Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
OGel Publications
Oil & Gas Consultants International Inc.
Tulsa
COPYRIGHT 1984 BY
OIL & GAS CONSULTANTS INTERNATIONAL, INC.
and H. Dale Beggs
4554 South Harvard Avenue
Thlsa, Oklahoma 74135
1 Introduction 1
Geographical Occurrence of Natural Gas 1
Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas 1
Occurrence of Natural Gas in the United States 2
Geologicai Occurrence of Natural Gas 2
Modification by Migration and Burial 10
Characteristics of Natural Gas 11
Gas Composition 11
Other Sources of Gaseous Fuel 12
Liquefied Natural Gas 12
Coal Gasification 12
Substitute Natural Gas 12
Gas from Devonian Shaie 13
Tight Formation Gas 13
Gas from Geopressured Aquifers 13
Gas Production Operations 13
References 14
2 Gas Properties 15
Ideal Gases 15
Early Gas Laws 15
Boyle's Law 15
Charles' Law 15
Avogadro's Law 15
The Ideal Gas Law 16
Ideal Gas Mixtures 17
Dalton's Law 17
Amagat's Law 18
Apparent Molecuiar Weight 18
Real Gases 22
Real Gas Mixtures 22
Gas Formation Volume Factor 30
v
Correction for Nonhydrocarbon Impurities 30
Other Equations of State 31
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation 31
Redlich-Kwong Equation 32
Gas Isothermal Compressibility 33
Ideal Gas Compressibility 33
Real Gas Compressibility 33
Gas Viscosity 34
Carr Method 35
Lee Method 35
Gas-Water Systems 36
Solubility of Natural Gas in Water 37
Solubility of Water in Natural Gas 37
Gas Hydrates 37
Gas-Condensate Systems 39
Phase Behavior 39
Single Component Fluid 39
MUlticomponent Fluids 39
Separation Processes 40
Types of Gas Reservoirs 40
Flash of Equilibrium Separation Calculations 41
Determination of Equilibrium Ratios 44
K-Values from Equations of State 45
Adjustment of Properties for Condensate Mixtures 45
Specific Gravity of Mixtures 46
References 47
vi
1
Pressure Buildup Testing 74
Real Gas Pseudopressure Analysis 77
Gas Reserves 80
Reserve Estimates-Volumetric Method 80
Reserve Estimates-Material Balance Method 81
Energy Plots 82
Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs 83
Well Completion Effects 83
Open-Hole Completions 84
Perforated Completions 84
Perforated, Gravel-Packed Completions 87
Tight gas Well Analysis 87
Guidelines for Gas Well Testing 90
Testing Equipment 90
Sweet Dry Gas 90
Sweet Wet Gas 91
Sour Gas 92
Flow Measuring 92
Pressure Measuring 92
Test Design 92
Problems in Gas-Well Testing 94
Liquid Loading 94
Hydrate Formation 94
Wet Gas Streams 94
Irregular Flow 94
Sour (H2S) Gas 95
Reporting Data 95
References 95
vii
Gas Flow Through Restrictions 120
Use of Pressure Traverse Curves 122
Liquid Removal from Gas Wells 122
Minimum Flow Rate for Continuous liquid Removal 122
liquid Removal Methods 126
Beam Pumping Units 126
Plunger Lift 127
Small TUbing 127
Gas-Lift 127
Soap Injection 127
Erosional Velocity 127
Predicting Flowing Temperatures 128
Flowing Temperatures in Wells 128
Flowing Temperatures in Pipelines 129
References 129
5 Gas Compression
Types of Compressors 131 131
Positive Displacement Compressors 132
Dynamic Compressors 135
Ejector Compressors 136
Compressor Design 137
Design Methods 137
Reciprocating Compressors 138
Power Requirement 139
Multistaging 143
Effect of Clearance 143
Effect of Specific Heat Ratio 144
Centrifugal Compressors 145
References 146
7 Flow Measuring
Introduction 165 165
Orifice Metering 165
Orifice Constants 166
Basic Orifice Factor Fb 166
Pressure-base Factor Fp b 166
viii
Temperature-base Factor Gb 166
Specific-gravity Factor Fg 166
Flowing-temperature Factor Fff 166
Reynolds-number Factor F, 166
Expansion Factor Y 166
Supercompressibility Factor Fpv 167
Manometer Factor Fm 167
Metering System Design 167
Straightening Vanes 168
Orifice Location 168
Size of Orifice and Meter Run 168
Recorder 169
Chart-Reading Accuracy 171
Conditions Affecting Accuracy 172
Condition of the Orifice Edge 172
Condition of the Meter Tube 172
Pulsation 172
Effect of Water Vapor 172
Wet Gas Measurement 173
Other Metering Methods 173
Orifice Well Tester 173
Critical-flow Prover 173
Pitot Tube 174
Turbine Meters 174
References 188
ix
Hydrate Formation 205
Causes, Occurrence, and Prediction 205
Hydrate Formation in the Flow String and Surface Lines 207
Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Orifices, and
Back-Pressure Regulators 208
Hydrate Control 210
Sour Gas Production 210
Corrosion 210
Corrosion Control with Inhibitors 211
The Short Batch Method of Application 211
The Tubing Displacement Method 212
Methods of Inhibitor Application Using Nitrogen Gas 212
Method of Continuous Treatment with Inhibitors 212
Formation Squeeze 214
Sulfur Deposition 215
Safety 215
Well Testing 217
10 Gas Processing
Field Treatment of Natural Gas 219 219
Types of Separators 220
Separator Controls 221
Stage Separation 221
Low Temperature Separation 224
Condensate Stabilization 225
Gas Plant Operations 226
liquid Hydrocarbon Recovery 227
Compression Processing 227
Absorption Processing 229
Cryogenic Processing 230
Adsorption Processing 230
Gas Dehydration 232
Gas Sweetening 233
References 234
Appendices
A. Equilibrium Constants for 5000 psia Convergence Pressure 235
235
B. Matlhews-Brons-Hazebrook Curves for Various Reservoir Shapes 249
C. Mollier Diagrams for Natural Gas 255
D. Computer Subroutines 259
E. Pressure Traverse Curves 281
F. Summary of Equations 295
Index
305
x
Nomenclature
Dimensions
A area L'
Bg gas formation volume factor
Bgb gas formation volume factor at bubble-point conditions
B, oil formation volume factor
e; oil formation volume factor at bubble-point conditions
B, total (two-phase) formation volume factor
Bw water formation volume factor
cf formation (rock) compressibility Lt'/m
cg gas compressibility Lt'/m
c, oil compressibility Lt'/m
cp , pseudoreduced compressibility
Cw water compressibility Lt'/m
C coefficient of gas-well back-pressure curve L3-2nt4njm2n
C concentration various
CL condensate or natural gas liquids content various
d diameter L
D depth L
E efficiency
EA areal efficiency
ED displacement efficiency
E[ invasion (vertical) efficiency
Ep pattern sweep efficiency
ER reservoir recovery efficiency. overall
Ey volumetric efficiency
f fraction
f friction factor
f fugacity miLt'
F force mL/t'
xi
Dimensions
xv
Introduction
1
A
LTHOUGH natural gas has been utilized as very high pressure to store significant quantities of nat-
a fuel for more than 150 years, the large de- ural gas in small spaces, its use as a fuel for motor ve-
mand for it has developed fairly recently. The hicles is very limited. However, as the supply of liquid
principal reason for this is the greater diffi- fuels such as gasoline diminishes, it is likely that tech-
culty of storing and transporting gas as compared to liq- nology will be developed to overcome this problem.
uid fuels. Initially, natural gas was used only in the areas
in which it was produced, with excess production being
GEOGRAPHICAL OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS
vented to the air or flared. This was especially true of
gas produced along with the oil in oil fields. Geological conditions necessary for commercial ac-
The development of large diameter, high pressure cumulations of natural gas exist in various locations
pipelines and compressors, along with the technology of worldwide. The tables and graphs presented in this sec-
gas storage in reservoirs, has spurred both the demand tion locate and quantify the known reserves and the pro-
for natural gas and the development of the technology duction rates of various countries. These data are also
required to produce and transport it. This is illustrated presented for various states in the United States.
in the United States by the fact that natural gas supplied
more than 30% of the total energy demand in 1980 as
Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas
compared to 18% in 1950 and less than 4% in 1920.
Natural gas supplied about 20% of the energy worldwide The worldwide reserves of natural gas has steadily in-
in 1980. creased during recent years, while the United States re-
The increased demand has also greatly increased the serves declined from 1967 to 1983.
price obtained for the gas. In 1950 the average price for Table I-I shows that the United States' share of the
natural gas in the United States was about $0.07 per total world reserves decreased from 27.8% to 6.7% dur-
thousand standard cubic foot (Mscf), and as late as 1970 ing the 1967-1983 period. As of 1983, the proved world
the price averaged only about $O.17/Mscf. In 1980 the gas reserve was 3,033 trillion cubic feet. The changes in
average price had increased to more than $0.90/Mscf reserves by area from 1967 to 1983 are shown in Table
with gas in some areas selling for as much as $9.00/ I-I. These statistics are also reported by country for the
Mscf. The large difference in the average and maximum twenty leading gas producing countries in Table 1-2.
selling price is due to the huge quantities being sold at Although the United States has less than 7% of the
very low prices under long term contracts made many total world reserves, it currently produces more than 34%
years ago. of the gas produced worldwide. Production statistics by
Natural gas is used primarily as a fuel for space heat- area for the 1975-1981 period are presented in Table 1-
ing and for generating steam for electric power plants, 3. The production statistics for the twenty leading coun-
although its use as a feedstock for petrochemical plants tries are presentedin Table 14 for 1980, 1981 and 1984. At
is increasing rapidly. Because of the necessity of using the 1981 worldwide production rate of 160 billion cu ft/
1
1
I
Western Hemisphere
U.S. as
Western Total a %01
United Latin Hemisphere Middle Asta- Western Free Communist Total Total
Year Slates Canada America Total East Africa Pacific Europe World Nations World World Year
1967 289,333 43,450 64,550 397,333 215,070 158,155 32,450 88,582 891,590 150,000 1,041,590 27.8 1967
1968 292,908 45,682 67,101 405,691 220,670 167,223 40,050 133,965 967,599 215,500 1,183,099 24.8 1968
1969 287,350 47,666 62,900 397,916 223,775 168,345 52,724 141,176 983,936 343,000 1,326,936 21.7 1969
1970 275,109 51,951 163,150 490,210 235,275 197,143 67,500 150,800 1,140,928 350,000 1,490,928 18.5 1970
1971 290,746(1) 53,376 73.100 417,222 354,262 191,516 56,330 147,731 1,167,061 440,000 1,607,061 18.1 1971
1972 278,806(1) 55,462 72,700 406,968 343,930 193,018 69,600 163,250 1,176,966 558,000 1,734,966 16.1 1972
1973 ,266,085(1) 52,938 79,218 398,239 344,150 189,015 101,236 178,400 1,211,040 664,400 1,875,440 14.2 1973
1974 249,950(1) . 52,457 91,321 393,728 413,325 187,720 114,200 193,797 1,302,770 735,400 2,038,170 12.3 1974
1975 237,132(1) 56,708 100,214 394,054 672,670 314,974 115,880 202,625 1,700,404 846,000 2,546,404 9.3 1975
1976 228,200(1) 56,975 90,487 375,662 538,648 207,152 111,560 180,875 1,413,897 835,000 2,248,897 10.1 1976
1977 216,026(1) 58,282 90,325 364,633 536,460 209,077 120,010 141,905 1,372,085 953,000 2,325,085 9.2 1977
1978 208,878(1) 59,472 108,480 376,830 719,660 207,504 122,725 138,190 1,564,909 955,000 2,519,909 8.3 1976
1979 200,302(1) 59,000 112,950 372,252 730,660 186,290 119,850 143,260 1,552,312 945,000 2,497,312 8.0 1979
1980 194,917{l l 85,500 144,500 424,917 740,330 210,350 128,815 135,376 1,639,158 935,000 2,574,158 7.6 1980
1981 199,021(1} 67,300 159,811 446,132 752,415 208,470 126,290 159,315 1,692,622 953,900 2,646,522 7.5 1981
1982 201,730(1) 59,900 176,323 467,953 762,490 211,667 127,616 150,650 1,720,376 1,194,700 2,915,976 6,9 1982(1)
1983 204,000(1) 97,000 186,591 487,591 769,730 189,423 146,247 156,736 1,749,727 1,283,800 2,022,527 6.7 1983(P)
1985 198,000(2) 92,300 184,931 475,231 869,355 187,176 166,190 206,673 1,904,625 1,497,400 3,402,025 5.8 1985
1966 197,000 99,700 189,271 485,971 855,863 198,322 171,497 226,407 1,938,060 1,546,000 3,484,060 5.6 1986
1988 187,200 95,100 236,141 518,441 1,182,123 253,310 240,650 200,117 2,394,641 7.8 1988
1989 165,000 94,300 233,694 492,994 1,226,150 266,730 248,031 191,914 2,425,819 6.8 1989
1991 166,208 97,589 242,284 506,081 1,324,265 285,143 298,561 175,265 1,619.000 4,208,315 3.9 1991
{')Revised
(plpreliminary
(1}Figures Include 26 trillion cubic feet In Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (discovered in 1968) for which transportation facilities are not yet available
(2)Based on Energy Information Administration estimates.
