LOADING ACTION ON BUILDINGS

Dr. Henry LUK

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Loading in Tall Buildings

Gravity loads Impact load
Dead load Snow load
Imposed load / Live load
Snow load Live load
Lateral loads
Wind load Wind load Dead load
Seismic load
Special loads
Blast load Blast load
Impact load
Construction load
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Design Load
For structural members designed for Ultimate limit state, the
design loads should be used in the calculation rather the mean
values or the characteristic values of loading.
The design load are computed as

Code of Practice for Dead Partial safety factors for

and Imposed Loads loading
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Factor of Safety
The partial load factors f for ULS can be obtained in Table 2.1
in Concrete code or Table 4.2 in Steel code.

Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete (2013)

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Design Codes for Loading

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Characteristic Dead Load

The self-weight of the structure and the weight of finishes,
ceilings, services, roofings, partitions, faade cladding, storage
tank, mechanical and electrical systems, etc. (sometimes
named as superimposed dead load).
Partitions indicated on the building plans submitted to BD for approval
are considered as permanent partitions.
Their weight shall be calculated according to the layout shown on the
building plans.
The total weight of a building can be estimated in terms of
average kN/m2 of floor area.
Steel building: 2.5 4.0 kN/m2.
RC building: 5.0 7.5 kN/m2.
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The weight of a building structure itself depends on the height,

slenderness, loading conditions and efficiency of the structure
system.
The structure self-weight normally constitutes only a relatively small
portion of the total dead load (about 20 to 50%).
For tall buildings, the weight of the vertical structural frame rather than
the horizontal floor planes is more dominant.
Weight reduction is an important design criterion in view of
cost savings, foundations, construction and erection.
It may be beneficial to take advantage of gravity weights in
counteracting overturning forces and in acting as a damping
agent.
(Clause 2.2.3.2) Where a roof is to be provided with greenery,
the weight of soil, waterproofing and drainage system, and
plants for greenery shall be taken as dead loads.
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Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads 2011, Appendix A

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Characteristic Imposed Load

Imposed/live loads are different than dead loads since they are
more variable and unpredictable.
Loads caused by the contents of objects within or on a building
are called occupancy loads.
Example: weights of the occupants, furniture, movable partitions,
mechanical equipment and all other semi-permanent or temporary loads
etc.
The imposed loads are in the form of load tables given in the
Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads (2011).
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The imposed load values take the form of equivalent uniform

loads qk or concentrated loads Qk.
The values depend on the floor use.
Class 1 to 5: Imposed loads for domestic, office, social,
commercial, administration and industrial floor uses.
Class 6: Imposed loads for vehicular traffic and parking areas.
Class 7: imposed loads for roofs.
Class 8: Imposed loads for affiliated building elements
Partitions
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Characteristic
imposed loads (UDL
or point loads)
Floor use
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In contrast to dead load which is stationary, the effect of live

load placement must be considered particularly for continuous
structures.
For design, it is necessary that the critical arrangement of the
live loads that create the maximum shear, bending moments
and axial forces must be considered.
When uplift or overturning is checked, the effect of live loading
should only be included if it causes adverse loading effects on
uplifting or overturning.
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However the live loading patterns producing the maximum end

moments in the column, and those maximum axial loads, may
not necessarily occur simultaneously.

1.4gk + 1.6qk

1.4gk + 1.6qk

1.4gk + 1.6qk 1.0gk

Possible load pattern 1

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Imposed load on
roof
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Imposed Loading Reduction

It is improbable that, in multistory structures, every floor
simultaneously carries the full live loads.
The larger area or the number of floors, the smaller the probability of full
live load intensity.
Building codes take these conditions into account by allowing
the use of floor live load reduction factors (Clause 3.7).
Reduction of total distributed imposed loads on beams;
Reduction of total distributed imposed loads on vertical members.
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Imposed Loading Reduction

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Example 1
Determine the live load reduction in column design. The storey live loads are
summarised in the following table.

