Structure and Facilities of Airports

I. History of Airport0073

A. History

The title of the Worlds Oldest Airport is given to College Park Airport in Maryland, USA, and
was established by Wilbur Wright in 1909. Hamburg Airport, established in 1911, is the oldest
airport still in operation.

The earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields. A slight improvement was the
dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag from grass. Later, concrete surfaces would allow
landings, rain or shine, day or night. The introduction of grooves in the concrete surface serves
to draw off excess water in rainy conditions that could build up in front of the planes wheels.

Increased air traffic during World War I led to the construction of landing fields. Aircraft had to
approach these from certain directions and this led to the development of aids for directing the
approach and landing slope.

During the 1920s, permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation.
During this era, the airports paved the use of apron, which permitted night flying as well as
landing heavier aircraft.

The first lighting (approach lighting) used on an airport was established during the 1930s. The
colors and flash intervals of these lights became standardized under International Civil Aviation
Authority (ICAO).

After World War II, airport design became more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being
grouped together, and this meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.

Philippines

Ninoy Aquino International Airport Paliparang Pandaigdigan ng Ninoy Aquino

In 2015, all terminals of NAIA handled an annual passenger traffic of 36,681,601 (19,513,514
domestic passengers and 17,168,087 international travelers).

The original airport that served Manila is the Grace Park Airfield in Grace Park, Caloocan. It
opened in 1935 and was the citys first commercial airport catering to domestic flights. In 1937,
the Nielson Airport in Makati (now forms the Ayala Avenue and Paseo de Roxas) had served for
the international flights. In 1948, the airport was moved to the adjacent site of Villamor Airbase
(then called the Nichols field). The original structure was built on the site of the now Terminal 2.

In 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos promulgated EO No. 381, authorizing the development of
Manila International Airport (MIA).
 In 1981, a high capacity Terminal 1 was built, forming the old Manila International Airport. By
virtue of RA 6639, signed on August 17, 1987, MIA was named to Ninoy Aquino International
Airport to honor Benigno Aquino, Jr. who was assassinated on August 21, 1983 in the same
airport.

In 1988, Terminal 2 was rebuilt and completed, and in 1997, Terminal 3 was constructed.

Structure:

Terminal 1 International Flights except Nippon Airways, Cathay Pacific, Delta Air Lines,
Emirates, KLM, and Singapore Airlines

Terminal 2 Also called Centennial Terminal named after the centennial year of declaration;
Used exclusively by the Philippine Airlines and PAL Express for both international and domestic
flights (North Wing for international flights; South Wing for domestic flights)

Terminal 3 Newest and largest terminal in NAIA; Cebu Pacific and Airphil Express, All Nippon
Airways (Tokyo-Haneda, Tokyo-Narita), Delta Air Lines (Tokyo-Narita), KLM (Amsterdam),
Emirates (Dubai International), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), and Cathay Pacific (Hong Kong)
are operating under Terminal 3

Terminal 4 Oldest Terminal of NAIA, built in 1948; Also known as Manila Domestic Passenger
Terminal; Host to all domestic flights under Cebgo, among others

B. Airport Designation and Naming

Most airport names include the location or honor a public figure (NAIA), a celebrity (John
Lennon Airport), or a prominent figure in aviation history (Will Rogers World Airport). Airport
names that include International indicates their ability to handle international traffic.

II. Structure and Facilities

A. Parts of an Airport

a. Runways

A runway is the area where an aircraft lands or takes off. It can be grass, or packed dirt, or a
hard surface such as asphalt or concrete. Runways have special markings on them to help a pilot
in the air to tell that it is a runway (and not a road) and to help them when they are landing or
taking off. Runway markings are white.
Most runways have numbers on the end. The number is the runway's compass direction. (For
example, runway numbered 36 would be pointing north or 360 degrees). Some airports have
more than one runway going in the same direction, so they add letters to the end of the number
R for right, C for center, and L for left. The other end of the runway is pointing in the opposite
direction, so it gets a different number. The runway called 36 would be called 18 (for 180
degrees) if you were looking at it from the other end.

Runways may have other markings besides the end number on them. They may have white
stripes down the middle of them, and solid white lines on the edges. The most important thing
for you to remember about a runway is that it is meant for aircraft use, so you should never
drive your vehicle on it, unless you are authorized to do so.

b. Taxiways

Taxiways are areas used by the aircraft to get to and from their parking place and the runway.
Taxiways look a lot like runways, but they usually aren't as wide as the runway, and they don't
have the same kind of markings. Taxiway markings are yellow. Instead of numbers, taxiways
use letters (like A, B, or C) for names. Like runways, taxiways are meant for aircraft use. Never
drive your vehicle on a taxiway unless you are authorized to do so.

c. Aprons

Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park. Aprons are also sometimes called ramps.
They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very large areas that
the major airports have. Unlike the runways or taxiways, vehicles can use aprons. Your work
may require you to drive on an apron. If so, be very careful in these areas. Watch out for
aircraft that are moving and yield the right of way to them. Don't assume the pilot will see you
and stop - he or she may be busy with other things like radio communications or checking the
aircraft instruments. Every year there are many accidents involving vehicles and aircraft that
result in property damage, personal injury, and in some cases, death. Don't let this happen to
you! Your airport Executive Director has established rules for driving a vehicle on the airport -
get a copy and read and obey them. The rules are there for your safety as well as the safety of
the aircraft pilot and passengers.

