROALGA, the 1993, the feasibility status of the
farming cooperative managing the cassava flour agroindustry was seen
pilot plant, were trained in the as follows:
administration of small enterprises.
(1) Technical feasibility. Food
Developing and executing a industry: yeasts levels were too
plan for expanding the cassava high. Adhesives industry: no
flour agroindustry in Colombia. limitations.
Cassava flour was promoted among (2) Commercial feasibility. Food
the North Coast food industries, industry: additional technical
especially meat-processing, cookies, information on cassava flour was
and spices, with the eventual required by firms; physicochemical
penetration of the meat-processing and microbiological quality
sector. required improvement; cassava
flour price is competitive against
However, to increase sales further, wheat flour only in the North
the marketing strategy was changed Coast. Adhesives industry:
and cassava flour was promoted in additional technical information
nonfood industriesespecially was required by firms.
adhesives and plywoodwhere (3) Cooperative-management
microbiological quality was less feasibility. Food and adhesive
important and higher market prices industries: sales and marketing
could be obtained. Adhesive personnel were needed to handle
companies in major Colombian cities product marketing.
were provided with samples of (4) Economic feasibility. Food
cassava flour and, simultaneously, industry: FRR was 26%.
the Fundacin para la Investigacin y Adhesives industry: FRR was
el Desarrollo de Tecnologas above 30%.
Apropiadas al Agro (FUNDIAGRO)
provided support in the development
of cassava flour-based adhesives. The Conclusions
adhesive markets in Cali and
Barranquilla were penetrated, The major outputs of the cassava
although industrial requirements flour project were:
demanded increased flour purity by
reducing the extraction rate during (1) The development of an efficient
milling. small-scale system for cassava
flour production.
The design of the prototype (2) Although members of the
building for the processing plant was executing cooperative had been
revised to reduce costs and increase trained to manage the plant, a
performance in accordance with the major priority was to improve the
pilot project experience. Designing quality of the raw material used in
362
the plant, including industrial Ostertag, C. F. 1993. Plan de mercadeo para

varieties. harina de yuca (July 1993-June
1994). Working document. Utilization
(3) Project feasibility is uncertain, Section, Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali,
because of high costs, deficient Colombia.
supplies, poor quality of the
regions cassava roots, and __________ and Wheatley, C. C. 1992.
insufficient entrepreneurial Proyecto de produccin y
comercializacin de harina de yuca
capacity of the executing para consumo humano: Informe final,
cooperative. Fase de proyecto piloto (junio 1989-
(4) To plan successful rural diciembre 1991). CIAT, Universidad
agroindustrial projects, the del Valle, and Fondo de Desarrollo
following points must be Rural Integrado (DRI), Cali, Colombia.
considered: __________ and __________ (eds.). 1993.
Production and marketing of cassava
(a) the importance of the flour in Colombia: expansion phase.
integrated, or entrepreneurial, Annual report of a collaborative
approach, encompassing project (Jan.-Dec. 1992). CIAT and
Fondo de Desarrollo Rural Integrado
interventions in production to (DRI), Cali, Colombia. 40 p.
guarantee a sufficient supply
of low-priced, quality raw __________ and __________. (eds.). 1994.
material; Produccin y mercadeo de harina de
(b) the need to assign enough yuca en Colombia: Fase de
expansin. Annual report of a
funds and time for product collaborative project (Jan.-Dec. 1993).
development and marketing; CIAT, Universidad del Valle,
and Fundacin para la Investigacin y el
(c) the need to identify project Desarrollo de Tecnologas Apropiadas
executors with entrepreneurial al Agro (FUNDIAGRO), and Fondo de
Desarrollo Rural Integrado (DRI),
abilities. Cali, Colombia. 41 p.
Bibliography
Best, R. and Ostertag, C. F. (eds.). 1988. The
production and use of cassava flour
for human consumption: research
phase. Final report of a collaborative
project (Oct. 1984-Oct. 1986). CIAT,
Instituto de Investigaciones
Tecnolgicas (IIT), and the
Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia.
85 p.
363
CHAPTER 40
WOMEN AS PROCESSORS AND TRADERS

OF CASSAVA FLOUR:
THE PHILIPPINE EXPERIENCE
D. L. S. Tan, J. R. Roa, and E. A. Gundaya*
Abstract areas, which comprise about

15%-20% of land use in the
Earlier surveys revealed that Philippines. About 500,000
cassava chipping is traditional small-scale and marginal farmers rely
among women in Mabagon, a on root crops for food security and
cassava-growing village in the supplementary cash income. Because
Philippines. This paper discusses the the traditional ways of consuming
experiences gained from the pilot root crops are few, optimizing their
project conducted there to increase uses depends on an expanded
the womens processing efficiency by agroindustrial market. This means
improving cassava chip and flour focusing on postproduction
processing technologies and to assess technology.
opportunities for market expansion.
Studies in Asia and Africa have
An association, consisting mostly shown that women farmers are largely
of women (16 out of 19 members), was involved in postharvest activities,
organized and trained to operate the particularly selling and processing.
pilot plant and to promote and market Thus, the Women in Postproduction
the cassava flour produced. The pilot Systems (WIPS) Project was
operation began in October, 1991. conceived to improve womens
The association now produces efficiency in postproduction activities
20-75 bags (at 20 kg/bag) of cassava and increase household incomes.
flour per month. These are sold to This was first spearheaded by the
nearby bakeries, which use the Southeast Asian Regional Center for
cassava flour to prepare different Graduate Study and Research in
baked goods. Plans for a full-scale Agriculture (SEARCA), collaborating
commercial expansion are already with the Philippine Root Crop
under way. Research and Training Center
(PRCRTC), the National Postharvest
Institute for Research and Extension
Introduction (NAPHIRE), and the Isabela State
University (ISU) for root crops, rice,
Root crops are given high priority maize, and groundnuts. Funding
because of their ubiquity in upland came from the International
Development Research Centre (IDRC).
* Philippine Root Crop Research and Training Previous surveys in the Philippines
Center (PRCRTC), Leyte, Philippines. showed that women are active as farm
364
Women as Processors and Traders of Cassava Flour:...
helpers, sellers, and processors of Project Site and Beneficiaries

root crops into native delicacies. An
important finding was the indigenous The project site is Mabagon, a village
processing of cassava into dried chips with a little more than 100 farming
in the islands of Leyte, Bohol, and households, situated about 3 km to
the Camotes, and Misamis Oriental the northeast of Hindang. Copra (from
Province, for feed, food, and trade. coconut) and palay (from rice) are
Women were largely involved. This the main agricultural products of
finding provided an opportunity for Hindangs hinterland, But most of
intervention by the project. the lands planted to these crops are
owned by a few, relatively rich,
A diagnostic survey of root-crop landholders.
farming households in Leyte
Province, and an inventory of Small-scale farmers farm the
possible technologies that could fit uplands, 70% of them owning the
into local systems, helped develop the land they till. A transect showed a
idea of introducing components of predominance of upland cultivation
cassava flour technology (which uses of either sequential cropping or
dried chips) to women farmers in the intercropping of cassava, sweetpotato,
area around the town of Hindang, maize, vegetables (string beans,
Leyte Province. The chips made in ampalaya, eggplant), and upland rice,
this area are of relatively good quality with patches or fringes of taro and
for flour. banana.
This paper serves as a Most men receive income by

methodological note on the PRCRTCs working as hired hands (planting,
experience in cassava flour harvesting, threshing) in the rice fields,
processing and commercialization, selling upland cash crops (such as root
involving mostly women. This phase, crops, bananas, and vegetables), and
which started in October, 1991, is an raising livestock. Most women are
integral component of the WIPS engaged in selling various farm
Project. products and processing cassava, on
the farm, into dried chips for feed.
Objectives This mixed farming system, where

indigenous cassava processing plays
The project has the following an important role, was a promising
objectives: match for village-based, cassava-flour
processing and shovel feed mixing
(1) To introduce root-crop equipment from byproducts. More especially, the
that would improve the efficiency local system fitted the projects
of cassava flour processing in a particular concern for gender roles in
selected community (i.e., farming systems and for improving
Mabagon village near the town womens cassava postproduction
of Hindang, Leyte Province). activities.
(2) To test storage technology for
dried chips and flour. The Mabagon Root Crop
(3) To strengthen the capability of Association (MARCA), the core
beneficiaries in organizational group of collaborators, consisted of
and entrepreneurial skills. 19 farmers and processors: 3 men and
(4) To assess the effects of the 16 women. It was formed after several
introduced technologies on consultations among the local people
farming households. and was finalized during the general
365
assembly in December, 1991. innovations unknown. The project

Membership was voluntary; interest, was integrated in the sense that a
commitment, and availability for the multidisciplinary team implemented it,
groups activities were prerequisites. coordinating the phasing of various
Currently, MARCAs registration as a components, both technical and
cooperative is in process, with all socioeconomic.
requirements already met.
This approach is characteristically
systems-oriented, interdisciplinary,
Technologies participatory, and oriented by users
perspectives, local knowledge,
The component technologies, pilot practices, and norms.
tested for cassava flour processing,
included: Project implementation involved
carrying out activities of different
(1) PRCRTC-developed,.village-level, components designed in a stepwise
cassava flour processing machines but interphased manner to effectively
(chippers, modified tapahan dryer, transfer the technology to a
grinder, and flour finisher). functioning enterprise (Table 1).
(2) Storage for chips.
(3) Technology for byproduct use, that
is, a neutral-scale shovel MARCA: Its Progress to Date
technology, in which cassava meal
is mixed with other ingredients to Registration
produce a feed for swine.
By consensus, MARCA was first
In the initial phase of organized as an association and
commercialization (toward the middle registered with the Department of
of the second year), expansion of Labor and Employment (DOLE). This
market uses was explored. This led to was partly because about half of the
new food-processing products members, at first, resisted a
technologies and, therefore, new cooperative registration, seeing a
bakery products being introduced to conflict of interest with an already
bakeries and to MARCA (e.g., cacharon existing cooperative in the village.
[a puffed product with various flavors], Later, realizing the benefits of forming
polvoron, and processing cassava a cooperative, particularly that of
sticks and chips from fresh roots). obtaining funds, MARCA members
voluntarily agreed to registration as a
processing cooperative.
Methodology
With the registration, the
The project took an integrated process cooperative met the requirements to
approach, that is, a set of strategies receive support from the Countrywide
was developed to coordinate needed Development Fund (CDF) for the
components and was flexible enough processing facility. The registration
to allow redesigning as new or and fulfillment of other requisites
improved methods were tested, (including articles of cooperation,
refined, and disseminated through the constitution and bylaws, seminar, and
targeted beneficiaries. This approach economic survey) also brought support
was essential for the projects success from the Cooperative Development
at the village level, where Authority (CDA). MARCA also received
uncertainties were common and the assistance in registering with the
reaction of people to introduced Department of Trade and Industry
366
Table 1. Components and methods used for processing and commercialization of cassava flour to
Mabagon village, Leyte Province, the Philippines, 1991.
Component Methods
Technical:
Farmer-processors Training, processing trials
(for both equipment and Informal team or group discussions
processing) Feedback
Participant observation
Bakers Training
Baker-to-baker visits
Production: Study or field visits

Farmers Farmer-to-farmer visits
Organizational buildup and Participant observation

entrepreneurship development On-the-job training (e.g., in recording, inventory-taking,
purchasing)
Team buildup and group dynamics
Specialized skills training (e.g., marketing, bookkeeping,
accounting, and keeping financial records)
Technical assistance (e.g., registration)
Advisory discussions or consultations, formal meetings
Market development Market research (unstructured, use of checklist-users survey,

feedback, contacting other markets)
Researcher and farmer partnerships:
(1) Expanding flour uses and testing markets (ready mixes
with packaging and product testing)
(2) Institutional collaboration for promotion
(3) Byproduct use: coarse-grained flour in feed mix for swine
(4) Integrated enterprise scheme
Monitoring and evaluation Informal group discussions, field visits, meetings

(MARCA team, local advisory group)
Workshops
Resident research assistants logbook and diaries
(DTI), Bureau of Food and Drugs would condition individual members

