III.

STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF BEAMS

(According to ACI CODE)

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In 1956, as an appendix, the ACI Code for the first time included ultimate-strength design,
although the concrete codes of several other countries has been based on such considerations for
several decades. In 1963 the Code gave ultimate-strength design equal status with working-stress
design, the 1977 Code made the method the predominant method and only briefly mentioned the
working-stress method. From 1977 until 2002 each issue of the Code permitted designers to use working-
stress design and set out certain provisions for its application.
After 1963, the ultimate-strength design method rapidly gained popularity because:
it makes use of a more rational approach than does WSD;
a more realistic consideration of safety is used; and,
it provides more economical designs.
With this method, the working dead and live loads are multiplied by certain load factors (factor of safety)
and the resulting values are called factored loads.
Todays design method was called ultimate-strength design for several decades, but the Code
now uses the term strength design. The strength for a particular reinforced concrete member is a value
given by the Code and is not necessarily the true ultimate strength of the member. Therefore, the more
general term strength design is used whether beam strength, column strength, shear strength, or others
are being considered.

ADVANTAGES OF STRENGTH DESIGN

Among the several advantages of the 6 as compared to the working-stress design method are the
following:
1. The derivation of the strength design expressions takes into account the nonlinear shape of the
stress-strain diagram. When the resulting equations are applied, decidedly better estimates of
load-carrying ability are obtained.
2. With strength design, a more consistent theory is used throughout the designs of reinforced
concrete structures. For instance, with working-stress design the transformed-area or straight-line
method was used for beam design, and the strength design procedure was used for columns.
3. A more realistic factor of safety is used in strength design, with the load factors for live load, dead
load, and environmental of different value. However, with the working-stress design, the case
may not be the same. The same value of safety factors are used for different load condition.
4. A structure design by the strength method will have a more uniform safety factors against
collapse throughout. The strength methods takes considerable advantage of higher-strength
steels, whereas working-stress design did only partly so. The result is better economy for strength
design.
5. The strength method permits more flexible designs than did the working-stress method. For
instance, the percentage of steel may be varied quite a bit. Such variation was not the case in the
relatively fixed working-stress method.

13
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

Basic behavior assumptions are made when deriving a general theory for flexural strength of
reinforced concrete sections in strength design method. These are :

a. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.

'
b. The distribution of concrete stress may be taken to be a rectangle with mean stress of 0.85 f c
and a depth from the compressed edge of 1 c , where c is the neutral axis depth.
c. Tensile strength of concrete may be neglected.
d. The concrete strain at the extreme compression fiber at the flexural strength of the member may
be taken as 0.003.
e. The stress in the steel at less than the yield strength may be taken as the steel strain multiplied
by the modulus of elasticity of 200,000 MPa. For strains higher than that at the yield strength,
the steel stress may be considered to remain at the yield strength.
f. The stress-strain ( - ) curve for the steel is known.
g. The stress-strain ( - ) curve for the concrete, defining the magnitude and distribution of
compression stress, is known.

STRUCTURAL SAFETY

The structural safety of a reinforced concrete structure can be calculated with two methods.
a. The first method involves calculations of stresses caused by the working or service loads
'
and their comparison with certain allowable stresses, ( f c f c or f y f s ).
b. The second approach is the used in strength design in which uncertainty is considered. The
working loads are multiplied by certain load factors that are larger than one. The resulting
larger or factored loads are used fro designing the structure.

To accurately estimate the ultimate strength of a structure, it is necessary to take into account the
uncertainties in material strengths, dimensions, and workmanship. This is done by multiplying the
theoretical ultimate strength (called the nominal strength) of each member by the strength reduction
factor , which is less than one. These values generally vary from 0.90 for bending down to 0.65 for some
columns.

Strength Reduction or Factors

The Code prescribes values or strength reduction factors for most situations. Among these values are
the following:
0.90 for flexure
0.90 for tension-controlled beams and slabs
0.85 for shear and torsion in beams
0.75 for spiral column
0.70 for tied columns (others)
0.65 for bearing on concrete

14
Parameter 1
For ultimate concrete strengths up to and including 30 MPa ( f c 30MPa ) : 1 = 0.85
'

For ultimate concrete strengths above 30 MPa, 1 is to be reduced continuously at a rate of
0.05 for each 7 MPa of strength in excess of 30 MPa but shall not be taken less than 0.65.