In addition to watching out for moving aircraft, be careful not to get to close to a parked one.
Aside from nicks and dents, which are expensive to repair, you could be hurt if an aircraft
suddenly started its engine and you were to close. You should also be aware of the problem of
jet blast or prop wash. This occurs when an aircraft engine is running. If you are near the
aircraft, especially if you are behind it, you can be hit by a strong wind that can knock you onto
the ground, and in some cases can even burn you. There have been several cases where
vehicles have been overturned by jet blast. One way to tell if an aircraft is about to start its
engine or if the engines are already running is to look for a flashing light on top of the fuselage
(body) of the aircraft.
d. Signs

The signs near the runways and taxiways come in different sizes and colors. If the sign has
white numbers on a red background, it is a runway holding position sign. These signs are
important because they mean you are on the edge of the protected area around a runway and
must have permission to proceed. A yellow sign with black letters is a guidance sign. A black
sign with yellow letters is a location sign. The taxiways at our airport have these signs next to
them.

A taxiway sign with yellow letters and a black background will tell you which taxiway you are on
and helps you determine your location. Some airports have these signs painted on the
taxiways.

e. More Signs

There may be signs to remind pilots of noise abatement procedures or warning signs that tell
vehicle operators not to proceed beyond a certain point. You may see markings that identify
the area of the airport under air traffic control. These markings are yellow and consist of two
yellow lines, one solid one dashed. The dashed line faces the area controlled by ATC.

f. Lights

Runways are edged with white lights and taxiways have blue lights. Near the ends of runways,
the lights may be two-sided. Amber on one side, white on the other. At the end of the runway,
you may also see runway threshold lights. These are red on one side, green on the other. If the
amber or red lights are visible you may be approaching the end of the runway. Remember,
runway edge lights are white and taxiway edge lights are blue.

g. Markings

Runway markings are painted white. Taxiways have yellow markings. The center of the taxiway
has a solid yellow stripe. The sides may have one or two solid yellow stripes along the edge.
Again, not all airports have these markings. As the taxiway comes up to the edge of the
runway, you may see what pilots call a "hold" line that looks like this. It is two solid yellow
stripes followed by two broken yellow stripes. This is the airport version of a stop sign. Along
the side of the taxiway next to the hold line, there may be a runway holding position sign (red
and white) with the runway number.

Ramps have markings, as well, for aircraft parking and tie downs. Some airport ramps have
special markings for vehicle operations. If there are vehicle or roadway markings, you should
always drive your vehicle within those marked areas. Taxiways may also be marked on the
apron to show aircraft routes to gates and parking areas.
 h. TOWERED AIRPORTS

If your airport has an air traffic control (ATC) tower, it is a towered airport whenever the tower
is operating. Pilots and vehicle drivers wanting to enter a runway or taxiway (movement areas)
must first get permission from the tower.

As an operator of a vehicle, you must have authorization from ATC before you enter any part of
the airport movement area. When the tower is in operation, you must utilize a two-way radio
for communicating with and receiving instructions from air traffic control.

III. Radio Communications Procedures

Ensure the availability of a radio capable of transmitting and receiving on the airports ground control
frequency. Perform a "radio check" to assess your radio's operability at the start of each shift.

Each vehicle should be designated with an identifying call sign, and be marked and lighted appropriately.

Know the standard Air Traffic Control (ATC) phraseology and never use Citizens Band (CB) lingo or law
enforcement ten codes.

Think about what you are going to say before calling the controller. Know your call sign, location on the
airfield and where you intend to go.

When the controller is busy, it is best to simply call the tower with your identification and wait for the
controllers response.

Read back of all runway holding instructions is required and must include the phrase "Hold Short", the
runway's identifying number and your call sign.

With a little practice, radio communications are not difficult. If you are ever unsure about what the
controller said, or if you dont understand an instruction, ask the controller to repeat the
communication by transmitting SAY AGAIN.

A controller, even one who is extremely busy, would rather repeat and explain instructions than have a
misunderstanding lead to a runway incursion. Dont proceed thinking that the instructions will become
clear once you drive a little farther.

When you contact the tower before an operation, you will receive instructions on how to proceed. Be
sure you understand your route, stopping points and holding positions. If you are not sure where you
are going and would like turn-by-turn directions, ask the controller for progressive taxi instructions.
When the control tower is closed

When the control tower is closed, the airport is referred to as non-towered. At a non-towered airport,
you do not need controller permission before entering a runway or taxiway. Should access to a taxiway
or runway be required for operational needs, a radio tuned to the airport's common traffic advisory
frequency (CTAF), usually called UNICOM, will be ON to monitor the air traffic.

Below are some best practices for operating on an airport when the tower is closed:

When you approach the runways and taxiways, STOP, LOOK both ways, and LISTEN for aircraft that are
landing or taking off. Vehicle windows should be open to do this properly.

Alert others when you are using a taxiway or runway by always making an announcement on the radio
before you enter. Be specific with your location and intentions.

Always yield the right-of-way to taxiing aircraft and give them plenty of room. If an aircraft is headed
toward you on the same taxiway, move out of the aircrafts way.

Always carry a radio tuned to the airports Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) or UNICOM.

If an aircraft is about to land on a runway that you need to cross, stop well clear of the runway. Continue
to yield to the aircraft until it has landed and taxied off of the runway.

Be aware that some aircraft at non-towered airports may not be equipped with radios.

