General Parasitology: Introduction

Parasitology
Science that deals with organisms taking up their abodes,
temporarily or permanently, on or within other living
organisms for the purpose of procuring food
Study of parasites
Study the relationship of organisms to their hosts
Protozoology, helminthology, entomology
Parasitism
Reciprocal association in which a species depends upon
another for its existence.
Association may be temporarily or permanent.
Other Associations
Symbiosis permanent association of 2 organisms that
cannot exist independently
Mutualism both organisms benefit from association
Commensalism one partner benefits and other is
unaffected
Symbiosis
Literally means living together
A relationship between two different species (symbionts)
wherein one spends part or all of its existence in close
association with the other
Commensalism, Phoresis, Parasitism, & Mutualism
 Commensalism

Literally means eating at the same table

Symbiosis between a host & commensal, wherein the
commensal benefits by feeding on substances taken in by the
unaffected host

Commensal: Marlin
The Clown Fish

Host: Sea Anemone

 Phoresis
Literally means to carry
Symbiosis between a host & phoront, wherein the phoront is
simply attached to or carried by the host

Phoront: Remora
Suckerfish

Host: Nurse Shark

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 Mutualism

Symbiosis between mutualists, wherein both benefit

through physiological dependence on one another

Cleaner
Shrimp

Fish

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Parasites
Obtains food and shelter from another organism
Derives all benefit from its association with its host
The harboring species, host, may show no harmful effects
or may suffer from various functional and organic
disorders
Parasites descriptive names
Ectoparasite lives on outside (infestation)
Endoparasite lives within body of host (infection)
Facultative capable of leading both free and parasitic
existence
Obligate take up permanent residence in and are
completely dependent on host
Incidental one that establishes itself in a host in which it
does not ordinarily live
Parasitoid - arthropod parasites whose larval stages
feed on & eventually kill a host
Parasites descriptive names
Temporary free-living during part of its existence and
seeks its host intermittently to obtain nourishment
Permanent remains on or in body of host from early life
until maturity, sometimes for entire life.
Pathogenic causes injury to host by mechanical,
traumatic or toxic activities
Pseudoparasite artifact mistaken for a parasite
Coprozoic or spurious foreign species that has passed
thru alimentary tract without infecting host
Parasites
Often lack necessary organs for assimilating raw food
materials
Depend on host for predigested food
Require adequate supply of moisture assured inside host
During free-living existence, inadequate moisture may
either prove fatal or prevent larval development
Temperature is important
Each species has optimal temperature range for its
existence and development
 Parasite Characteristics

1. High reproductive potential

2. Unique morphological or physiological specializations/
loss of structures
a) Loss of digestive tract in tapeworms
b) Loss of wings in fleas and lice
c) Loss of sensory structures in nematodes
d) Developed & refined tegument
e) Special holdfast organs (hooks, suckers, etc.)
f) Production of anti-coagulants in hookworms
Parasite characteristics
3. Special site specificity
4. Usually doesnt kill the host
5. Generally more numerous than hosts
6. Generally much smaller than the host
7. Host immune system evasion (i.e. host mimicry,
intracellular sequestration)

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Scientific nomenclature
Animal parasites are classified according to International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature
Each parasite belongs to a phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species
At times, further divisions of suborder, superfamily,
subfamily and subspecies are employed.
Example:
Family name ends in -idae, superfamily in -oidea and
subfamily in -inae
Names are Latinized
Scientific designation is binomial for species and trinomial
for subspecies
Geographic Distribution
Endemicity depends on presence and habitats of suitable
host, upon easy escape from host, and upon
environmental conditions favoring survival outside host.
Parasites with simpler life cycles have cosmopolitan
distribution than those with complicated life cycles.
Economic and social conditions affect distribution of
parasites of man
Religious practices may also be responsible for
transmission of parasites.
Migrations may also spread parasitic disease throughout
the world.
Geographic Distribution
Many parasites have worldwide distribution
Tropical countries, have optimal temperature and
humidity present, most favorable for survival, larval
development and transmission of parasites.
Short summer season in temperate zones prevents
development of many species that require high
temperatures during larval stages.
Intense dry heat or direct sunlight or freezing
temperatures or snow may destroy parasites
Moisture is vital for development of free-living larvae,
necessary for propagation of intermediate hosts.
Life Cycle
Evolving a way of life
Survival and development in the external environment
and in one or more hosts
Simple or complicated
Requires hosts
Hosts
Final or definitive host adult or sexual stage of parasite
Intermediate host part or all of larval or asexual stage
of parasite
Paratenic host animal that harbors parasite in arrested
state of development
Incidental host infected host is not necessary for
parasites survival or development.
Reservoir host harbor parasite ensure continuity of
parasites life cycle and act as additional sources of human
infection
Vectors

1. Biological Vector essential in parasite life cycle

(ex. Anopheline mosquitoes)

