Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.

Part I:
Phenomenology of the Welding Process
V. K. STOKES

Corporate Resea rc h and Develop men t

General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York 12301

In vibration welding of thermoplastics, frictional work

done by vibrating two parts under pressure, along their
common interface, is used to generate heat to effect a weld.
The main process parameters in vibration welding are the
weld frequency, the amplitude of the vibratory motion, the
weld pressure, and the weld time. How these parameters
affect weld quality, the conditions that result in the best
welds, the weldability of dissimilar plastics, and the effect
of fillers such as glass are of interest. To address these
issues, a research vibration welding machine in which all
the parameters can be independently and accurately con-
trolled and monitored was designed and fabricated. The
phenomenology of welding, a s determined by experiments
on the four thermoplastics polycarbonate, poly (butylene
terephthalate), polyetherimide, and modified poly (phen-
ylene oxide), is described.

INTRODUCTION weld is subjected to large deformations. Also, in

n vibration welding, frictional work done by
Itheir
vibrating two parts, under pressure, along
common interface used to generate heat
is
to effect a weld. Although the vibration welding
process-also called linear welding or friction
welding-has been in use for at least 25 years,
it is not well understood. Also, the strengths of
such welds have not been investigated system-
atically. Now that this process is being applied
to demanding load-bearing applications, such
as the welding of thermoplastic automotive
bumpers, the characterization of weld quality
and weld strength is assuming increasing im-
portance. The purpose of this paper is to estab-
lish the phenomenology of the vibration welding
process.
The vibration welding process is ideally suited
to the welding of thermoplastic parts along rel-
atively flat seams. The process can also accom-
modate seams whose out-of-plane curvature is
small. This technique has many potential ad-
vantages for joining large flat-seamed thermo-
plastic parts: (1)relatively short cycle times, (2)
simple equipment, and (3) insensitivity of the
process to weld surface preparation. In contrast
to adhesive bonding, no foreign material is in-
troduced, so that the weld interface is of the
same material as the parts to be welded. This
can be important in applications, such as ther-
moplastic automotive bumpers, in which the
718
contrast to hot plate welding, in which the in-
terfaces to be welded are heated conductively
by direct contact with a hot plate, the heating
is very localized. Moreover, the vibration weld-
ing process is far more controllable and is much
less likely to cause material degradation at the
interface because of overheating.
A survey of joining techniques for plastics by
Watson, et al. (1)shows that the body of litera-
ture on joining of plastics is quite small. In three
of the methods used for welding thermoplastics,
the interface is melted and then allowed to so-
lidify, thereby resulting in a weld. Of these
methods, ultrasonic bonding, which operates at
frequencies of 20 kHz and 40 kHz, is perhaps
the best understood (2). Some work also has
been done on characterizing hot plate welding
( 3 ) .However, the vibration welding process does
not appear to have been studied systematically;
perhaps the closest would be studies on (fric-
tion) spin welding of plastics (4).
In vibration welding, the surfaces to be joined
are rubbed against each other, under pressure,
in a n oscillatory manner, as schematically
shown in Fig. 1 . The resulting frictional work
causes the interfacial material to heat up and
melt. Welding is effected by allowing the molten
film to cool under pressure. The main process
parameters are the weld frequency, R ; the am-
plitude of the vibratory motion, a; the weld
pressure, po; and the weld time. If this process
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MIDJUNE 1988, Vol. 28, No. 1 1
 Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics-Part I
CLOSED LOOP
SERVO-HYDRAULIC CONTROLLER -4
a WELD AMPLITUDE
OUTPUT LIMITS
n WELD FREQUENCY
z = a sin 2nnt Po WELD PRESSURE f f

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the vibration welding

process.

is to be used for fabricating load-bearing parts,

the questions that need to be answered are
0 How do these parameters affect weld qual-
ity?
0 What conditions give the best welds?
0 Can different thermoplastics be welded,
and if so, what are the optimum conditions?
0 What is the effect of fillers such as glass? -
KEY
Most industrial machines operate at a fixed 1. LARGE STEEL BLOCK 12. PUSH RODS
weld frequency of 120 Hz, although 240 Hz 2. RIGID PLATE
3 GROUND COWMNS
13
14
SERVO4iYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
PARALLEL LINKS
machines are also available. The amplitude of 4 PLATEN 15 HYDRAULIC POWER UNIT
5 BEARINGS 16 ACTUATOR LVDT
vibration is normally less than 5 mm (0.2 in), 6 UPPER WELD SPECIMEN 17. SERVO-HYDRAULIC CONTROL1.ER
7 LOWER WELD SPECIMEN 18 SERVOVALVE
and the weld time varies from 1 to 10 s. In most 8 UPPERGRIP 19. PENETRATION LVDT
industrial machines, the vibratory motion is 9 LOWER GRIP
10 MOVING FRAME
20
21.
PRESSURE GAUGE
KISTLER GAUGE
produced by exciting a tuned spring-mass sys- 11 AIR CYLINDERS 22. PUSH ROD

