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What is the current state, the causes, the effects, and possible solutions of ocean acidification on
coral reefs?
Current State
Coral reefs are a vital aspect of the marine ecosystem, providing a habitat and food
supply for approximately one quarter of all ocean species (Knowlton). Coral reefs appear, as
an approximate latitude of 0-
The corals mutualistic symbiotic relationship, where all organisms involved benefit, with
species such as the clown fish and zooxanthellae algae are a necessity for the marine ecosystem
(Knowlton). Coral reefs also provide a myriad of other key environmental services, such as
helping with nutrient cycling, assisting in carbon and nitrogen fixing, and protecting shorelines
extract carbon dioxide from the water and turn this carbon
tentacles to scoop up and draw in plankton from the water, the coral uses its nematocysts, or
stinging cells, to stun and kill its prey before passing it to its mouth (The Importance of Coral
Reefs). The vast majority of corals are found in waters less than 100 meters deep (the photic
zone), for the zooxanthellae living in the coral require sunlight in order to undergo
photosynthesis and stay alive (The Importance of Coral Reefs). Not only do coral reefs offer a
major environmental service, but in regards to the economy, human beings rely on them as well.
Coral reefs have been estimated to provide a global economic value of as much as 375 billion US
dollars annually, as well as providing people around the world with over 100 different types of
jobs, due to the food, tourism, protection of shorelines, and medicinal purposes that they provide
(Krause et al.). However, a key threat that coral reefs are currently facing is the increase in ocean
acidification. Ocean acidification the rise of acidity in the oceans due to the absorption of CO2
in the atmosphere is destroying and/or severely damaging the worlds coral reefs (Miller and
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Spoolman 24 9). Currently it is estimated that half of the anthropogenic CO2 is in the upper
10% of the oceans (Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs). With the increase in
the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, when water, H2O, and carbon dioxide, CO2, mix,
they form carbonic acid (H2CO3) (Knowlton). This carbonic acid, which, like all acids, releases
H+ ions into the water surrounding it, is what lowers the pH level of the water and therefore
deteriorates the calcium carbonate skeleton of the coral itself (Knowlton). Figure 3 highlights the
effects of ocean acidification on coral, by showing a before and after glimpse at a certain head
of coral. The image on the right shows the post-acidification of the coral. At this state, fish,
beneficial bacteria, and algae cannot thrive on the reef, leading to the marine food web being
severely disrupted (Coral Reefs and Climate Change). Currently 75% of the worlds coral reefs
are threatened as a result of human activity, and it is predicted that 90% of the worlds shallow
reefs will be threatened in 2050 (Miller and Spoolman 249). Over the past 200 years, the ocean
has taken up about 35% of the excess carbon dioxide generated by the burning of fossil fuels
(Garrison 379). The ocean is also 30% more acidic now than it was in the mid 18th-century
Acidity is measured in pH. As pH levels increase, this means a substance is more basic,
major drawbacks and threats in the present which Figure 4: Carbon Dioxide vs. pH Levels
are directly affecting us as human beings. If significant action is not taken in the near future,
ocean acidification will lead to the death and destruction of our coral reefs, and therefore our
I have chosen to research the topic of ocean acidification as it impacts coral reefs because
I have always had a passion of the ocean and marine life. As an avid scuba diver, I have had the
opportunity to dive all over the world and experience first-hand mans impact on coral. From
Belize to Maldives to Thailand to Fiji and more, I have realized the present state of the reefs and
have developed a connection to those who inhabit them. Although this emotional attachment
plays a large role in my passion for the marine environment, I am also aware of the science and
data behind the issues our oceans are facing. Ocean acidification, to me, is something that we as
humans should feel responsible for and take action against. Delving into this topic will give me
more insight as to what ocean acidification really is, and what the possible solutions to the issue
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are. I feel that further knowledge on the matter will be very beneficial to me, and I will surely
Causes
Ocean acidification is caused by the increase in CO2 in the earths atmosphere that is then
absorbed into the ocean (Coral Reefs and Climate Change). Corals rely upon converting
the level of CO2 in the atmosphere increases, the acidity of seawater increases and the process of
calcification for the corals becomes increasingly more difficult (Bauer). Since the beginning of
the Industrial Revolution, the pH levels of the oceans has decreased 0.1 pH units, or an
approximate 30% increase in acidity (What is Ocean Acidification?). This relatively recent rise
in CO2 levels in the atmosphere is due to an increase in fossil fuel usage, land use, and industrial
processes (Krause et al). Originally scientists were not as concerned in regards to the absorption
of CO2 by the oceans for two reasons. One, scientists thought that rivers and streams provided
enough of a buffering effect and actually reduced the acidity of the oceans enough for any major
issues to occur (Knowlton). Two, scientists felt that the process of CO2 absorption may even be a
good thing, for the oceans absorption of greenhouses gases decreases the warming of the
atmosphere (Knowlton). However, scientists have now realized that the negative effects of ocean
The following graph, Figure 5, shows the rising levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, rising
levels of CO2 in the ocean, and decrease in pH in the water off the coast of Hawaii. It is evident
increase in both the atmosphere and ocean, pH levels decrease. Therefore, this increase of CO2
absorption in the ocean leads to a lower pH level, meaning the water is more acidic. This acidity
comes from the H2O and CO2 combining in order to form the acid of H2CO3, leading to a drop in
pH level of 0.1 units (Knowlton). This drop in pH at first glance may not seem like a pertinent
issue; however, it is important to keep in mind that the pH scale, like the Richter scale used to
is actually ten times more acidic than pH 3. Therefore, this much of a decrease in pH that were
experiencing in the earths oceans is thereby extremely detrimental for the marine ecosystem.