Before you cross a runway, ensure that no potentially conflicting aircraft are taxiing, landing or taking
off. Be aware of aircraft at non-towered airports that frequently make touch-and-go landings
(immediately after landing, full power is applied and the aircraft takes off again).

If your vehicle has a rotating beacon, be sure to turn it on anytime you are on the airport surface. Turn
on headlights as well, being careful not to blind any pilots in the area.
 Decca Navigation System

I. What is DECCA Navigation System?

A. Introduction and Basic Purpose

The Decca Navigator System was a hyperbolic radio navigation system which allowed ships and
aircraft to determine their position by receiving radio signals from fixed navigational beacons. The
system used low frequencies from 70 to 129 kHz. It was first deployed by the Royal Navy during
World War II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate
landings. After the war it was extensively developed around the UK and later used in many areas
around the world.

Decca's primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters, offering much better accuracy than
the competing LORAN system. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on
aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving map displays. The system was deployed
extensively in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms. The opening
of the more accurate Loran-C system to civilian use in 1974 offered stiff competition, but Decca
was well established by this time and continued operations into the 1990s. Decca was eventually
replaced, along with Loran and other similar systems, by the GPS during the 1990s.

B. Hyperbolic Navigation System

II. History

A. Conception and World War II

William J. OBrien conceived the idea of an Aircraft Position Indicator in 1939. He proposed it to
the US Navy and Army but they rejected it, saying it was too complicated. He then offered the
idea to the British Ministry through his friend H.F. Schwarz (an American working in London for
the Decca Record Company). The idea was rejected by Watson-Watt due to it being prone to
jamming and interference.

They worked together (OBrien and Schwarz), with support from Decca, in a lab in Los Angeles
during 1941-1943 with successful results. In January 1944, the Royal Air Force conducted a test of
accuracy against the existing Gee system on the Irish Sea. Decca was deemed more user-friendly
because the results were displayed on decometers rather than cathode ray tubes.

The Royal Air Force of UK utilized their Navigation System to make a landing on D-Day (under
Operation Neptune).
B. Post-War and Deployment

In 1945, the Decca Navigator Company, Ltd was formed and the first commercial chain of stations
was established in south-east England in 1946. It is associated with the companys signature tune
that was formed of the notes d-e-c-c-a.

The system of Lane Identification was introduced in 1947, and around mid-1950s, the Multipulse
technique. Both systems were used to solve the problem of ambiguity and lane identification.

An experimental Decca chain was set up in New York, United States in the late 1950s. It should be
used for navigating the Vertol 107 helicopters of New York Airways. The establishment of this
chain was highly controversial at the time, for political reasons. The U.S. Coast guard, under
instructions from the Treasury Department, banned the use of Decca receivers in ships entering
New York for fear that the system might create a de facto standard. It also served to protect the
marketing interests of the Hoffman Electronics, a principal supplier of VOR/DME systems.

The Aircraft Traffic Controllers Association (ATCA) of U.S., forced its members to use radar data
on aircraft positions, relaying those positions by radio from their control locations. The collision
of Douglas DC8 and a Lockheed Constellation over Staten Island, New York, according to experts,
could have been avoided if the aircraft had been Decca-equipped. It could have not only
determined their positions more precisely, but would have not suffered from rho-theta position
errors inherent in VOR/DME.

In the 1960s, Decca made an effort to get it adopted to be the standard airborne navaid in
preference to VOR/DME by ICAO. They set up special chains in USA to no avail. VOR/DME was
preferred over Decca because of the latters problems with ambiguity and precipitation static that
was worse for aircrafts. Also, four transmitters covered little area than a single VOR/DME
installation.

By 1970, more than 15,000 receiving sets were in use aboard ships. There were 4 chains in the
UK, 12 in Scandinavia, 4 in Northern Europe, and 2 in Spain. By 1976, there are more than 50
chains in the world. Chains were established in several parts of the world like Japan (6 chains),
Namibia and South Africa (5 chains), India and Bangladesh (4 chains), Canada (4 chains), North-
West Australia (2 chains), the Persian Gulf, among others. Two chains were used during the
Vietnam War for helicopter navigation, to limited success.

C. Notable Chains in the World

Note: Almost all sites were located in the middle of nowhere so an exact reference was difficult
except for latitude and longitude.
Note: Because Decca Navigator only depended on the ground wave, it was possible to reuse chain
ID's (i.e. frequencies) around the world. Chains sharing the same channel had to be at least 2,000
km apart. Any time a two slave chain was planned, Red and Green were used since that
combination offered the best accuracy pattern under all conditions.

English Chains
5B - English (Southeast England)
3B - North British (Irish Sea Coverage)
2A - Northumbrian (North Sea and Firth of Forth)
1B - South West British (Coverage of South and East
Coasts of Ireland, Cornwall and Scilly Isles)

It covered the English Channel and parts of the North

Sea. It provided the reputation of Decca for both
accuracy and reliability. It was the test bed for the
development of Decca and was the center of
promotion of the system.

Maximum dimensions of a typical transmitter site

were 1100 feet by 770 feet but the actual ground area
occupied by the station was 750 feet by 150 feet. The
buildings for the transmitters were simple, single
story, prefabricated units on a concrete foundation. Figure 1 Range of the English Chain;
Solid circle is 300 miles distance while
Dashed circle is 350 miles
 Japanese Chains

Hokkaido 9C
Kita-Kyushu 7C
Tohoku 6C
Kanto 8C
Shikoku 4C
Hokuriku 2C

Japan was a land of opportunity for Decca

because it relies on the sea for its food
supply and fishing is a major industry.