day, known reserves exist to sustain this rate for another siana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. The state of
forty-five years. Louisiana is by far the largest producer, accounting for
about 34% of the total gas produced in the United States
Occurrence of Natural Gas In the United States in 1981. Much of this gas is produced offshore. Table
The United States is not in the same condition as the 1-8 lists the gas production by slates for the period 1972-
total world with respect to supply of natural gas. As shown 1981.
in Table 1-5, almost eleven years would be required to Consumption of natural gas is of course more evenly
deplete the 198'1 known reserves at 1981 production rates, distributed among the states, with Texas being the larg-
This does not mean that the gas will be depleted in ten est consumer. Table 1-9 shows where the United States-
years, however, as new supplies are being found con- produced gas was used in the period 1977-1981.
tinuously. The changing reserve situation in the United The large growth of the gas industry in the United
States is illustrated graphically in Figure I-I. Table 1-6 States is attributable to the comprehensive transmission
shows estimates of the total remaining resources of nat- system that has developed since the late 1940's. In 1977
ural gas in the United States. Depending on the source the network of gas pipelines consisted of more than
of the estimate, the resources remaining in 1979 range 250,000 miles and served almost 45 million gas cus-
from 502 to 1202 trillion cubic feet. tomers. The pipeline grid is shown in Figure 1-2, and
Table 1-7 presents salient statistics related to the gas the distribution of pipelines and customers among the
industry in the United States for the period 1970-1981. slates is listed in Table 1-10.
Approximately 5% of the gas consumed is imported, pri-
marily from Canada. Some liquefied natural gas is im-
GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS
ported from Algeria,
Of the gas produced in the United States, almost 90% Certain requirements must be met for a commercial
comes from only five states, These are Kansas, Loui- deposit of petroleum to exist. These are:
Introduction 3
TABLE 1-2
Estimated Natural Gas Reserves-Leading Nations (As of January 1) (Billion Cubic Feet)
11. Venezula 55,370 1.63 11. Netherlands 70.4 1.9 11. Nigeria 87.4 2.2
12. Malaysia 60.000 1.47 12. Venezuela 59.0 1.6 12. Indonesia 87.0 2.2
13. Indonesia 40,000 1.18 13. Indonesia 49.4 1.4 13. Norway 82.2 2.1
14. Nigeria 35,600 1.05 14. Malaysia 49.4 1.4 14. Mexico 73.4
15. Kuwait 32.500 0.96 15. Nigeria 47.0 1.3 15. Netherlands 61.1
16. China 30,900 0.91 16. United Kingdom 33.4 16. Malaysia 51.9
17. Iraq 28,800 0.85 17. China 30.0 17. Kuwait 48.6
18. United Kingdom 27.800 0.82 18. Iraq 28.0 18. China 35.3
1g. Argentina 24,630 0.72 19. Argentina 23.0 19. Argentina 27.3
20. Libya 21,200 0.62 20. Libya 21.2 20. Libya 25.5 10.1
21. Abu Dhabi 20,750 0.61 21. Australia 18.7 5.2 21. India 23.0
22. Australia 17,850 0.52 22. Pakistan 18.7 22. United Kingdom 20.8
23. Pakistan 15.760 0.46 23. India 17.6 23. Pakistan 18.0
24. India 15,000 0.44 24. Australia 16.5
Others 150,120 4.41 Others 223.5 6.2 Others 234.7 5.9
TOTAL WORLD 3,402,030 100.0 TOTAL WORLD 3,626.0 100.0 TOTAL WORLD 3,989.1 100.0
Source: Oil and Gas Journal, "Worldwide Report issue.
TABLE 1-3
World Marketed Production of Natural Gas by Area (Millions of CUbic Feet)
U.s.
WESTERN HEMISPHERE
Western Total
e a
% of
Free
...
u.s.
%01
United latin Hemisphere Middle Asia- Western Free Communist Total World World
Year States Canada America Total East Africa Pacific Europe World Nations World Total Total Year
1975 20,108,661 3,075,693 1,735,060 24,919,414 1,436,210 670,402 938,365 5,966,659 33,931,050 13,276,275 47,207,325 59.3 42.6 1975
1976 19,952,438 3,067,353 1,722,106 24,741,897 1,492,n2 905,792 1,173,878 6,343,593 34,657,932 14,801,281 49,459,213 57.6 40.3 1976
1977 20,025,463 3,230,672 1,865,734 25,121,669 1,506,982 919,464 1,329,016 6,502,502 35.379,833 14,720,257 50,100,090 56.6 40.0 19n
1978 19,974,033 3,128,056 2,012,912 25,115,001 1,579,478 1,117,416 1,469,154 6,649,855 35,930,904 15,818,398 51,749,302 55.6 36.6 1978
1979 20,471,260 3,646,500 2,610,000 26,727,760 1,624,700 1,027,900 1,827,900 6,866,800 38,075,060 19,591,400 57,666,460 53.8 35.5 1979 1
1980(f) 20,378,787 2,668,300 3,297,500 26,344,587 1,221,300 884,700 2,558,400 6,668,700 37,6n,687 21,069,900 58,747,587 54.1 34.7 1980(r)
1981(r) 2O,1n,701 2,623,000 3,227,000 26,027,701 1,542,000 1,947,000 2,765,000 6,906,000 39,187,701 19,210,000 58,397,701 51.5 34.6 1981(1}
(I) Revised
Source: 1975-78: U.S. Energy Information Administration, World Natural Gas, Annuals.
1979-1981: U.S. Energy Information Administration, United States only; Rest of World, OIl and Gas Journal
6. Mexico 1,373.3 2.29 6. Mexico 1,252.3 2.0 6. United Kingdom 1,520.8 2.0
7. Algeria 1,260.0 2.10 7. Algeria 1,238.3 1.9 7. Indonesia 1,345.7 1.8
8. Romania 1,249.0 2.07 8. Romania 1,210.2 1.9 8. Mexico 1,307.4 1.8
9. Norway 922.6 1.54 9. Indonesia 1,155.9 1.8 9. Romania 1,236.6 1.7
10. Indonesia 732.0 1.22 10. Norway 906.2 1.4 10. Saudia Arabia 1,079.8 1.5
11. Argentina 653.2 1.09 11. Argentina 661.8 11. Norway 1,014.9 1.4
12. West Germany 648.2 1.08 12. China 646.0 12. Argentina 846.2
13. Italy 638.9 1.07 13. Venezuela 615.1 13. Iran 793.9
14. Venezuela 609.6 1.02 14. West Germany 545.4 14. United Arab 790.7
Emirates
15. Australia 444.4 0.74 15. Italy 527.3 8.0 15. Venezuela 740.1
16. China 420.0 0.70 16. Australia 524.1 16. Italy 707.4 8.2
17. Iran 360.0 0.60 17. Iran 489.3 17. Australia 629.7
18. Pakistan 355.2 0.59 18. Pakistan 390.3 18. Germany, Fed. 567.2
Rep
19. BruneI 312.0 0.52 19. United Arab 362.1 19. Malaysia 526.0
Emirates
20. France 312.0 0.52 20. Saudia Arabia 328.7 20. China 515.2
TABLE 15
The Reserves of United States Natural Gas (Millions of Cubic Feet-14.72 psla at 60F.)
Reserve
Revisions, In({lcated,
Extensions Net Change Years Supply,
Proved Reserves
00'
Discoveries
In
Underground
Production
Durin~
Net Change,
In Reserves,
of Year-and,
Proved
Year at Start of Year During Year Stomge(7) veer' } Proved Reserves at Year-end During Year Reserves Year
1975 211,132,497(3) 237,132,497(2) 10,483,688 302,561 19,718,570 202,200,176(3) 228,200,176(4) -8,932,321 10,i3) 11.6(4) 1975
1976 202,2oo,176(3} 228,200,17f}3) 7,555,468 -187,550 19,542,020 190,026,074(3} 216,026,047(4) -12,174,102 9.7(3) 11.1(4) 1976
19IT 190,026,074(3) 216,026,074(4) 11,851,924 446,930 19,447,050 182,877,878(3) 208,877,878(4} -7,148,196 9.4(3) 10.?14} 1977
1978 182,877,878(3) 20B,877,878(4} 10,586,144 148,733 19,311,048 174,301,707(3) 200,301,707(4) -8,576,171 9.0(3) 10.4(4) 1978
1979 174,301,70]13) 200,301,707(4) 14,285,947 239,323 19,910,353 168,916,624(3) 194,916,624(4} -5,385,083 8.5(3) 9.g(4) 1979
1980 200,997,000(4) 16,723,000 NA 18,699,000 199,021,000(4) "";1,976,000 10,6(4) 1980
1981 199,021,000(4) 21,446,000 18,737,000 201,730,000(4) +2,709,000 10.8(4) 1981
(1) Estimated
(3)Figures exclude 26 trillion cubic feet in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (discovered in 1968)which are not yet available for market due to the lack of transportation facilities.
(4)Flgures include 26 trillioncubic feet in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska.
(7}The net dIHerence between gas stored in and gas withdmwn from underground storage reservoirs. inclusive 01 adjustments and nativegas transferred from other reserve categories.
(Adjustments include change of reporting basis starting In 1973to reportonly gas reserves considered recoverable, In effect, reducing gas reserves by 1,024,140 MMCFthat would
havebeen reported since 1972 usingformer basis.)
~ - -,
260
240
: '0.
b..,
220
l?'
p-if b..a...
200
180
" '0
160
~
-
I I I I I I I r I I I I I I I r I I r I I I I I I I I
40
35
30
25 ---ADDITIONS
20
15
10 f-- ---
5
o -
5 ---
10
15
20 ---PRODUCrON
25
1947 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975
Fig. 1-1. U. S. natural-gas reserves. Used by permission of the copyright holder, American Gas Association.
TABLE 1-6
Estimated Gas Resources and Reserves (Trillion Cubic Feet) Including Alaska
TABLE 1-7
Salient Statistics of Natural Gas In the U.S. (Million Cubic Feet)
VALUE AT WELLHEAD
TABLE 18
U.S. Marketed Production'" of Natural Gas by State (Million Cubic Feet)
State 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
Alabama 3,644 11,271 27,865 37,814 41,427 57,227 85,399 85,815 105,527 119,334
Alaska 125,596 131,007 128,935 160,270 166,072 187,889 203,088 220,754 230,588 242,564
Arizona 442 125 224 208 282 240 286 247 214 187
Arkansas 166,522 157,529 123,975 116,237 109,533 104,D96 106,792 109,452 111,808 92,986
Caflfornia 487,278 449,369 365,354 318,308 354,334 311,462 311,084 248,206 309,783 380,730
Colorado 116,949 137,725 144,629 171,629 183,972 188,792 183,693 191,239 190,814 199,146
Florida 15,521 33,857 38,137 44,383 43,165 48,171 51,595 50,190 45,744 35,938
Irtinois 1,194 1,638 1,436 1,440 1,556 1,003 1,159 1,585 1,574 1,295
Indiana 355 276 176 348 192 183 163 350 463 330
Kansas 889,268 893,118 886,782 843,625 829,170 781,289 854,484 797,762 735,035 640,114
Kentucky 63,648 62,396 71,876 60,511 66,137 60,902 70,044 59,520 57,180 61,312
louisiana 7,972,678 8,242,423 7,753,631 7,090,645 7,006,596 7,215,006 7,476,497 7,266,217 6,939,924 6,780,184
Marylaro 244 268 133 93 75 82 88 28 68 56
Michigan 34,221 44,579 69,133 102,113 119,262 129,954 148,047 159,731 158,302 152,593
Mississippi 103,989 99,706 78,787 74,345 70,762 82,995 106,579 144,077 185,469 211,371
Missouri 9 33 33 30 29 20
Montana 33,474 56,175 54,873 40,734 42,563 46,819 46,522 53,888 51,867 56,565
Nebraska 3,478 3,836 2,538 2,565 2,511 2,789 2,882 3,208 2,550 2,519
New Mexico 1,216,061 1,218,749 1,244,779 1,217,430 1,230.976 1,202,973 1,174,198 1,181,363 1,149,781 1,134,113
New York 3,679 4,539 4,990 7,628 9,235 10,682 13,900 15,500 15,643 16,074
North Dakota 32,472 27,703 31,206 24,786 31,470 29,173 30,499 18,468 42,346 42,573
Ohio 89,995 93,610 92,055 84,960 88,891 99,327 114,098 123,181 138,856 141,134
Oklahoma 1,806,887 1,770,980 1,638,942 1,605,410 1,726,513 1,769,519 1,773,582 1,835,366 1,891,824 2,019,199
Oregon 2 5 5
Pennsylvania 73,958 78,514 82,637 84,676 89,386 91,717 97,763 96,313 97,439 122,454
South Dakota 914 1,193 1,155
Tennessee 25 20 17 27 47 263 488 941 1,241 1,719
Texas 8,657,840 8,513,850 8,170,798 7,485,764 7,191,859 7,051,027 6,548,184 7,174,623 7,251,879 7,050,207
U1ah 39,474 42,715 50,522 55,354 57,416 80,696 58,416 58,605 87,766 91,191
Virginia 2,787 5,101 7,096 6,723 6,937 8,220 8,492 8,544 7,812 8,903
West Virginia 214,951 208,676 202,306 154,484 153,322 152,767 148,564 150,505 156,551 161,251
Wyoming 375,059 357,731 326,657 316,123 328,768 330,180 357,267 414,416 409,541 410,449
Total 22,531,696 22,647,549 21,600,522 20,108,661 19,952,438 20,025,463 19,974,033 20,471,260 20,378,787 20,177,701
(1)Marketed production of naturalgas represents gross withdrawals less gas used for repressuring and quantitiesvented and flared.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Annuals. January 1983.