(BFAD), and a local nongovernmental toward effective group endeavor. The
organization. remaining sessions concentrated on
learning entrepreneurial skills, that
Group buildup and entrepreneurial is, planning, organizing, operational
development management, control, and
evaluation.
Building up entrepreneurial skills
and strengthening the group were Specialized training in
essential components for operational entrepreneurship. Sessions were
sustainability. These were carried out given in collaboration with the DTI.
through: An initial, one-day, entrepreneurial
appreciation session was conducted
Sessions on group dynamics. with emphasis on marketing skills.
The first four sessions were designed Other sessions included bookkeeping
to form values and attitudes that and marketing skills.
367
On-the-job training. During field Developing an integrated enterprise

and monitoring visits, researchers gave
informal consultations and discussions The viability of the cassava flour
on business management, marketing, processing enterprise is expected to
recording, inventory-taking, product evolve only gradually because of
quality control, and equipment and competition from wheat flour and the
facility maintenance. The resident lag involved in learning to use cassava
research assistant gave a tutorial as flour. MARCA needed to engage in
part of the posts responsibility. enterprises related to its flour
processing operations to solve liquidity
Workshops. Two workshops were problems, improve income, and enhance
conducted at the PRCRTC in August capacity as a market strategy. Thus, in
1992 and March 1993. They were 1993, the following operations were
designed as learning exercises for integrated into MARCAs business
MARCA members in presentation and activities:
analytical evaluation. The first
workshop included MARCA and the Trading. MARCA buys fresh
other agencies involved in the project. roots from farmers and sells them to a
The second was an attempt by the starch plant situated about 80 km to
PRCRTC to encourage the different the north. Trading is carried out from
pilot project collaborators, and May to December when cassava drying
governmental and nongovernmental is difficult because of the rainy season.
agencies to interact and learn from Dried chips are bought during the dry
each others experiences and to define season (January to April). Trading
their respective roles in this and other starts in the last week of November.
development programs.
Operating a cooperative store to
Changes in the operational scheme promote flour and feed. In November
1993, MARCA opened a village store
Cassava flour processing follows a (Mabagon is strategically located,
decentralized operation where roots are serving mountain barangays) to sell
chipped and dried to a specified quality flour, feed, and other cassava-based
by individual farmers, then sold to the food products. Noncassava feeds for
plant. The chips are then milled and swine, such as the widely used base
stored. MARCA distributes finished feed, were also sold to promote the
flour on a per order basis, once a week. MARCA feed mix, which had a higher
The schedule, organization, and protein content (14%-16% crude
management of operational activities protein).
were made according to the members
time and ability.
Market Development
Several changes resulted from
members experiences and feedback. Flour
For example, the daily shift for a
three-member processing team was The market target (25-30 bakeries, with
changed because some members were a daily average total of eight bags, 10%
unavailable for family and work cassava to wheat ratio) that would
reasons. Starting January 1993, optimize plant use (4 t flour/month)
MARCA hired a regular processor who was not reached within the first
was paid P40.00 daily. The MARCA 6 months of operation. Only four
members took turns in assisting the bakeries were regular users and eight
regular processor. Each member was others were irregular, resulting in an
paid P35.00 daily. average plant use rate of only 20%-30%.
368
The reasons for the slow Twenty-five bakeries on Leyte Island

penetration of the market were, first, were involved, from Maasin
learning how to handle cassava flour (about 45 km to the south) to Ormoc
dough requires time, if both owner (about 80 km north). Visits between
and baker are interested. If the price bakers gave them a chance to
incentive was too low or the learning exchange ideas and experiences, and
time too long, owners and bakers were more effective in transferring
lost interest. Second, the number of techniques and knowledge than was
bakers trained unexpectedly fell training. Because of the peculiarities
below target for the first 6 months. in handling cassava-wheat composite
Third, the existing market used flour flour, further market expansion will
at a lower rate than expected (i.e., take time, as more training and
less than eight bags per day). exchanges are needed.
Fourth, during the first year, the
pilot project was still testing the Market survey. The main
stability of chip and flour quality, as constraints remained the lack of
well as test marketing, and an skills in using cassava flour for bread
intensive marketing campaign was and the lack of price incentive. In
not being pursued at the time. 1993, cassava flour sales declined
by more than 50%. From the
Given the results of this phase, informal market feedback, the
the following marketing strategies nonsustainability of even the previous
were undertaken: regular market may have been partly
a result of the MARCA personnels
Visits and training. inadequate marketing efforts
Consultation workshops, (Figure 1). This meant that the
baker-to-baker visits, and training trainees needed intensive exposure
sessions were conducted to create and training during the remaining
the market for cassava flour. months.
100
80
Number of bags
60
40
20
0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
1992 1993
Figure 1. Sales of cassava flour in Mabagon village, Leyte Province, the Philippines, 1992/93.
369
Promotional posters for cassava concentrate on cacharon and polvoron.

flour. Initially, 150 promotional The equipment is made and
posters were produced with funding processing trials are expected to start
from the PRCRTCs extension during the first quarter of 1994.
program. These are now distributed
in Leyte and Samar Islands and Use of byproducts: cassava meal
Surigao Provinces, and at the trade
exhibits in the city of Cebu and at the Markets for cassava meal were
Philippine Council for Agriculture and explored. The flour is made into a
Resources Research and Development native delicacy (ira-id) but the market
(PCARRD) at Los Baos (near Manila). is limited. About 2,000 kg of cassava
meal were also sold to the ViSCA feed
Testing other product ideas. mill at P3.50 per kg. But this market
Mixes with cassava-wheat composite is unstable.
flour were developed for the
convenience food market. The A more promising venture is to use
500-g packages, with recipes and an cassava meal in swine feed mix. The
improved packaging design, was ready ration was market tested in outlets in
for promotion in November 1993. the nearby towns of Hindang and
Hilongos. The formula contains about
Other markets explored. A 15%-16% crude protein, as tested by
distribution chain of native food the PRCRTC Laboratory. The price
products, with 150 outlets throughout was competitive, being only about 72%
the country and based in Manila, of that of the popular base feed for
expressed interest in cassava flour. swine.
Samples of cassava flour, cassava
meal (2 grades), and dehydrated The MARCA feed mix is made from
cassava gratings were sent for testing. pre-mix, and meals of cassava, fish,
The cassava flour passed the quality copra, and ipil-ipil leaves. Local
test but the texture needed to be finer, women and children supply the leaves
to pass through a 60 mesh (down from (Table 2). Profitability ranged from
the current 80). The dehydrated P0.50 to P0.75 per kg, depending on
gratings were also acceptable and the the sources of protein used. Other
firm is interested in placing an initial mix combinations, including kohol (a
order. Grating equipment has been snail), will be tried out to determine
installed for processing and marketing the most efficient mix.
trials for the first quarter of 1994. The
cassava meal was unacceptable for A plan is under way to promote
ready mixes. the feed mix by integrating into
MARCAs operations the sale of
Processing other food products complementary feeds, such as the
from cassava flour swine base feed, which farmers
commonly use.
To expand the market for cassava
flour, MARCA members were trained
in food processing. Three training Machine Evaluation and
sessions on various food products Improvement
from cassava flour and fresh roots
were conducted for MARCA members, Flour finisher
one at Visayas State College of
Agriculture (ViSCA) and two at the The first finisher brought to the site
site. Because of a more promising was a manually operated machine
market, MARCA decided to with a capacity of 20-40 kg/h when
370
Table 2. Formula of a feed mix for swine, and costs. The mix was made by a cassava processing
cooperative in Mabagon village, Leyte Province, the Philippines.
Ingredient or input Weight Crude protein content Cost

(kg) (%) (P)
Cassava meal 52.10 1.0 208.40

Copra meal 24.00 5.3 120.00
Fish meal 9.00 5.4 90.50
Rice bran 8.50 1.0 25.50
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 4.15 0.9 12.45
Golden snail 1.50 0.3 6.00
Salt 0.50 2.50
Afsillin 0.25 29.00
Labor 30.00
Bags 6.00
Transport 10.00
Total 100.00 540.35 a
a. Cost of feed mix per kilogram = P5.40; wholesale price = P6.50/kg; retail price = P7.00/kg.
tested at the PRCRTC. But when used members, having an estimated cost of
by the farmer-operator, it did not P500. In contrast, the andolana
perform as expected. The flour clogged local chipper made from a perforated
the screen, barely flowing out of the GI sheet mounted on a piece of wood
finisher. This was withdrawn and a costs about P15.00 per unit. The
temporary, manual one used until a chipper was therefore not cost effective
new one was designed and made. for individual households, because
of the very small scale of home
Motor-operated, the new finisher processing. The portable chipper also
had a fan which forced the fine flour to had to be mounted for the operators
pass through the screen. This convenience.
machine had a higher capacity than
the old one: at least 50 kg/h in a single However, the expected advantages
pass. The cooperatives members used of the portable chipper are an
it until another, improved, machine increased yield of chips and
was made, based on farmer-operators eliminated risk of abraded hands
evaluations. while processing. Cost-sharing among
households may make the chipper
The design now used has two main more cost attractive.
improvements: the feeder hopper was
enlarged to accommodate a larger flour Modified tapahan dryer
volume, and a metering device was
mounted. These modifications Dryers were used only during the
improved the operations efficiency by rainy season, when sun drying was
removing the tedium of manually impossible and orders for flour had to
feeding and frequently stirring the be satisfied.
ground chips in the hopper. They also
reduced finishing time by about 50%. A dryer was constructed on site
and tested. In the first two tests, it
Portable chipper was too heavily loaded (463 and
200 kg of fresh chips), and the mixing
A portable chipper introduced to the turned the chips brown and hence
cooperative was expensive for the unsuitable for flour production. In the
371
third test, the chips were not mixed Resident research assistant
and their color was more acceptable
for flour production. In the fourth Living in the village enabled the
test, the farmers evaluated the dryer, resident research assistant to
loading it with 190 kg of chips. The observe social behavior and norms.
chips were not mixed, and dried in The assistant had to observe,
about 12 h. Their color was lighter facilitate, train, and catalyze the
than in the third test. farmers, and monitor results in
logbooks or diaries. The assistant
left the village in July 1993 as
Improving Cassava farmers took over the flour
Production Systems production project.
Although the issue of environment The local advisory group

friendly cassava production on
sloping land was raised during This interagency group consisted of
informal discussions with farmers, it local government representatives,
became a pressing concern with the DTI officer, a technician from the
increasing commercialization. The Department of Agriculture, and
issue of sustainability of cassava representatives from the village and
production and processing systems the farmers group, MARCA, and the
became integrated into the project. PRCRTC. The local advisory group
was to build up local management
Two groups of cassava farmers capability and to continue assisting
from Hindang visited farming-system MARCA after the PRCRTC left
projects in Matalom, where model Mabagon in March 1994.
contour farms were shown. The
farms had cropping systems similar Monitoring and evaluation
to those of Mabagon and other
cassava-producing communities. These were done, first, by the team,
Farmers discussed the benefits based on observations from market
of contour farming and the surveys, field visits, and notes and
disadvantages of irresponsible feedback from the resident research
farming. After two visits, seven model assistant; and, second, through
contour farms were set up in MARCAs regular monthly meetings,
Hindang. These are still being and informal discussions with, and
followed up. feedback from, MARCA. Farmer
participation was always
encouraged. Findings and
Project Management: observations were used to plan,
Monitoring and Evaluation modify, and improve the execution
of activities.
Interdisciplinary team approach
Active interaction among team Some Impact Indicators

members was tried informally during
field visits and discussions, and An important objective of the project
formally through monthly meetings. was to assess the acceptability and
Although the independent adoptability of introduced
contribution of each discipline was technologies and their effects on
valuable, team members were processing and on farming
constrained by having other households (Table 3).
responsibilities.
372
Table 3. Acceptability and adoptability of introduced technologies for cassava flour production in
Mabagon village, Leyte Province, the Philippines.
Technology Acceptability and/or adoptability
Machines:
Pedal-operated chipper Power efficient, acceptable, but of limited use. Most processors
prefer the local andolan.
Grinder and finisher Acceptable, adopted. Easily learned. Modifications to enhance

the grinding and finishing capacities.
Modified tapahan dryer Acceptable, but not adopted. Costly to use. Sun drying with
plastic mats produces better quality flour more efficiently.
Portable chipper Initial testing. Not acceptable. Design being improved.
Bulk storage in Acceptable. Adopted.

polyethylene bags
Processing:
Flour processing Adopted. Needs market expansion and promotion.
Swine feed mix Adopted. Needs market expansion and promotion.
Food processing: cakes, Accepted. Not adopted. No facilities, and difficulties in operation.
doughnuts, siakoy.a
Cacharon.b Acceptable. Promising market. In the process of fabricating

equipment.
Polvoron.a Acceptable. Adopted by individuals. Planned for enterprise.
a. Editors note: No description of this product was provided by the authors.