Japan was an early user of Decca system Figure 2 Decca Configuration for Japan; Approximate
having bought its own chain in 1960. Coverage Area
Decca signed agreement with the
Japanese Government and a number of commercial organizations like Kobe Kogyo (Fujitsu now)
as manufacturing licenses.

Hokkaido was the first Decca chain to open in Japan and last to close in the world.

D. Closedown

Eventually, the popularity of GPS started to erode the base of Decca Navigator Users. Racal, the
UK weapons and communications company, acquired Decca in 1980. By 1996, there are only 30
chains left.

By the early 1980s the widespread availability of low cost microprocessors made inexpensive
Decca receivers available for purchase. A significant number of companies (AP Aktieselkabet
Dansk Philips in particular) introduced receivers that could be purchased outright (not leased
unlike Decca receivers). They were much smaller and easier to use, and they directly output the
latitude and longitude to two decimals instead of using decometer displays. This eliminated the
need for special charts printed with Decca lanes and zones.

Decca sued AP for infringement and, in the ensuing court battle, Decca lost the monopoly.
The loss of rental revenue caused Racal Electronics to inform the Government that it could no
longer afford to operate without financial support. From then onwards, the Decca Navigator
Service was funded by the British General Lighthouse Authority (GLA).

A ruling from European Union forced the UK government to withdraw funding. The GLA authority
ceased Decca transmissions at midnight on March 31, 2000. Japan continued operating their
Hokkaido Chain until March 2001, the last Decca chain in operation.
III. Principles of Operations

A. Basic Operation

The Decca Navigator System consisted of a number of landbased radio beacons organized into
chains. Each chain consisted of a master station and three (occasionally two) slave stations,
termed Red, Green and Purple. Ideally, the slaves would be positioned at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle with the master at the center. The baseline length, that is, the master-slave
distance, was typically 60120 nautical miles (110220 km).

Each station transmitted a continuous wave signal that, by comparing the phase difference of the
signals from the Master and one of the Slaves, resulted in a set of hyperbolic lines of position
called a pattern. As there were three Slaves there were three patterns, termed Red, Green and
Purple. The patterns were drawn on nautical charts as a set of hyperbolic lines in the appropriate
color.

Receivers identified which hyperbola they were on and a position could be plotted at the
intersection of the hyperbola from different patterns, usually by using the pair with the angle of
cut closest to orthogonal as possible.

When two stations transmit at the same phase locked frequency, the difference in phase between
the two signals is constant along a hyperbolic path. Of course, if two stations transmit on the same
frequency, it is practically impossible for the receiver to separate them, so instead of all stations
transmitting at the same frequency, each chain was allocated a nominal frequency, 1f, and each
station in the chain transmitted at a harmonic of this base frequency, as follows:

The frequencies given are those for Chain 5B, known as the English Chain, but all chains used
similar frequencies between 70 kHz and 129 kHz. Decca receivers multiplied the signals received
from the Master and each Slave by different values to arrive at a common frequency (least
common multiple, LCM) for each Master/Slave pair, as follows:
 It was phase comparison at this common frequency that resulted in the hyperbolic lines of
position. The interval between two adjacent hyperbolas on which the signals are in phase was
called a lane. Since the wavelength of the common frequency was small compared with the
distance between the Master and Slave stations there were many possible lines of position for a
given phase difference, and so a unique position could not be arrived at by this method.

Other receivers, typically for aeronautical applications, divided the transmitted frequencies
down to the basic frequency (1f) for phase comparison, rather than multiplying them up to the
LCM frequency.

B. Frequency of Transmission

The transmitted signal frequency is between 70 to 130 KHz with range approximately 200 km.
Four stations, a master and three slaves, form a chain. They transmit at frequencies which are
multiples of a base frequency f (which is about 14 KHz).

C. Decometer

The decometer indications are continuous, and depending on the position in the coverage,
readings of the two appropriate decameters can be taken simultaneously whenever a fix is
required. The third decameter can give some additional information, but usually its readings are
disregarded in the wide sector around the base-line extension. The lattice patterns are formed
by hyperbolic position lines similar to those previously described. They are overprinted on
ordinary Mercator charts. The slave stations are known as Red, Green and Purple slaves,
according to the printed color of the lattice lines derived from their transmissions.

D. Range and Accuracy

During daylight ranges of around 400 nautical miles (740 km) could be obtained, reducing at
night to 200 to 250 nautical miles (460 km), depending on propagation conditions.

The accuracy depended on the width of the lanes, angle of cut of the hyperbolic lines of position,
instrumental errors, and propagation errors. By day these errors could range from a few meters
on the baseline up to a nautical mile at the edge of coverage. At night, sky wave errors were
greater and on receivers without multipulse capabilities it was not unusual for the position to
jump a lane, sometimes without the navigator knowing.

Although in the days of differential GPS this range and accuracy may appear poor, in its day the
Decca system was one of the few, if not the only, position fixing system available to many
mariners. Since the need for an accurate position is less when the vessel is further from land, the
reduced accuracy at long ranges was not a great problem.
E. Multipulse

Multipulse provided an automatic method of lane and zone identification by using the same
phase comparison techniques described above on lower frequency signals.