TABLE 19
U.S. Consumption of Natural Gas by State (Million Cubic Feet)
Virginia
'"
116,020
'"
134,144
'"
134,066
3,991
156,479
4,363
151,737
Washington 142,657 127,260 156,515 126,770 124,942
West Virginia 144,535 151,639 146,536 143,047 146,527
Wisconsin 349,160 370,726 367,517 351,657 324,611
Wyoming 83,623 67,292 93,797 66,975 69,056
U.S. Total 19,520,561 19,627,476 20,240,761 19,877,293(3) 19,403,858(3)
Source: U,S. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Annuals. January 1983.
Courtesy the American Petroleum Institute
8 Gas Production Operations
Introduction 9
TABLE 1-10 may migrate and accumulate after being formed.
Transmission Pipelines and Natural-Gas Customers by State 3. A trap or subsurface condition restricting further
Transmission movement so that it may accumulate in commercial
Pipelines Gas Customers quantities.
State (Miles) (Thousands)
Natural gas and crude oil are generated from organic
Alabama 5,301 644.4 matter under the influence of increasing temperature and
Alaska 115 30.4
time. Both the type of organic matter and the tempera-
Arizona 5,041 561.0
California 7,813 6,632.2 ture it experiences have a role in controlling whether oil
Colorado 6,219 726.6 or gas is formed. Organic matter can be divided into two
Connecticut 538 390.2 broad categories depending on whether it was derived
Delaware 227 82.4 from organisms growing on the land surface or growing
District of Columbia 23 153.2
in water, that is, whether it is terrestrial or aquatic. It is
Florida 3,101 409.9
Georgia 4,982 927.3 generally thought that the terrestrial matter produces nat-
Hawaii o 34.5 ural gas and some waxy crudes, whereas aquatic mate-
Idaho 1,312 109.0 rial produces normal crudes.
Illinois 9,955 3,158.3 This distinction is important in estimating the maxi-
Indiana 5,655 1,196.3
mum depth to which crude oil or natural gas may occur.
Iowa 6,142 702.6
Kansas 15,547 679.0 Rivers have played a critical role in transporting terres-
Kentucky 6,950 627.4 trial material to the depositional environment. Therefore,
Louisiana 21,697 943.3
Maine 538 17.6
Maryland 730 773.8
Massachusetts
Michigan
789
6,891
1,052.4
2,244.4
~
dC:X::7>.~
Minnesota 3,983 727.3 / Water - --Spill point
Mississippi 9,355 383.3
Missouri 4,153 1,177.5
Montana 3,041 176.1 Stage 1. Gas, oil, and water above spill point. Both
Nebraska 7,448 411.2 oil and gas continue to be trapped while water
Nevada 1,236 118.7 is displaced. This stage ends when oil-water
New Hampshire 129 46.2 interface reaches spill point.
New Jersey 1,310 1,823.9
New Mexico 6,023 288.7
New York 4,232 3,996.3
#.~~.
North Carolina 2,291 342.2
North Dakota 1,111 74.9
Ohio 10,218 2,756.3 Water --
Oklahoma 11,136 753.9
Oregon 1,167 250.8 Stage 2. Stage of selective entrapment and gas flushing.
Pennsylvania 11,983 2,327.1 Gas continues to be trapped but oil is spilled
Rhode Island 53 160.8 up dip. This stage ends when oil-qas interface
South Carolina 2,315 285.9 reaches spill point.
South Dakota 942 94.7
Tennessee 5,116 494.0
Texas 38,295 3,029.1
Utah 310.0
/?t ~/
909
Vermont 60 16.6
Virginia 2,352 526.1
Washington 1,707 348.8 --.. -....
~ -..-~
West Virginia 5,830 396.1
Water
Wisconsin 3,166 959.0 Stage 3. End stage. Trap filled with gas. Excess gas
Wyoming 2,885 103.5 spills up dip as more gas enters trap. Oil by-
Total U.S. 252,012 44,941.5 passes trap and continues upward migration.
Source: Interstate Natural Gas Association of America. Washing-
ton, D.C. Fig. 1-3. Illustration of differential entrapment principle,
showing various stages of hydrocarbon accumulation in an
1. A source; that is, material from which the petroleum anticline. Solid and dashed arrows denote oif and gas
is formed. movement respectively. (After GUssow) Courtesy American
2. Porous and permeable beds in which the petroleum Association of Petroleum Geologists.
10 Gas Production Operations
Trap 4
Trap 3 Water
Trap 2
Trap 1 on:
Water
Fig. 1-4. Final condition of differential entrapment in a series of interconnected traps. (After GUssow) counesy American
Association of Petroleum Geologists.
H H H
I \ I
H-C - H C
I \
I H-C-C-H
H
I I
Methane H H
Cyclopropane
H H H
I I I
H-C-C-C-H
I I I H H
H H H H H\ / \ /H H
\/C--C,I
Propane C...... C..... H
H.... ,.,
C-C
H H H H '" I'
I I I I H H H H
H-C - C-C-C-H
I I I I cvcio Hexane
H H H H
n-Butane
H H
H H H I I
I I I
/C - C,
H-C-C-C-H
H-C C-H
I I
H
I H
~
C- C
~
H-C-H I I
I H H
H
i-Butane Benezene
methane has less stability in deep carbonates. tions. In gas used for fuel, methane is the largest com-
The Barker and Kemp study implies that natural gas ponent, usually 95 to 98%.
may exist at depths greater than have been presently ex- Natural gas is normally considered to be a mixture of
pored if porous and permeable reservoirs exist at these straight chain or paraffin hydrocarbon compounds.
depths. Table I-II shows that considerable reserves may However, occasionally cyclic and aromatic compounds
exist at depths between 15,000 and 30,000 ft. occur in a natural gas. The molecular structures of some
of these are shown in Figure 1-5. The general formula
for the paraffin hydrocarbons is C,H2' . 2' where n is the
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL GAS number of carbon atoms.
TABLE 1-13
Consl/luents of Petroleum
Product of Commerce
Name Formula Containing Constituent General Range of Constituents in Field Stream
.. 8 ..8 z~
'0 '0
Hexanes CeH14 Natural gasoline, motor fuel 0; '" "6
c: "Q)
lE c:
c:
II '0 2: ~
c: 'g
~
-"
Heptanes C7H 16 Natural gasoline, motor fuel 8 '" ~ '0
c:
Octanes CaH18 Natural gasoline, motor fuel l(j :a ~ ijl
o -" ~
Motor fuel
Q)
c .~
Decanes C1oH22 '0 (J)
2 ~o l!l
Tetradecane
Hexadecane
C14H 20
C16H 34
Kerosene, light furnace oil
Mineral seal oil, furnace 011
o
s
(J)
.."
.0
0
Liquid
Stock tank
T
HE ability to calculate the performance of a defined as one in which: (I) the volume occupied by the
gas producing system, including the reservoir molecules is small compared to the total gas volume; (2)
and the piping system, requires knowledge of all molecular collisions are elastic; and (3) there are no
many gas properties at various pressures and attractive or repulsive forces among the molecules.
temperatures. If the natural gas is in contact with liquids, The basis for describing ideal gas behavior comes from
such as condensate or water, the effect of the liquids on the combination of some of the so-called gas laws pro-
gas properties must be evaluated. posed by early experimenters.
This chapter presents the best and most widely used
methods to perform the necessary calculations. Some of
Early Gas Laws
the information presented in this chapter will be used
only in reservoir calculations and some will be used only Boyle's Law. Boyle observed experimentally that the
in the piping system design chapter; therefore, this chap- volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the
ter will be referred to frequently in the subsequent chap- pressure for a given weight or mass of gas when tem-
ters. perature is constant. This may be expressed as
Numerous example problems are worked and graphs
are presented for empirical correlations. Application of 1
some of the methods requires a computer, and FOR-
ve- or p V = constant.
p
TRAN subroutines are included in the appendix if avail-
able. Charles' Law. While working with gases at low pres-
sures, Charles observed that the volume occupied by a
IDEAL GASES
fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, or
The understanding of the behavior of gases with re-
V
spect to pressure and temperature changes is made clearer VaT or - = constant.
by first considering the behavior of gases at conditions T
near standard conditions of pressure and temperature; that
is: Avogadro's Law. Avogadro's Law states that under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal
p = 14.7 psia = 101.325 kPa (SPE uses 100 kPa) volumes of all ideal gases contain the same number of
T = 60'F = 520'R = 288.n'K (SPE uses 288'K). molecules. This is equivalent to the statement that at a
given temperature and pressure one molecular weight of
At these conditions the gas is said to behave ideally, any ideal gas occupies the same volume as one molec-
and most of the early work with gases was conducted at ular weight of another ideal gas. It has been shown that
conditions approaching these conditions. An ideal gas is there are 2.73 x 1026 molecules/Ib-mole of ideal gas
15
16 Gas Production Operations
and that one molecular weight in pounds of any ideal or
gas at 60F and 14.7 psia occupies a volume of 379.4
cu ft. One mole of a material is the quantity of that ma- p,VI pzV,
--=-- (2-3)
terial whose mass, in the system of units selected, is nu- T, Tz
merically equal to the molecular weight. This means that
Thus for a given quantity of gas, pVIT = a constant.
one mole of any ideal gas, that is, 2.73 X 1026 molecules
The constant is designated with the symbol R when the
of any gas, will occupy the same volume at a given pres-
quantity of gas is equal to one molecular weight. That
sure and temperature.
is,
m = ---,----------
RT RT RT
PA = nA \1' PB = nBV' Pc = nc rtr-
V
10.73 psia cu It ) (528'R)
( Ib-mole'R According to Dalton's Law, the total pressure is the
m = g.O Ibm sum of the partial pressures
P = PA + P. + Pc
Example 2-2:
RT RT RT
Calculate the density of methane at standard condi- P = nA - + ne - + ncrz:
tions. V V V
pM
(101.325 kPa)(16 kg )
kg-mole
P= v In) =VRT n .
RT
Crilleal c on stcnt s
j;
,u, .-, . ,...,. .. A
. ' ..
.
No. Compound
< -
0 0
'o~
0
,;
5
2,
[~
A
...
u
-', .A .~ W:! i .-
~ <~ -, ~
E
e
u,
., ._
0_
A
-=."'"