For concretes with f c 30 MPa :

'
1 0.85 0.008 f c' 30 0.65

Load Factors
To ensure adequate safety against increase of service loads
To help ensure that the deformation at the service load are not excessive

U = 1.4D + 1.7 L
U = 0.75 (1.4 D + 1.7 L + 1.7 W)
U = 0.9 D + 1.3 W

DERIVATION OF BEAM EXPRESSION (FLEXURE FORMULA)

- Single Reinforced Beam -

Test of reinforced concrete beam confirms that strains vary in proportion to distances from the
neutral axis even on the tension sides and even near ultimate loads. Compression stresses vary
'
approximately in a straight line until the maximum stress equals about 0.50 f c . This is not the case,
however, after stresses go higher. When the ultimate load is reached, the strain and stress variations are
approximately as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Ultimate load

The compressive stresses vary from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum value at or near the
extreme fiber. The actual stress variation and the actual location of the neutral axis vary somewhat from
beam to beam depending on such variables as the magnitude and history of past loadings, shrinkage and
creep of the concrete, cracks, and so on.
The actual stress distribution is given in Figure 9(b). Although it may seem to be important, any
assumed shape (rectangular, parabolic, trapezoidal, etc.) can be used practically if the resulting equations
compare favorably with test results. The rectangular shape in Figure 9(c) is used in this text.

5
 Figure 9: Some possible stress distribution shape

It was Whitney who replaced the curved stress block (Figure 9b) with an equivalent rectangular
block (Figure 9c) of intensity 0.85 f c and depth a 1 c . The area of this rectangular block should
'

equal that of the curved stress block, and the centroid of the two blocks should coincide. Based on these
assumptions regarding the stress block, static equations can easily be written for the sum of horizontal
forces and for the resisting moment produced by the internal couple.

Flexure Formula

b c = 0.003 f c' 0.85 f c'

c c a = 1c C=
0.85 f c' ab
C

d jd = (a-d/2)
(d-c) Mn

s T T = As f y

Section Strain Actual Equivalent Rectangular

Diagram Stress Diagram Stress Block

Figure 10: Stress and strain distribution of single reinforced beam

In reference to Figure 10, equating the horizontal forces C and T and solving for a , we obtain

F H 0: C=T
0.85 f a b As f y
c
'

As f y
a = depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block
0.85 f c' b

16
Because the reinforcing steel is limited to an amount such that it will yield before the concrete reaches its
ultimate strength, the value of the nominal moment M n can be written as

a a
M n = T d As f y d
2 2

and the usable flexural strength is

a
M U M n As f y d
2

Let As b d , where is the percentage of tensile steel. Substituting the value of As to the depth of
the equivalent stress block, we have

fy d
a
0.85 f c'

If we substitute the value of a into the equation for moment, then

fy d
M U M n As f y d
'
2 0. 85 f c

1 f y
M U M n As f y d 1 '

1 .7 f c

Replacing As with bd and letting Rn M u bd , we can solve this expression for

2
(percentage
of steel required for a particular beam) with the following results:

0.85 f c' 2 Rn
1 1
fy 0.85 f c'

STRAINS IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS

The Code states that the strains in concrete members and their reinforcement are to be assumed
to vary directly with distances from the neutral axes. (This assumption, however, is not applicable to deep
flexural members whose depths over their clear span is greater than 0.25.) Furthermore, the Code states
that the maximum usable strain in the extreme compression fiber of a flexural member is 0.003. Finally,
for Grade 60 reinforcement and for all prestressed reinforcement, we may set the strain of steel equal to
0.002 at the balanced condition.

17
BALANCED SECTIONS, TENSION-CONTROLLED SECTIONS, and
COMPRESSION-CONTROLLED or BRITTLE SECTIONS

Flexural members subjected to loads can under go to three possible flexural failures. These are:

1. Balance Failure: ( f s f y )
The type of failure where, at a particular steel content, the steel reaches the yield strength f y
and the concrete reaches the extreme fiber compression strain of 0.003 simultaneously

2. Tension Failure: ( f s f y )
This type of failure could be referred to more properly as a primary tension failure, since the
failure is initiated by yielding of the tension steel. For the sake of brevity, the term tension failure
is used.
If the steel content of the section is small, the steel will reached the yield strength f y
before the concrete reaches its maximum capacity. (Note that the steel does not fracture
at the flexural strength of the section unless the steel content is extremely small. The very
high steel strains required to cause fracture are associated with extremely small neutral
axis depth).
The flexural strength of the section (maximum moment of resistance) is reached when
the strain in the extreme compression fiber of the concrete is approximately 0.003
Tensile strain is equal to or greater than 0.005 at the same time the concrete strain is
0.003
Also termed as ductile state.