2. Mechanical Vector phoretic; no parasite

development within vector (ex. flies)
Parasitic Transmission
Source of infection
Mode of transmission
Presence of susceptible host
Parasitic infection and disease
Parasitic infections tend to run a chronic course with few
or no symptoms.
Infected host may become carrier without showing
clinical manifestations serving a potential source of
infection to others
Infection may not always result to disease
Parasitic disease show signs and symptoms or clinical
manifestations.
Mode of Transmission
Direct contact
Indirect contact
Food, water, soil
Vertebrate and arthropod vectors
Rarely, from mother to offspring
 Modes of Transmission

Ingestion Inhalation Skin Penetration

Vectors Congenital
Chances of infection
Increase by environmental conditions favoring the
existence of parasite
Increase by Lack of sanitation and communal hygiene
Susceptible host
Humans infected by parasite may serve as
(1) Only host
(2) Principal host with other animals also infected
(3) Incidental host with one or several other animals as
principal hosts
Existence of parasites depend on
Natural adaptability of parasite in respect to its host
Ease of transmission depends on habits and communal
association
Resistance of the host
Life Cycle

Direct Indirect

Only1 host More than 1 host

Example: Examples:
Entamoeba histolytica Schistosoma sp.
Pathology and Symptomatology
Infection invasion of endoparasites
Infestation invasion of ectoparasites
Parasitic infection infected host suffers very little
damage or no symptoms
Parasitic disease infected host develops pathological
changes and symptoms of varying degree.
Pathology
Incubation period
Clinical/ Medical: aka latency/ latent period; time from infection
to evidence of symptoms in host
Biological: aka prepatent period; time from infection to
development of diagnostic stage of parasite

Autoinfection when an infected individual becomes his own

direct source of infection

Superinfection aka hyperinfection or massive infection due to

ex. increase in worm burden
Pathogenesis of disease
Number of parasites
Worm burden or intensity of infection
Tissue tropism
Localization of parasites to specific organs
Mechanisms of tissue damage
Mechanical effects, such as pressure from enlarging cyst or
obstruction of vessels
Invasion and destruction of host cells by parasite itself
Inflammatory reactions to parasite or parasite products
Competition for host nutrients
Resistance and Immunity
Ability of host to withstand infection by a parasite
Physico-chemical barriers
Example: Skin
Innate or natural resistance
Example: Duffy blood group determinants in RBC are closely
associated with receptor for Plasmodium vivax
Specific immunity acquired from previous infection with
parasite
Example: Host specificity for other intracellular parasites may
involve cell surface receptors or other biochemical specificities
that permit some and restrict other species to serve as
suitable hosts.
 Epidemiology

Epidemiology study of patterns, distribution,

and occurrence of disease
Incidence: # of new cases/ popn at risk at a
given period
Morbidity Prevalence: # of existing cases (past &
measures present)/ popn at risk at a given period (%)
Morbidity: measured through disease rates
Mortality: measured through death rates
Factors influencing Prevalence of
Parasitism
Unsanitary living conditions
Disease control & treatment
Poor nutrition
Health education
Regional & ethnic customs
Climatic conditions
Opportunistic parasitism

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Diagnosis
Identification of parasite
Treatment
Medical and surgical measures
Adequate nutrition to build up general resistance
Specific chemotherapy
Prevention
Control of parasites
Reduction of sources of infection in hosts by therapeutic
measures
Education in personal prophylaxis to prevent dissemination of
infection and to reduce opportunities for exposure
Sanitary control of water, food, living and working conditions,
waste disposal
Destruction of control of reservoir hosts and vectors
Setting up of biologic barriers to transmission of parasites
Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom Protozoa: 45,000 unicellular species, each defined
in the phylum according to organelles, locomotion, life cycle
and type of reproduction.
Phylum Sarcomastigophora.
Subphylum - Mastigophora: movement with flagella -
e.g. Trichomonas, Giardia
Subphylum - Sarcodina: pseudopodia, e.g. amoeba
Phylum Apicomplexa: apical complex, no locomotor apparatus; sexual
reproduction, e.g. malaria, Isospora,
Toxoplasma
Phylum Ciliophora: movement with cilia, e.g. Balantidium.
Phylum Microspora: e.g. Enterocytozoon
Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom - Metazoa multicellular organisms.
Phylum - Nematoda: round worms, round in cross section; separate
sexes; complete digestive tract; 500,000 species
e.g. hookworm., filaria
Phylum - Platyhelminthes: flat worms; incomplete or absent digestive
tract; no body cavity; mostly hermaphroditic.
Class Trematoda: flukes; leaf shaped unsegmented body,
often complex life cycle; e.g. lung fluke.
Class Cestoidea: tapeworms; segmented bodies each
segment containing complete set of male and
female reproductive organs; no alimentary tract,
nutrition by absorption through body wall. e.g. beef
tape worm.
Major Taxonomic groups to be
discussed:

Kingdom Protista
Flagellates
Amebae
Apicomplexans
Ciliates
Kingdom Animalia
Flatworms: Flukes and Tapeworms
Roundworms
Arthropods: Insects & Arachnids
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