00
.0
0_
>
!l:-
u,
=
0: ...~u.:
c
,e
.,>
1 Metnane CH.
'"
16.043
"'
-258.69 (SOaO) -296.46 667.8 -116.63 0.0991
2 Ethane C2 HC; 30,070 -127.48 {BOOl -297.89 707.8 90.09 0.0788
3 Propane C3H e 44.097 _43.67 190 -305.84 616.3 206.01 0.0737
5
n_ Bulone
Isabulan.
c.. H,o
( .. H I O
58,124
58.124
31.10
10.90
51.6
72.2
-217.05
-255.29
550.7
529.1
305.65
274.98
0.0702
0.0724
6 n_ Pentone C,H 12 72.151 96,92 15.570 -201.51 488.6 385.7 0.0675
82.12 20.44 _255,83 490,4 369.10
~~12
7 l s cpent cne 72.151 0.0679
8 N eopenf(lne H" 72.1.51 49.10 35.9 2.17 464.0 321.13 0,067 -4
9 n_Hexane CeH'4 86.178 155.72 4.956 -139.58 436.9 453.7 0.0688
10 2_Me'hylpenlone ~H14 86.178 140.47 6.767 -244.63 436.6 435.83 0.0681
11 3_Methylpentane CeH 14 86.178 145.89 6.098 - 453.1 448.3 0.0681
12 Neahellane ~H'4 86.178 121.52 9,856 -147.72 446.8 420.13 0.0667
13 2,3- 0 imethy Ibutane ~H'4 86.178 136.36 7.404 -199.38 453.5 440.29 0.0665
I. n_Heptane C7H'e 100.205 209.17 1.620 131.05 396.8 512.8 0.0691
15 2_Methylhexane C7Hte 100.205 194.09 2.271 -180.89 396.5 495.00 0.0673
16 3_Meth ylhellane C7H'e 100.205 197.32 2.130
2.012
-
-181.48
408.1 503.78
513.48
0.0646
0.0665
17 3_Ethylpentane C7H'e 100.205 200.25 419.3
18 2,2- 0 Imethy Ipentane C7HlIS 100.205 174.54 3.492 -190.86 402.2 477.23 0.0665
19 2,4_Dimethy Ipentane C7H,e 100.205 176.89 3.292 -182.63 396.9 475.95 0.0668
20 3,3-0 Imethyl pentane C7 Hle 100.205 186.91 2.773 -210.01 427.2 505.85 0.0662
21 Trrptcne C7H'e 100.205 177.58 3.374 -12.82 428.4 496.44 0.0636
22 n_Octone CeH,s 114.232 258.22 0.537 -70.18 360.6 564.22 0.0690
23 Diliobulyl CaH ' 8 114.232 228.39 1.101 -132.07 360.6 530.44 0.0676
24 l,ooctone CeH l8 114.232 210.63 1.708 -161.27 372.4 519.46 0.0656
25 n_Nonane ClIH 20 128.259 303.47 0.179 -64.28 332. 610.68 0.0684
26 n_ Decone C'OH 22 142.286 345,48 0.0597 -21.36 304. 652.1 0.0679
27 Cyelopentane C15H 10 70.135 120.65 9.914 -136.91 653.8 461.5 0.059
28 Methy Icye Iopen tone C;H 12 84.162 161.25 4.503 -224.44 548.9 499.35 0.0607
29 Cyclohellone CeH'2 84.162 177.29 3.264 43.77 591. 536.7 0.0586
30 Methylcyclohellone C7H\4 98.189 213.68 1.609 -195.87 503.5 570.27 0.0600
31 Ethylene C2 H4 28,054 -154.62 -272.45 729.8 48.58 0.0737
32 Propene C3He 42.081 -53.90 226.4 -301.45 669. 196.9 0.0689
33 1- Butene C4Hs 56.108 20.75 63.05 -301,63 583. 295.6 0.0685
34 Cis_2_Butene C4Ha 56.108 38.69 45.54 -218.06 610. 324.37 0.0668
35 Trons_2_Butene C4H8 56.108 33.58 49.80 _157.96 595. 311.86 0.0680
36 Isobutene C4 H 56.108 19.59 63.40 -220.61 580. 292.55 0.0682
37 l_Pen1ene C15H 1O 70.135 85.93 19,115 -265.39 590. 376.93 0.0697
38 1,2_Butadiene C4H6 54.092 51.53 12G.I _213.16 (653.) (339.) (0.0649)
39 1,3_Butodiene C4Ha 54.092 24.06 160.1 -164.02 628. 306. 0.0654
.0 Isoprene C H 68.119 93.30 16.672 -230.74 (558.4) (412.) 10.06501
.1 Acetylene (2 H2 26.038 -119 -114. 890.4 95.31 0.0695'
42 Benzene o.H, 78.114 176.17 3,224 41.96 710.4 552.22 0.0531
43 Toluene C7Ha 92.141 231.13 1.032 -138.94 595.9 605.55 0.0549
44 Ethylben1ene CaH lO 106.168 277.16 0.371 -138.91 523.5 651.24 0.0564
45 a_Xylene c;H 10 106.168 291.97 0,264 -13.30 541,4 675.0 0.0557
46 m_Xylene CeH,o 106.168 282.41 0.326 -54.12 513.6 651.02 0.0567
47 p_Xylene CaH 10 106.168 281.05 0.342 55.86 509.2 649.6 0.0572
.8 Styrene CaH a 104.152 293.29 (0.24) -23.10 580. 706.0 0.0541
.9 Is apropy lben zene C H 120.195 306.34 0.188 _140,82 465.4 676.4 0.0570
50 Methyl Alcohol CH40 32.042 148.1(2) 4.63(22) _143,82(22) 1174.2(21 ) 462.97(21) 0.0589(21)
51 Ethyl Alcohol CzHllO 46.069 172.92(22) 2.3171 _173.4(22) 925.3(21) 469.58(21 ) 0.0580(21 )
Carbon MonOllide CO 28.010 -313,6(2) - _340.6121 507.(17) -220.(17) 0.0532(7)
"ss
54
Carbon Diollide
Hydrogen Sulfide
CO,
H, S
44,010
34.076
_109,3(2)
_76.6(24)
-
394.0(6)
-
-117.2(7)
1071.(17)
1306.(17)
87.9(23)
212.7(17)
0,0342(23i
0.0459(24}
55 Sulfur Diollide So, 64.059 1 0171 88.(7) -103.9(7) 1145,(24) 315.5(17) 0,0306{24}
56 Ammonia N:-t3 17.031 _28.2(24) 212.(7) -107.9(2) 1636.(7) 270.3(24) 0.0681(17}
57
58
Air
Hydrolilen
N202
H,
28.964
2,016
-317.6(2)
-423.0(24)
-- -
-434.8(24)
547.(2)
188.1(17)
_221.3(2)
-399.8(17)
0.0517(3)
0.5167(24)
59 Ollygen 0, 31.999 -297.'121 - -361.8(24) 736.9(24) .;.181.1(17) 0.0382(24)
60 Nitroven N,
CI,
28.013 -320.4(2)
-29.3(24)
- -346.0(24)
-149.8(24)
493.0(24)
1118.4(24)
-232.4(24) 0.0514(17)
0.0281(17)
61 Chlorine 70.906 1S8.171 291.(17)
62 Waler H,O 18.015 212.0 0.9492(12) 32.0 3208.(17) 705.6(17) 0.0500(17)
63 Helium
Hydrogen Chloride
H.
HCI
4.003
36.461
-
-121(16)
-
925.171
-
-173.6(16)
-
1198,(17)
-
1245(17)
-
00208(17)
"
( ) estimated values
20 Gas Production Operations
, ~ ~' .;'
ps
t
.E
<;
.E
..: 10
1,
, . ,
, ..
., ... ,..
E, l' N ~ c.;
.~
.; g , -0
No
- . "-
o .
0 ; B TU/lbl"'F
' ~
,u.
. " 0 "0"0-::
..
~
<: ~
.
~,
v ~ ~.
0
, '0 ;:; ;;
., .-
"0 ~ 0
.:;:~ Ci ~ ; ~ 0 o'
-.
.,
~~
~
<: Q.~~
~~ .::~
~ Idoal
,,- ", ."
E _ Liquid
~,. E 0_
U e .<
0
~~ ~- ~-
c n:
'" u ~
"
,~
"
-- -
0.3
0.3564
0.5077
25
2.971
4.233
2.5
2.962
4.222
64
10.12
10.42 0.00152
00104
0.0986
0.1524
09981
0.9916
0,9820
05539
1,0382
1.5225
23.65
12.62
8.606
"
37.5
36.43
0.5266
0.4097 0.9256 ,
1
0.3881 0.5920
0.5844
0.5631
4.872
4.695
4.865
4.686
11.93
12.38
0.00117
0.00119
0.2010
0.1848
0,9667 2.0068 6.529 31.81 0.3867 0.5636 ,3
0.9696 6,529
0,6310
0.6247
5.261
5.208
5.251
5,199
13.71
13.85
0.00087
0,00090
0.2539
0,2223
0.9549
0.9544
2.0068
2.4911
2.4911
5.260
5.260
30.65
27.67
27.39
0.3872
0.3883
0.3827
0.5695
0.544J ,
5
0.5353 7
0.5967 4.975 4.965 14.50 0.00104 0.1969 0.9510 2.4911 5.260 26.17 (0,3866) 0.554 8
0.6640
0.6579
5.536
5.485
5.526
5.475
15.57
15.71
0.00075
0.00078
0.3007
0.2825 -
2.9753
2.9753
4.404
4.404
24.38
24.15
0.3864
0,3872
0.5332
0.5264
10
0.6689
0.6540
5.577
5.453
5.568
5.443
15.45
15.81
0.00075
0.00078
0.2741
0.2369
-- 2.9753
2.9753
4.404
4.404
24.56
24.01
0.3815 0.507 11
0.3809 0.5165 12
0.6664 5.556 5.546 15.51 0.00075 0.2495 2.9753 4.404 24.47 0.378 0.5127 13
0.6882 5.738 5.728 17.46 0.00069 0.3498 3,4596 3.787 21.73 0.3875 0.5283 14
0.6830
0.6917
0.7028
5.694
5.767
5.859
5.685
5.757
5.850
17.60
17,38
17,10
0.00068
0.00069
0.00070
0.3336
0.3257
0.3095
--- 3,4596
3.4596
3.4596
3.787
3.787
3,787
21.57
21.84
22,19
(0.390)
(0.390)
(0.390)
0.5223
0.511
0.5145
15
16
17
0.6782 5.654 5.645 17.72 0.00072 0.2998 - 3.4596 3.787 21.41 (0.395) 0.5171 18
0.6773 5.647 5.637 17.75 0.00072 0.3048 - 34596 3.787 21,39 0.3906 0.5247 19
0.6976
0.6946
5.816
5.791
5.807
5.782
17.23
17.30
0.00065
0.00069
0,2840
0.2568
- 3.4596 3.787 22.03 (0.395) 0.502 20
3.4596 3.787 21.93 03812 0.4995 21
0.7068 5.893 5.883 19.39 0.00062 0.'4018 3.9439 3.322 19,58 (03876)
0.6979
0.6962
5.819
5.804
5.810
5.795
19.63
19.68
0.00065
0.00065
0.3596
0.3041
-- 39439
3.9439
3.322
3.322
19.33
19.28
(0.373)
0.3758
0.5239
0.5114
0.4892
22
23
24
0.7217 6.017 '.008 21.32 0.00063 0.4455 - 4,4282 2.959 17.80 0.3840 0.5228 25
0.7342
0.7504
6.121
6.256
6.112
6.247
23.24
11.21
0.00055
0.00070
0.4885
0.1955
-
0.9657
4,9125
2.4215
2.667
5.411
16.33
33.85
0.3835
0.2712
0.5208
0.4216 "
27
0.7536 6.283 6.274 13.40 0.00071 0.2306 - 2.9057 4.509 28,33 0,3010 0.4407 28
0.7834
0.7740
6.531
6.453
6,522
6.444
12.89
15.22
0.00068
0.00063
0.2133
0.2567
- 2.9057
3.3900
4.509
3.865
29:45
24.94
0.2900
0.3170
0.4332
0.4397
29
30
0.0868 0.9938 0.9686 13.53 0.3622 3I
0.5220 4.352 4.343 9.67 0.00189 0.1405 0.9844 1.4529 9.018 39,25 0.3541 0.585 J2
0.6013 5.013 5.004 11.19 0.00116 0.1906 0.9704 1.9372 6.764 33.91 0.3548 0.535 33
0.6271 5.228 5.219 10.73 0.00098 0.1953 0.9661 1.9372 6.764 35.36 0.3269 0.5271 3'
0.6100 5.086 5.076 11.03 0.00107 0.2220 0.9662 1.9372 6.764 34.40 0.3654 0.5351 35
0,6004 5.006 4.996 11.21 0.00120 0,1951 0.9689 1.9372 6.764 33.86 0,3701 0.549 36
0.6457 5.383 5.374 13.03 0.00089 0.2925 0.9550 2.4215 5.411 29.13 0.3635 0.5196 37
O.658 h 5.486 5.470 9.86 0.00098 0.2485 (0.969) 1.8676 7.016 38.49 0.3458 0.5408 38
0.6272 5.229 5.220 10.34 0.00113 0.1955 (0.965) 1.8676 7.016 36.69 0.3412 0.5079 39
0.6861 5.720 5.711 1 J. 91 0.00086 0.2323 (0.962) 2.3519 5.571 31.87 0.357 0.5192 '0
0.615 0.1803 0,9925 0.8990 14.57 0.3966 41
0.8844 7.373 7.365 10.59 0.00066 0.2125 0,929(15) 2.6969 4.858 35.82 0.2429 0.4098 42
0.8718 7.268 7.260 12.68 0.00060 0.2596 0.903(21) 3.1812 4.119 29.94 0.2598 0.4012 43
0.8718 7.268 7.259 14.61 0.00054 0.3169 - 3.6655 3.574 25.98 0.2795 0.4114 44
0.8848 7.377 7.367 14.39 0,00055 0.3023 - 3.6655 3.574 26.37 0,2914 0.4418 45
-
0.8687
0.8657
0.9110
. 7.243
7.218
7.595
7.234
7.209
7.586
14.66
14.71
13.71
0.00054
0.00054
0.00057
0.3278
0.3138
-
-
-
3.6655
3.6655
3.5959
3.574
3.574
3.644
25.89
25.80
27.67
0.2782
0.2769
0.27 t 1
0.4045
0.4083
0.4122
46
47
48
0.8663 7.223 7.214 16.64 0.00054 0.2862 4.1498 3.157 22.80 0.2917 (0.414)
0.796(3)
0.794(3)
6.64
6.62
6.63
6.61
4.83
6.96 - -
-
-
1.1063
1.5906
11.84
8.237
78.6
54.5
0.323\ (241
0.3323 1241
0.594{7l
0.562(7)
"
50
51
0.801 (8) 6.68 6.67 4.19 - 0.041 0.9995(15) 0.9671 13.55 - 0.2484(13) -
0.827 (6)
~.~:97 (~~1 ..