b. Cacharon is a puffed product with various flavors.
Organizing and entrepreneurial For the first 5 months of

skills operation, at 30% capacity, the net
profit per kg of fine flour was P0.61.
Markedly satisfactory performance was With 90% capacity, this could
observed in terms of growth in improve to P1.50/kg. If cassava
cooperation, improved attitudes, meal is included, net profit per kg is
processing skills, and enterprise 1.04 at 30% capacity and P1.79 at
management. It was also evident in full (Table 4). Financial statements
group work, attendance at meetings, (Jan.-Dec. 1992) show that, during
assemblies, workshops, participation the years operation, profitability
in discussions, and carrying out of decreased because plant use
assigned responsibilities in operations dropped to 20% (see Appendix). The
and marketing. enterprises profitability was
improved with the use of cassava
Enterprise diversification meal in feed mix. Profit per kg
ranged from P0.50 to P1.10,
MARCA is learning to integrate depending on the ingredients used,
related enterprises to make operations which, in turn, were chosen so to
more viable and profitable. An obtain a feed mix price that was
entrepreneurial culture at the village P2.50 lower than the popular, base
level is gradually evolving. feed brand.
373
Table 4. Cost and returns for cassava flour per month per capacity use in a flour plant at Mabagon
village, Leyte Province, the Philippines. Assumptions were: fine flour yield = 85%;
full capacity = optimal flour production for 120-h week; cost of chips = P4.00/kg; price of fine
flour = P8.00/kg; price of cassava meal = P3.50/kg.
Cost and return per capacity use 1.2 t/month 4 t/month

(15 bags/week) at (50 bags/week) at
30% capacity full capacity
Flour 9,600.00 32,000.00

(1,200 kg) (4,000 kg)
Less costs for:

Chips 5,647.00 18,823.53
(1,411.75 kg) (4,705.88 kg)
Labor 1,577.45 3,154.90

Electricity 135.95 543.80
Marketing costs 271.60 1,086.40
Bags 300.00 1,000.00
Depreciation costs 937.00 1,405.50
Total costs 8,869.00 26,014.63
Net profit (fine flour)

(per kg) 731.00 5,985.87
0.61 1.50
Cassava meal sales 741.16 2,470.58

(211.76 kg) (705.88 kg)
Total monthly income 1,472.16 8,456.45
Overall net profit per kg 1.04 1.79
Cost per kg of fine flour 7.39 6.50
Multiplier effect on the community Supplementary income via

wage employment and other
Market and income. From social benefits. Members derive
January to December 1992, MARCA satisfaction from earning even a
bought from the farmers a total of 20 t minimal wage by working at the
of cassava chips, costing, in total, plant. They also feel a sense of
P73,921.00. This contribution to achievement from learning new
farmer income was substantial, skills and being active in an
compared with the chips market enterprisestimulated by
before MARCA, in which only about motivation, pride, and hope that not
5 t/year were sold, assuming an all government projects fail. The
average of 3.5 bags/week. Farmers in buildup of entrepreneurial spirit,
Mabagon, Himacugo, Katipunan, and strengthening local institutions, and
Baldoza are some of MARCAs improvement in peoples
suppliers. organizational performance and
attitudes are benefits which are
Improved chip quality. The difficult to measure. Yet they are
quality (whiteness, aroma, and essential for rural mobilization and
brittleness) of home-processed chips growth. The processing plant
improved markedly, conforming to the became a source of prestige to the
desired moisture content (12%-14%). community, and gave farmers
Proof of this was that flour quality confidence that they could achieve
stabilized. even more.
374
Conclusions and intensifying the farmers

Recommendations understanding of cassava flour use
and market expansion. Currently,
The approach commercial cassava flour
production is not viable without
This exploited the skills of, not only integrating the commercialization of
different kinds of researchers, but byproducts, expanding end uses of
also of the beneficiaries themselves. flour as, for example, a raw
The participatory process eventually material in other products and food
gave the farmer-processors a sense of processing, or trading related
achievement: that through complementary products. To
interactive, informal discussion with encourage farmers to set up a
researchers they could make effective successful enterprise therefore
decisions. Such ownership of requires a carefully integrated plan,
achievement is key to the buildup of in which each step, made small,
capacities, which can only be simple, and focused, is gradually
achieved through gradual experiential introduced. The step-by-step
learning. process would help farmers
understand that every product or
Local peoples involvement in additional activity needs a minimal
project management also eased the standard of quality, stable
task of team members who were supplies, good service, and
constrained by time and competitiveness.
resources. Local agencies shared
responsibilities. Once the project A pilot and commercialization
ends, their familiarity with it will project should therefore have the
enable the locals to continue institutional or external support for
managing the established enterprise. investment in market research and
promotion because farmer groups
Defining the focus and making usually do not have the needed
the project small and simple funds to start up marketing
intensified technology learning and activities.
enabled the processors to stabilize
product quality. Institutional flexibility
Participatory observation helped The research team members must

discover social processes and be sensitive if they are to
interrelationships, facilitating the successfully collaborate in
modification or redesign of introduced arranging development activities in
technologies. Behavior and attitudes such a way that the project has
are central concerns in the process of technical, marketing, economic,
technology transfer, preconditioning and operational viability. From the
technology adoption. The project also beginning, team members must
facilitated on-the-job learning of understand the need for such
technical and entrepreneurial skills. sensitivity even in the planning
Placing a qualified resident research process. The projects success
assistant in the field significantly depends on the ability of the team
facilitated technology transfer. and farmers to respond to changes,
and modify plans and strategies to
Technology viability achieve objectives. Planning then
becomes an iterative process. But
The commercial viability of cassava being responsive to uncertainties
flour processing depends largely on can be demanding on the team,
375
which demands, if not addressed, Bibliography

may cause delays or even failures.
M. and Rekha, M. 1990. Women and
Buvinic,
This implies that some degree agricultural development. In: Eicher,
C. K. and Stratz, J. M. (eds.).
of institutional flexibility is needed
Agricultural development in the Third
in teaming up and distributing World. John Hopkins University Press,
workloads to ensure that Baltimore, MD, USA. p. 290-308.
researchers have adequate time to
Cernea, M. M. 1991. Using knowledge from
undertake the responsibilities social science in development projects.
involved in a commercialization World Bank discussion papers, no. 114.
project. These responsibilities are World Bank, Washington, DC, USA.
based on the implications of the Prez-Crespo, C. A. (ed.) 1991. Integrated
integrated process approach: a cassava projects. Working document
commitment to (1) using no. 78. Cassava Program, CIAT, Cali,
participatory research methods, Colombia. 242 p.
and (2) ensuring interactive Pretty, J. 1993. Participatory inquiry and
learning between farmers and agricultural research. IIED
researchers. Participatory Inquiry: notes for the
192A course. 16 p.
The integrated approach also Rling, N. Facilitating sustainable agriculture:
assumes the availability of a turning policy models upside down.
minimum, adequate, institutional IIED-PAP N92, version 2. International
support to permit the exercise of Institute for Environment and
Development (IIED), London, UK.
the two basic responsibilities and
provide the support services Sands, D. M. and Kaimowitz, D. 1990. The
needed to make the project work. technology triangle: linking farmers,
technology transfer agents and
The policies of the participant
agricultural researchers. International
institutions should thus be geared Service for National Agricultural
toward making the integrated Research (ISNAR), The Hague, the
approach work. Netherlands.
376
Appendix
Financial statements for the period January to December, 1992, of the Mabagon
Root Crop Association (MARCA), a cassava processing cooperative at Mabagon
village, near the town of Hindang, Leyte Province, the Philippines.
Statement A. Flour processing: the cost of goods manufactured (Jan.-Dec. 1992

operation)
Item P
Materials used
Beginning raw material inventory (chips) 0
Plus purchases 73,921.00
Cost of raw material available for use 73,921.00
Less ending raw material inventory 1,196.00
Cost of raw material used 72,725.00
Plus other raw materials used (fresh roots) 2,720.00
Total cost of raw materials used 75,445.00
Direct labor 14,570.00
Factory overhead 12,816.05
Total manufacturing costs 102,831.95
Less cost of goods in process inventory 0
Cost of goods manufactured P102,831.95
Statement B. Flour processing: income statement for Jan.-Dec. 1992.
Item P
Sales
Flour 98,930.25
Cassava meal 15,558.55
Damaged chips 1,365.50
Total sales 115,854.30
Cost of goods sold
Beginning finished goods inventory 0
Cost of goods manufactured 102,831.95
Total costs of goods for sale 102,831.95
Less ending flour inventory 2,759.45
Cost of goods sold 100,072.50
Gross profit on sales 15,781.80
Less selling expenses
Delivery personnel 900.00
Packaging 1,366.00
Transportation 3,983.00
6,249.00
Net income from operation P9,532.80
377
Statement C. Chips trading operation: income statement.
Item P
Sales 7,017.65
Cost of goods sold
Beginning inventory (chips for feed) 0
Plus purchases 6,412.50
Cost of goods available for sale 6,412.50
Less ending inventory of chips 235.50
Cost of goods sold 6,177.00
Gross profit on sales 840.65
Less purchasing expenses 50.60
Net profit from operation P790.05
Statement D. Balance sheet: feed mix operation at end of December 1992.
Item P
Assets
Cash 533.45
Accounts receivable 1,542.25
Inventory 1,471.30
Total assets 3,547.00

Liability
Accumulated profit 3,547.00
378
Statement E. MARCA balance sheet for the year ending December 1992.
Item P
Assets
Cash
Flour and chips operation 11,206.20
Feed mix operation 533.45
Registration fees 340.00
Chipper rent collection 130.15
Bank account 33,437.15
Accounts receivable
Feed mix operation 1,542.25
Inventory
Feed mix operation 1,471.30
Supplies and materials purchased

Drying mats 950.00
Fluorescent tube 152.00
Buildings and warehouse 10,434.10

Electricity installation 333.65
Processing machines 50,958.65
Total assets 117,711.35
Liabilities
Accounts payable 789.75
Accumulated depreciation 9,843.75
Loans: SEARCAa 5,000.00
Others 23,497.60
Processing machines 50,958.65
Owners equity
Labor capital raised 14,559.25
Profit from operation 13,869.85
Less bank charges 75.00

Wall clock 189.50
Registration expenses 93.00
Drying mats 450.00
-807.50
Total liability and owners equity 117,711.35
a. SEARCA = Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture.
379
CHAPTER 41
DEVELOPING THE CASSAVA FLOUR

INDUSTRY IN RURAL AREAS OF INDONESIA
A. Setyono*, Sutrisno*, and D. S. Damardjati**
Abstract second was at the farmer group level,

where farmers worked together to
Increasing cassava production and produce cassava flour, market it, and
developing the technology for cassava process and market flour-based
processing involve tackling problems products. The third was at the
in such areas as technology, cooperative level, where the
productivity, marketing price cooperative village unit (Koperasi Unit
stability, and production continuity. Desa) collects cassava flour from
Once harvested, cassava is farmers and farmer groups, and then
perishable, that is, the roots are of sells it to the retail trade and food
acceptable quality for only a few days, industry, the feed industry, and other
creating a major problem for farmers consumers.
who are thus in a low bargaining
position. Cassava flour is one way of Results indicated that marketing
overcoming this problem. was a major problem in Central
Javas cassava flour industry.
This study aims to (1) develop the Cassava flour use and its processing
cassava flour industry at three levels, technology have not yet developed.
(2) increase cassavas added value The cassava flour industry has little
and thus farmer income, and knowledge of and experience with
(3) develop this industry in rural marketing, which hinders
areas. development. The industry can be
developed in rural areas only through
Three levels of development of the the cooperative system, or the farmer
cassava flour industry were attempted group system, if given support in
in rural areas. The first was at the developing processing technology and
level of the individual farmer, where household industry, and in obtaining
farmers activities included cassava processing equipment and machinery.
flour production, marketing of
cassava flour, and processing and
marketing flour-based products. The Introduction
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is
the most important staple food crop
after rice and maize in Indonesia. At
* Sukamandi Research Institute for Food
Crops, West Java, Indonesia. present, farmers cultivate cassava in
** Bogor Research Institute for Food Crops almost all areas of Indonesia, from
(BORIF), Bogor, Indonesia. lowlands to highlands, in dry or wet
380
Developing the Cassava Flour Industry in Rural Areas...
climates, and under various soil Thirteen of Indonesias provinces