tem. A s a result, the amplitude of vibration
cannot conveniently be independently con-
trolled and requires a change in the mass of the
oscillating components. Also, in most ma-
chines, the weld pressure exerted on the inter-
face being welded cannot be controlled accu-
rately. However, machines with feedback con-
trol, in which it is possible to control the ampli-
tude of motion, recently have been announced.
Because existing machines were not consid-
ered to have sufficient control features for ex-
perimentally characterizing the phenomenol-
ogy of welding, a special research vibration
welding machine was designed and fabricated.
This paper describes the phenomenology of vi-
bration welding as determined by experiments
using this machine.
A simple model for the physics of the process
is presented in a companion paper (51.Rectan-
gular thermoplastic specimens can be accu-
rately butt-welded on this machine in a con-
trolled manner. The tensile strengths of such
welds will be documented in two companion
papers (6, 7).
RESEARCH WELDING MACHINE
Figure 2 shows a schematic representation
of the essential features of the research vibra-
tion welding machine. The active components
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-JUNE 7988, Vol. 28, No. 7 7
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the research vibra-
tion welding machine.
of the machine are supported/suspended from
a large inertial block 1 (numbers refer to Fig.
21, which rests on a frame (not shown). Plate 2
is rigidly held in place by parallel columns 3
that are machined and ground, along which
platen 4 can slide up and down on bearings 5.
The upper-6-and lower-7-plastic pieces
to be welded are held in grips 8 and 9 that are
fixed, respectively, in a moving frame 10 and
the platen 4. During welding, the specimen in-
terface is maintained at a predetermined pres-
sure by means of platen-loading air cylinders
11, which push platen 4 via push rods 12.
Vibratory motion for the weld is provided by
means of a servohydraulic actuator 13. Hori-
zontal/parallel motion of the holder 10 is en-
sured by the two parallel links 14, which con-
nect the holder to the inertial block 1. The
power for the servohydraulic actuator 1 3 is pro-
vided by means of a hydraulic power unit 15.
Position feedback for the actuator is provided
by means of a n LVDT 16 that is connected to a
closed loop servohydraulic controller 17, which
provides a control signal to the servovalve 18.
The frequency and displacement amplitude of
the actuator can be set by means of the con-
719
 V. K . Stokes
troller. The duration of the test can be fixed by
setting the number of cycles or the weld time
interval, or by means of a n external signal from
the weld penetration LVDT 1 9 , which senses
the decrease in the distance between the spec-
imens 6 and 7. The controller can be pro-
grammed to stop the machine when the pene-
tration reaches a preset value. This novel fea-
ture has turned out to be important for eluci-
dating the physics of the weld process.
A calibration determines the load at the weld
specimen interface between 6 and 7 in terms of
the air pressure in the cylinders 11 as measured
by the pressure gauge 20. Also, a Kistler gauge
21 on the push rod 22, which connects the
actuator 1 3 to the moving frame 10, measures
the force used to drive the moving assembly of
6, 8, 10, and 14. This information can be used
for determining the friction force at the inter-
face between 6 and 7 during a weld.
An overall view of the machine is shown in
Fig. 3, in which the numbers correspond to
those in Fig. 2. A close-up view of the specimen-
grip region is shown in Fig. 4.
In this machine each of the parameters, such
as the weld frequency, the amplitude, the pres-
sure, and the time, can be controlled independ-
ently and accurately. The vibratory motion is
generated by a closed-loop servohydraulically
Fig. 3. Overall view of t h e research vibration welding
machine.
720
controlled actuator. The weld frequency can be
varied continuously from 0 to 500 Hz, and the
actuator generates weld amplitudes of 12 mm
(0.5 in) at 25 Hz, 9 mm (0.35in) at 50 Hz, 3 mm
(0.125 in) at 100 Hz, 0.5 mm (0.025 in) at 250
Hz, 0.4 mm (0.015in) at 400 Hz, and 0.13 mm
(0.005 in) at 500 Hz. Fixtures on the machine
make it possible to accurately align specimens
for making butt welds. The alignment of the
machine can be checked by means of 51 mm
by 13 mm by 76 mm (2 inch by Y2 inch by 3
inch) precision ground steel blocks that can be
inserted in the grips marked 8 and 9 in Fig. 2.
These grips are designed to hold rectangular
specimens in which the weld interface can have