Effects
Not only are the effects of ocean acidification detrimental to the marine environment, but
these effects are catastrophic for the overall stability and sustainability of the earth as well as
human life. The majority of coral reefs are thousands of years old, predating the most mature
old-growth redwood forests and the European colonization of US shores (Ocean Facts). Thus,
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planet earth has become dependent upon the wellbeing of these coral ecosystems to sustain a
healthy environment. Due to the complexity and interconnectedness of the natural world, coral
reefs are an essential aspect to the environment and other organisms rely on the wellbeing of
these reefs in order to survive. In turn, these organisms which are directly affected by the vitality
of coral reefs directly impact humans, for human beings depend on the oceans as a resource for
First and foremost, the collapse of coral reefs would result in a lack of food and shelter
for millions of various marine species throughout the world (Ocean Facts). With the death and
the concentration of CO2 (ppm). It is evident that as the CO2 increases in concentration, both the
survivability of fish species and the length of fish larvae decrease drastically. It can reasonably
be inferred that the CO2 is promoting significant acidification of the water and thus the decrease
in fish. With such a low survival rate, this would further effect the rest of that ecosystems food
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species predators
grow exponentially.
Figure 7 depicts a
Figure 7: CO2's effect on coral
marine site
containing various levels of carbon dioxide concentration. Unmistakably, as CO2 levels increase,
the amount and diversity of marine life contrastingly decreases, ultimately resulting in a void of
any life at all. Therefore, the increase in acidification of our worlds oceans has traumatic
The extensive biodiversity and abundance of marine life ordinarily found on coral reefs
translates directly into food security, income, and medicinal benefits to humans. Although
scientists have only just begun to understand how reefs can contribute to medicine, already coral
reef organisms are being used in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV (WWF). For
instance, a toxin released from a certain coral reef bacterium called L. majuscula has shown to be
effective against several human cancers in laboratory tests (Science News). Additionally, due to
species necessity to defend themselves from natural predators, many corals have developed
chemical defenses to protect themselves from predators (Ocean Facts). Scientists continue to
research the medicinal potential of these substances. In the future, coral reef ecosystems could
pesticides, cosmetics, and other commercial products (Kleypas et al). In regards to food security,
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coral reefs provide rich fishing grounds for fishermen to make a living off of and provide food
for the world. If the world were to be devoid of coral reefs, many countries with heavily fish-
dependent diets would suffer, such as Japan and Korea. Below, figure 8 highlights which
(Marine Stewardship Council). World capture fisheries production in 2006 was about 92 million
tonnes, with an estimated first- sale value of US$91.2 billion, comprising about 82 million
tonnes from marine waters and 10 million tonnes from inland fisheries (UN). Thus, those who
catch fish both recreationally and occupationally and those who consume fish as a dietary need
would be heavily impacted and lives would have to significantly alter worldwide if the coral
Lastly, coral reefs provide significant cultural and aesthetic value throughout the world.
In more tropical and isolated lands such as Samoa and Hawaii, legends, myths, and fables
usually connect back to the countries surrounding seas. These stories, being centuries old, are a
key feature of Native peoples identity, upbringing, and culture (Teach Ocean Science).