6.89
,.~~
6.88
6.58
6.38
5.17
-
-
0.225
0.100
0.9943(15)
0.9903(15)
1.5195
1.1765
8.623
11.14
59.5
73.3
0.1991(13)
0.238(4)
-
- "
53
11.6 11.6' 5.50 0.246 2.2117 5.924 69.0 0.145171 0.325 171 ""
0.6173(11)
0.856 (8)
5.15
7.14
5.14
7.13
3,31
4.06
-- 0.255
- -
0.9996(15)
0.5880
1.0000
22.28
13 10
114.7
-
0.5002(10)
0.2400(9)
1.114 (7)
- 56
57
0.07 (3)
1.14 (3)
-
9.50
-
9.49
-
3.37
-- 0.000
0.0213
1.0006(15)
-
0.0696
1. 1048
1882
11,86
-- 3.408(13)
0.2188(13)
-
- ""
0.808 (3)
1.414(14)
6.74
11,79
6.73
11,78
4.16
'.01
-- 0.040
-
0.9997(15)
--
0.9672
2.4481
13.55
5.352
-
631
0.2482(13)
0.119(7) -
- '0
61
1.000
-
0.8558(14)
8.337
-
7.135
8.328
-
7.126
2.16
-
5.11 0.00335
-- 0.348
-- -
-
0,6220
-
1.2588
21.06
-
10.41
175.6
-
74.3
0.4446(13)
-
0.190(7)
1.0009(7)
-- "
63
64
Gas Properties 21
E, ~ =? 0 -
No. Compound
- ~
- ~ ";:
o 0"
-,
"=, -e
" ,- -- . ,
0
.: e, t-
",'
. i ,
e,
~ a. to
;;; ~
,
O
- 0
' ,
0
".
~ o~
.- ,
:ll;llc:::!.
0_ 0_ ~."c ~~ ~
c e, 0 E ~
~ 0
00
0
, 0
~ ~;: ~ e-
<, 0 0 u, M 0"
o ~ 0
00 0
~
~
2 ,
o 0
', E 0
... sx
, Methone
...
"'
909.1
"' "' "'
1009.7
J:
219 22
-o
"
9,54 50
..J
150
J: ~
-
2 Ethan" 1617.8 1768.8 - - 210.41 - 16.70 2.9 13.0 +.05 -, 6
3 P,opone 2316.1 2517.4 2\513 91065 183.05 - 23.86 2.1 95 97.1 -I ,
",.,
4 n_Butone 3010.4 3262. J 21139 102989 165.65 1.3326 31.02 1., 89,6 93.8
5 Isabulan" 3001.1 3252.7 21091 99022 157.53 - 31.02 18 97.6 10
6 n_ Pentone 3707.5 4009.5 20928 110102 153.59 1 35748 38 18 '.3 62,6 61 7
,
7 Isopenlane
Neopentone
3698.3
3682.6
4000.3
3984.6
20889 108790
20824 103599
147.13
135.58
1,35373
1,342
38 18
38 18
"
1.4
1.4
(8.3)
(8 3)
90.3
80,2
923
'55
9 n_Hexone 4403.7 4756.1 20784 115060 143.95 1,37486 45.34 12 7.7 26,0 248
10 2_Melhy Ipenlone 4395.8 4748.1 20757 113852 138.67 1.37145 45.34 I 2 (7 7) 73,5 73 ,
11 3_Melhylpenlone 4398.7 4751.0 20768 115823 140.09 1.37652 45.34 (12) (7 7) 74.3 745
12 Neohexone 4382.6 4735.0 20710 112932 131.24 1.36876 45.34 I 2 (7 7) 93.4 91 ,
13 2,3-0 imelhy Ibutone 4391.7 4744.0 20742 115243 136.08 1.37495 45.34 (1.2) (7 7) 94.3 "'3
14 n_Heptone 5100.2 5502.9 20681 118668 136,01 I. 38764 52.50 1.0 70 00 00
15 2_Melhy Ihexone 5092.1 5494.8 20658 117627 131.59 1 38485 52.50 n.o: (7,0) 46 4 '2 ,
16 3_Melhy Ihexone 5095.2 5497.8 20668 119192 132.11 1,38864 52.50 (1,0) 17 0) 55.8 520
17 3_Elhylpentone 5098.2 5500.9 20679 121158 132.83 1 39339 52,50 (1.0) (7 0) 69,3 650
18 2,2_Dlmethylpenlane 5079.4 5482.1 20620 116585 125.13 1 38215 52,50 (1.0) (70) 95.6 92,8
19 2,4_Dimelhy lpentcne 5084.3 5487.0 2063"6 116531 126.58 138145 52.50 11.01 (7.0) 83.8 831
20 3,3_Dimethylpentane
21 Tliplone
5085.0
5081.0
5487.6
5483.6
20638 120031
20627 119451
127,21
124.21
1 39092
1. 38944
52.50
52.50
(1.0)
(1.0)
(7.0)
(7.0)
86.6
tOl ., ,
80.8
b
-
22 Gas Production Operations
1.2
Methane
&:Ili:
N" 0.6 --~-W'--pI,..-o~---+----=~:t:~7""4::&e.
0.5.1----1-t--\-h---"'+--"'--=-i7"7Lr'
\
\
\
\
I
4
I
I
0.2 ~--+_+--_I_---+----1
I
I
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
500 1,000 1,500 Pressure, psla
Fig. 2-2. Compressibiiity faclors for melhane. Cour/esy Gas Processors Suppiiers Associalion.
---
24 Gas Production Operations
Ethane
1.1
--~
968"
5200C
440
400-
---
1.0
- -- -- 7
24
680
-- 360
320
08 280
536 240
-
-
0.9 220
464
.... 428
392- -- -- ...200-
0.8 356
320
0.7 284
248
&:IIi: 0.6
N" -- .--
0.5
0.3f----:---+--+---\-+-"'"7W'-I
1.1-=+:;~;"'<;:.-&l
0.2f---+-+---j----;,-<+---f
1.0-="1""'"
0.1 f---TJ'l---+---j
/
0.9---1'----+-----+---+----1----1
/
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Pressure, psla
Fig. 2-3. Compressibility factors for ethane. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
(From Figure 2-5, Z = 0.34.) Assuming ideal behavior, the value calculated would
be p = 13.03 (.34) = 4.43 Ibm/ft3.
pM (900 psia)( 30.1 ~) It has been shown that the Law of Corresponding States
p=-=
3 works better for gases of similar molecular characteris-
ZRT (psia - ft )
(0.34) 10.73 (5700R) tics. This is fortunate since most of the gases that the
ib-moleoR
petroleum engineer deals with are composed of mole-
Ibm cules of the same class of organic compounds known as
= 13.03fi3 paraffin hydrocarbons. The law of corresponding states
Gas Properties 25
1.1
Propane
1.0
3,000
2,500
0.3 f--+----\-+--+
0.2 1----+-"""'SL-t----I------1
0.1 f---'--F+"'---+----f---I
Fig. 2-4. Compressibility factors for propane. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
has been extended to cover mixtures of gases that are temperatures and critical pressures are used for pure gases.
closely related chemically. Since it is somewhat difficult It must be understood, however, that these pseudocriti-
to obtain the critical point for multicomponent mixtures, cal properties were devised simply for use in correlating
the quantities of pseudocritical temperature and pseu- compressibility factors and in no way relate to the actual
docritical pressure have been conceived. These quan- critical properties of the gas mixture.
tities are defined as
and (213)
Example 2-7:
Calculate the pseudocritical temperature and pseudo-
These pseudocritical quantities are used for mixtures critical pressure of the following natural gas mixture.
of gases in exactly the same manner as the actual critical Use the critical constants given in Table 2-2.
26 Gas Production Operations
1.2
P.t1'i ::il
"" .:;;'litl)
,tiff' F t I i"1m!
t' maID
': :e1I1 pc;' "I
7'1' .. :::i.:.i
1.1
I I,
0
11. I: "
:':: I!::
0.9_
' j ..
1.
N.; .. ~ '"
rr.
, tiN ... ~:::
l:~
I,
t:: .. t,.
.... ,' :;:i 7k":~ _ F 7.0
0.8
'i."F: .."
li;;I"':; .". q;' :::: .,t,
'!fT" ... ::.;v~rA 1
~; :..z:~~l
0.7
pV M
z =--,rr-
0.6
0.5
.i.: ,i1. .'
0.4 1 Itn l !
-t .. ::~::L
.'
I.O~
"'it .j1
0.3
I
..
0.2
0.1
Fig. 2-5. Compressibility factors for pure hydrocarbon gases as a function of reduced pressure and temperature. Courtesy
Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
. " I,
f,6
0,8
1.5
1.45
,~
1.4
0,7 1.6
f.J5 i~
'-"
~
0
f, '.E"
~
-
u
0
~
:0
0,6
.z
" 1. 5 2
u
~
.",
:0
'in
'in V>
V>
0,5 \,5 1,4
~
Q. \'90 '"5-
E Z E
0 0
u 2 u
,3,? 1.3
2.4
,6
1.2
1.1
1.0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Pseudo reduced pressure
Fig, 26, Compressibility factors for natural gases, Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association,
P 1,500 psia
Example 2-8: 2,25
Calculate the volume occupied by 1 Ib-mole of the nat-
PP' = Ppo = 667 psia
ural gas given in Example 2-7 at 120'F and 1,500 psia.
Z = 0,813 (from Fig. 2-6)
Solution:
T 580'R ZnRT
T.
p,
= -
T.pc
= - - = 1.51
383'R
v=--p
28 Gas Production Operations
T, =2.0
I.
I.
1.6
09 1.5
f."
o
0.8 .~
o'", o .'" ,'0
o
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Fig. 2-7. Generalized plot of compressibility factors at low reduced pressures. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers As-
sociation. .
It)
(0.813)(1 Ib-mole)(1 0.73 psia cu
Ib-moleoR
(580oR.)
this event, the composition must be first converted to
mole fraction or percent before the mixture properties
v= - - - - - ------
1,500 psia
can be calculated. The following example illustrates this
conversion.
v= 3.37 cu It
A computer subroutine for calculating Z-factor is given
in the Appendix. This subroutine reproduces Figure 2- Example 29:
6. A gas r..:xture consists of 50% C 30% C2 , and 20%
In some cases the composition of a gas will be given " molecular weight
C3 by weight. Calculate the apparent
in weight or mass percent rather than mole percent. In and specific gravity of this mixture.
Gas Properties 29
fraction basis, taking into account the deviation from ideal
behavior. The following example illustrates this proce-
dure.
0.99
Exampte 2-10:
0.98 A gas has the following composition measured at 2,500
psla and 300'F. Calculate the composition in mole frac-
0.97 tion. The volume percents at these conditions are: C,
= 67%, C, = 30%, C3 = 1%, CO, = 2%.
0.96
Solution:
To convertfrom volume to moles, assume 100 1t3 as
0.95 0 a basis. Then use
>1>-a:
0. ' 1!>
pV 2500V
"
N O. 94 n= - = 0.3062 VIZ
ZRT 10.73 (760) Z
0.93-
Com-
po- "i, Yi~
Component
Mass, m. I4 lbml
Ibm Ib-mol.
nj ,
Ib-mol.