conditions. Table 1 summarizes the (Table 3) are major cassava-producing
use of upland areas in Indonesia. areas, each province having more
Wargiono (1988) stated that the than 10,000 ha under cassava
harvested area of cassava in (Pabindru, 1989). The average yield
Indonesia showed a decreasing trend per ha is low at 10-12 t/ha. This can
of 0.7% per year. But since 1986, the be increased by introducing new
trend has increased slightly and, in technologies to farmers such as
1991, the total harvested area was improved varieties and cultural
about 1.3 million hectares, with a practices. On a cassava estate owned
total production of almost 16 million by a tapioca factory in Lampung,
tons (Table 2). Cassavas production yields of 25-30 t/ha have been
rate from 1969 to 1985 was 2.05% continuously achieved (Rusastra,
per year (Affandi, 1986). 1988).
Table 1. Summary of use of upland areas (ha) in Indonesia, 1984-1987.
Kind of upland Year
1984 1985 1986 1987
Cultivated
(permanent basis) 8,327,282 8,091,282 8,377,480 8,761,476
Cultivated
(temporary basis) 2,950,485 2,826,683 2,902,528 3,125,278
Unused or
uncultivated 7,371,511 7,409,646 8,097,646 8,320,418
Total 18,649,278 18,327,611 19,377,654 20,207,172
SOURCE: SFCDP, 1990.
Table 2. Harvested area, production, and Table 3. Production and yield per hectare in
yield rate of cassava in Indonesia, cassava-producing provinces of
1984-1992. Indonesia, 1991.
Year Harvested Production Yield rate No. Province Production Yield rate
area (000 t) (t/ha) (000 t) (t/ha)
(000 ha)
1. North Sumatra 337.7 12.4
1984 1,350 14,167 10.5 2. South Sumatra 407.8 12.2
3. Lampung 1,828.2 12.7
1985 1,292 14,057 10.9
4. West Java 2,129.0 13.3
1986 1,170 13,312 11.4 5. Central Java 3,313.4 12.1
1987 1,222 14,356 11.7 6. Yogyakarta 680.7 11.3
1988 1,302 15,471 11.9 7. West Java 3,718.2 12.6
8. Bali 260.5 13.5
1989 1,408 17,117 12.2
9. Maluku 223.9 10.8
1990 1,312 15,830 12.1 10. Northern Territory 763.3 10.3
1991 1,319 15,955 12.1 11. West Kalimantan 264.1 9.9
a
12. South Sulawesi 483.1 11.6
1992 828 10,221 12.3
13. Southeast Sulawesi 996.7 11.3
a. Preliminary data.
SOURCE: CBS, 1991.
SOURCE: CBS, 1992.
381
Problems of Developing the Java sell about 50% to 90% of their

Cassava Agroindustry fresh cassava roots to traders or
middlemen.
These are cassavas association with
low social status; inadequate Farmgate prices of cassava
marketing, postharvest handling, fluctuate between Rp (rupiahs) 26
processing, and cultural practices; and Rp 177/kg, according to location
and low productivity. and harvesting time (Tjahjadi, 1989).
Cassava is also perishable, and often
Association with social status cannot be processed or consumed
immediately after harvest. These
Most Indonesians consider cassava as problems limit the flexibility of
a food for those of low socioeconomic cassava and force farmers into a low
status. When income increases, then bargaining position.
consumers switch from cassava to
rice. Cassava consumption per capita Postharvest handling and
per year has tended to decrease processing
gradually in Indonesia, dropping from
57.4 kg per capita in 1983, through Cassava is usually harvested
51.0 kg per capita in 1988, to 43.1 kg manually, and may suffer severe
per capita in 1990 (Table 4). damage if the roots are not carefully
dug out of the ground. Roots
Marketing deteriorate rapidly after harvest, and
are bulky, making transportation
Most cassava in Java is used for difficult and expensive.
human consumption or starch
(tapioca). Cassava farmers near According to the Indonesian food
starch factories usually sell fresh balance sheet data (CBS, 1992), total
roots directly to the factories, while cassava production in 1991 was
those in remote areas tend to first 15.8 million tons (Table 5). Of this,
process cassava into gaplek, or dried 56.0% was consumed fresh or as
cassava chips, and then sell to gaplek; 15.7% was exported as gaplek
middlemen, who transport and sell (chips), pellets, and tapioca; and
the chips to exporters or pelleting 20.3% was used as raw material in
factories in urban areas. Farmers in industries such as tapioca (starch)
Table 4. Average per capita consumption of major food crops in Indonesia, 1983-1990.
Commodity Per capita annual consumption (kg)a
1983 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991
Rice 145.21 147.36 150.18 140.84 150.05 145.53

Cassava 57.41 51.49 51.00 51.41 43.07 48.87
Tapioca 0.50 1.35 1.00 - - -
Gaplekb - - 1.46 - - -
Sweetpotato 12.46 11.05 10.93 11.04 9.74 9.61
Wheat 8.19 5.96 6.59 6.93 7.54 7.71
Maize 27.35 29.25 30.75 26.81 29.68 28.73
Soybean 4.45 8.80 9.49 8.80 10.72 11.01
a. - = data not available.

b. Gaplek = dried cassava chips.
SOURCES: CBS, 1991; 1992.
382
Table 5. Trends in production and use of cassava in Indonesia, 1987-1991. No data were available for
exports or nonfood industries. (Values in parentheses refer to percentages rounded off.)
Production or use Fresh roots (or equivalent) (thousands of tons)
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
Total production 14,356 15,471 17,117 15,830 15,813

Waste 1,866 (13) 2,011 (13) 2,225 (13) 2,058 (13) 2,056 (13)
Manufactured for:
Feed 287 (2) 309 (2) 317 (2) 317 (2) 316 (2)
Food industry 3,401 (24) 4,288 (28) 5,781 (37) 5,781 (37) 4,583 (29)
Food consumption 8,802 (61) 8,863 (57) 7,674 (48) 7,674 (48) 8,858 (56)
SOURCES: CBS, 1989; 1991; CBS, 1990, personal communication.
(7.9%) manufacture and nonfood farmers, (2) introduce and develop

industries (12.4%). Postharvest cassava flour production and the
losses are relatively high, about processing of flour into other
13.0%. products, and (3) develop household
and small-scale cassava processing
Cassava roots can be used in industries in a village of Central
various forms: fresh roots are cooked Java.
(boiled, roasted, steamed, or fried);
fermented to produce tape; dried
(either whole root, slices, or chips) Materials and Methods
to produce gaplek; extracted to
produce tapioca (starch); or the Research took place in Kejobong
gaplek milled to produce flour. Subdistrict, Purbalingga District,
Gaplek can be kept as a food reserve Central Java Province, during
or as animal feed. In villages of Java, 1991-1993. It was conducted in
most cassava is used for human three phases: surveying, introducing
consumption, and many traditional cassava flour production and
products are produced for local and processing technology, and evaluating
national consumption. the development of the cassava flour
industry.
Cassava as a marginal crop
Surveying cassava postharvest
Farmers tend to grow cassava with handling and processing
traditional, sometimes inadequate,
technology. Being a crop with A survey was carried out in
unstable prices (a consequence of Purbalingga District, from May to
undeveloped processing technology), June 1991. Primary data was
cassava is often grown in fragile soils collected from farmers on how they
with little or no investment in handled cassava after harvest,
fertilization. processed the roots, and marketed
their products. A literature search
was also conducted on cassava
Study Objectives production, area of land use, and
cassava processing in Purbalingga
Our study aimed to (1) improve District. From all these data, we
postharvest handling of cassava by chose the experimental site.
383
Introducing cassava flour Results and Discussion

production and processing
technology Survey results
The second phase, that of Socioeconomic conditions of

introducing new cassava flour Kejobong Subdistrict. Table 6
production technology and summarizes land use in Purbalingga
processing, was conducted from District. Land use in Kejobong
August 1991 to March 1992. Subdistrict is divided as uplands
(about 84%), lowlands (4%), and
Evaluating the development of the degraded lands (12%) (Table 7).
cassava flour industry Altitudes range from 70 to 100 m
above sea level, climate is type A, and
The development of the cassava annual rainfall is 4,048 mm (Table 8).
flour industry in Kejobong
Subdistrict was evaluated during Total population in Kejobong
June to September 1993. The Subdistrict was 66,712 (32,622 males
evaluations were at individual, and 34,049 females). Most people in
group, and cooperative levels in Kejobong derived their income from
rural areas, including cassava flour agriculture: 40% from food crops,
entrepreneurs. Production, fishery, and cattle raising; and 4%
processing, marketing, and other from other agricultural work. The
problems were also assessed. rest worked in industry (7%); retail
Table 6. Summary of land use (ha), by subdistrict, in Purbalingga District, Central Java, Indonesia, 1983.
Subdistrict Lowlands Uplands Degraded lands Total
Bukateja 2,103 2,137 - 4,240

Kejobong 361 7,811 1,090 9,262
Kaligondang 1,121 3,932 1,212 6,265
Kemangkon 2,311 2,203 - 4,514
Purbalingga 798 676 - 1,474
Kalimanah 2,928 1,049 - 3,977
Kutasari 2,377 5,833 310 8,520
Bobotsari 1,275 1,953 311 3,539
Mrebet 1,607 3,182 924 5,713
Karangrejo 1,295 10,785 795 12,875
Karanganyar 2,414 4,422 290 7,126
Karangmoncol 1,609 4,419 1,068 7,096
Rembang 2,007 7,152 3,372 12,531
Total 22,204 55,554 9,372 87,130

Percentagea 25 64 11 100
a. Values are rounded off.
384
Table 7. Summary of land use in Kejobong Subdistrict, Central Java, Indonesia, 1983.
Type of land use Area
(ha) (%)a
Lowlands:
Technical 166 2
Semitechnical 31 <1
Simple 16 <1
Rainfed 148 2
Total 361
Uplands:
Building and garden 3,224 35
Cultivated (temporary basis) 4,332 48
Other 225 3
Total 7,781
Degraded lands 1,090 12

Overall total 9,232
Table 8. Monthly rainfall and number of rainy Harvesting, and postharvest

days per month, averaged over 9 years,
Purbalingga District, Central Java,
handling and processing
Indonesia, 1981-1989.
Harvesting. Two major varieties
Month Monthly rainfall Number of rainy of cassava are planted in Kejobong:
(mm) days per month the bitter Klanting (90%) and the
sweet Darme (10%). Harvesting is
January 481 19
usually by hand during August to
February 484 20
March 436 19
November. Of 36 respondents in
April 418 19 seven villages, 7 harvested the
May 236 12 cassava themselves, 6 paid others to
June 181 10 harvest, 4 harvested through the
July 137 8 cooperative system, 17 had sold the
August 105 7 harvest in advance, and 2 did not
September 256 11 harvest.
October 336 15
November 493 18
Postharvest handling and
December 483 20
processing. Postharvest handling
4,046 178
and processing of cassava have not
Total
Av./month 337 15 yet developed in Kejobong, because
most farmers sell cassava as fresh
roots. Only about 30% of farmers
process cassava, producing such
traditional goods as gaplek, tiwul, and
(4%); transport (<1%); government cantir. Only 5% of farmer-processors
(1%); and others (<1%). About 2% of produced tapioca (Table 11).
employed were not reported (Table 9).
The farmers either sold peeled
Kejobong is the major center of cassava to middlemen (50%) and
cassava production in Purbalingga retailers (8%), or were paid in advance
District. Production was 43,671 t in before harvest (42%). Because the
1986 (Table 10). total potential capacity of factories
385
Table 9. Population by livelihood, Kejobong Subdistrict, Central Java, Indonesia, 1986.
Source of livelihood People Remarks
(no.) (%)a
Agriculture:
Food crops, fishery, and
cattle raising 26,614 40
Other agricultural work 2,392 4 Agricultural laborer
Industry and Services 4,995 7 Entrepreneur or employer
Retail trade 2,895 4
Transportation 133 <1
Government 814 1 Functionary, laborer, army
worker, pensioner
Others 378 <1
Unreported 1,538 2
Total employed 39,759 60

