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N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
Classical chain
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
Classical chain: equations of motion
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
Classical chain: equations of motion
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
%
Minimization of the classical action for the chain, S = dt L[n , n ]
leads to family of coupled Euler-Lagrange equations,
d
(n L) n L = 0
dt
With n L = mn and n L = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ), we
obtain the discrete classical equations of motion,
mn = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ) for each n
These equations describe the normal vibrational modes of the
system. Setting n (t) = e it n , they can be written as
(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
Classical chain: equations of motion
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
%
Minimization of the classical action for the chain, S = dt L[n , n ]
leads to family of coupled Euler-Lagrange equations,
d
(n L) n L = 0
dt
With n L = mn and n L = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ), we
obtain the discrete classical equations of motion,
mn = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ) for each n
These equations describe the normal vibrational modes of the
system. Setting n (t) = e it n , they can be written as
(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
Classical chain: normal modes
(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
&
ks
k = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m
k ' v |k|
'
where v = a kms denotes the sound wave velocity, describes
collective wave-like excitations of the harmonic chain.
Before exploring quantization of these modes, let us consider how we
can present the low-energy properties through a continuum theory.
Classical chain: normal modes
&
ks
k = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m
k ' v |k|
'
where v = a kms denotes the sound wave velocity, describes
collective wave-like excitations of the harmonic chain.
Before exploring quantization of these modes, let us consider how we
can present the low-energy properties through a continuum theory.
Classical chain: continuum limit
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
N "
! #
m 2 ks 2
L= n (n+1 n )
n=1
2 2
%L
Lagrangian L[] = 0
dx L(, ), where Lagrangian density
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
For a system with many degrees of freedom, we can still apply the
same variational principle: (x, t) (x, t) + &(x, t)
$ $ L ( )
1 !
lim (S[ + &] S[]) = 0 = dt dx s a2 x x
$0 & 0
Integrating by parts
$ $ L
dt dx( s a2 x2 ) = 0
0
Since this relation must hold for any function (x, t), we must have
s a2 x2 = 0
Dynamics of harmonic chain
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
For a system with many degrees of freedom, we can still apply the
same variational principle: (x, t) (x, t) + &(x, t)
$ $ L ( )
1 !
lim (S[ + &] S[]) = 0 = dt dx s a2 x x
$0 & 0
Integrating by parts
$ $ L
dt dx( s a2 x2 ) = 0
0
Since this relation must hold for any function (x, t), we must have
s a2 x2 = 0
Dynamics of harmonic chain
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
Classical equations of motion associated with Lagrangian density
translate to classical wave equation:
s a2 x2 = 0
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
Classical equations of motion associated with Lagrangian density
translate to classical wave equation:
s a2 x2 = 0
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
H(x, p) = p x L(x, x)
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical
commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of classical chain
Is there a general methodology to quantize models of the form
described by the atomic chain?
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical
commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of classical chain
Is there a general methodology to quantize models of the form
described by the atomic chain?
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical
commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of classical chain
$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2
+ + + $ +
(x) 1 ! k k 1 L
(x)
= 1/2 e {ikx , dx e {ikx
(x) L k
k k L1/2 0 (x)
+ + + $ +
(x) 1 ! k k 1 L
(x)
= 1/2 e {ikx , dx e {ikx
(x) L k
k k L1/2 0 (x)
+ + + $ +
(x) 1 ! k k 1 L
(x)
= 1/2 e {ikx , dx e {ikx
(x) L k
k k L1/2 0 (x)
1
,
In Fourier representation, (x) = L1/2 k e ikx k ,
k+k ! ,0
- ./ 0
$ L ! $ L !
2 $ 1 i(k+k ! )x
dx ( ) = (ik k )(ik k ! ) dx e = k 2 k k
0 !
L 0
k,k k
%L
Together with parallel relation for 0
dx 2 ,
!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k
1
,
In Fourier representation, (x) = L1/2 k e ikx k ,
k+k ! ,0
- ./ 0
$ L ! $ L !
2 $ 1 i(k+k ! )x
dx ( ) = (ik k )(ik k ! ) dx e = k 2 k k
0 !
L 0
k,k k
%L
Together with parallel relation for 0
dx 2 ,
!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k
!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k
p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
Specifically, introducing the operators,
& 1 2 & 1 2
m p m p
a= x +i , a = x i
2! m 2! m
which fulfil the commutation relations [a, a ] = 1, we have,
1 2
1
H = ! a a +
2
The ground state (or vacuum), |0+ has energy E0 = !/2 and is
defined by the condition a|0+ = 0.