The nominally continuous wave transmissions were in fact divided into a 20second cycle, with
each station in turn simultaneously transmitting all four Decca frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f and 9f) in a
phase coherent relationship for a brief period of 0.45 seconds each cycle. This transmission,
known as Multipulse, allowed the receiver to extract the 1f frequency and so to identify which
lane the receiver was in (to a resolution of a zone).

As well as transmitting the Decca frequencies of 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f, an 8.2f signal, known as Orange,
was also transmitted. The beat frequency between the 8.0f (Red) and 8.2f (Orange) signals
allowed a 0.2f signal to be derived and so resulted in a hyperbolic pattern in which one cycle
(360) of phase difference equates to 5 zones.

Assuming that ones position was known to this accuracy, this gave an effectively unique
position.

F. Lanes and Zones

Early Decca receivers were fitted with three rotating Decometers that indicated the phase
difference for each pattern. Each Decometer drove a second indicator that counted the number
of lanes traversed each 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed. In this way,
assuming the point of departure was known; a more or less distinct location could be identified.

The lanes were grouped into zones, with 18 green, 24 red, or 30 purple lanes in each zone. This
meant that on the baseline (the straight line between the Master and its Slave) the zone width
was the same for all three patterns of a given chain. Typical lane and zone widths on the baseline
are shown in the table below (for chain 5B):

The lanes were numbered 0 to 23 for red, 30 to 47 for green and 50 to 79 for purple. The zones
were labelled A to J, repeating after J. A Decca position coordinate could thus be written: Red I
16.30 Green D 35.80. Later receivers incorporated a microprocessor and displayed a position in
latitude and longitude.

G. Chain Operation
 A Decca chain normally consisted of a master station controlling the phase of three slaves, which
were situated about 120 degrees apart, at a radius of 60 to 100 miles from the master. That
provided all-round coverage, and, because ground waves of this frequency band are not seriously
attenuated by passing over land, the stations could advantageously be situated well inland.

Each Station in the chain would normally transmit a particular unmodulated phase stable carrier
wave. These carriers were all harmonically related to an internal station reference which was
about 14.2 kHz, referred to as f.

The Master Station normally transmitting a 6f unmodulated carrier wave signal in the 85 kHz
band,

Red Slave Station transmitting at 8f signal in the 112 kHz Band,

Green Slave transmitting at 9f signal in the 127 kHz band,

Purple Slave transmitting at 5f signal in the 71 kHz band.

The Slave stations received and phase locked their station reference oscillators to the Master
6f Transmission.

The frequency ranges for the master and slave stations were:

Master: 84 - 86 kHz

Red slave: 112 - 115 kHz

Green slave: 126 - 129 kHz

Purple slave: 70 - 72 kHz

Since the signals were continuous wave (CW), 150 Hz spacing was sufficient to ensure there would
be no interference.

These transmissions were received by a special receiver and frequency multiplying circuits therein
produced phase comparisons of 24f for the Master and Red, 18f for Master and Green, and 30f for
the Master and Purple.

H. Variable Error

The presence of a sky wave component in the received signal may cause variable errors at the
receiver. In the case of Decca, there is no means of distinguishing between the two waves. This
leads to an inaccuracy in the decometer readings which will vary with the range from the
transmitters and with the time of day. At ranges greater than 75 miles, the accuracy at night is
noticeably lower than it is by day, since sky wave effect is normally only experienced during the
night. Beyond a range of between 150 and 220 miles there is a serious danger of "lane-slip".

Disregarding systematic errors and transmission failures, the accuracy of a fix from the Decca system
can be considered to depend upon:
 Instrumental errors

Propagation errors caused by either Sky Wave or Coastal effects.

Lane width.

Angle of cut of the hyperbolae.

Thus Decca errors are subject to many variables and cannot be summarized precisely. The following
figures give a guide to the accuracy that should generally be expected

By DAY 0-100 miles or by NIGHT 0-75 miles: +/- 10 feet near base line; 1 mile at limits

By NIGHT 75-240 miles: Up to a maximum of about 5 miles, depending on sighting of slave

stations.

IV. Ground Stations and Airborne Equipments of Decca Navigator System

A. Transmitters

Mass Radiator and Ground Radials

Its overall height was 325 feet and the base formed a square some 60 feet wide. Mounted
near the top, were four, high level booms supporting the specially designed umbrella type
aerial array. At the junction of the 75-foot-long booms was a work platform. The mast itself
formed part of the aerial system and was mounted on four insulators with concrete supports
and foundations. Mast head lighting was also incorporated into the design. The height of the
towers and the number of towers varied.

Earth System

A good earth system was necessary to ensure the high efficiency of the Decca Navigator
transmitting station, hence an extensive pattern of radial earth wires was therefore
employed. This system consisted of 90 radials. Each radial consisted of 7 gauge, 18 strand
copper wire, 325 feet long. These were equally spaced radiating from the center formed by
the Aerial Coil House. In some installations, these radials were laid above ground for the
whole of their length and supported on light wooden posts extending about 18 inches above
the ground.

Mast Insulator
Arthur O. Austin was the founder of the A.O. Austin Insulator Company of Barberton, Ohio.
He was a prolific inventor in the early to mid1900's and at one time is believed to have held
225 different patents for various insulator products. These achievements allowed him to lead
the field in North America for the design and manufacture of Radio Frequency Insulators and
Tower Lighting Transformers. Many radio engineers will recognize the renowned "Austin Ring
Transformer", which was respectfully named after its inventor, A.O. Austin.