dimensions up to 12 mm by 51 mm ( Y 2 inch by
2 inch). The frequency, amplitude, and the du-
ration of the weld can be controlled independ-
ently.
The distance between the specimens de-
creases as the weld proceeds, because molten
material is extruded laterally at the weld inter-
face. This decrease in distance is called weld
penetration, and it can be monitored by the weld
penetration LVDT, marked 1 9 in Fig. 2. The
signal from this LVDT can be used to stop the
weld when the weld penetration reaches a pre-
set value. This control feature, which has
turned out to be important for controlling the
process, is not provided on existing commer-
cially available machines.
A weld can be performed in three modes: for
a fixed time duration, for a preset number of
cycles, or for a preset weld penetration. At the
end of each weld, the machine automatically
aligns the top and bottom portions of the spec-
imen.
The results in this paper were obtained by
using rectangular specimens with machined
edges of 76-mm (3-in) height and 25.4-mm ( 1 -
in) width. The nominal thickness of the speci-
mens was 6.35 mm (0.25 in). In each test, the
specimens were rigidly held in grips 8 and 9,
with only 6.35 mm (0.25 in) of the specimens
protruding from the grips.
PHENOMENOLOGY OF THE WELDING
PROCESS
During a weld, the Kistler gauge (21 on push
rod 22 in Fig. 2) determines the total force
driving the moving assembly (6, 8, 10, and 14
in Fig. 2) that holds the oscillating specimen.
This force is the sum of the frictional force at
the weld interface and the force required for
overcoming the inertia of the moving assembly;
i.e., for accelerating the moving assembly. The
latter component can be determined by meas-
uring the force while the assembly is driven
without the two weld specimens being in con-
tact. The difference of this force from the total
force during a weld gives the interfacial friction
force during welding. For high frequencies, the
force required to overcome inertia is much
larger than the frictional force. A s a result, the
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MIDJUNE 1988, Vol. 28, No. 11
 Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics-Part I
Fig. 4 . Close-up uiew of the specimen-grip region of the welding machine.
relatively small frictional forces cannot be
measured at these frequencies. However, at low
frequencies, the inertia force is insignificant in
comparison to the frictional force, so that the
output of the Kistler gauge gives a direct meas-
ure of the friction force during a weld. The
variations of the friction force and the weld
penetration with time then provide a n insight
into the phenomena that occur during welding.
The variations of the friction force and the
weld penetration during a weld, with time, are
shown in Fig. 5. These results were obtained
on 5.84-mm (0.23-in) thick by 25.4-mm (1-in)
wide specimens of polycarbonate at a frequency
of R = 10 Hz, a weld amplitude of a = 1.91 mm
(0.075in), and a weld pressure of p o = 8.27 MPa
(1,200 psi). The weld process may be divided
into four main parts: solid friction, transient
flow, steady-state flow, and solidification. The
first phase is dominated by solid Coulomb-type
friction. The weld penetration is constant (no
penetration) and during each cycle, the friction
force is nominally constant. However, as the
weld proceeds, the friction force first increases
POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-JUNE 1988, Yo/. 28, No. 11
and then decreases to a steady-state value. At
some stage during this solid friction phase, the
material at the weld interface becomes viscoe-
lastic. The frictional heat results in a melting
of the material at the interface and in a n un-
steady lateral flow of the molten material. In
this phase, the nature of the friction force
changes and the penetration can be seen to
grow. Finally, a steady state is reached in which
the amount of material being melted equals the
rate at which the melt is being extruded at the
lateral surfaces. During this phase, the fric-
tional force has the typically sinusoidal varia-
tion for a molten fluid layer, and the penetration
increases linearly with time. When the vibra-
tory motion is stopped, the flow in the film
becomes transient. During this final phase,
which is not shown in Fig. 5, the film cools and
solidifies, resulting in a weld at the interface.
Surprisingly, the frictional force in the molten
steady-state case is larger than that in the dry
Coulomb-friction case. The reason for this, of
course, is that the overall friction force in the
steady state depends both on the viscosity of
721
 V. K. Stokes