3. Compression Failure: ( f s f y )
The section in this type of failure fails in a brittle fashion if the concrete is not confined. There may
be little visible warning of failure because the widths of the flexural cracks in the tension region
zone of the concrete at the failure section are small, owing to the low steel stress.
If the steel content of the section is large, the concrete may reached its maximum
capacity before the steel yields.
The flexural strength of the section (maximum moment of resistance) is reached when
the strain in the extreme compression fiber of the concrete is approximately 0.003
Also termed as brittle state.

The following Figure shows the strain profiles at a section at the flexural strength for three
different steel contents. The neutral axis depth depends on the steel content.

18
Extreme compression fiber c 0.003
 cb Tension Failure
( s f y ; b )
f

Balance Failure

Compression Failure
( fs f y ; b )

Centroid of
fy
tension steel s
Es
fy
y =
Es
fy
s
Es
Figure of strain profiles at the flexural strength of section

ANALYSIS OF SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION

b c = 0.003 0.85 fc

a = 1 c C
c c C
Mu
d
Mn jd = (a-d/2)
As (d-c)

T
s
Element of length
of member Section Strain Actual Equivalent Rectangular
Diagram Stress Diagram Stress Block

19
1. Tension Failure
For tension failure, the tension steel will reach the yield strength, f s f y
 a. Depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block

F H 0: C=T
0.85 f a b As f y
c
'

As f y
a
0.85 f c' b

b. How to check the type of flexural failure

b.1 By strain method

That is, if s y then f s f y

where:
fy
y
Es
the value of s is derived using similarity of triangles from the strain
diagram
s 0.003

d c c
d c
s 0.003
c
a
If a 1 c and c , then
1
1 d a
s 0.003
a

b.2 By steel ratio

That is min imum actual max imum then f s f y

where:
As
actual
bd
1 .4
min imum
fy
max imum 0.75 balance

c. The ultimate flexural capacity of the beam

Mu = M n T (d a )
2
Mu = As f y ( d a )
2
20
2. Compression Failure
For compression failure, the tension steel will not reached the yield strength, f s f y

a. The unit strain of steel, s and the tensile stress of steel f s

 Since in compression failure the stress of steel is not yielding f s f y , then s y .
Hence
f s s Es
from strain diagram, using similar triangles

d c
s 0.003
c
then
d c
f s 0.003 Es
c
a
If a 1 c and c
1
1 d a
f s 0.003 Es
a
1 d a
f s 0.003 E s
a

b. Depth of equivalent rectangular stress block

F H 0 C=T
0.85 f a b As f s
c
'

d a
0.85 f c' a b As 0.003 E s 1
a
0.85 f c' b a 2 0.003E s As 1 d 0.003E s As a
0.85 f c' b a 2 0.003E s As a 0.003E s As 1 d 0
0.85 f c' b 2

0.003E A a a 1 d 0
s s

From the above equation, solve for the value of a

c. The ultimate flexural capacity of the section

Mu = M n C (d a )
2
Mu =
0.85 f c' a b ( d a )
2

or
Mu = As f s (d a )
2
21
3. Balance Failure
For balance failure, the tension steel will reach the yield strength, f s f y

b c = 0.003 0.85 fc

ab C
 cb cb C
N.A.
d
Mn (ab -d/2)
As (d-cb)

T
s f y Es
Section Strain Actual Equivalent Rectangular
Diagram Stress Diagram Stress Block

From the strain diagram, by similar triangles

y 0.003

d cb cb

cb y 0.003 d cb
c b y 0.003 d 0.003 cb
cb y 0.003 0.003 d

fy
but y , then
Es
0.003 d 0.003 d
cb
fy = f y 0.003 E s
0.003
Es Es
0.003 E s
cb d
f y 0.003 E s
Also, ab 1 cb
0.003 E s
then ab 1 d
f y 0.003 E s
0.003 E s
or ab 1 d ------------------ Equation 1
f y 0.003 E s