Transmitters Thermionic Type

Each station was fitted with three continuous wave transmitters. One unit was always
considered to be operational. Another unit was designated for "immediate standby" with
filaments on and all ready to take over should the operational transmitter fail. The third was
available for maintenance. With this arrangement, the standby transmitter could be flashed
up in less than 1.5 seconds thus ensuring continuity of transmission.

Control Rack of a System

Though similar in appearance on all stations, they perform a different function at the Master
station from that of the Slave stations. At each station the racks are provisioned in triplicate.
One serves as the "duty unit" one runs on standby, ready for instant operation while the third
is available for maintenance.

A Master Drive Rack contains:

(i) A crystal oscillator of great stability which controls the station frequency.

(ii) Circuits which produce a coded change of this frequency by 60 Hz for 1/25th of a

second, three times per minute to provide the Lane Indemnification triggering signal.

(iii) Circuits which drive all the transmitters.

A Slave Drive Rack contains:

(i) A crystal oscillator forming the source of the slave signal.

(ii) Phase comparison and locking circuits which hold the slave signal at a constant

pre-determined phase relationship with the received master signal.

(iii) Filter and relay circuits triggered by the Master which bring up the Lane Identification
transmitters.

(iv) Circuits which drive all the transmitters.

Power Supplies

The ground station equipment operated from a commercial 230 volt, 50 cycles per second, 3-
phase power source which was rated at 11 kilowatts. That included heating and lighting
requirements as well. Standby power could be derived from two 5.6 KVA diesel driven
generators and one 22.5 KVA petrol-electric unit. One diesel generator was constantly
running in readiness for immediate changeover. Diesel fuel was stored in a 600 gallon above-
ground tank.

820 Station Equipment

"The 820 generation of station equipment was probably the most widely deployed of all the
Decca transmitters, but was tricky to maintain and when scrapped, had very little value to
anybody.- David Jones, Former Decca Employee

This type of station equipment was deployed on chains in the UK, Europe, Canada, Vietnam,
Bahamas, North Spain, Persian Gulf, India and Bangladesh just to name a few.

The station contains the following:

Transmitter Tank Unit

Phase Control Cabinet

RAMME/RASME

Coil House

Antenna Ammeters from the Coil House

Emergency Batteries

Antennas and towers

- Pylon Mast Type

- Single Triangular Lattice Mast

 - Single Wire Tee Antenna

- Tubular Mast

B. Receivers

a. Airborne
Note: Mark 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are Airborne-
Only receivers.
Mark 4 was available for both airborne
and marine.

Mark 7 Airborne receiver using locked Figure 3 External Controls of the MK 6 receiver
oscillator; phase comparison directly at
slave frequencies.

Mark 9 Airborne receiver without Land Identification feature.

Mark 10 A design of the airborne receiver for use in the DECTRA system. It employed locked
oscillators on all channels; automatic Lane Identification using the Multipulse method; had
the zone identification feature; phase comparison at 1F (14 kHz)

Mark 11 First solid-state receiver; used with Omnitrac/Harco system; employed

electromechanical tracking filters and digital outputs.

Mark 15 Receiver used for DANAC (Decca Area Navigation Airborne Computer),
incorporating full Land Identification and Zone Identification. It was also used by the British
European Airways Trident aircraft, and was also a standard fit in many UK registered Jet
Ranger Helicopters.

Mark 19 A multi-purpose unit for military use. It was used by the Royal Air Force (RAF).

b. Shipborne

QM Receiver The original Decca receiver which saw action on D-Day. It has 3 channels (for
Master, Red, and Green). It was developed as a secret wartime navigational aid for the British
Admiralty.

Mark 4 A shipborne receiver that can be used as an airborne receiver (MK 4A). It has 4
channels (for Master, Red, Green, and Purple). The first MK 4 receiver was fitted to MV Rogate
on February 26, 1947.

Mark 5 This was Deccas first marine receiver capable of lane identification.

Mark 12 Introduced as a marine receiver on 1962. It supported both Multipulse and Mark 5
Lane Identification. It used a locked oscillator in the master channel.
 Mark 21 An all solid-state marine receiver designed for use with Decca chains radiating
Multipulse (Lane Identification) signals only. It was an intended replacement for Mk 12
receivers. When used with a non-Multipulse (V-type chain), only the decometers would be
operative but not the Lane Identification.

Mark 53 The last of the Hyperbolic navigators designed by the old Decca Navigator
Company.

C. Indicators

a. Decometers

A phase-meter that is used to display the

detected phase differences. The readings
may be plotted onto a Decca lattice chart, on
which the lines of position are numbered in
the same way as those shown on the
decometers. The lattice patterns are formed
by the hyperbolic position lines.
Figure 4 A set of Decometers
The slave stations are known as Red, Green,
and Purple. The decometer indications are
continuous and depending on the position in the coverage, readings of the two appropriate
decometers can be taken simultaneously whenever a fix is required. The third decometer can
give some additional information, but usually, its readings are disregarded in the wide sector
around the base-line extension.

Early Decca receivers were fitted with three rotating Decometers that indicated the phase
difference for each pattern. Each Decometer drove a second indicator that counted the
number of lanes traversed 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed.
Assuming the point of departure was known, a more or less distinct location could be
identified.