Excitations |n+ have energy En = !(n + 1/2) and are defined by
(a )n
action of the raising operator, |n+ = n! |0+, i.e. the creation of n
fictitious particles.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited
p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
Specifically, introducing the operators,
& 1 2 & 1 2
m p m p
a= x +i , a = x i
2! m 2! m
which fulfil the commutation relations [a, a ] = 1, we have,
1 2
1
H = ! a a +
2
The ground state (or vacuum), |0+ has energy E0 = !/2 and is
defined by the condition a|0+ = 0.
Excitations |n+ have energy En = !(n + 1/2) and are defined by
(a )n
action of the raising operator, |n+ = n! |0+, i.e. the creation of n
fictitious particles.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited
p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
Specifically, introducing the operators,
& 1 2 & 1 2
m p m p
a= x +i , a = x i
2! m 2! m
which fulfil the commutation relations [a, a ] = 1, we have,
1 2
1
H = ! a a +
2
The ground state (or vacuum), |0+ has energy E0 = !/2 and is
defined by the condition a|0+ = 0.
Excitations |n+ have energy En = !(n + 1/2) and are defined by
(a )n
action of the raising operator, |n+ = n! |0+, i.e. the creation of n
fictitious particles.
Quantum chain
!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k
!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k
!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
1
*
|{nk }+ = 3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantum chain: phonons
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
1
*
|{nk }+ = 3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantum chain: phonons
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
1
*
|{nk }+ = 3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantum chain: remarks
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
= m/a is mass per unit length and s = ks /a.
Quantization of the harmonic chain: recap
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
= m/a is mass per unit length and s = ks /a.
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
%
From the minimisation of the classical action, S[] = dt L[], the
Euler-Lagrange equations recovered the classical wave equation,
= s a2 x2
2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
$ L " #
1 2 s a 2
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2
!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap
!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap
!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
1
|{nk }+ = *3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k
, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k d
(2)3
0
k = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E a 3
2 !vk
=3 2 k dk
N 2 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids
, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k d
(2)3
0
k = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E a 3
2 !vk
=3 2 k dk
N 2 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids
, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k d
(2)3
0
k = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E a 3
2 !vk
=3 2 k dk
N 2 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids
, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k 0
d k
(2)3 = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E 9 !vk
= 3 k 2 dk
N kD 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids
$ kD
E 9 2 !vk
= 3 k dk .
N kD 0 e !vk/kB T 1
1 23 $ TD /T
T z 3 dz
= 9kB T
TD 0 ez 1
1 23 $ TD /T 4
+
T z dz 3kB T - TD
cV = T = 9kB =
TD 0 (e z 1)2 AT 3 T # TD
Example: Debye theory of solids
1 23 $ TD /T 4
+
T z dz 3kB T - TD
cV = T = 9kB =
TD 0
z
(e 1)2 AT 3 T # TD
Lecture 17
Quantization of the
Electromagnetic Field
Quantum electrodynamics
1
L= F F
40
1
L= F F
40
1
L= F F
40
$ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2
$ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2
2 uk (x) = k uk (x)
%
where uk are real and orthonormal, d 3 x uk uk ! = kk ! (cf. Fourier
mode expansion of (x) and (x)).
With boundary conditions u& |boundary = 0 (cf. E& |boundary = 0), for
anisotropic waveguide with Lz < Ly # Lx , smallest k are those
with kz = 0, ky = /Ly , and kx k # L1
z,y ,
1 22
2
uk = sin(y /Ly ) sin(kx) ez , k = k 2 +
V Ly
Classical theory of EM field: waveguide
$ " #
1 3 1 2 2
L[A, A] = d x A ( A)
20 c2
,
Setting A(x, t) = k k (t)uk (x), with k = n/L and n integer,
and using orthonormality of functions uk (x),
" #
1 ! 1 2 2
L[, ] = k k k
20 c2
k
! " #
1 1 2 2
L[, ] = k
20 c2 k k
k
1
1 Define canonical momenta k = k L = &0 k , where &0 = 0 c 2 is
vacuum permittivity
! !1 1 1
2
H= k k L = k2 + &0 c 2 k k2
2&0 2
k k
! " 2 1
#
H = k
+ &0 k2 k2 , k2 = c 2 k
2&0 2
k
Quantization of classical EM field
! " #
1 1 2 2
L[, ] = k
20 c2 k k
k
1
1 Define canonical momenta k = k L = &0 k , where &0 = 0 c 2 is
vacuum permittivity
! !1 1 1
2
H= k k L = k2 + &0 c 2 k k2
2&0 2
k k
! " 2 1
#
H = k
+ &0 k2 k2 , k2 = c 2 k
2&0 2
k
Quantization of classical EM field
! " 2 1
#
H = k
+ &0 k2 k2 , k2 = c 2 k
2&0 2
k
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
k ' c|k|
Quantization of EM field: generalization
,
For waveguide geometry, we have seen that A(x) = k k uk where
&
!