v1sc0us
! FRICTION 4-
f INTE R FACIA L
FRICTION
FORCE

TIME -
WELD

7
'RAT I 0N

FSOLID STEADY-STATE ____ff

FRICTION TRANSIENT FLOW
FLOW
Fig. 5. Time variations of the frictionforce and the weld penetration.

the melt as well as on the shear rate. The nor-

mal pressure at the weld interface results in a
thin film, and therefore in a high shear rate.
While the friction force was monitored in only

a few special tests, penetration versus time data
were obtained for all the tests. These data pro-
vide an insight into the phenomenology of the
welding process. For each material, penetration
versus time curves will depend on the weld
frequency, n, weld pressure, po, and the weld
amplitude, a. Four different engineering ther-
moplastics were investigated in this study: two
amorphous polymers, polycarbonate (LEXAN@
9030) and polyetherimide (ULTEM@1000); a
semicrystalline polymer, polybutylene tereph-
thalate (VALOX@310); and a modified poly-
phenylene oxide (NORYL@190). They will be
referred to, respectively, as PC, PEI, PBT and
M-PPO. The bulk of the data given in this paper
is for PC.
PENETRATION-TIME DATA FOR PC, PBT,
PEI, AND M-PPO
Figure 6 shows the variation of the weld pen-
etration versus time for 5.84-mm (0.23-in)thick
specimens of PC at a weld frequency of 120 Hz
and a weld pressure of 0.9 MPa ( 1 30 psi) with
the weld amplitude as parameter. In each of the
three curves on this figure, there is no penetra-
i
n =IZOHz
p o = 0.9MPa ( I 3 0 p s i )
0 5 10
TIME (s)
Fig. 6 . Variation of the weld penetration us. time f o r PC
f o r n = 120 H z and po = 0.9 M P a with the weld amplitude
as parameter.
tion during the initial phase of the weld. This is
followed by a transient phase in which the pen-
etration begins to increase until a steady state
is reached in which the penetration increases
linearly with time. For low amplitudes, notice
that the steady state takes longer to be attained
and, it is achieved at a higher penetration. The
effect of varying the weld pressure, at a fre-
quency of 120 Hz and a fixed weld amplitude of

722 POLYMER ENG/NfR/NG AND SCIENCE, MlDJUNE 1988, Yo/. 28, No. 17
 Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics-Part 1

a = 1.59 mm (0.0625 in), is shown in Fig. 7. A s

the weld pressure is decreased, the unsteady
portion of the curve increases in size, and the
penetration a t which steady state is achieved n

also increases. In some cases, there is evidence E

E 0.5
of a second steady state: For example, in the v

z
curve for p o = 0.9 MPa in Fig. 7, the Coulomb- 0
F
friction and transient phases are followed by a
steady state,the second steady state, in which ;
W
z
the penetration appears to increase linearly w
P
with time. This phase is followed by the regu-
lar transient and steady-flow phases. Evidence
of this second steady state also can be seen in 0
the curves for a = 0.95 mm and a = 0.32 mm 0 5 10
in Fig. 6. TIME (s)
Most industrial machines operate at frequen-
Fig. 8. Variation of the weld penetration us. time for PC
cies of 120 Hz or 240 Hz. However, welds can for n = 25 H z , a = 1.27 mm. and a = 2.54 mm with the
be made over a wide range of frequencies. Fig- weld pressure as parameter.
u r e 8 shows the penetration-time curves for PC
at n = 25 Hz for two different amplitudes, a = I I I I I I I I I
1.27 mm and a = 2.54 mm, and three different - n = 250 HZ
pressures, po = 0.9, 3.45, and 6.9 MPa. Notice a = 0 4 4 m m (00175in)

the evidence of a second earlier steady state in

the dashed curves that correspond to a = 1.27 n
E
mm. Penetration-time curves for PC a t a fre- v
E 0.5
quency of 250 Hz and a n amplitude of 0.44 mm z
0
(0.0175 in], with the weld pressure as parame- F
U
ter, are shown in Fig. 9. Penetration curves for Ezw
PC, for n = 400 Hz and a = 0.32 mm (0.0125
in) with the weld pressure as parameter, are n
shown in Fig. 10. Figure 1 1 shows penetration
curves for PC for a = 0.32 mm (0.0125 in) and
po = 0.9 MPa (130 psi) with the frequency as 0
parameter. For n = 120 Hz, the penetration at 0 5 10
10 s is on the order of 0.013 mm (0.0005 in). TIME (5)

It is clear from Figs. 6 through 1 1 that the Fig. 9. Penetration-time curvesfor PC for n = 250 H z and
penetration-time curves of PC exhibit the three a = 0.44 mm with po as parameter.
phases of the welding process, namely, Cou-
lomb friction, transient flow, and steady-state I I I I I l I / I
flow, over a wide range of weld-process param- n = 400Hz
a=032mm(00125in)
eters. However, there is some evidence of a
second steady state phase that precedes the h
n

main transient phase. The Coulomb-friction E

E 0.5 20 lo
v 7
v
z
0 z
0
2 F
F
W
y
I
n = 120 HZ
01 59mm ( 0 0 6 2 5 i n )
- I
I z
W
a
10
a

n
E
.-
C

v
E 0.5- 0 0
0 5 10
?5
z
F

W
z
w and a = 0.32 mm with p o as parameter.
TIME (s)
Fig. 10. Penetration-time curves for PC for n = 400 H z

phase decreases with increasing weld fre-

0 1 I I - 0
0 1 2
quency, increasing weld pressure, and increas-
TIME (s)
ing weld amplitude. Moreover, the penetration
Fig. 7. Variation of the weld penetration us. timefor PC at which steady state is attained, appears to
for n = 120 Hz and a = 1.59 mrn with the weld pressure decrease with a n increase in the weld amplitude
as parameter. and frequency.