Lanes were grouped into zones 18 for green, 24 for red, 30 for purple (lanes in each zone).

This means that on the baseline (straight line between Master and Slave), the zone width was
the same for all three patterns of a given chain.
 b. Flight Plotter

To simplify the problem of navigating in all types of aircraft, Decca came up with a solution in
the form of a presentation suitable for plot navigation.

This device, in conjunction with Decca Navigator Mark VI receiver and the existing Decca chains
of the day provided a realistic and practical aid to navigation in Europe.

Route graphs were prepared by the Decca Navigator Company for all European air routes and
the pilot only needed to turn the knobs of the Flight Plotter to bring the Perspex cursor to
correspond to the Decometer readings at any point on the flight to obtain, without an effort,
not only a position fix, but also range and bearing from destination.

The pilot was entirely free to make any deviations from route when circumstances necessitated
and was able to use this simple and efficient method of navigation throughout his flight.

c. Decca Marine Automatic Plotter (DMAP)

It provides for an accurate and continuous map presentation of a ships position and at the
same time, producing a complete record of its track. It also enables ships to follow any desired
course with an accuracy, and eliminates the problem which were encountered when a ship is
required to make a track which does not coincide with a Decca hyperbolic position line.

It was used in conjunction with the Mark 5 receiver or with a Decca Survey Equipment, this
display unit is primarily intended for operations in which accurate holding of predetermined
tracks and the maintenance of complete track records are essential.

The complete DMAP comprises of a display unit and Control Amplifier (power supply). It is
designed for operation from an AC power source.

V. Issues Encountered by the DNS

A. Limitations

a. Accuracy

It depended on:

- Width of lanes
- Angle cut of hyperbolic lanes
- Instrumental errors
- Propagation errors (e.g. Skywave)
 (Because of the Continuous wave nature of the Decca compared to pulse timing) The
resolution of Decca was better at around 5 meters. However, the sky wave component of the
signal could not be separated from the ground wave in the receiver. Decca performance at
long ranges and the night was much poorer than that of Loran-C.

The specified Decca position error thus varied from less than 200 meters during the day within
about 100 km of the master station to more than 2.5 km at maximum range during a winter
night.

The accuracy of DNS ranged from 50 meters during daytime to 200 meters at night. It could
decrease up to 800 meters as the distance from the baseline increased. Accuracy was also
affected by seasonal effects.
Mariners need less accurate position when further from land so the reduced accuracy at
long ranges was not a great problem.

b. Range
The effective range of Decca system is at least 450 km. During daylight, ranges of around
400 nautical miles (740 km) could be obtained. At night, the range is reduced to 200 to
250 nautical miles (460km), depending on propagation conditions.

c. Source of Errors
Transmitter and receiver inaccuracies (Chain timing control is great)
Interference
Noise

Because DNS receivers have only a few Hertz bandwidth, carrier-wave interferences are
negligible. The narrow bandwidth also mean that DNS is relatively immune to atmospheric
noise (except at tropical regions during the worst seasons of the year).

SKYWAVE PROPAGATION determines the maximum range of DNS operation. Certain

receivers take advantage of the fact that pulses suffer smaller skywave errors than single-
frequency transmissions so MULTIPULSE system alone as the source of time difference
information is used under worst conditions of skywave interference.

B. Operational Considerations

Same frequency range can be used by another chain if the distance between two Master
stations is approximately 2300 km with the frequencies of each Master was separated by 5
Hz only and the frequency distance of the slave stations being harmonically related to each
other.

To overcome the difficulty of same frequencies, all transmitters work on different, but
related, frequencies.
Reasons for Adopting Low Frequency

- The use of higher frequencies results in attenuation of the ground wave, but no account
of reduction of the sky wave influence
- With much lower frequencies, aerial systems of ground stations would necessitate larger
investments to obtain the same transmission power. The effective height of the aerial would be
decreased with respect to the airborne receiver.

Navigational and Operational Considerations

- Different receiver models are available for use in helicopters, jet aircraft, and slow civil
aircraft.
- Radio coordinates indicated by the decometers required plotting a chart, they cannot be
used by pilots for navigational purposes.

A flight log was developed for aircraft use, which is generally provided with a Decca airborne
equipment. It allows deviation from a rigid airway system. New airways or re-location of airways
requires no alteration of the aids of navigation.
It has several advantages:
- It indicates very accurately and continuously the position within the coverage of Decca
chain and records the track flown.
- (En-route navigation) Better track-keeping on airways, reliable circumnavigation of
prohibited areas without additional radio navigation facilities, early recognition of wind drift, etc.
- The problems of identification in the case of radar surveillance is simplified in that the
pilot always can give his exact position when requested by the control tower.
- The flight log can be OPERATED EASILY. There is a flight log stylus where the fixed Decca
coordinates (before a flight) is set. When a chart change is required (en route), the stylus must be
re-set.