Level Storey Live

Load (kN)
6/F 200
5/F 100
4/F 100
3/F 100
2/F 100
1/F 100
G/F 100
Foundation 150
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Solution

Level Storey Live Load Cumulative Live Reduced Live

(kN) Load (kN) Load (kN)
6/F 200 200 200
5/F 100 300 300x0.95 = 285
4/F 100 400 400x0.90 = 360
3/F 100 500 500x0.85 = 425
2/F 100 600 600x0.80 = 480
1/F 100 700 700x0.75 = 525
G/F 100 800 800x0.70 = 560
Foundation 150 950 950x0.65 = 617.5
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Gravity Load Distribution

Gravity loads are usually considered to be uniformly distributed
over an occupied floor.
These loads vary based on building use and include dead load
(self-weight), superimposed dead load and imposed load.

Mark Sarkisian (2012). Designing Tall Buildings Structure As Architecture. Poutledge.

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A B

Secondary beam

A B Primary beam

Segui, W.T. (2007). Steel Design, 4th ed. Thomson

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For preliminary design, columns and walls can be assumed to

support gravity load within tributary floor area.
A column or wall load takedown is performed on each discrete
column or wall element from the influence of multiple floors
on the elements.
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Some reference values:

1. Self weight
Include all primary structural component (slabs, beams, columns, walls, etc.)
Concrete = 24.5 kN/m3; Steel = 7850 kg/m3
2. Super-imposed dead load
Fixed Partitions = 1.0 - 2.0 kPa (refer to the layout plan if any)
Ceiling = 0.2 - 0.5 kPa
Finished = 1.0 - 2.0 kPa (depending on thickness and material)
3. Imposed load
Office = 3.0 kPa
Residential = 2.0 kPa
Non-fixed Partitions = 1.0 - 2.0 kPa
Department store = 5.0 kPa
4. Concentrated point load such as truck loadings, etc.
5. Line load such as heavy masonry partition walls, exterior walls, etc.
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Exterior Wall / Curtain Wall

Exterior walls (curtain walls, faade, cladding) produce specific
loads that must be considered in the structure design.
For initial calculations, exterior wall loads may be considered to
be evenly distributed along perimeter spandrels, considering
the exterior wall weight and the floor-to-floor heights.
Exterior wall loads are often considered as distributed load
over the face area of the structure.
Reference values:
Metal and glass = 0.75 kPa
Stone and glass = 1.2 kPa
Precast and glass = 2.5 kPa
Glass curtain wall of
the Bauhaus Dessau,
1926
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Example 2
Determine the design loading on (1) slab 5S1; (2) beam 5B2 and (3) column
A7.

Finishes: 20 mm
Usage: Office
Others:
1.5 kPa for movable
light-weight partitions
No exterior walls

Floor plan at 5/F

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Solution
Slab 5S1
Dead load
Finishes: 24.5x0.02 = 0.49 kPa
Slab s/w: 24.5x0.16 = 3.92 kPa
gk = 4.41 kPa
Imposed load
Office: = 3.0 kPa
Partition (moveable): = 1.5 kPa
qk = 4.5 kPa

Maximum design load

= 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4 4.41 + 1.6 4.5 = 13.4 kPa

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Solution (contd)
Beam 5B2 One-way slab

Effective span, L = 9 m
Depth of beam, hb = 750 mm
Breadth of beam, bw = 300 mm

W Slab thickness, h = 160 mm

Finishes = 20 mm
Imposed load = 3.0 kPa
Moveable partition = 1.5 kPa

Width of slab supported by the beam 5B2, W = 3.3 m

Supporting area of beam, A = 3.3 x 9 = 29.7 m2
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Solution (contd)
Beam 5B2
Dead load
Total dead from slab: 4.41x3.3 = 14.6 kN/m
Beam s/w: 24.5x0.3x(0.75 0.16) = 4.34 kN/m
gk = 18.9 kN/m
Imposed load
Total live load from slab: 4.5x3.3 = 14.9 kN/m
qk = 14.9 kN/m