Tpc = 170.5 + 307.3 "ts (2-14)
Yi YiI4
c, 50 16 3.13 . 0.68 10.9 Ppo = 709.6 - 58.7 'Yg (2-15)
C, 30 30 1.00 0.22 6.6
For condensate fluids:
C, ~ 44 0.45 0.10 4.4
100 n- 4.58 1.00 21.9 T po = 187 + 330 'Yg - 71.5 'Y;
Z T (101.325) ZT
B = = 0.351 - (2-18)
s (1) (288.72)P P
Example 2-12:
Calculate the formation volume factor for a natural gas
having a gravity of 0.7 at a temperature of 93"C and
an absolute pressure of 10343 kPa.
Solution:
T", = 170.5 + 307.3(.7) = 385.6R = 214 K
Fig. 2-9. Pseudocritical properties of naturai gases. Cour- Pp, = 709.6 - 58.7(.7) = 668.5 psia = 4609 kPa
tesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
p 10343 (93 + 273)
p, = p", = 4609 = 2.24 T, = 214 = 1.71
= 373'R
From Figure 2-6, Z = .88
P", = 709.6 - 58.7 't = 709.6 - 58.7 (0.66)
B = _0.3_5_1(:.....8....:8)..:...(3_66..:.) vol
= 671 psia 0.0109--
g 10343 std vol
The values from Example 2-7 were 383'R and 667 psia.
CORRECTION FOR NONHYDROCARBON IMPURITIES
GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
Natural gases frequently contain materials other than
In most operations involving gas production the flow hydrocarbons, such as nitrogen (N,), carbon dioxide
rates and quantities produced are measured at standard (CO,), and hydrogen sulfide (H,S). The presence of these
conditions such as scf/day or scf, Reservoir engineering impurities affects the value obtained from the Z-factor
and pipeline flow calculations require the volumes at in chart.
situ conditions of pressure and temperature, and there- A procedure for adjusting the critical properties of the
fore a convenient conversion factor from standard con- gas was proposed by Wichert and Aziz' in 1970. The
ditions to in situ conditions is needed. This .conversion adjusted critical properties are then used in calculating
factor is called the gas formation volume factor and is the reduced properties, and the Z-factor is then obtained
defined as the actual volume occupied by the gas at some from Figure 2-6.
pressure and temperature divided by the volume that the The procedure for obtaining the Z-factor for sour gases
gas would occupy at standard conditions. That is, is:
I. Determine P", and Tp, for the gas using the gas com-
ZnRT
position or Figure 2-9 and
B = Vp,T = P = ZTp" vol 2. Calculate the adjusted critical properties.
g v, ZscnRTsc ZscTscpstdvol'
T~ = Tpc - E,
p"
Using T" = 520 oR, p" = 14.7 psia and Z" = I, gives , _ Ppc T;c
Pp, - T", + e (B - B')
ZT(l4.7) vol ZT ft'
B = = 0.0283 - - - , e.g. - (2-16) where
9 (I) (520)p p std vol scf
e = 120 (Ao., - A1. 6 ) + 15 (Bo, - B4 )
It is sometimes convenient to express B g in barrels of
volume, or B = mole fraction H,S,
Gas Properties 31
A = mole fraction CO, +B compressibility factor is not constant, and therefore
mathematical manipulations cannot be made directly but
e = correction factor, of must be accomplished through graphical or numerical
3. Calculate the reduced properties using the corrected techniques. Most of the other commonly used equations
critical properties. of state were devised so that the correction factors, which
correct the ideal gas law for nonideality, may be as-
T p
T =- P,=-, sumed constant, thus permitting the equations to be used
r T"pc Ppo in mathematical calculations involving differentiation or
integration.
4. Find Z from Figure 2-6 or using the correlation given
in the Appendix. Many equations of state have been proposed for de-
scribing gas behavior and many modifications and im-
provements have been made. Only two of the most com-
Example 213: monly used equations will be described. These will be
A gas containing 2.87% CO2 and 23.27% H2S has a used later in the calculation of phase behavior.
critical pressure of 822 psia and a critical temperature
of 465R. Find the gas compressibility factor, Z, for p
= 1000 psia, T = 100F. BenedlctWebbRubln Equation (BWR)
TABLE 23
BenedlctWebbRubln Constants
Methane ......... 6,995.25 0.682401 275.763 2,984.12 0.867325 498.106 511.172 153.961
Ethane .......... 15,670.7 1.00554 2,194.27 20,850.2 2.85393 6,413.14 1,000.44 302.790
Propane ......... 25,915.4 1.55884 6,209.93 57,248.0 5.77355 25,247.8 2,495.77 564.524
Isobutane ........ 38,587.4 2.20329 10,384.7 117,047 10.8890 55,977.7 4,414.96 872.447
n-Butane ......... 38,029.6 1.99211 12,130.5 113,705 10.2636 61,925.6 4,526.93 872.447
Isopentane ....... 4,825.36 2.56386 21,336.7 226,902 17.1441 136,025 6,987.77 1,188.07
n-Pentane ....... 45,928.8 2.51096 25,917.2 246,148 17.1441 161,306 7,439.92 1,218.86
n-Hexane ........ 5,443.4 2.84835 40,556.2 429,901 28.0032 296,077 11,553.9 1,711.15
n-Heptane ....... 66,070.6 3.18782 57,984.0 626,106 38.9917 483,427 17,905.6 2,309.42
Ethylene ......... 12,593.6 0.891980 1,602.28 15,645.5 2.20678 4,133.60 731.661 236.844
Propylene ........ 23,049.2 1.36263 5,365.97 46,758.6 4.79997 20,083.0 1,873.12 469.325
32 Gas Production Operations
"
b = clYibF')'
Am = Co ;, ( I(y; t; a?.5 /p?;') (2-23)
c = (IYicF')'
a = (1YiaF')'
'Y = (1YJ'YF')'
where Y; is the mole fraction of the ith component of the
VM is the molar volume in cu ft/lb-mole. mixture. Evaluation of a involves calculation of the
a = (I + S
S = 0.480
(I - TR0.,)
+ 1.574", -
r0.176 ",',
(2-25)
(2-26)
BWR equation. The original RK equation is
RT a _
'" - CoT.
[lOg P, - 1.167] _
1.0 (2-27)
p = VM - b - VM(VM + b)To,
(2-20) T, - T.
where T. is the boiling point of the component at 14.7
where
psia in OR. Values of e can also be obtained from Table
Co R'T'"
, 2-2.
a=
Example 214:
CbR T, Using the Soave modification to the RK equation, cal-
b=--
p, culate the molar volume of the following gas mixture at
p = 250 psia, T = 100F.
To simplify the calculations with the RK equation, es-
pecially for application to mixtures, other constants have
been defined as Component YJ
0.5 (C ,.,)0,'
T
C,
C,
0.75
0.15
A= ( R' ~" ) = p: T~' C, 0.10
1.00
B=-=--
b c, T,
RT PeT SolutIon:
where, for temperature in "R and pressure in psia, Co =
0.42748, c, = 0.08664. Component YJ Pol T ol WI ~ al
The RK equation was further modified by Soave' to
C, 0.75 667.8 343.4 0.0104 0.496 0.744
improve its accuracy when applied to mixtures as fol- C, 0.15 707.8 550.1 0.0986 0.633 0.989
lows: C, 0.10 616.3 666.1 0.1524 0.716 1.123
RT aa
P =--- - (2-21)
VM- b VM(VM + b) Component y, Tr:J all;/Ff:/ Yi To/Pel
where a is a function of temperature. Using the follow- C, 8.597 0.38567
ing definitions, a gas compressibility factor can be cal- C, 3.084 0.11658
culated
C, 2.843 0.10808
14.524 0.61033
c,=;-H::t
Calculations for C,:
From Table 2-2, w = 0.0104.
S = 0.480 + 1.574(0.0104) - 0.176(0.0104)' = 0.496
Values of (aZjap,)T, can be obtained from the slope
T, = 560/343.3 = 1.63 T,o., = 1.277 of a constant T, curve from Figure 2-6 at the Z-factor of
0: = [1 + 0.496(1 - 1.277)]' = 0.744
. interest. Values of C, T, as a function of p, and T, have
been presented graphically by Mattar, et al." in Figures
2-10 and 2-11. The change of Z with p can also be cal-
GAS ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY
culated using an analytical expression by calculating the
The isothermal compressibility of a gas is the measure Z-factor at pressures slightly above and below the pres-
of the change in volume per unit volume with pressure sure of interest. That is,
change at constant temperature. In equation form
C= _~ (a V) (2-28)
10.0~
V ap T
~mill
Ideal Gas Compressibility
1.0
For an ideal gas,
~~
V= nRT, (av) = nRT
p ap T p'
and therefore, >-C
e
c= ---= -- -- =-
\
I av p (nRT) 1 \
vap nRT p' p
1\ \
0.1~
Real Gas Compressibility
mi ~
For a real gas,
ZnRT
V=--
P 1\ \ r.
-, 11.40
and since Z = f(p), it must be included in the derivative
."\.'1.30
az
p--Z ~~20
1.10
0.01 - 1.05
= nRT .si.:
( av)
ap T p' 0.2 1.0 10.0
p,
Substituting these expressions into the equation defin-
ing compressibility gives Fig. 2-10. Variation of c,T, with reduced temperature and
pressure. (1.05:5 T,:5 1.4; 0.2:5 P,:5 15.0). Courtesy The
C = -p [nRT (/Z _ Z)] =! _! az (2-29) Journal of CanadIan Petroleum Technology, CanadIan In-
ZnRT p' ap p Z ap stitute of MIning and Metallurgy.
34 Gas Production Operations
I11111 p. psia p, z
1.0
er= 615
665
0.912
0.986
0.880
0.870
715 1.060 0.861
#fl
....u: C =.!._':'(Z'-Z2) __1_
1\1111 r p, Z p" - p", - 0.986
11111
~ 1 (0.880 - 0.861)
0.1
~ 10
,~~
0.870 0.912 - 1.060
C, = 1.168
C, 1.168 ,
C = - = - - = 0.00173 psi-
Po 674
to
"-
,.,
GAS VISCOSITY
"
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the fluid's
ability to flow, or the ratio of the shearing force to the
0.01' . ..
10.0
shearing rate. The viscosity is usually expressed in cen-
0.2 1.0
p, tipoises or poises, but can be converted to other units for
unit compatibility.
Fig. 211. Variation of o.t, with reduced temperature and I poise = 100 centipoises = 6.72 x 10-' lbm/ft-sec
pressure. (1.4:5 T,:5 3.0; 0.2:5 p,:5 15.0). Courtesy The
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, Canadian tn- = 2.09 x 10-3 Ibf-sec/ff = 0.1 kg/m-sec
stitute of Mining and Metallurgy. Gas viscosity is difficult to measure experimentally and
for engineering purposes can be determined accurately
enough from empirical correlations. The most widely ac-
OZ)
(apr ( Z, - Z, ) cepted correlation used in the past has been that of Carr,
T" = p., - Pr2 T,. et al.", The Carr method is presented in Figures 2-12 and
213. The viscosity at one atmosphere is obtained first
from Figure 2-12 and corrected for nonhydrocarbon im-
Example 215:
Calculate the compressibility of a gas at a temperature
purities if necessary. This viscosity is a function of mo-
of 40'F and a pressure of 665 psia if To = 357'R, Po lecular weight or gravity and temperature only. The cor-
= 674 psia. rection for pressure is obtained from Figure 2-13 as a
function of reduced pressure and temperature.
An analytical expression for viscosity of hydrocarbon
Sotutlon: gas was presented by Lee, et aI.' in 1966. The equation
is
T 460 + 40
T, = - = 1.40 fL, = K. 10- 4 exp (X iI,) (230)
To 357
P 665 where
p, = Po = 674 = 0.987 (9.4 + 0.02M) TI.S
K = ~-.:....::..:.::.:::...::..:.=--
From Figure 211, C, T, = 1.62 209 + 19M + T
Gas Properties 35
Ga. graVll~1f'r -WOO)
05 1.0 1.5 2. 2.5 3.0 3.5
0.016
0.Ot5 0.00t5
", ~,~
~ \.
CO,
2: 0 2: 0.0015
,~
~~ o.ooro ~.t o~ ~i
i~
.
0.014 ~.
..
:g~ 0.0010 ,9
II
o~
o.
a..:: .2 ,.:: 0.6
.[ 0.013
..-.
Z~O.OOO5
.0
..
~.~ 0.0005
.0
:e.. 0.012 ~
0._
u.
0."
u.
0
CJ 00 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Mol. % N Z Mol. %COz
i
E
'0
~
o.olt
ii
&
0.010
1;j
~
Iot:F m:
~ WI;
0.009
,.'"'"