The flight log contains all data necessary for the navigation of the aircraft. It includes:

- Airway system
- Distance in nautical miles from the aerodrome of departure to the terminal airport
- Arrows indicating north at several points of severely distorted flight log charts
- Topographic features as necessary from en route navigation
- Information on air traffic control facilities
- Lines of two hyperbolic lattices by means of which correct setting of the stylus can be
checked.
VI. Other Applications

A. Hi-Fix

A more accurate system named Hi-Fix was developed using signalling in the 1.6 MHz range. It was
used for specialised applications such as precision measurements involved with oil-drilling and by
the Royal Navy for detailed mapping and surveying of coasts and harbours. The Hi-Fix equipment
was leased for a period with temporary chains established to provide coverage of the area
required, Hi-Fix was commercialised by Racal Survey in the early 1980s. An experimental chain
was installed with coverage of central London and receivers placed in London buses and other
vehicles to demonstrate an early vehicle location and tracking system. Each vehicle would report
its location automatically via a conventional VHF two-way radio link, the data added to a voice
channel. A forerunner to a system employed by London black cabs in the 1990s using GPS and
now the widespread use of GSM, 3G and Wi-Fi geolocation applications.

Another application was developed by the Bendix Pacific division of Bendix Corporation, with
offices in North Hollywood, California, but not deployed: PFNSPersonal Field Navigation
Systemthat would enable individual soldiers to ascertain their geographic position, long before
this capability was made possible by the satellite-based GPS (Global Positioning System.

A further application of the Decca system was implemented by the U.S. Navy in the late 1950s
and early 1960s for use in the Tongue of the Ocean/Eleuthera Sound area near The Bahamas,
separating the islands of Andros and New Providence. The application was for sonar studies made
possible by the unique characteristics of the ocean floor.

An interesting characteristic of the Decca VLF signal discovered on BOAC, later British Airways,
test flights to Moscow, was that the carrier switching could not be detected even though the
carrier could be received with sufficient strength to provide navigation. Such testing, involving
civilian aircraft is quite common and may well not be in the knowledge of a pilot.

The 'low frequency' signaling of the Decca system also permitted its use on submarines. One
'enhancement' of the Decca system was to offer the potential of keying the signal, using Morse
code, to signal the onset of nuclear war. This was never optioned by the UK government.
Messages were clandestinely sent, however, between Decca stations thereby bypassing
international telephone calls, especially in non-UK chains.

A long range Trans North Atlantic system was in operation from the mid-1950s. It was called
DECTRA. It utilized two stations in Newfoundland and two in Scotland. The transmissions used
normal "pattern" transmitters of a much higher power than on standard DECCA frequencies. It
was intended as an air navigational aid.
B. DECTRA

In the early 1960s the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA), as part of a wider
ICAO effort, began the process of introducing a standard long-range radio navigation system for
aviation use. Decca proposed a system that could offer both high-accuracy at short ranges and
trans-Atlantic navigation with less accuracy, using a single receiver. The system was known as
Dectra, short for "Decca Track".

Unlike the Delrac system, Dectra was essentially the normal Decca Navigator system with the
modification of several existing transmitter sites.[5] These were located at the East
Newfoundland and Scottish chains, which were equipped with larger antennas and high-power
transmitters, broadcasting 20 times as much energy as normal chain stations. Given that the
length of the chain baselines did not change, and were relatively short, at long distance the signal
offered almost no accuracy. Instead, Dectra operated as a track system; aircraft would navigate
by keeping themselves within the signal defined by a particular Decca lane.

The main advantage of Dectra compared to other systems being proposed for the RTCA solution
was that it could be used for both medium-range navigation over land, as well as long-range
navigation over the Altlantic. In comparison, the VOR/DME system that ultimately won the
competition offered navigation over perhaps a 200 mile radius, and could not offer a solution to
the long-distance problem.[6] Additionally, as the Decca system provided an X and Y location, as
opposed to the angle-and-range VOR/DME, Decca proposed offering it with their Decca Flight
Log moving map display to further improve ease of navigation. In spite of these advantages, the
RTCA ultimately chose VOR/DME for two primary reasons; VOR offered coverage over about the
same range as Decca, about 200 miles, but did so with a single transmitter instead of Decca's
four, and Decca's frequencies proved susceptible to interference from static due to lightning,
and VOR's higher frequencies were not quite as sensitive.

Decca continued to propose that Dectra be used for the long-range role. In 1967 they installed
another transmitter in Iceland to provide ranging along the Scotland-Newfoundland track, with
a second proposed to be installed on the Azores. They also installed Dectra receivers with
Omnitrac computers and a lightweight version of the Flight Log on a number of commercial
airliners, notably a BOAC Vickers VC10. The Omnitrac could take inputs from Decca (and Dectra),
Loran-C, VOR/DME, an air data computer and doppler radars and combine them all to produce
a lat/lon output along with bearing, distance-to-go, bearing and an autopilot coupling. Their
efforts to standardize this were eventually abandoned as inertial navigation systems began to be
installed for these needs.
C. DELRAC

In the immediate post-war era, Decca began studying a long-range system like Decca, but using
much lower frequencies to enable reception of skywaves at long distances. In February 1946 the
company proposed a system with two main stations located at Shannon Airport in Ireland and
Gander International Airport in Newfoundland (today part of Canada). Together, these stations
would provide navigation over the main great circle route between London and New York. A third
station in Bermuda would provide general ranging information to measure progress along the
main track.

Work on this concept continued, and in 1951 a modified version was presented that offered
navigation over very wide areas. This was known as Delrac, short for "Decca Long Range Area
Cover". A further development, including features of the General Post Office's POPI system, was
introduced in 1954, proposing 28 stations that provided worldwide coverage. The system was
predicted to offer 10 miles (16,000 m) accuracy at 2,000 miles (3,200 km) range 95% of the time.
Further development was ended in favor of the Dectra system.