Total population 66,712
Table 10. Total production (t) of food crops in Purbalingga District, Central Java, Indonesia, 1986.
Subdistrict Lowland Upland Maize Soybeans Groundnuts Sweet- Cassava

rice rice potato
Bukateja 18,023 17 133 151 221 - 2,047

Kejobong 2,604 2,134 14,435 67 239 - 43,671
Kaligondang 7,810 - 925 143 221 - 4,513
Kemangkon 23,850 1,082 1,898 426 256 34 970
Purbalingga 8,118 - 226 79 103 - 34
Kalimanah 28,694 - 921 285 241 29 21
Kutasari 16,046 1,931 6,805 143 672 714 5,657
Bobotsari 8,958 - 1,636 106 35 126 1,223
Mrebet 15,670 - 1,285 142 263 49 1,824
Karangrejo 3,073 - 2,357 130 - 435 3,244
Karanganyar 19,281 385 1,092 96 - 53 3,044
Karangmoncol 5,095 - 226 53 - - 176
Rembang 9,804 91 1,052 80 3 224 5,422
Total 167,026 5,640 32,991 1,901 2,254 1,664 71,846
Table 11. Percentage (values rounded off) of was equivalent to 12,092 t of fresh
respondents (farmers) who process
cassava, and their products, Kejobong
cassava (i.e., 2,423 t of tapioca)
Subdistrict, Central Java, Indonesia. (Table 12), the total cassava
production of 71,846 t could not be
Product Respondents processed. Consequently, cassava
prices fell, fluctuating according to
Gaplek (dried cassava chips) 17
Cantira 8
retailer or tapioca factory. In 1989,
Cendola 3 the price of cassava ranged from
Tiwula 3 Rp 25 to Rp 30/kg.
Tapioca 5
Cassava flour 0 But after cassava flour processing
Total 31 was introduced, the price of cassava
rose from Rp 50-60/kg in 1990 to a
a. Editors note: No description of this product was peak in 1991 and 1992 at Rp 90-115,
provided by the authors.
386
Table 12. The capacity of tapioca factories in Purbalingga District, Central Java, Indonesia, 1989.
Manufacturer Subdistrict Started Potential Operational

operations capacity capacity
(t/year) (t/year)
Lamuk Kejobong 1983 8 8

Pandansari Kejobong 1987 75 60
Wanakusuma Kejobong 1988 720 600
Sribumikarya Kemangkon 1988 720 600
Tridaya Bukatiga 1988 900 900
Total 2,423 2,168
and dropped slightly to Rp 70-80 in Cassava Flour Production

1993. Two years ago (i.e., 1991/92), and Processing
the production of cassava flour was Development
not profitable, because the cassava
flour price ranged from Rp 350 to The objectives of this development
Rp 400/kg. project were to (1) encourage the
production and processing of
Cassava flour production cassava flour by individual
involves several processing steps: farmers and farmer groups, and
peeling, washing, slicing or rasping (2) increase the added value of
or chipping, pressing, drying, and fresh cassava by processing it into
milling (Figure 1). These new flour. The project was conducted
technologies were introduced, by in three phases.
demonstration, to farmers, farmer
groups, and members of the Village Introducing cassava processing
Unit Cooperative, or Koperasi Unit equipment
Desa (KUD). These people assessed
the technologies and were then Processing equipment was
trained in their use. Cassava flour is demonstrated to farmers to arouse
used to substitute wheat flour in the interest in cassava flour
making of such foods as pancakes, production, encourage an
cookies, cheese sticks, and putu ayu. increased working capacity and
product quality, and promote the
The cassava flour industry was development and manufacture of
developed in rural areas as a processing equipment in rural
three-level system (Figure 2). On areas. The equipment introduced
the first level, the individual farmer and demonstrated included slicers,
produced cassava flour, and carvers, graters, and presses.
processed and marketed it himself.
On the second level, the farmer The Kejobong KUD, in
group performed these activities. particular, received, from the
On the third level, the KUD not only Government, equipment with a
produced cassava flour, but also daily capacity to process 10 t of
received it from farmers or farmer cassava roots into flour.
groups, and then sold it to food
industries and middlemen.
387
Triguna
(slicer/chipper/
rasper, used by
individual farmer)
Press
Mesra 1
(rasper/slicer, used by
farmer group)
OR
Peeled Apessi (dryer)

cassava
OR
Mesra 2
(rasper/slicer, used
by KUD)
Mill
Packer
Figure 1. Cassava flour production in Kebojong Subdistrict, Central Java, Indonesia. (KUD = Village
Unit Cooperative.)
Cassava flour production flour, which was processed to

cookies and pancakes. Farmer
Flour production would help sell groups produced 1 t of cassava flour
cassava when prices are low and and cooperatives 5 t. They sold it to
demand from tapioca factories is also food industries and middlemen.
small. The major problems of cassava flour
production at all three levels were
In 1992, individual farmers found in marketing.
produced about 300 kg of cassava
388
Cassava Tapioca
producer factory
Fresh cassava
processing
I. Farmer
Cassava flour Food
production processing
Consumer
Fresh cassava
processing
II. Farmer
group
Cassava flour Food
production processing
III. Cooperative Cassava flour

(KUD) production
Entrepreneur Processor
Export
Figure 2. Developing an agroindustry based on cassava flour production in rural areas of Indonesia.
(KUD = Village Unit Cooperative.)
Food technology and cassava flour Assessing the Development of

use the Cassava Flour
Agroindustry
Marketing and food technology are
important in the successful Developing the cassava flour
development of a cassava flour agroindustry in rural areas was
industry. Successful marketing is expected to extend cassava marketing
influenced by product utility and and agroindustrial development in
requisites for quantity and quality. rural areas, and to increase farmers
Developments in food technology income. The project was evaluated
increases opportunities for marketing from May to September 1992.
cassava flour. Outlets for the flour
are food, chemical, and other The price of fresh cassava during
industries, household consumption, May and June 1993 in Kejobong
and traders (middlemen, retailers, ranged from Rp 50 to Rp 60/kg, and
and exporters). Such developments that of cassava flour ranged from
in food marketing and technology Rp 250 to Rp 350/kg. In May and
have yet to arrive in Kebojong June 1992, the typical farmer
Subdistrict. produced 200 kg of cassava flour,
389
selling it to food industries. The References

typical farmer group produced
500 kg of cassava flour, selling it to Affandi, M. 1986. Agricultural development
feed industries. The KUD, however, in Indonesia. Central Research
Institute for Food Crops (CRIFC),
did not produce cassava flour, not Bogor, Indonesia.
finding it profitable.
CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). 1989.
The price of cassava roots Food balance sheet in Indonesia,
increased from Rp 70-90/kg in 1989. Jakarta, Indonesia.
August-October 1993 to __________. 1991. Food balance sheet in
Rp 95-105/kg in November 1993. Indonesia, 1989-1990. Jakarta,
Farmers and farmer groups therefore Indonesia.
found cassava flour production
unprofitable. Other farmers used __________. 1992. Food balance sheet in
cassava for feed and food. The Indonesia.
typical farmer would use
5-10 kg/day of dried cassava to feed Pabindru, M. 1989. Government policy in
sheep and 40-50 kg/day for cantir production of cassava in Indonesia.
production. In: Proceedings of a national seminar
on the Effort to Increase the Added
Value of Cassava. Agriculture
The problem Faculty, Padjadjaran University,
Bandung, Indonesia.
Despite the low prices (Rp 50 to
Rp 60/kg) farmers said they had no Rusastra, I. W. 1988. Study on aspects of
national production, consumption
problem marketing cassava roots. and marketing of cassava. Agric. Res.
In contrast, producers explained Dev. J. (Indones.) 7:57-63.
they had problems marketing
cassava flour because it is a new SFCDP (Secondary Food Crops Development
product for which food processing Project). 1990. Vademekum Palawija
2. Ubikayu dan Ubijalar. (Maize,
technology has not yet been cassava and sweet potato). Direktorat
developed, and of which few Jendral Peranian Tanaman Pangan.
consumers know much about. SFCDP and United States Agency for
International Development (USAID).
Jakarta, Indonesia.
Summary Tjahjadi, C. 1989. Utilization of cassava as
raw material of foods. In: Proceedings
(1) Farmers, farmer groups, and of a national seminar on the Effort to
KUDs had no experience in Increase the Added Value of Cassava.
marketing cassava flour. Agriculture Faculty, Padjadjaran
University, Bandung, Indonesia.
(2) Processors and consumers lacked
information on cassava Wargiono, J. 1988. Agronomic practices in
processing technology and flour major cassava growing areas of
use. Indonesia. In: Howeler, R. H. and
(3) Appropriate cassava flour Kawano, K. (eds.). Cassava breeding
and agronomy research in Asia:
processing technology must be proceedings of a regional workshop,
developed if the cassava flour Rayong, Thailand. CIAT, Cali,
industry is to develop in rural Colombia. p. 185-204.
areas.
(4) Further research is needed on
cassava flour use.
390
391
APPENDICES
Appendix I: List of Participants
APPENDIX I
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS1
Argentina Chuzel, Gerard

Investigador, CIRAD/SAR-UNESP
de Fabrizio, Susana
Jefe, Laboratorio de Microbiologa de Takitane, Isabel Cristina
Alimentos Professor Assistente
UBA/FCEYN Vilpoux, Olivier
Pab. II Piso 3 Departamento de Tecnologa
Ciudad Universitaria
Casilla Postal 1428 Facultad de Cincias Agronmicas
Buenos Aires UNESP
Tel.: (54-1) 7820529 Caixa Postal 237
Fax: (54-1) 3313272 Fazenda Experimental Lageado
CEP 1860 Botucatu, So Paulo
Tel./Fax: (55-149) 213438, 213883
Austria
Telex: 0142107
Van Zanten, Leonard
Technical Officer Cabello, Claudio
Joint FAO/IAEA Division Professor Assistente
RIF UNESP
P.O. Box 200, A-1400 Rua Luiz Edmundo Coube, 1
Vienna Caixa Postal 473
Tel.: (43-1) 23601617 17033-360 Bauru, So Paulo
Fax: (43-1) 234564 Tel.: (55-142) 302111
Telex: 142-312 FEBU
Belgium Garcia, Edivaldo Antonio
Pierreux, Frdric Professor Assistente
IPESAT du Hainaut Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e
Ath Zootecnia
UNESP
Caixa Postal 502
Brazil 18618-000 Botucatu, So Paulo
UNESP Tel.: (55-149) 213883 R.185
Fax: (55-149) 213883 R.180
Bicudo, Silvio Jos
Professor Assistente Mores, Iracema
Professor Titular
Cereda, Marney Pascoli
UNESP
Investigadora
Rua Cristovo Colombo, 2265
Caixa Postal 136
1. Most acronyms are explained in the List of 15054000 S. Jos do Rio Preto, So Paulo
Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Text, Tel.: (55-192) 244966 ext. 64
p. 402. Fax: (55-192) 410527
393
Others Ospina, Bernardo

CIAT-EMBRAPA
Amante, Edna Regina EMBRAPA/CNPMF
Vice-Chefe, Departamento/Coordenadora Rua EMBRAPA, s/n
de Extenias Caixa Postal 007
UFSC 44.380 Cruz das Almas, Bahia
Rodvia Adman, Gonzaga, Km. 03 Itacorubi Tel.: (55-75) 7212120
88034-001 Florianpolis, Santa Catarina Fax: (55-75) 7211118
Tel.: (55-482) 344888
Fax: (55-482) 342014 Sarmento, Silene Bruder
Professor Assistente
Cintra, Odorico L. ESALQ
Gerente General Av. Pdua Dias 9
Fecularia Mon Sagu Caixa Postal 9
Rua Dom Aquino No. 506-Centro 13400 Piracicaba, So Paulo
79025000 Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Tel.: (55-194) 294150
Sul
Tel.: (55-67) 3824502, 7215225 Soccol, Carlos Ricardo
Fax: (55-67) 3824502 Professor
UFPR
Demiate, Ivo Mottin Centro Politcnico/Jardim das Amricas
Professor Caixa Postal 19011
81531-970 Curitiba, Paran
Wosiacki, Gilvan Tel.: (55-41) 3662323 R.285
Professor Titular Fax: (55-41) 2660222
UEPG
Praa Santos Andrade, s/n Takahashi, Mario
Caixa Postal 992 Investigador
8410-340 Ponta Grossa, Paran IAPAR
Tel.: (55-422) 252121 Estao Experimental de Paranavai
Telex: 442 242 UEPG BR Caixa Postal 564
Fax: (55-442) 237708 87701-970 Paranavai, Paran
Tel.: (55-444) 231157
Lorenzi, Jos Osmar Fax: (55-444) 231607
IAC
Av. Baro de Itapura 1481
Caixa Postal 28 Canada
13.001.970 Campinas, So Paulo
Tel.: (55-192) 419057 Edwardson, Bill
Senior Program Specialist
Mello, Fabio Environment and Natural Resources
Pesquisador IDRC
UEPG 250 Albert Street
Praa Santos Andrades, s/n P.O. Box 2500
Caixa Postal 992/993 KIG 3H9 Ottawa, Ontario
84.100.000 Ponta Grossa, Paran Tel.: (613) 2366163 Ext. 2215
Tel.: (55-422) 252121 R.164 Telex: 0533753
Telex: 442 242 UEPG BR Fax: (613) 5677749
Fax: (55-442) 237708 E-mail: BEdwardson@IDRC.CA
de Mores, Flvio Faria Fitzpatrick, Dennis