Maximum design load

= 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4 18.9 + 1.6 14.9 = 50.2 kN/m

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Solution (contd)
Beam 5B2
Maximum moment
1 2 1 2
= = (50.2) 9 = 508.3 kNm
8 8

Maximum shear
1 1
= = (50.2)(9) = 225.9 kN
2 2
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Solution (contd) A = 0.25x9.9x9

A = 22.3 m2
Column A7
Dead load
From slab: 4.41x22.3 = 98.2 kN
From 5B2: 4.34x9/2 = 19.5 kN
From 5B1: 4.34x9/2 = 19.5 kN
From 5B12: 24.5x0.5x(0.8 0.16)x9.9/2 = 38.8 kN
gk = 176.1 kN
Imposed load
From 5B2: 4.5x22.3 = 100.2 kN
qk = 100.2 kN

Maximum design load

= 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4 176.1 + 1.6 100.2 = 407 kN
Due to the floor loading
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Wind Load
Static approach
Equivalent wind load

Wind

Dynamic method
Wind tunnel experimental method

www.sefindia.org
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Earthquake Load
Equivalent lateral force (static approach)
Mainly for low- and medium-rise buildings

Equivalent
earthquake
load

Pushover analysis (non-linear static)

Spectrum response analysis
Time history analysis
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Structural Design
Once the gravity and lateral loads
with controlling load combinations
have been established, the design
axial, shear, and bending moments
both globally and on individual
structural elements can than be
computed.
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References
Bryan Stafford Smith, Alex Coull (1991). Tall Building Structures: Analysis and Design. John
Wiley & Soons, Inc.
Bungale S. Taranath (2004). Wind and Earthquake Resistant Buildings: Structural Analysis and
Design. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Bungale S. Taranath (2010). Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings. CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group.
Bungale S. Taranath (2012). Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings, Steel and
Composite Construction. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Lin, T.Y. and Stotesbury Sidney D. (1981). Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and
Engineering, 2nd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Mark Sarkisian (2012). Designing Tall Buildings, Structure as Architecture. Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group.
Mehmet Halis Gnel and Hseyin Emre Ilgin (2014). Tall Buildings Structural Systems and
Aerodynamic Form. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Dave Parker and Antony Wood (2013). The Tall Buildings Reference Book. Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group.
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Example 2
Consider the floor plan shown in the following figure where two one-way spanning
slabs are supported by three beams AB, CD and EF. While beams AB and EF transfer
directly the floor loads to the columns, beam CD is supported by two girders AE and
BF. Both slabs are carrying uniformly distributed loads. The unfactored design loads
are 1 kN/m2 for the dead load and 3 kN/m2 for the imposed load. Assume that all
beams are simply connected.
(a) Calculate the maximum design bending moment on beam CD
(b) Calculate the maximum design bending moment on girder BF
(c) Calculate the maximum force acting at column E

E F
3m
D
C
5m
B
A

8m Floor plan of a steel frame

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Solution
Factored design uniform distributed load
w 1.4DL 1.6LL 1.4 1 1.6 3 6.2 kN/m 2

Maximum design moment on beam CD

Factored design load on beam CD

w (1.5 2.5) 6.2 4 24.8 kN/m

Maximum sagging moment on beam CD

1
M CD wL L2
8
1
24.8 82 198.4 kNm
8
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Maximum design moment on beam BF

The load carried by the secondary beam CD imposes a concentrated load
at position D on the beam BF.
Factored point load on beam BF

24.8 4 99.2 kN

Maximum sagging moment on beam BF

Pab
M BF
L
99.2 3 5
186 kNm
8
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Maximum design force on column E

5
PE 99.2 6.2 1.5 4
8
62 37.2
99.2 kN

Alternative
PE 6.2 (4 4)
99.2 kN