0 200 <>
II
CJ
H,5
0.008 0.oot5
2:'0
'a
(70<>r.
0.007 .:;.~ 0.0010
~.
\.5
~' ~
00
g,.:: 1.0 S
0.006
..
..~
00
Q'!'
u
0.0005
0.6
0.005 0
0 5 10 15
Mol. %HzS
0.004
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Molecular weight
Fig. 2-12. Viscosity of paraffin hydrocarbon gases at atmosphere. Permission to publish by the Society of Petroleum En-
gineers of AIME. Copyright 1954 SPE-AIME.
.....~ 3
'c"
..'"
~
>-
IS PSt
YDO
~to
~
U("fl)
~
0
v
~
'" P~t
SSt.
~':
> 2 ~
0>
~
""
I
1
O. 10 12 14 te .. 2.0 22
PSEUDO REDUCED TEMPERATURE. T,
2 2. 2.' 30 3.2 1.
Fig. 2-13. Viscosity ratio verses pseudoreduced temperature. Permission to pUbiish by the Society of Petroleum Engineers
of A/ME. Copyright f 954 SPE-A/ME.
--
The solubility of natural gas in water is very low at
22
most pressures and temperatures of interest in gas pro-
duction engineering. The primary factors affecting the
,~ .-
:;; 20 5,00~_
~
amount of gas that will be evolved from water saturated
with the gas depends on pressure, temperature, and sol- il 18 "0-...-"""::::: 4,500
4,000
ids content of the water. The relationship is illustrated '" ~
............ :3.s00-
in Figure 2-14. The correction factor for salinity may be
calculated from
i
.5
16
14
~' ~,OOO
;,-, 12
<, 2,500
I
2,000
<;
-
(2-32) 1! I
ic 10 1,50?
~
where 8
Y = salinity of water, ppm
-1,000
6 I
~
X = 3.471!To. 837 "- Pressure, 500 psia
4
T = temperature, 'F
2
R,w = gas solubility in brine
a
60 lOa 140 180 220 260
R~p = gas solubility in pure water Temperature, OF
40,000
30,000
20,000
10.000
8000
6000
4000
3000
2000
on
'"
5'" 1000
.s
;<
800
"ec 600
g 400
~ 300
a
~
~, 200
X
,e
i II
s
C
100
80
..8
~
60
i 40
30
20
.. 10
II rI
8
6
4
3
I I I. rI. I.
-70-60 -50~0-3O-20~0 010203040 60 80 tOO 120140160 200 230 260 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature. of
Fig. 2-15. Water content of natural gas in eqUilibrium with liquid water. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
r
Gas Properties 39
and the distinction between the two must be clearly kinetic energy and molecular repulsion. The relative
understood. Condensation of water from a natural gas magnitudes of the confining and dispersing forces dictate
under pressure occurs when the temperature is at or be- whether the fluid is a liquid or a gas.
low the dew point at that pressure. Free water obtained An increase in temperature increases the kinetic en-
under such conditions is essential to the formation of hy- ergy of the molecules and thus the dispersing forces, while
drates that will occur at or below the hydrate temperature an increase in pressure increases the confining forces.
at the same pressure. Hence, the hydrate temperature The behavior of a single component fluid can be il-
would be below, and perhaps the same as, but never lustrated graphically on a plot of pressure versus tem-
above the dew point temperature. perature, called a phase diagram. A line joining all of
In solving gas production problems, it becomes nec- the points where the confining and repelling forces are
essary to define, and thereby avoid, conditions that pro- equal can be plotted. This is a vapor pressure line and
mote the formation of hydrates. Hydrates may choke the is illustrated in Figure 2-16. At any point above the va-
flow string, surface lines, and well testing equipment. por pressure line the fluid is a liquid, while below the
Hydrate formation in the flow string would result in a line the fluid is a gas. At the critical point, Point C, there
lower value for measured wellhead pressures. In a flow is no distinction between liquid and gas. A phase change
rate measuring device, hydrate formation would result at constant pressure occurs when temperature changes,
in lower flow rates. Excessive hydrate formation may as illustrated by the path 1-2. A phase change will also
also completely block flow lines and surface equipment. occur at constant temperature as pressure is changed (path
Conditions promoting hydrate formation are: 3-4).
I. Gas at or below its water dew point with "free" water
Multicomponent Fluids. When more than one fluid is
present,
present, the difference in molecule size and energy has
2. low temperature, and an influence on the phase change. Figure 2-17 illustrates
3. high pressure. the phase diagram for a two-component mixture and Fig-
A further discussion of hydrate formation and preven- ure 2-18 shows the phase diagram for a typical hydro-
tion is given in Chapter 9. carbon multicomponent mixture. There is no sharp tran-
sition from liquid to vapor or from vapor to liquid, but
the molecules are able to escape from the liquid or gas
GAS-CONDENSATE SYSTEMS at different pressures and temperatures because of mo-
As the exploration for natural gas is extended to deeper lecular attraction. The locus of all points where the first
horizons, more reservoirs containing gas condensates bubble of gas appears in a liquid as pressure and tem-
are discovered. The gas may be in the gaseous phase at perature conditions are changed is called the bubble point
initialreservoir conditions but may condense to form some line. The locus of all points where the first droplet of
liquid at some point in the path to the separator.
Engineering design of these production systems re-
quires some understanding of phase behavior. This sec-
tion deals with the phenomenon of phase change and with
methods to calculate these phase changes.
Phase Behavior
...
l!!
Liquid
;-
.>
Phase behavior is simple for single component sys- ::l
2
tems but becomes more complicated as more compo-
nents are added to the system. A discussion of the sim-
...
l!!
Ga.
plest system will lead to an understanding of the more
complex systems. ./
4
Single Component Fluid. The phase behavior of a fluid
can be described by determining its response to pressure Temperature
and temperature changes. In a liquid the molecules are
very close together, but in a gas the molecules are widely Ag. 2-16. Phase diagram for a pure substance showing lines
separated. Certain forces exist that tend to either confine of Isobaric temperature change. Reprinted from McCain,
or disperse the molecules. Confining forces are primarily Properties of Petroleum Fluids, copyright 1974, PennWell
pressure and molecular attraction. Dispersing forces are Books.
40 Gas Production Operations
I
I
Original
9"
c.
I leon ensa;l
HG HG HG
Temperature A
Gas in cell at
Gas ramoved
C
ConllnlJallon
orig'lnal reservoir pressure reoucec or steo B
pressure & temperature retrograde condensate
Fig. 2-17. Vapor pressure curves for twopure components formed
a.nd phase diagram for a 50:50 mixture of the same com-
ponents. Reprinted from McCain, Properties of Petroleum Fig. 2-t 9. Differential retrograde condensation of liquid from
Fiuids, copyright 1974, PennWeli Books. gas. Reprinted from Norman J. Ciark, Worid Oil, April 1953.
Courtesy Gulf Publishing Company.
Cricondenbar
________ _ ;;'::-:::::=3I-.:::Criticar point
liquid
,,
\
\
I
I E
I 'I~
C'
/ I I"
'C
. /' /8
____ ~.!lI!:.p~i~~~-- Gas 18 HG
Temperature
A
Gas in cell at
Mercury removed
C
Mercury removed
original reservoir pressure reduced continuation of
Fig. 2- t 8. Phase diagram showing cricondentherm and cri- pressure& temperature retrograde condensate SlOP 8
condenbar. Reprinted from McCain, Properties of Petro- rormeo
ieum Fluids, copyright t974, PennWeli Books.
Fig. 2-20. Equilibrium retrograde condensation of liquidfrom
gas. Reprinted from Norman J. Clark, World Oil, April 1953.
liquid appears as the conditions for a gas are changed is Courtesy Gulf PUblishing Company.
the dew point line. The highest pressure at which a gas
can exist is called the cricondenbar while the highest
temperature at which a liquid can exist is the cricon- changes constantly. In the flash process the gas remains
denthenn. in contact with the liquid, which means that the process
is a constant composition process. Both types of sepa-
Separation Processes. The two types of separation ration, or a mixture of the two, can occur as gas is pro-
processes that can occur as pressure or temperature on duced from a reservoir to the separator.
a fluid changes are called differential and flash or equi-
librium. These processes are illustrated in Figures 2-19
Types of Gas Reservoirs
and 2-20. In the differential process the gas is removed
from contact with the liquid as it is separated, which Reservoirs that yield natural gas can be classified into
means that the composition of the remaining liquid essentially four categories. These are:
Gas Properties 41
1. dry gas-the fluid exists as a gas both in the reservoir Flash or Equilibrium Separation Calculations
and the piping system. The only liquid associated with
The phase behavior of an ideal solution can be de-
the gas from a dry gas reservoir is water. A phase
scribed by combining the laws of Raoult and Dalton to
diagram of a dry gas reservoir is illustrated in Figure
2-21; obtain the quantity of gas and liquid existing at given
conditions. Raoult's Law states that the partial pressure
of a component in the gas is equal to the product of the
2. wet gas-the fluid initially exists as a gas in the res- mole fraction of that component in the liquid multiplied
ervoir and remains in the gaseous phase as pressure by the vapor pressure of the pure component. Raoult's
declines at reservoir temperature. However, in being Law is valid only if both the gas and liquid mixtures are
produced to the surface, the temperature also drops, ideal solutions. The mathematical statement of Raoult's
causing condensation in the piping system and sep- Law is
arator. This behavior is illustrated in Figure 2-22;
3. retrograde condensate gas-the fluid exists as a gas Pi = XjPvj,
at initial reservoir conditions. As reservoir pressure where Pi represents the partial pressure of component j
declines at reservoir temperature, the dew point line
is crossed and liquid forms in the reservoir. Liquid
also forms in the piping system and separator. Figure
2-23 depicts the behavior of a retrograde gas system;
4. associated gas-many oil reservoirs exist at the bub- Liquid
ble point pressure of the fluid system at initial con-
ditions. Free gas can be produced from the gas cap
l!
of such a system. Gas which is initially dissolved in
the oil can also be produced as free gas at the surface.
The phase diagram of such a system will depend on
the properties of the oil associated with the gas. An
I Mole % liquid
,/ \
1\,/
....
,/
--.... /
l! I 1'/
I,.... I /
I <."'~.'I
point
Liquid
1/ .)
7
VJ I /
1/
,/,/ ,/
I ,/
2 .I.
/.dl."'" Separator
I~"" Gas
~;: Gas
Temperature Temperature
Fig. 221. Phase diagram of a dry gas. Reprinted from Fig. 2-23. Phase diagram showing regions of retrograde
McCain, Properties of Petro(eum Ftuids, copyright 1974, condensation. Reprinted from McCain, Properties of Petro-
PennWeil Books. leum Fluids, copyright 1974, PennWeil Books.
42 Gas Production Operations
Let n represent the total number of moles in the mixture,
Reservoir temperature
"L represent the total number of moles in the liquid,
Reservoir gas
~ Total reservoir fiuid ", represent the total number of moles in the gas,
Zj represent the mole fraction of the jth component in the
total mixture including both liquid and gas phases,
Xj represent the mole fraction of the jth componeut in the
I liquid,
Reservoir
II I I
t It---
..... ~
_ liquid
i ~CL
,
Yj represent the mole fraction of the jth component iu the
gas,
zp represent the moles of the jth component iu the total
mixture,
'"
",'"
"
I
I
I I Initial reservoir
I
I
pressure ,
I x!'L represent the moles of the jth component in the liquid,
and
.;
.....
I
I I I yp, represent the moles of the jth component in the gas.
... .; Separator" I I
1/ I I A material balance on the jth component results in
// I I
/ I I
zfI = XflL + YfI,' (2-35)
I / Combination of Equations 2-34 and 2-35 to eliminate
I /
I Yj results in
llJmperature ----.
~
r-.. r.. ~
DK
I'\. "f\ - I-:
~ I-.
\
1\
c.
!lC
"~
1.000
800
'I
/
~
r\ ;.-
/' '<
~ 1\
'I.
1'\ ~ L.-
....
~
- C,-C 2 4
~
\ ~ I.::-
,
~,
>
c
0 600 -c,
Ci r. C; c. V-
....\
.....
C7-C 23
0 l.-
500
400
..i.e, ". '" c. D. i~7
./
~
1\ i'.
300
c. "I\-1\
O'i '-~,.
200
. 100 a 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature, of
Fig. 2-25. Convergence pressure of binary hydrocarbon systems. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppiiers Association.