POLYMER ENG/NEER/NGAND SCIENCE, MlDJUNE 7988, Vol. 28, No. 7 7 723

 V. K . Stokes

Penetration-time curves for 6.35-mm (0.25- 1 I I I I

in] thick specimens of PBT, at n = 120 Hz and - n =120Hz

o = I 59 m rn ( 0 062 5 in )
p o = 0.7 MPa (107 psi] with the weld amplitude
as parameter, are shown in Fig. 12. The effect
of varying the weld pressure, at n = 120 Hz and
E
- PI -
-.-
n
c
a = 1.59 mm (0.0625 in), is shown in Fig. 13. E 0.5- 3 45 -20 lo
(500)
Notice that the curve for p o = 1.38 MPa appears v F
v
to have a second steady state before the main z
G - z
transient-flow phase. Penetration-time curves
for PBT at n = 25 Hz for two different ampli-
tudes and three pressures are shown in Fig. 14.
The effect of the weld pressure on penetration-
z
I-

W
z
W
-10 w
0

z
F

z
a W
time curves at n = 250 Hz and a = 0.44 mm a
-
(0.0175 in) is shown in Fig. 15. In comparison
to PC, PBT appears to take longer to attain the
steady state phase. The Coulomb-friction phase 0
is much longer for PBT. However, the transient
phase appears to be shorter and is more sharply
defined than for PC.
Figure 16 shows the effect of the weld pres-
sure on the penetration-time curves for 6.35-
mm (0.25-in) thick specimens of PEI at a fre-
quency of n = 120 Hz and a weld amplitude of I I I I I , , , ,

a = 1.59 mm (0.0625 in). The penetration-time - n = 25Hr

curves for PEI are similar to those for PC. How- a = 2 5 4 m m (0 I i n l

h
_-_-_ a = I 27mm ( 0 0 5 1 n ) JPBT/ C .-
h

E
-
0
E 0.5-
v
-20 la
v
I I I I I I I I , z
0 Z
- p,= 3 4 5 MPa F
4
- 0
F
1
a = 0 32mm (0 0125111

n
Ez
W -10 w
2
h .- a Z
W
E 0
a
E 0.5-
v
-20 lo
v
c
z
0 Z
F - 0
4 F 0 - , 0
E
Z
W -10
2
w
a z
W
a

0 I I I 1 I I I I , . o
I I I I I I I I I

n = 250 Hr

n
E
E 0.5
v

1.5) ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' f

n =120Hz
po = O 7 M P a (107 p s i )
- 50

1
a = 1.59 rnrn
(0.0625in) 10 0 3 7 5 ) 0
.-
n
C
z
w
a
- k v

z
- 0
F T
4

- E Z
0 5
TIME (s)
10

W
a Fig. 15. Penetration-time curves for PBT for n = 250 H z
and a = 0.44 rnrn with po a s parameter.

0
0 5 10 ever, PEI takes longer to achieve a steady state.
TIME (s) Figure 17 shows the effect of the weld pres-
Fig. 12. Penetration-time curves f o r PBT f o r n = 120 H z sure on the penetration-time curves for 5.08-
and po = 0.7 MPa with the weld amplitude as parameter. mm (0.2-in] thick specimens of M-PPO at a

724 POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-JUNE 1988, V O ~ 28,

. NO. 1 1
 Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics-Part I

frequency of n = 120 Hz and a weld amplitude schematic penetration-time curve shown in