Professor da Graduao e Ps-graduao Professor and Head of Department
Departamento de Ingeniera Qumica Foods and Nutrition Department
UEM University of Manitoba
Av. Colombo 3690 R3T 2N2 Winnipeg, Manitoba
87020.900 Maring, Paran Tel.: (204) 4748080
Tel.: (55-442) 264004 Fax: (204) 2755299
Telex: 442198 E-mail:
Fax: (55-442) 222754 Fitzpatrick@BLDGHUMEC.LAN1.UMANITOBA.CA
394
China Snchez Rodrguez, Jaime

Profesor
Jin Shu-Ren
Research and Management UNIVALLE
NCTDC Apartado Areo 25360
Guchen Road 4-2 Cali, Valle del Cauca
Nanning, Guangxi Tel.: (57-2) 3307285, 3393041
Tel.: (86-771) 552730 ext. 133
Fax: (86-771) 562417 Fax: (57-2) 3302479
Alazard, Didier
Investigador, ORSTOM
Colombia
PROPAL S.A. Raimbault, Maurice
Investigador, ORSTOM
Gutirrez Herrera, Meyer
Ingeniero de Proceso UNIVALLE
PROPAL S.A. Apartado Areo 32417
Apartado Areo 4412 Cali, Valle del Cauca
Cali, Valle del Cauca Tel.: (57-2) 6682594
Tel.: (57-2) 4425757 Ext.323 Fax: (57-2) 6682757
Fax: (57-2) 4425769
Melndez Santacruz, Guillermo Others

Gerente, Area Departamento Tcnico
PROPAL S.A. Barberi Ramos, Julio Daro
Planta No. 2 Gerente
Caloto, Cauca Productos La Nia
Tel.: (57-9282) 82133 Apartado Areo 1422
Pereira, Risaralda
Or Tel.: (57-963) 325269, 228073
Apartado Areo 4412
Cali, Valle del Cauca Blanco Arango, Hctor
Tel.: (57-2) 4425757 Gerente, Proyecto Carbohidratos y
Celulosas
ARPISOL LTDA.
UNIVALLE Carrera 100 No. 42A-20
Apartado Areo 80827
Aguinaga, Asuncin
Santaf de Bogot, D.C.
Jefe, Seccin de Ciencia y Tecnologa de
Tel.: (57-91) 4158025/29
Alimentos
Fax: (57-91) 4150830
Castaeda Andrade, Jess David
Jefe, Departamento de Diseo y Cifuentes Arara, Porfirio
Procesos de Manufactura Carretera Panamericana
Mondomo, Cauca
Duque Santa, Waldo Tel.: (57-928) 299085
Director, Especializacin Maquinaria
Agroindustrial Duque Vargas, Amparo
Fernndez, Alejandro Control de la Contaminacin Recursos
Profesor Titular Hdricos
Seccin de Ciencia y Tecnologa de CVC
Alimentos Carrera 56 No. 11-36
Apartado Areo 2366
Moreno Santander, Martn Alonso Cali, Valle del Cauca
Proyecto Almidn Agrio CIAT-UNIVALLE Tel.: (57-2) 3396671
de Stouvenel, Aida Rodrguez
Profesora
395
Durn Restrepo, Mara Victoria Rubiano Meja, Luz Elena

Unin Europea-Delegacin de la Comisin Jefe, Investigacin y Desarrollo de
Europea Nuevos Productos
Calle 97 No. 22-44
Santaf de Bogot, D.C. Compana Nacional de Levaduras,
Tel.: (57-91) 2369040, 2564828 LEVAPAN S.A.
Avenida de las Amricas No. 40-81
Figueroa Snchez, Francisco Jos Santaf de Bogot, D.C.
Presidente Tel.: (57-91) 2684299, 2683651
Fax: (57-91) 2681983
Snchez Arrieta, Carlos Alberto
Asesor Tcnico Idrraga, Gloria Amparo
Jefe, Investigacin y Desarrollo
Sarria Nuez, Helberth Productos Yupi S.A.
Gerente Regional/Vicepresidente Calle 70 No. 3N-74
Cali, Valle del Cauca
FUNDIAGRO Tel.: (57-2) 6644330
Carrera 54 No. 55-127, Oficina 905 Fax: (57-2) 6644379
Barranquilla, Atlntico
Tel.: (57-958) 411306 Jaramillo Diaz, Hebert
Jefe del Area
Garca Milln, Arbey Universidad Autnoma de Occidente
Jefe de Planta Calle 9B No. 29A-67
RICOPAN Panadera El Porvenir Cali, Valle del Cauca
Carrera 2C No. 30-35 Tel.: (57-2) 5565444
Apartado Areo 5384
Cali, Valle del Cauca Lozano, Alvaro Figueroa
Tel.: (57-2) 4445544 Gerente, Investigacin y Desarollo
Gmez Botero, Claudia Quintero Muoz, Claudia I.
Directora, Investigacin y Desarrollo Asistente, Investigacin y Desarrollo
RICARONDO S.A.
Calle 31 No. 2-80 Industrias de Maz, MAIZENA S.A.
Apartado Areo 4842 Carrera 5A No. 52-56
Cali, Valle del Cauca Apartado Areo 6560
Tel.: (57-2) 4422637 Cali, Valle del Cauca
Tel.: (57-2) 4474853, 4470914
Gonzlez de Duque, Olga Luca Fax: (57-2) 4477477
Gerente, Departamento Tcnico y
Desarrollo Meja Gmez, Jaime Arturo
Gerente Operativo
Reyes Madrian, Francisco Jos Productos Alimenticios Crunch S.A.
Asesora y Mantenimiento Carrera 43A No. 61 Sur 152, Local 116
Sabaneta, Antioquia
Colombiana de Almidones y Apartado Areo 8561
Derivados S.A. Medelln, Antioquia
Calle 16 Norte No. 6N-21 Tel.: (57-94) 2880254
Cali, Valle del Cauca Fax: (57-94) 2882913
Tel.: (57-2) 6681287
Ruz Cabrera, Ricardo
Guzmn Roa, Nstor Gonzalo Coordinador, Departamento de
Gerente de Marca Agroindustria
CETEC-SEDECOM
Diagonal 26A No. 26-94
San Fernando, Cali, Valle del Cauca
Tel.: (57-2) 5564809
396
Sadovnik, Alejandra Delgado Castro, Plinio

Administradora Promotor
Sadovnik Snchez, Hardy Alfonso Ruiz Chvez, Vicente

Gerente Director Tcnico
YUCA LTDA. UATAPPY

Avenida 5 Norte No. 51-05 Calle Olmedo y 9 de Octubre
Cali, Valle del Cauca Caldern, Porto Viejo, Manab
Tel./Fax: (593-4) 637240
Silva Bernal, John Edgar
Gerente, SIMARKS Cantos Sornoza, Enrique Juvan
Calle 90 No. 40-82 Tcnico de Produccin
Apartado Areo 251789
Santaf de Bogot, D.C. Palacios Delgado, John Herbidson
Tel.: (57-91) 6101028 Administrador General
Zambrano Sarmiento, Francy Magdalena FACE

Ingeniera de Alimentos Km. 101/2 Va Manta-Montecristi
Diagonal 103 No. 57-49 Apartado 13-5-4821
Santaf de Bogot, D.C. Montecristi, Manab
Tel.: (57-91) 7110021, 535944 Tel.: (593-4) 606399
Fax: (593-4) 606109
Carpio, Cecilia
Costa Rica Asistente de Investigacin
Blanco-Metzler, Adriana Instituto de Investigacin Tecnolgica
Jefe, Unidad de Tecnologa Nutricional EPN
INCIENSA Andalucia s/n y Veintimilla
Apartado 4, Tres Ros Quito, Pichincha
Tel.: 506 799911 Tel.: (593-2) 507138
Fax: 506 795546 Fax: (593-2) 507142
Boucher, Franois Egez, Carlos

Director Ejecutivo Coordinador, Programa de Yuca
IICA/PRODAR FUNDAGRO
Casilla Postal 55-2200, Coronado Moreno Bellido 127 y Amazonas
Tel.: 506-290222 Apartado 17-16-219
Fax: 506-294741, 292659 Quito, Pichincha
Telex: 2144 IICA CR Tel.: (593-2) 220557, 220533
E-mail: Fax: (593-2) 507442
FBoucher@UCRVM2@Bitnet
Evans, Cody
Laboucheix, Jean Manager of Operations
Delegado para Amrica Latina y el Caribe
Representante del CIRAD ante el IICA Evans, Edward
200 m. al Sur de la Iglesia de San Pedro Compaa Ganadera Manipili
Frente cost. Oeste Esc. Roosevelt Apartado 17-01-3214
Apartado 1127-2050 San Pedro Quito, Pichincha
San Jos Tel.: (593-2) 2570177, 2570768
Tel.: (506) 255972 Telex: 22368 ADMINED
Fax: (506) 250940 Fax: (593-2) 2570964
Intriago Vera, Solanda Elina

Ecuador Gerente
ATAPY-San Vicente
Caballero Vera, Hernn Humberto
Caldern, Porto Viejo
Estudiante
Tel.: (593) 637240
397
Poats, Susan V. Sautier, Denis Pierre-Jean

Anthropologist, Chercheur
CIAT-FUNDAGRO Project
Moreno Bellido 127 y Mariano de Jess Zakhia, Nadine
Casilla 17-16-219 Chercheur
Quito, Pichincha
Tel.: (59-32) 220533 CIRAD/SAR
Fax: (59-32) 507422 2477 Avenue du Val de Montferrand
BP 5035
Ruales, Jenny 34032 Montpellier, Cedex 1
Profesor Principal Tel.: (33) 67615707
EPN Fax: (33) 67414015
Isabel La Catlica y Veintimilla
Apartado 17012759 Hebert, Jean Paul
Quito, Pichincha ENSIA/SIARC
Tel.: (593-2) 507138 1101 Avenue Agropolis
Fax: (593-2) 507142 BP 5098
34032 Montpellier, Cedex 1
Verdesoto Medrano, Lcide Uvaldino Tel.: (33) 67617051
Coordinador, Proyecto de Yuca de Fax: (33) 67410232
Esmeraldas
UAPPY-Esmeraldas Mestres, Christian
Avenida Olmedo entre 10 de Agosto y CIRAD/CA
Rocafuerte 73 rue Jean Franois Bretan
Esmeraldas, Esmeraldas 34032 Montpellier, Cedex 1
Tel.: (593-2) 713869
Pourqui, Jacques
Professeur
INA-PG
France 16 Rue Claude Bernard
Brauman, Alain 75231 Paris, Cedex 05
ORSTOM Tel.: (33-1) 44081830
213 Rue Lafayette Fax: (33-1) 44081700
75010 Paris
Tel.: (33-1) 48037777
Ghana
della Valle, Guy Rene Noel Safo-Kantanka, Osei
Ingeniero de Investigacin, Tratamientos Crop Science Department
Fsicos de Almidones University of Science & Technology
Centre de recherche agro-alimentaires Kumasi
INRA Tel.: (233-51) 53519
BP 527 Fax: (233-51) 3137
44026 Nantes
Tel.: (33) 4067 8000
Fax: (33) 4067 8005 Honduras
Santos Sosa, Samuel
Giraud, Eric
Responsable, Proyecto de Yuca (Utilizacin)
Ingnieur
Fundacin Friedrich Ebert
ORSTOM
Colonia Humaya 2a. Calle No. 2401
2051 Avenue du Val de Montferrand
Apartado No. 1701
BP 5045
Tegucigalpa
34032 Montpellier, Cedex 1
Tel.: (504) 332753
Tel.: (33) 67617400, 67617575
Fax: (504) 332800
Fax: (33) 67547800
Griffon, Dany
Deputy Director, Program and Development
398
India Pereira Pacheco, Fabiola Esther