Additionally, both personal fish tanks and public aquariums provide people with entertainment
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and aesthetic value throughout the world. In 2002, the Georgia Aquariums total revenue was
190 million US dollars, and there are approximately 240 major public aquariums throughout the
for children and adults alike. Figure 9, the poster for Disneys
world were devoid of coral reefs, movies such as these would Figure 9: A successful children's
film
cease to exist, aquariums would turn obsolete, and cultural
values would die out and thus there would be a decrease in entertainment and aesthetic
appreciation.
Sustainable Solutions
Although the impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs is severe, there are
multiple sustainable solutions that are viable in addressing the issue. Researchers and
conservationists around the globe have proposed the use of alternative resources and the
cultivation of sustainable practices in order to reduce carbon emissions and to mitigate the effects
Being that ocean acidification is caused by an increase in global carbon emissions, the
main goal in order to sustainably solve the issue of ocean acidification is to reduce ones carbon
footprint. There is a myriad of ways in which an individual can achieve this goal.
One being, for example, a reduction of ones meat consumption. This solution would lead to less
regards to use of resources in daily life would assist in lessening carbon footprint. Due to the
carbon released from manufacturing products such as plastic water bottles; toys; and gadgets,
and the carbon dioxide emitted from heating water used for bathing and cooking, a decrease in
this consumption of products would be helpful in the global reduction of those outputs. As
shown by Figure 10, which was taken from a Duke University webpage, the preceding areas are
some of the most significant sources of global carbon dioxide emissions. A per capita decrease in
the utilization of such sectors would thereby contribute to a decrease in overall CO2 emissions.
Additionally, education of the public has the ability to motivate people to take action and
reduce the effects of ocean acidification on coral reefs. A stronger emphasis on the value of coral
responsible habits within youth. With an increase in education, there will be an increase in
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understanding of the importance of preserving the marine ecosystem. Due to the fact that those
who are currently being educated by attending schools and universities are those who will
comprise of the futures governing bodies and global leaders, a promotion of sustainable and
manufacturing in order to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide expelled into the atmosphere.
This solution has been implemented in some ways, but further action is possible. However, the
United States, one of the most predominant countries in the world with a significant amount of
global leadership and responsibility, current administration values the environment significantly
less than administrative bodies of previous years. This idea has already been proven in current
President Donald Trumps claim that global warming is hoax devised by the Chinese
government, as well as his hiring of Scott Pruitt, a staunch climate change denier, as the head of
the Environmental Protection Agency. Thus, there ought to be an even greater push by other
Currently, the main legislation that has been passed in regards to the mitigation of ocean
acidification is the US Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring Act of 2009. This
Act, however, merely provides organizations with grants for further research and study of ocean
acidification (Federal Act). Therefore, a country like the United States is due to have an Act or
legislation passed that provides more than just monetary incentive for further research, but rather
introduces a more direct approach such as regulation on the carbon dioxide emitted into the
atmosphere.
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In conclusion, the current state of the planets coral reefs is frightening. Due to the
harmful effects that CO2 emissions will have on the reefs and overall environment, significant
action ought to be taken in the present in order to ensure a brighter future. Emphasis should be
Bibliography:
Knowlton, Nancy. "Corals and Coral Reefs | Smithsonian Ocean Portal." Corals and Coral
Reefs. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.
Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Sixth ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning,
n.d. Print.
Miller, G. Tyler, and Scott E. Spoolman. Living in the Environment. Eighteenth ed. Stamford:
Krause E, Wichels A, Gimnez L, Lunau M, Schilhabel MB, Gerdts G (2012) Small Changes in
"Coral Reefs and Climate Change - How Does Climate Change ..." Teach Ocean Science.
12/8/2016.
Bauer, Adriana. "Biodiscovery and the Great Barrier Reef." Importance of Coral Reefs -
Biodiscovery and the Great Barrier Reef - Queensland Museum. Queensland Museum, n.d. Web.
08 Dec. 2016.
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Figures:
18:46 PM 12/8/2016.
Figure 2: Sydenham, Shirley. & Thomas, Ron. 2016. Coral Polyps Web. 8 Dec. 2016.
Figure 3: Feely, Richard A., et al. (2006) Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy. Pew Trust.
Figure 4: "Coral Reefs and Climate Change - How Does Climate Change ..." Teach Ocean
Figure 5: Knowlton, Nancy. "Corals and Coral Reefs | Smithsonian Ocean Portal." Corals and
Coral Reefs. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.