of a = 1.59 mm (0.0625 in). Here again, the Fig. 19, which comprises four distinct phases:
response is qualitatively similar to that of PC. regime I of duration t l , in which the penetration
For purposes of comparison, penetration-time 17 = 0 and in which the interface heats up to the
curves for PEI, PBT, PC, and M-PPO for n = 120 "melting" temperature by Coulomb frictional
Hz, p o = 0.9 MPa (130 psi), and a = 1.59 mm heating; regime I1 of duration t Z ,in which the
(0.0625 in) are shown in Fig. 18. These curves interface begins to melt, resulting in unsteady
are for different specimen thicknesses, varying flow in the lateral direction; regime 111, in which
from 5.08 mm (0.2 in) for M-PPO and 5.8 mm a steady state is achieved such that the rate at
(0.23 in) for PC to 6.35 mm (0.25 in) for PBT which the material is melting equals the rate at
and PEI. Each of these curves exhibits the first which the melt is being extruded laterally; and
three phases of welding: Coulomb-friction regime IV in which the vibratory motion is
phase, unsteady flow, and steady flow. stopped. In this regime, the weld pressure
Figures 6 through 15 show that both for PC causes the outflow from the film to continue.
and PBT, the penetration-time curves appear to At the same time, the film cools and solidifies,
exhibit the three phases of the welding process resulting in the desired weld at the interface.
over a wide range of weld process parameters. The total weld time, or "cycle time," is the sum
From the data on Figs. 16 and 1 7, the penetra- t, = t, + t Z+ t3+ t4 of the times for each of these
tion-time curves for the two thermoplastics PEI regimes.
and M-PPO also appear to exhibit these three The penetration rate, 6 , is the slope of the
phases. Therefore, for purposes of modeling,
the welding process will be represented by the
I I I I I I I

1
I

n = 120Hz
I I I I

-
i n = 120 Hz
a = I59mrn(O.O625in)
po=0 9 MPa ( I 3 0 psi )

a = 1.59mm ( 0 0 6 2 5 i n 1
.I E
E 0.5
U

E 3.45 1.72 Z
0
E 0.5
U (5005 ,(250) /
i
z
0
z
F

W
z

10 w
z
F

z
W
W
a

a
0
0 i 2 3
0 TIME (s)
0 1 2 3 Fig. 18. Penetration-time curvesfor PEL PBT, PC. and M -
PPO for n = 120 Hz. a = I .59 mm, and po = 0.9 MPa.
TIME (s)
Fig. 16. Penetration-time curves for PEI for n = 120 Hz
and a = 1.59 mm with po as parameter.
t
n=120Hz
0 ' 1 59rnrn(00625inl

1
I

IM-PPO
h
E
E 0.5-
d

z
0
F
4

E
Z
W
a

t t - - 1 2 7 - t3- t4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 c t . -.
TIME (s) TIME (t)
Fig. 17. Penetration-time curves for M-PPO for n = 120 Fig. 1 9 . Schematic penetration-time curve showing four
H z and a = 1.59 mm with Po as parameter. regimes of the vibration welding process.

POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-JUNE 7988, VOI. 28, NO. 11 725
 V.K . St okes
penetration-time curve shown in Fig. 19 and
increases from zero in regime I to a steady-state
value, Go. in regime 111. From the point of view
of modeling, the parameters of interest are the
time, t l , at which melting initiates, the time, t2,
a t which the steady state is achieved, the pen-
etration, qT, at time t2, and the steady-state
penetration rate, Go. Each of these four param-
eters can be obtained from penetration-time
curves. In most cases, t, is rather small and
difficult to measure. I t is also difficult to deter-
mine t2and hence qT.
Actual measured values of the four parame-
ters t l , t2,qT, and Go for nominally 5.8-mm (0.23-
in) thick specimens of PC, as a function of the
process parameters n, a, and po, are given in
Table 1 . The penetration rate to was deter-
mined at a nominal penetration of q = 0.5 mm
(0.02 in). The data in this table are based on
one test per condition and, as such, do not
include information on scatter. A s mentioned
above, tl is difficult to estimate. It is easier to
estimate t2. Values of i0are more reliable. The
data in this table show that t l , t2, and q,,. de-
crease with increasing weld pressure, po. and
increasing amplitude, a , while the steady-state
penetration rate, Go. increases under these con-
ditions. For the test conditions in Table 1 , val-
ues of tl were measured to be in the range of
0.13 to 18.5 s, t2 in the range of 0.26 to 37.3 s,
qT in the range of 0.19 (7.5) to 0.41 mm (16
mils), and toin the range of 0.036 (1.4) to 2.04
mm/s (80.5mils/s).
Measured values of the penetration-time
curve parameters for nominally 6.35-mm (0.25-
in) thick specimens of PBT as a function of the
parameters n, a, and po, are given in Table 2.
The effects of p o and a on t l , t2. and ioare
similar to those for PC. However, the effect of
po on qT seems to be opposite in the sense that
qT appears to increase with p o , a t least for the
data for a = 1.59 mm.
Table 1. Measured Weld-Penetration Parameters for Polycarbonate.
Values of the penetration-time curve param-
eters for PEI specimens with a nominal thick-
ness of 6.35 mm (0.25 in) for n = 120 Hz and a
= 1.59 mm (62.5 in) for four different values of
po are given in Table 3. The trends in the vari-
ations of t l , t2, q T , and Go are the same as for
PC .
Penetration-time curve parameters, for M-
PPO specimens with a nominal thickness of
5.08 mm (0.2 in) for n = 120 Hz, a = 1.59 mm
(62.5 in), and four different pressures are given
in Table 4.Here again, the trends in the varia-
tions of t l , t2, qT, and io.as a function of the
process parameters, are the same as for PC.
CONCLUSION
That welds can be effected in thermoplastics
over a frequency range of 25 to 400 Hz, a pres-
sure range of 0.62 (90)to 13.8 MPa (2,000 psi),
and a range of weld amplitudes from 0.32 (12.5)
to 1.59 mm (62.5 mils) should now be clear. In
Penetration-Time Data For PC, PBT, PEI, and
M-PPO, above, four different thermoplastics
have been shown to exhibit the same weld phe-
nomenology over a wide range of weld parame-
ters. The welding process can be divided into
four distinct regimes: In the first phase, the
weld interface is heated by Coulomb friction,
and this phase ends when the interface begins
to melt. During this phase the penetration is
essentially zero. The second phase, in which
the interface begins to melt and the molten
material begins to flow outward in a lateral
direction, follows. During this transient phase,
the penetration first increases slowly and then
at a n increasing rate until a steady state is
reached. Steady-state conditions prevail in
phase 3 during which the penetration increases
linearly with time, indicating that the rate at
which the material is melting equals the rate at
which it is flowing out of the lateral surfaces.