Responsable, Laboratorio de Ciencia de los
Moorthy, Nayarana Alimentos
Senior Scientist Facultad de Ingeniera Qumica
CTCRI Av. Jurez No. 421 Cd. Industrial
Trivandrum, Kerala Casilla Postal 1226-A
Tel.: 91-448554 97288 Mrida, Yucatn
Tel.: (52) 460981
Fax: (52) 460994
Indonesia
Damardjati, Djoko S. Nicaragua
Director
BORIF Bosche, Paul
JL. Tentara Pelajar 3A Director Ejecutivo
Bogor 16111 Yuca Centroamericana S.A., YUCASA
Tel./Fax: 62-251-333440 No. 10 Planes Altamira
Apartado A-179
Managua
Kenya Tel./Fax: (505-2) 784915
Mbugua, Samuel
Teaching and Research Briceo Lovo, Milton Marcelo
Department of Food Technology & Nutrition Director, Control Industrial
College of Agriculture & ET Sciences
University of Nairobi Miranda Astorga, Lester Jos
P.O. Box 29053 Gerente General
Nairobi
Tel.: 254-2-632211, 632141, Yuca Centroamericana S.A., YUCASA
632401 Km. 31 Carretera vieja a Len
Fax: 254-2-630172 Tel./Fax: (505-2) 784915
Malawi Nigeria
Saka, J. D. K. Bokanga, Mpoko
Senior Lecturer in Chemistry Biochemist
Chemisty Department IITA
Chancellor College PMB 5320, Ibadan
University of Malawi Tel.: (234-22) 400300
P.O. Box 280 Telex: 31417 TOPIP NG
Zomba
Tel.: (265) 522222, 52327 Paraguay
Telex: 44742 CHANCOL MI
Fax: (265) 522046, 523021 Hg de Belmont V., Carlos A.
Administrador de Planta/Asistente de
Produccin
Mexico
FUNDAIN
Guyot, Jean-Pierre Ayolas 451, Edificio Capital, 4o. Piso
Head, Research Programme Asuncin Central
ORSTOM Tel.: (595-21) 442-518/9
Cicern 609 Fax: (595-21) 442-520
11530 Mxico DF
Tel.: (55-5) 6807688 Peru
Monroy Rivera, Jos Alberto Espnola de Fong, Nelly
Profesor Investigador Fisiloga
Instituto Tecnolgico de Veracruz CIP
Circunvalacin Norte e Icazo Avenida La Universidad s/n
Apartado 1420 Casilla 5969, Lima 12
Veracruz Tel.: (51-14) 366920
Tel./Fax: (52-29) 345701 Fax: (51-14) 351570
399
Rodrguez Zevallos, Antonio Ricardo Trinidad and Tobago

Jefe, Centro de Produccin Agroindustrial
Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo Badrie, Neela
Ciudad Universitaria Food Technology Unit
Lambayeque, Lambayeque Department of Chemical Engineering
Tel.: (51-074) 282787 UWI
St. Augustine, Trinidad
Salas Domnguez, Sonia Tel.: (1-809) 6632001/2007
Jefe, Proyectos Fax: (1-809) 6624414
Critas del Per
Calle Omicrn 492
Callao United Kingdom
Tel.: (51-14) 640299
Fax: (51-14) 642595 Trim, David S.
Agroprocessing Group
Salas Valerio, Walter Francisco Wenham, June Elizabeth
Jefe, Departamento Ingeniera de Alimentos Post-Harvest Horticulture
UNALM
Av. La Universidad s/n, La Molina NRI
Casilla Postal 456 Central Avenue
Lima Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB
England
Tel.: (44-0634) 880088
Philippines Telex: 236907/8 LDN
Fax: (44-0634) 880066/77
Tan, Daniel Leslie
Agricultural Engineer
PRCRTC-ViSCA Venezuela
Baybay, Leyte, Zip Code 6521-A
Fax: (63-2) 588692
INDELMA C.A.
Tanzania Bustamante Valero, Lizardo de Jess

Gerente, Planta Industrial
Mlingi, Nicholas L. V.
Senior Food Chemist Contreras Vega, Jos Luis
Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre Superintendente, Almidones Modificados
P.O. Box 977 INDELMA C.A.
Dar es Salaam Km. 1 La Encrucijada va Turmero
Tel.: (255-51) 29621, 74107 Turmero, Aragua
Fax: (255-51) 44029 Tel.: (58-04) 4632320
Perdomo Ramos, Mara Teresa

Thailand Representante Tcnico
INDELMA C.A.
Maneepun, Saipin Av. Lecuna Esquina de Petin
Researcher Edificio El Aguila, San Agustn del Sur
IFRPD 122 Caracas
Kasetsart University Tel.: (58-2) 5762133
P.O. Box 170 Telex: 21308 ARCIA VC
Bangkok 10400 Fax: (58-2) 5736712
Tel./Fax: (66-2) 561 1970
Titapiwatanakun, Boonjit
Assistant Professor
Kasetsart University
Bangkhen, Bangkok 10903
Tel.: (66-2) 561 3467
Fax: (66-2) 561 3034
400
Others Ayala Aponte, Alfredo Adolfo

Research Assistant
Faroux, Gerard
Delegado Regional de Cooperacin Bellotti, Anthony
Pases Andinos Entomologist
Embajada de Francia
Calle Madrid con Av. Trinidad Best, Rupert
Las Mercedes-Caracas Leader, Cassava Program
Apartado 62324, Caracas 1060-A
Tel.: (58-2) 9937448 Bonierbale, Merideth
Fax: (58-2) 9935256 Geneticist
Gonzlez Parada, Zurima Mercedes Brabet, Catherine
Profesor/Investigador Visiting Researcher
ICTA-UCV/FAC
Calle Suapure Lomas de Bello Monte Dufour, Dominique
Apartado 47.097, Caracas 1041-A Cassava Utilization Specialist
Tel.: (58-2) 7524403 CIRAD/SAR-CIAT
Fax: (58-2) 7523871
El-Sharkawy, Mabrouk
Pacheco Cedeo, Simn Jos Physiologist
Presidente
Asociacin de Productores de Yuca Henry, Guy
Transversal 11 No. 417, Urb. Fundemos I Economist
Maturn, Monagas
Tel.: (58-91) 512550 Jones, Debbie
Fax: (58-91) 412441 Chemical Engineer
Lpez Alarcn, John Mario

Vietnam Student
Dang Thanh Ha
Lecturer Mosquera Palacio, Liliana
Department of Agricultural Economics Research Assistant
University of Agriculture and Forestry
Ho Chi Minh City Murcia, Luzmila
Tel.: (84) 8-966780 Technician
Fax: (84) 8-231541
OBrien, Gerard Michael
Food Scientist
Zambia
Orozco Marmolejo, Oswaldo
Namposya, Rebecca Technician
Farming Systems Nutritionist
Farming Systems Research Team Ostertag, Carlos Felipe
Adaptive Research Planning Team Associate
Mt. Makulu Research Station
P/Bag 7, Chilanga Prez Valds, Diego
Tel.: (26-01) 278514 Research Assistant
Fax: (26-01) 213927
Salcedo Bonilla, Enna Elena
Technician
CIAT
Snchez, Teresa
Apartado Areo 6713 Research Assistant
Cali, Colombia
Tel.: (57-2) 4450000 Scowcroft, William
Fax: (57-2) 4450073 Deputy Director General
Alarcn Morante, Freddy Thro, Ann Marie

Assistant Coordinator, CBN
401
APPENDIX II
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

USED IN TEXT
Acronyms BFAD Bureau of Food and Drugs,

the Philippines
AACC American Association of
Cereal Chemists, USA BNH Banco Nacional de
Habitao, Brazil
ABAM Associao Brasileira dos
Produtores de Amido de BOI Board of Investment,
Mandioca, Brazil Thailand
ABES Associao Brasileira de BORIF Bogor Research Institute for

Engenharia Sanitria, Food Crops, Indonesia
Brazil
CA Dpartement des cultures
ACDI Agricultural Cooperative annuelles (CIRAD)
Development International,
Colombia CBN Cassava Biotechnology
Network, based in Colombia
AFST Association of Food Science
Technology, India CBS Central Bureau of
Statistics, Indonesia
ANPPY Asociacin Nacional de
Productores y Procesadores CDA Cooperative Development
de Yuca, Colombia Authority, the Philippines
AOAC Association of Official CDF Countrywide Development

Analytical Chemists, USA Fund, the Philippines
APPYs Asociaciones de CENDES Centro de Desarrollo,

Productores y Procesadores Ecuador
de Yuca, Ecuador
CEPAGRO Centro Estadual de
ASOCOSTA Asociacin de Cooperativas Pesquisa Agronmica,
de la Costa, Colombia Brazil
ASTM American Society for CERAT Centro Raizes Tropicais

Testing and Materials, (UNESP)
USA
CETEC Corporacin para Estudios
ATAPYs Asociaciones de Interdisciplinarios y
Trabajadores Agrcolas y Asesoras Tcnicas,
Productores de Yuca, Colombia
Ecuador
402
Appendix II: List of Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Text
CETESB Companhia de Tecnologia DEMSA Derivados del Maiz, S. A.

de Saneamento Ambiental, (private company), Peru
Brazil
DEPD Department of Economic
CGPRT Center for Research and Planning and
Development of Coarse Development, Malawi
Grains, Pulses, Roots and
Tuber Crops in the Humid DGRST Direction gnrale de la
Tropics of Asia and the recherche scientifique et
Pacific, Indonesia technique, Congo
CIP Centro Internacional de la DOLE Department of Labor and

Papa, based in Peru Employment, the
Philippines
CNPMF Centro Nacional de
Pesquisa de Mandioca e DRI Fondo de Desarrollo Rural
Fruticultura (EMBRAPA) Integrado, Colombia
CONAB Companhia Nacional de DTI Department of Trade and

Abastecimento, Brazil Industry, the Philippines
COOPEMUBA Cooperativa de EEC European Economic

Productores de Mandioca Community, now the EU
de Ubajara, Brazil
EMATER Empresa de Assistncia
COOPROALGA Cooperativa de Tcnica e Extenso Rural,
Productores de los Brazil
Algarrobos, Colombia
EMATER-CE Empresa de Pesquisa,
COPROMA Cooperativa de Assistncia Tcnica e
Productores de Mandioca Extenso Rural do Cear,
de Acarau, Brazil Brazil
CORAF Confrence des EMBRAPA Empresa Brasileira de

responsables de Pesquisa Agropecuria,
recherche agronomique en Brazil
Afrique de lOuest et du
Centre ENSAM Ecole nationale suprieure
agronomique de
CPC Corn Products Company, Montpellier, France
USA
ENSBANA Ecole nationale suprieure
CRIFC Central Research Institute de biologie applique la
for Food Crops, Indonesia nutrition et lalimentation,
France
CRVZ Centre de recherche
vtrinaire et zootechnique ENSIA Ecole nationale suprieure
(DGRST) des industries agricoles et
alimentaires, France
CTCRI Central Tuber Crops
Research Institute, India EPACE Empresa de Pesquisa
Agropecuria do Cear,
CVC Corporacin Autnoma Brazil
Regional del Valle del
Cauca, Colombia EPN Escuela Politcnica
Nacional, Ecuador
DANE Departamento
Administrativo Nacional de ERS Economic Research
Estadstica, Colombia Service (USDA)
403
ESAL Escola Superior de IAC Instituto Agronmico de

Agronmia de Lavras, Campinas, Brazil
Brazil
IADS International Agricultural
ESALQ Escola Superior de Development Service, New
Agricultura Luiz de York, USA
Queiroz, Brazil
IAEA International Atomic
EU European Union, often Energy Agency, Italy
known as the EC or EEC
IAPAR Instituto Agronmico do
FAC Facultad de Ciencias (UCV) Paran, Brazil
FACE Fundacin Adelanto IARCs International Agricultural

Comunitario, Ecuador Research Centers of the
Consultative Group on
FAO Food and Agriculture International Agricultural
Organization of the United Research (CGIAR), USA
Nations, Italy
IBGE see FIBGE
FCA Faculdade de Cincias
Agronmicas (UNESP) IBPGR International Board for
Plant Genetic Resources,
FIBGE Fundao Instituto now IPGRI
Brasileiro de Geografia e
Estatstica, Brazil (also IBRD International Bank for
IBGE) Reconstruction and
Development (also known
FODERUMA Fondo para el Desarrollo as the World Bank), USA
Rural del Ministerio de
Agricultura, Ecuador IBSRAM International Board of Soil
Resources and
FUNDAGRO Fundacin para el Management, Thailand
Desarrollo Agropecuario,
Ecuador ICA Instituto Colombiano
Agropecuario
FUNDAIN Fundacin Paraguaya de
Apoyo a la Agroindustria, ICH International Child Health
Paraguay Unit, Sweden
ICMSF International Commission

FUNDIAGRO Fundacin para la
on Microbiological
Investigacin y el
Specifications for Foods,
Desarrollo de Tecnologas
UK
Apropiadas al Agro,
Colombia
ICONTEC Instituto Colombiano de
Normas Tcnicas
GATT General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade, EU
ICTA Instituto de Ciencia y
Tecnologa Agrcolas,
GBSA Laboratoire de
Guatemala
microbiologie et biochimie
industrielles of the
IDRC International Development
Universit Montpellier II,
Research Centre, Canada
France
IFRPD Institute of Food Research
GNCTDC Guangxi Nanning Cassava
and Product Development
Technical Development
of Kasetsart University,
Center, China (also
Thailand
NCTDC)
404
IFS International Foundation ITCF Institut technique des

for Science, Sweden crales et des fourrages of
the Craliers du France
IIAP Instituto de
Investigaciones de la KUD Koperasi Unit Desa (Village
Amazona Peruana Unit Cooperative),
Indonesia
IICA Instituto Interamericano
de Cooperacin para la MAE Ministre des Affaires
Agricultura, Costa Rica Etrangres, France
IIED International Institute for MAG Ministerio de Agricultura,