From the stress diagram

F H 0 C = T
0.85 f ab b As f y
c
'

22
let: As b b d
0.85 f c' ab b b b d f y
Simplify and solve for b
0.85 f c' ab
b -------------------------------- Equation 2
fy d
Substitute equation 1 to equation 2
 0.85 f c' 0.003 E s
b 1 d
fy d f y 0.003 E s

0.85 f c' 1 0.003 E s

b
fy f y 0.003 E s
If E s 200,000 MPa
0.85 f c' 1 600
b
fy f y 600

The above is known as the balance steel ratio. In the general case when the steel ratio for the
section is different from b , the type of flexural failure that occurs will depend on whether is less than
or greater than b .

NOTE:
fy
a. Tension Failure ( f s f y ) : b ; c cb and s
Es
fy
b. Compression Failure ( f s f y ) : b ; c cb and s
Es
c. Maximum and minimum steel ratio

c.1 To ensure that the flexural failure to be ductile (tension failure), the ACI Code limits the
amount of tension steel to not more than 75% of the amount of the balanced section.

max imum 0.75 bal

Note: When greater ductility is required like

Seismic design: max imum 0.50 bal
Redistribution of moment: max imum 0.50 bal

c.2 To prevent a cracking mode failure in a very lightly reinforced concrete section, the minimum
steel percentage used is

1. 4
min imum
fy
23

DESIGN OF SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION

b 0.85 fc

ab C
cb C
N.A.
h d
Mn (ab -d/2)
As
 T

Section Actual Equivalent Rectangular

Stress Diagram Stress Block

1. Beam Dimension

From the strength equation in tension failure

Mu = As f y (d a )
2
As f y
If : a
0.85 f c' b

As f y
As f y d
2 0.85 f c' b
Mu =

As f y
Mu = As f y d 0.59 '
fcb
Let : As b d
bd fy
Mu = b d f y d 0.59
f c' b
Simplifying
fy
Mu = b d 2 f y 1 0.59 '
fc
fy
Let : and f c f y
'

f c'
Substitute these values to flexural moment

Mu = b d f c 1 0.59
2 '

The above equation is known as the design moment equation, to determine the dimension of the
section of the beam

24

Mu
bd 2
f 1 0.59
c
'

let Ru f c 1 0.59 which is called the coefficient of resistance

'

Mu
then bd 2
Ru
Note:
If deflection and economy will control, take 0.18
2. Area of Tension Steel

The area of tension reinforcement is given by the equation:

As b d
For design:

b.1 To ensure that all beams have desirable characteristics of visible warning if failure is
imminent, as well as reasonable ductility at failure, it is recommended that the steel ratio are:
f c' 0.18 f c'
----------- if deflection will control
f y' fy
1 / 2 max ------------------------ to ensure a ductile state

b.2 If flexural capacities will govern, the steel ratio is:

0.85 f c' 2 Ru
1 1 but should be less than max but greater than
f y 0.85 f c'
min
where:
Mu
Ru ---------------- coefficient of resistance
bd 2

25

Example Problem

a. Find the safe moment capacity of a single reinforced concrete beam if is reinforced with 4-25-mm
diameter bars as shown. The clear cover is 40 mm.
b. If the beam has a cantilever support of 3 m, what maximum single concentrated load can be
applied at the extreme end of the support besides its own weight?

Use fc = 9.45 MPa ; fs = 138 MPa ; n = 9

305 mm P
 4-25-mm

510 mm

3m

Solution:

a. For the safe moment capacity

1. Solve for beam constant.

D = d + bar diameter + clear cover

d = D - bar diameter - clear cover = 510 (25) 40
d = 457.5 mm

using 25-mm-diameter bar : Ao = 490.87 mm2

As 4 x 490.87
305 x 457.5 0.0141
bd

n 0.0141 (9) 0.1269

n 2 0.1269 2 0.0161
2 n 2 0.1269 0.2538

2 n n n
2
k
k 0.2538 0.0161 0.1269
k 0.393
k
j 1
3
0.393
j 1-
3
j 0.869

2. Solve for the moment capacity.

a. From concrete

M = fc k j b d2
1
M = (9.45) (0.393) (0.869) (305) (457.5) 2 x
1000
M = 103, 014 N m
b. From tension steel

M = As fs j d
1
M = (4 x 490.87) (138) (0.869) (457.5) x
1000

M = 107, 725 N m