ilC
n a Po ti tz I)T mm/s
Hz mm (mils) MPa (psi) S S mm (mils) (mils/s)
25 1.27 (50) 3.45 (500) 4.5 3.7 0.29 (11.3) 0.23 (9)
25 1.27 (50) 6.9 (1.000) 1 2.56 0.25 (10) 0.34 (13.5)
25 2.54 (100) 3.45 (500) 1.2 1.52 0.22 (8.5) 0.53 (21)
25 2.54 (100) 6.9 (1,000) 0.46 1 0.21 (8.3) 0.83 (32.5)
120 0.32 (12.5) 0.9 (130) 18.5 37.3 0.41 (16) 0.036 (1.4)
120 0.64 (25) 0.9 (130) 3 4.56 0.33 (13) 0.15 (6)
120 0.95 (37.5) 0.9 (130) 0.84 1.92 0.28 (11) 0.5 (19.5)
120 1.59 (62.5) 0.9 (130) 0.4 1.32 0.25 (10) 0.66 (26)
120 1.59 (62.5) 1.72 (250) 0.34 0.54 0.19 (7.5) 0.86 (34)
120 1.59 (62.5) 3.45 (500) 0.18 0.45 0.18 (7) 1.06 (42)
120 1.59 (62.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.13 0.27 0.28 (11) 1.32 (52)
120 1.59 (62.5) 13.8 (2,000) 0.14 0.26 0.19 (7.5) 2.04 (80.5)
250 0.44 (17.5) 0.9 (130) 1.46 4.2 0.36 (14) 0.18 (7.25)
250 0.44 (17.5) 1.72 (250) 0.88 2.48 0.25 (10) 0.2 (8)
250 0.44 (17.5) 3.45 (500) 0.58 2.12 0.25 (10) 0.29 (11.25)
250 0.44 (17.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.4 1.1 0.25 (10) 0.41 (16)
400 0.32 (12.5) 0.9 (130) 1 5.6 0.25 (10) 0.14 (5.5)
400 0.32 (12.5) 3.45 (500) 0.64 2.72 0.36 (14) 0.28 (11)
400 0.32 (12.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.34 1.27 0.3 (12) 0.42 (16.5)
400 0.32 (12.5) 13.8 (2,000) 0.21 0.68 0.3 (12) 0.65 (25.75)

726 POLYMER ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE, MID-JUNE 1988, Vol. 28, No. 11
 Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics-Part I

Table 2. Measured Weld-Penetration Parameters for Polybutylene Terephthalate.