Environment and Ecuador
Development, UK
MARA Ministrio da Agricultura e
IITA International Institute of Reforma Agrria, Brazil
Tropical Agriculture,
Nigeria MARCA Mabagon Root Crop
Association, the
INA-PG Institut national Philippines
agronomique,
Paris-Grignon MIPRE Ministerio de la
Presidencia, Peru
INCIENSA Instituto Costarricense de
Investigacin y Enseanza MOAC Ministry of Agriculture and
en Nutricin y Salud, Cooperatives, Thailand
Costa Rica
MOI Ministry of Industry,
INDELMA C.A. Industrias del Maz C.A., Thailand
Venezuela
NAPHIRE National Postharvest
INIA Instituto Nacional de Institute for Research and
Investigacin Agraria, Peru Extension, the Philippines
INIAP Instituto Nacional de NCTDC see GNCTDC

Investigaciones
Agropecuarias, Ecuador NRI Natural Resources
Institute, UK
INN Instituto Nacional de
Nutricin, Venezuela ORSTOM Institut franais de
recherche scientifique pour
INRA Institut national de le dveloppement en
recherche agronomique, coopration, France
France
PCARRD Philippine Council for
IPESAT Institut provencial Agriculture and Resources
denseighement superieur Research and Development
agronomique et technique
du Hainaut, Belgium PMO Prime Ministers Office,
Tanzania
IPGRI International Plant Genetic
PRCRTC Philippine Root Crop
Resources Institute, Italy
Research and Training
Center
ISNAR International Service for
National Agricultural
Research, the Netherlands PRODAR Programa Cooperativo de
Desarrollo Agroindustrial
ISU Isabela State University, Rural, Costa Rica
the Philippines
405
PRONAA Programa Nacional de UATAPPY Unin de Asociaciones de

Alimentacin, Peru Trabajadores Agrcolas,
Productores y
PROPAL S.A. Productora de Papeles S.A., Procesadores de Yuca,
Colombia Ecuador
SEARCA Southeast Asian Regional UBA Universidad de Buenos

Center for Graduate Study Aires, Argentina
and Research in
Agriculture, the Philippines UCV Universidad Central de
Venezuela
SECTI Secretara Ejecutiva de
Cooperacin Internacional UEM Universidade Estadual de
(MIPRE) Maring, Brazil
SEDECOM Servicio de Desarrollo y UEPG Universidade Estadual de

Consultora para el Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Sector Cooperativo y de
Micro-Empresas, Colombia UFPR Universidade Federal do
Paran, Brazil
SFCDP Secondary Food Crops
Development Project, UFSC Universidade Federal de
Indonesia Santa Catarina, Brazil
SIARC Section industries agricoles UNALM Universidad Nacional

et alimentaires des rgions Agraria La Molina, Peru
chaudes (ENSIA)
UNESCO United Nations Education,
SUDENE Superintendncia do Scientific, and Cultural
Desenvolvimento do Organization, France
Nordeste, Brazil
UNESP Universidade Estadual
TAPPI Technical Association of the Paulista, Brazil
Pulp and Paper Industry,
New York UNIVALLE Universidad del Valle,
Colombia
TDRI Thailand Development
Research Institute USAID United States Agency for
International
TDRI Tropical Development and Development, USA
Research Institute, UK
USDA United States Department
TPPIA Thai Pulp and Paper of Agriculture
Industries Association
UST University of Science and
TTFITA Thai Tapioca Flour Technology, Ghana
Industries Trade
Association UTC Universit de Tecnologie
de Compigne, France
TTTA Thai Tapioca Trade
Association UWI University of the West
Indies, Trindad and
UAM Universidad Autnoma Tobago
Metropolitana, Mexico
ViSCA Visayas State College
UAPPY Unin de Asociaciones de of Agriculture, the
Productores y Procesadores Philippines
de Yuca, Ecuador
406
WAG Water Activity Group of the CNP Total cyanogenic potential

European Cooperation in
the Field of Science and COD Chemical oxygen demand
Technical Research
(investigates water content COO - Chemical symbol of
of substances) double-bound carbon
WHO World Health Organization d.b. Dry basis
WIPS Women in Postproduction DEAE Diethylaminoethyl (used in

Systems, collaborative enzyme analysis)
project in the Philippines
DM Dry matter
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

Abbreviations
DSC Differential scanning
ALAB Amylolytic lactic acid calorimetry
bacteria
D.W. Devon-Watson estimate
APC Aerobic plate count (statistics)
ATP Adenosine triphosphate ECU European currency unit
aw Water activities (in EU Enzyme units

determining food
isotherms) f.o.b. (F.O.B.) Free on board
BA Brabender amylograph FRR Financial rate of return
BE Starch-branching enzyme fwb Fresh weight basis

(gene responsible for the
cross linkages that form g Gravitation constant (in
amylopectin) centrifuging)
BMP Bread-making potential G.A.B. The Guggenheim-

Anderson-De Boer model
BOD Biochemical oxygen used for describing food
demand isotherms in equations
BU Brabender viscosity units GBSS Granule-bound starch

(for starches) synthase (gene responsible
for amylose synthesis)
CAP Common Agricultural
Policy of the EU GDP Gross domestic product
CCF Chlorinated cake flour g.f.b. Glucose-fermenting

bacteria
cDNA Complementary DNA
GNP Gross national product
CF Control fermentation
GPI-ID Indice geral de preos-
cfu Colony-forming unit demanda interna (deflator,
in economics = general
CG Cyanogenic glucosides price index-internal
demand)
c.i.f. (C.I.F.) Cost, insurance, and
freight hab Habitant
407
HCN Hydrogen cyanide, and OD Optical density

sometimes used to express
cyanide content in OVL Organic volume load
cassava
p Pressure (used in
HDPE High-density polyethylene physicochemical
(used for packaging) measurements)
HFCS High fructose corn syrup, PCA Plate count analysis (for
also known as isoglucose estimating microbial
populations)
HFS High fructose syrup
PCR Polymerase chain
HPLC High-performance liquid reaction
chromatography
PDA Potato dextrose agar
ICRDPs Integrated cassava research medium
and development projects
PE Pectinesterase (pectin
IQR Interquartile range pectylhydrolase
(statistics) E.C. 3.1.1.11)
kDa Kilo Dalton (measure of PG Polygalacturonase (poly

molecular weight) (1,4--D-galacturonide)
glycanohydrolase,
l.a.b. Lactic acid bacteria E.C. 3.2.1.15)
l.f.b. Lactate-fermenting bacteria PGL Polygalacturonate lyase
M Molecular weight pKa Negative logarithm of

equilibrium constant for
MDF medium density fiber board association (used for
(timber) measuring acidification)
MG Minais Gerais, state of PNPG p-nitrophenol--D-

Brazil glucopyranoside (a
chromogen)
MPN Most probable number (a
method of enumerating pO2 Partial oxygen pressure
microorganisms)
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
MRS de Man-Rogosa-Sharpe agar
medium R&D Research and development
MS Modified starches RAPD Random amplified

polymorphic DNA
MSG Monosodium glutamate
RFLPs DNA restriction fragment
MTBE Methyl tertiary butyl ether length polymorphisms
NaCl Common salt or sodium RMS % Relative root mean

chloride square error
NGC Nonglucosidic cyanogens rpm Revolutions per minute
NGFI Nongrain feed ingredients RVA Rapid Visco Analyzer

(relating to CAP) (equipment for measuring
starch viscosity profiles,
NGOs Nongovernmental which are expressed in
organizations RVA units)
408
SDS Sodium dodecyl sulfate V Volt
SDS-PAGE SDS-polyacrylamide gel VFA Volatile fatty acids

electrophoresis
VSS Volatile suspended solids
SF Sterile fermentation
VUC Village union cooperative,
TC Total cyanogen content Indonesia
TR Taxa de reajuste (after w/v Weight by volume

readjustment, in
economics) w.b. Wet basis
UMS Unmodified or native w/w Weight-to-weight ratio

starches
WSI Water solubility index
UV Ultraviolet (radiation)
409
Contents
CIAT Publication No. 271
CIRAD/SAR and
CIATs Communications Unit
Editing: Elizabeth L. de Pez

Annie Jones
Editorial assistance: Gladys Rodrguez
Translation
(six chapters): Lynn Menndez
Deborah Jones
Photography: Dominique Dufour

CIAT Photographic Section
Production: Graphic Arts Unit, CIAT

Alcira Arias (layout)
Jorge Gallego (layout)
Julio C. Martnez (cover design)
Printing: Impresora Feriva S.A., Cali
xiii

Cassava Flour

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Cassava Flour

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

The Centre de coopration internationale en recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement

(CIRAD) is a French research organization that specializes in agriculture in the tropics

CIRADs mission is to contribute to the economic development of these regions

CIRAD is made up of seven departments: CIRAD-CA (annual crops), CIRAD-CP (tree

CIAT is one of 16 international agricultural research centers sponsored by the

The Centers core budget is financed by 27 donor countries, international and

Centre de coopration internationale en recherche

Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

CIAT Publication No. 271

Cassava flour and starch : progress in research and development / D. Dufour,

1. Cassava -- Flour. 2. Cassava -- Starch. 3. Cassava -- Cassava as food. 4. Cassava --

Copyright CIAT 2002. All rights reserved

3 The Cassava Biotechnology Network and Biotechnologies

SESSION 2: CURRENT USE AND FUTURE POTENTIAL

5 Producing Cassava Flour in Peru and Its Prospects for

6 Cassava Starch in Northern Cauca, Colombia:

8 Cassava Products for Food and Chemical Industries: China

9 Thai Cassava Starch Industry: Its Current Status and

10 Sweetpotato Flour and Starch: Its Uses and Future Potential

11 Prospects for Cassava Starch in Vietnam

12 Cassava Flour Processing and Marketing in Indonesia

13 World Production and Marketing of Starch

SESSION 3: PHYSICOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF FLOURS AND STARCHES

15 Amylographic Performance of Cassava Starch Subjected to

16 Improving the Bread-Making Potential of Cassava Sour Starch

17 Physicochemical Properties of Cassava Sour Starch

18 Influence of Gelatinization Characteristics of

20 Acute Poisoning in Tanzania: The Role of Insufficiently

21 Gari, A Traditional Cassava Semolina in West Africa:

SESSION 4: BIOCONVERSION AND BYPRODUCT USE

23 Cassava Lactic Fermentation in Central Africa:

24 A Lactic Acid Bacterium with Potential Application in

25 Cassava Wastes: Their Characterization, and Uses and

26 Cassava Starch Extraction: A Typical Rural Agroindustry

SESSION 5: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

29 Implementing Technological Innovations in Cassava Flour

30 The Influence of Variety and Processing on the

31 Establishing and Operating a Cassava Flour Plant on

32 Improving Processing Technologies for High-Quality

33 Cassava Flour in Malawi: Processing, Quality, and Uses

SESSION 6: NEW PRODUCTS

35 Extrusion Processing of Cassava: Formulation of Snacks

36 Thai Cassava Flour and Starch Industries for Food Uses:

37 Yuca Rava and Yuca Porridge: The Functional Properties

SESSION 7: INTEGRATED PROJECTS

39 The Cassava Flour Project in Colombia: From Opportunity

40 Women as Processors and Traders of Cassava Flour:

41 Developing the Cassava Flour Industry in Rural Areas

I List of Participants 393

II List of Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Text 402

The 1994 International Meeting on who supervised the scientific

Until recently, most efforts in tropical 5,000 years agohave studies in

Only since 1985which is The existing and potential uses of

The physical and chemical Currently, these approaches form the

Dany Griffon Rupert Best

ADDING VALUE TO PRODUCTS,

Introduction As urbanization increases in Latin

Cassava serves as a subsistence The Need for Technological

A follow-up project was proposed

for cassava, and improve market together ORSTOM (France and

and fat analogs. (Managed by Dr. D. Dufour in Cali, Colombia, and

Operation 5 studies the traditional Conclusions

What Is CORAF? CORAF is run by a 10-man

(1) Promote cooperation, collective Associate Networks

A. M. Thro, W. M. Roca, and G. Henry