k = (ak + ak )
2&0 k
,
For waveguide geometry, we have seen that A(x) = k k uk where
&
!
k = (ak + ak )
2&0 k
& 4 5
! ! ikx ikx
A(x) = ek ak e + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2
while [ak , ak! ! ] = 0 = [ak , ak! ! ].
Quantization of EM field: generalization
& 4 5
! ! ikx ikx
A(x) = ek ak e + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2
while [ak , ak! ! ] = 0 = [ak , ak! ! ].
Quantization of EM field: generalization
& 4 5
! ! ikx ikx
A(x) = ek ak e + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2
while [ak , ak! ! ] = 0 = [ak , ak! ! ].
Quantization of EM field: generalization
& 4 5
! !
A(x) = ek ak e ikx + ek ak e ikx
2&0 k V
k=1,2
With these definitions, the photon Hamiltonian then takes the form
! 4 5
H = !k ak ak + 1/2
k
1
|{nk }+ = *3 (ak1 )nk1 (ak2 )nk2 |+
k nk !
i.e. P|k, + = Pak, |+ = !k|k, + (for both = 1, 2).
Momentum carried by photon field
i.e. P|k, + = Pak, |+ = !k|k, + (for both = 1, 2).
Angular momentum carried by photon field
1 1
akR = (ak1 + iak2 ), akL = (ak1 iak2 )
2 2
find that
! 4 5
M = !ek akR akR akL akL
k
1 1
akR = (ak1 + iak2 ), akL = (ak1 iak2 )
2 2
find that
! 4 5
M = !ek akR akR akL akL
k
1 1
akR = (ak1 + iak2 ), akL = (ak1 iak2 )
2 2
find that
! 4 5
M = !ek akR akR akL akL
k
! 4 5
H = !k ak ak + 1/2
k
FC d *E + 2 !c
= =
A A 240 d 4
Casimir effect
! 4 5
H = !k ak ak + 1/2
k
FC d *E + 2 !c
= =
A A 240 d 4
Quantum field theory: summary
$ " #
2 s a 2
L[, ] = dx (x )2
2 2
we have developed a general quantization programme.
From this programme, we find that the low-energy elementary
excitations of the chain are described by (bosonic) particle-like
collective excitations known as phonons,
!
H = !k (ak ak + 1/2), !k = v |k|
k
!" 1 #
2 2
L[, ] = k k
c2
k
!
H = Jmn Sm Sn
m*=n
where J > 0, and spins obey spin algebra, [Sm , Sn ] = i!mn & Sm .
Spin wave theory
!
H = Jmn Sm Sn
m*=n
where J > 0, and spins obey spin algebra, [Sm , Sn ] = i!mn & Sm .
Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m
m
/ 0- .
1 +
(Sm Sm+1 + Sm Sm+1
+
)
2
Using Holstein-Primakoff transformation,
z
Sm = !(S am am ), Sm ' ! 2S am , Sm+ ' ! 2S am
expansion to quadratic order in raising and lowering operators gives,
!
2 2 2
H ' JN! S J! S (am am+1 + am am+1 am am am+1 am+1 )
m
Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m
m
/ 0- .
1 +
(Sm Sm+1 + Sm Sm+1
+
)
2
Using Holstein-Primakoff transformation,
z
Sm = !(S am am ), Sm ' ! 2S am , Sm+ ' ! 2S am
expansion to quadratic order in raising and lowering operators gives,
!
2 2 2
H ' JN! S J! S (am am+1 + am am+1 am am am+1 am+1 )
m
Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m
As a result, we obtain
!
2 2
H ' JN! S + !k ak ak
k