~0
n a Po ti tz $1 mm/s
Hz mm (mils) MPa (psi) S S mm (mils) Imilslsl
25 1.27 (50) 6.9 (1,000) 0.5 0.58 0.29 (11.5) 0.1 (4)
25 2.54 (100) 0.62 (90) 0.96 1.16 0.24 (9.5) 0.24 (9.5)
25 2.54 (100) 3.45 (500) 1.34 2.92 0.29 (11.5) 0.28 (11)
25 2.54 (100) 6.9 (1,000) 1 1.76 0.34 (13.5) 0.3 (12)
120 1.59 (62.5) 0.9 (130) 1.36 0.38 0.1 3 (5) 0.69 (27)
120 1.59 (62.5) 1.38 (200) 0.19 1 0.18 (7) 0.72 (28.5)
120 1.59 (62.5) 3.45 (500) 0.34 0.64 0.38 (15) 0.76 (30)
120 1.59 (62.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.22 0.68 0.36 (14) 0.83 (32.5)
250 0.44 (17.5) 0.62 (90) 1.36 4 0.28 (11) 0.3 (12)
250 0.44 (17.5) 1.72 (250) 0.5 2.18 0.3 (12) 0.43 (17)
250 0.44 (17.5) 3.45 (500) 0.64 1.64 0.29 (11.5) 0.47 (18.5)
250 0.44 (17.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.44 1 0.29 (11.5) 0.46 (18)

Table 3. Measured Weld-Penetration Parameters for Polyetherimide.

i
n a Po tl tz W mm/s
Hz mm (mils) MPa (psi) S S mm (mils) (mils/s)
120 1.59 (62.5) 1.72 (250) 0.25 1.1 0.32 (12.5) 0.7 (27.5)
120 1.59 (62.5) 3.45 (500) 0.28 0.78 0.29 (11.5) 0.76 (30)
120 1.59 (62.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.1 0.4 0.22 (8.5) 1.02 (40)
120 1.59 (62.5) 10.3 (1,500) 0.1 1 0.35 0.25 (10) 1.16 (45.5)

Table 4. Measured Weld-Penetration Parameters for Modified Polyphenylene Oxide.

i 0
n a Po ti tz vr mm/s
HZ mm (mils) MPa (psi) S S mm (mils) (mils/s)
120 1.59 (62.5) 0.9 (130) 0.36 1.16 0.32 (12.5) 0.55 (21.5)
120 1.59 (62.5) 1.72 (250) 0.28 0.76 0.22 (8.5) 0.62 (24.5)
120 1.59 (62.5) 3.45 (500) 0.13 0.64 0.28 (1 1) 0.83 (32.5)
120 1.59 (62.5) 6.9 (1,000) 0.1 0.4 0.24 (9.5) 0.91 (36)

Once the vibratory motion is stopped, the mol-
ten polymer continues to flow while cooling,
until the interface solidifies. This is phase four
of the process, and it is of short duration.
The demonstration of weld feasibility with
small amplitudes, as low as 0.32 mm (12.5
mils), is important because of its use in appli-
cations where a part has to be welded into a
recessed cavity wherein the clearances may not
be sufficient for large-amplitude vibration. This
is why the demonstration of weldability at high
frequencies is important.
The weldability of thermoplastics has been
demonstrated over a wide range of weld param-
eters for four thermoplastics. Simple models for
the welding process and how the process con-
ditions affect weld strength will be described in
three companion papers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The encouragement provided by W. R.
Schlich, G. Lester, and D. F. Mowbray is much
appreciated. Partial support provided by Gen-
eral Electrics Plastics Business Group is grate-
fully acknowledged.
R. N. Johnson supervised the design and fab-
rication of the research vibration welding ma-
chine. H. Moran debugged the machine and
made the first exploratory welds. All the data
on welding were obtained by L. P. Inzinna. His
inputs are greatly appreciated.
Special thanks are due to Julia A. Kinloch for
her help and patience during the preparation of
this paper.
REFERENCES
1 . M. N. Watson, R. M. Rivett, and K. I. Johnson, Plas-
tics-An lndustrial and Literature Survey of Joining
Techniques, The Welding Institute Report No. 301/
1986 (1986).
2. M. N. Tolunay, P. R. Dawson, and K . K. Wang, Polyrn.
Eng. Sci.. 23, 726 (1983).
3. C. B. Bucknall, 1. C. Drinkwater, and G. R. Smith,
Polyrn. Eng. Sci., 20, 432 (1980).
4. R. J. Crawford and Y. Tam, J. Mater. Sci.. 16, 3275
( 1981).
5 . V. K. Stokes, Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.
Part 11: Analysis of the Welding Process, Polyrn. Eng.
ScL, this issue.
6. V. K. Stokes, VibrationWeldingof Thermoplastic.Part
111: Strength of Polycarbonate Butt Welds,Polyrn. Eng.
Sci., to appear.
7. V. K. Stokes, Vibration Welding of Thermoplastics.
Part IV: Strengths of Poly(Buty1eneTerephthalate),Po-
lyetherimide, and Modified Polyphenylene Oxide Butt
Welds,Polyrn. Eng. Sci., to appear.
Received 23 October 1986

POLYMER ENGfNEERlNG AND SCIENCE, MIDJUNE 1988, Vol. 28, No. 11 727