'" p; from Step I, set p; = P and go to Step 2. Re- the use of an equation of state, such as the Soave-Red-
peat until p; = p,. lich-Kwong equation described earlier. The fugacity
coefficient of a component in a mixture is given by
KValues from Equations of State
In t =!'Jb. (Z -
pXj
I) - In(Z - B)
Equilibrium ratios may be defined in tenus of the fu-
gacity of the component in a mixture. The fugacity, f,
is a thermodynamic quantity defmed in tenus of the change
in free energy in passing from one state to another. It
_~ (2 aJ'
Ba.5
_!'J.) (1 + ~) b
In
Z
(2-45)
the mole fraction of the component in the mixture. That aO., lx. a 0.5 pO.,
J '} C}
f~
arator pressure and is obtained from Figure 2-27.
Example 221:
Calculate the specific gravity of a reservoir gas given
> 600 the following:
'Yg = 0.65 'Yo from S.T. = 0.78 (500 API)
500
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 1201 R = 30,000 scfjSTB
. Gravity, 'AP"
Separator pressure = 900 psig
V = -- = -...::.:..=::----- 6. Mattar, L.; Brar, G. S., and Aziz, K.: "Compressibility of Nat-
M p.;
W lb ural Gases," J. Can. Pet. Tech. (Oct.-Dec., 1975).
18 (14.7) 7. Carr, N. L., Kobayashi, L. R.; and Burrows, D. B., "Viscosity
Ib-mole
of Hydrocarbon Gases." Trans. AIME, (1954) 201.
Vw = 7380 scf/STB. 8. Lee, A. L., Gonzalez, M. H., and Eakin, B. E.: "TheViscosity
of Natural Gases," J. Pet. Tech. (Aug., 1966). .
To calculate R; in scf/STB from the water content in 9. NGPSA Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers As-
Ibm/MMscf, use soc., Tulsa (1972).
10. Weber, 1. H.,: "Predicting Properties of Gas Mixtures," Chern-
350 X 10' ieal Eng, (May 19. 1980).
Rw = - - - -
w,
3 Gas Reservoi r
Performance
I
N traveling from its original location in the reser- a particular location change with time, the flow regime
voir to the final point of consumption, the gas must is transient or unsteady-state. Under certain conditions
first travel through the reservoir rock or porous me- of transient flow, conditions change at a constant rate at
dium. A certain amount of energy is required to all locations in the reservoir. This condition is called
overcome the resistance to flow through the rock, which pseudo-steady-state and may be analyzed more simply
is manifested in a pressure decrease in the direction of than the transient condition.
flow, toward the well. This pressure drop or decrease The flow regimes will be discussed qualitatively first,
depends on the gas flow rate, properties of the reservoir the equations for each regime will be presented, and then
fluids, and properties of the rock. The fluid properties the application of the equations for determining inflow
were discussed in Chapter 2, and a brief discussion of performance or well flow capacity will be presented.
the rock properties is given in this chapter.
The engineer involved in gas production operations must
Flow Regime Characteristics
be able to predict not only the rate at which a well or
field will produce, but also how much gas is originally When a well is opened to production from a shut-in
in the reservoir and how much of it can be recovered condition, the pressure disturbance created at the well
economically. This requires the ability to relate volumes travels outward through the rock at a velocity governed
of gas existing in the reservoir to reservoir pressure. Be- by the rock and fluid properties. The various flow re-
cause the flow capacity of a well depends on the res- gimes are discussed with respect to the behavior of this
ervoir pressure, both reservoir gas flow and reserve es- pressure disturbance.
timates are discussed in this chapter.
Steady-State Flow. Figure 3-1 illustrates the pressure
and flow rate disttibution occurring during radial, steady-
RESERVOIR GAS FLOW
state flow into a well. This pressure distribution will re-
Determination of the inflow performance or reservoir main constant as long as the radius being drained by the
flow capacity for a gas well requires a relationship be- well remains constant.
tween flow rate coming into a well and the sand-face For such a situation to be strictly true it is necessary
pressure or flowing bottom-hole pressure. This relation- that the flow across the external drainage radius r., be
ship may be established by the proper solution of Dar- equal to the flow across the well radius at rw' This is
cy's Law, which is the accepted expression relating pres- never sttictly met in a reservoir other than a strong water
sure drop and fluid velocity in a porous medium, provided drive, whereby the water influx rate equals the produc-
that the flow is laminar. Solution of Darcy's Law de- ing rate. Pressure maintainance by water injection down-
pends on the conditions of flow existing in the reservoir dip or by gas injection updip would also approximate
or the flow regime. The flow type or regime may be steady-state conditions as would most pattern water-
independent of time or steady-state, or if conditions at floods after the initial stages of injection have passed.
49
50 Gas Production Operations
Thus, as shown in the plot of q at t, the rate at r, is zero
and increases with a reduction in radius until the maxi-
------------------------ mum rate in the reservoir is obtained at rw- The pressure
Ir
qatt = Otot = cc
and rate distributions at time t, represent an instant in
time, and the pressure and rate distributions move on
- - through these positions immediately as the production
,~ o io ,~~
c-
p at
- '"
t continues to affect more and more of the reservoir. That
is, more and more of the reservoir continues to experi-
ence a significant pressure drop and is subjected to flow
:!
~ { until the entire reservoir is affected as shown by the pres-
~
~
sure at ti. The rate, q, at t 2 indicates that the flow rate at
I!!
c- .... ~
u: this time extends throughout the reservoir since all of the
reservoir has been affected and has had a significant
- pressure drop.
, , , , ,
-
I
Notice that the rate at the well has declined somewhat
Iw I,
Radius, r
from time t, to t2 since the same pressure drop (p'-Pw),
is effective over a much larger volume of the reservoir.
Fig. 3-1. Radiai steady-state flow. From Siider, Practicai Once the pressure in the entire reservoir has been af-
Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWeli fected the pressure will drop throughout the reservoir as
Books. production continues so that the pressure distribution might
be as shown for p at t,. The rate will have declined
somewhat during time t l to t 2 due to the increase in the
Steady-state equations are also useful in analyzing the radius over which flow is taking place, and it will con-
conditions near the wellbore because even in an un- tinue to decline from t 2 to t, due to the decline of the
steady-state system the flow rate near the wellbore is al- total pressure drop from r, to rw, (p,-Pw)'
most constant so that the conditions around the wellbore Note that from time t = 0 to time t 2 , when a pressure
are almost constant. Thus, steady-state flow equations drop is finally affected throughout the entire reservoir,
can be applied to this portion of the reservoir without the pressure and rate distributions would not be affected
any significant error. by the size of the reservoir or the position of the external
drainage radius r.. During this time the reservoir is said
Unsteady-State Flow. Figure 3-2 shows the pressure to be infinite-acting because during this period the outer
and rate distributions for a radial system at various times drainage radius, r., could mathematically be infinite. Even
for a closed reservoir (no flow across r,). In this case all in reservoir systems that are dominated by steady-state
of the production is due to the expansion of the fluid in
the reservoir. This causes the rate at r, to be zero and
the rate increases to a maximum at the well radius, rw- patt-O
In the steady-state case the flow across the outer bound- p, ,--------::;;:>"""+-----:::::::===j
ary, r" was equal to the flow across rw , the well radius.
With flow across r, zero, the only energy causing the
flow of fluid is the expansion of the fluids themselves. pat te
Initially the pressure is uniform throughout the reservoir
at p.. This represents the zero producing time.
The production rate is controlled so that the pressure
at the well is constant. A pressure distribution shown as
p at t l is obtained after a short period of time of pro-
ducing the well at such a rate that the well pressure re-
mains constant. At this time only a small portion of the
reservoir has been affected or has had a significant pres-
sure drop.
For a closed reservoir, flow occurs due to expansion L.- _ t Radius, r
of the fluid. Consequently, if no pressure drop exists in
the reservoir at a particular point, or outside of that point, Fig. 3-2. Unsteady-state radiai flow with constant weli
no flow could be taking place at that particular radius. pressure. From Siider, Practical Reservoir Engineering
The fluid could not expand without a drop in pressure. Methods, copyright 1976, PennWeli Books.
Gas Reservoir Performance 51
flow, the effect of changes in well rates or well pressures corresponding constant rate distributions. Pseudo-steady-
at the well will be governed by unsteady-state flow equa- state flow is a specialized case of unsteady-state flow
tions until the changes have been in effect for a sufficient and is sometimes referred to as stabilized flow. Most of
length of time to affect the entire reservoir and have the the life of a reservoir will exist in pseudo-steady-state
reservoir again reach a steady-state condition. flow.
Pseudo-Steady-State Flow. Figure 3-3 illustrates the
pressure and rate distribution for the same unsteady-state Flow Equations
system except that in this case the rate at the well, qw,
is held constant. This might be comparable to a prorated From the previous description of the various flow re-
well or one that is pumping at a constant rate. Again at gimes it is obvious that a particular well will be oper-
time t = 0 the pressure throughout the reservoir is uni- ating in each of these regimes at some time in the life
form at Pi' Then after some short producing time t l at a of the well. The applicable equations for each flow reo
constant rate, only a small portion of the reservoir will gime will be derived or presented in this section.
have experienced a significant pressure drop, and con-
sequently the reservoir will be flowing only out to a ra- Steady-State Flow
dius r,. As production continues at the constant rate, the Darcy's Law for flow in a porous medium is
entire reservoir will eventually experience a significant
k dp
pressure drop as shown at t,. Shortly after the entire res- v = --- Of,
ervoir pressure has been affected, the change in the pres- flodx
sure with time at all radii in the reservoir becomes uni- kAdp
form so that the pressure distributions at subsequent times q= vA = - - - (31)
are parallel as illustrated by the pressure distributions at flodx
times t3 , t4 , and t,. This situation will continue with con- where
stant changes in pressure with time at all radii and with v = fluid velocity,
subsequent parallel pressure distributions until the res-
ervoir is no longer able to sustain a constant flow rate q = volumetric flow rate,
at the wellbore. This will occur when the pressure at the k = effective permeability,
well, Pw, has reached its physical lower limit.
Pseudo-steady-state flow occurs in the reservoir after flo = fluid viscosity, and
it has been produced at a constant rate for a long enough
period of time to cause a constant change in pressure at dp
dx = pressure gradllent III
. th e diirection
. 0 ffl OW.
all radii, resulting in parallel pressure distributions and
For radial flow in which the distance is defined as pos-
itive moving away from the well, the equation becomes
patt~O
k(2'Trrh) dp
q= (32)
flo dr
where
r = radial distance, and
h = reservoir thickness.
Darcy's Law describes the pressure loss due to viscous
shear occurring in the flowing fluid. If the formation is
not horizontal, the hydrostatic or potential energy term
must be included. This is usually negligible for gas flow
in reservoirs. Equation 3-2 is a differential equation and
must be integrated for application. Before integration the
r,
flow equation must be combined with an equation of state
'w Radius, r
and the continuity equation. The continuity equation is
Fig. 3-3. Unsteady-state radial flow with constant produc- Plq, = p,q, = constant (3-3)
ing rate pseudo-steady-state t2 to t5 From Slider, Practical
Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell From Chapter 2, the equation of state for a real gas
Books. is
52 Gas Production Operations
pM T" = 60'P = 520'R.
p=-. (3-4)
ZRT These units will be used in all equations in the text un-
The flow rate for a gas is usually desired at some stan- less otherwise stated.
dard conditions of pressure and temperature, p" and T".
Using these conditions in Equation 3-3 and combining
Exampte 31:
Equations 3-3 and 3-4: Given the following data, determine the well bore pres-
sure required for an inflow rate of 3900 Mscfd assum-
pq = Psc qsc'
ing steady-state flow.
or
k= 1.5 md h = 30 It
P. = 4625 psia ji = 0.027 cp
T = 712'R = 252'F 'Yg = 0.76
r. = 550 It rw = 0.333 It
Solving for q" and expressing q with Equation 3-2 gives
p T" 2Trrhk dp SolutIon:
qsc=-----
p"ZT fJ. dr The solution Is iterative since
f
"
p",
pdp =
T-Z-
q" p" T ji t
Tsc 2-rrkh r..
-
r
1.0.
First Trial
p, - Pw = q" p" fJ. I n (r,I r ) ,_ , jiTln(r./rw)q~t
w
2 T" 2Trkh Pw - P. - 703 x 10- kh
or
2 r (0.027)(712)(7.41 )(3900) t
Trkh T" (p,' - Pw') p; = 2.139 x 10 - 703 x 10.(1.5)(30)
z
q" = P,J ji In (r,lrw ) '
(3-5)
where
A = 1422 T iii In (r.Jrw)/kh
3.161 x 1O-1'I3'YgiT
B=
rw h2
In the definition of the B term it was assumed that
(I/r,) is negligible compared to (I/r.).
The first term on the right hand side is the pressure 10 100 1.000 10.000 100,000
drop from laminar or Darcy flow, while the second term Permeability, MlIlldarcles
gives the additional pressure drop due to turbulence. If
the fluid properties are known and the permeability is Fig. 34. Gas velocity coefficient. Permission to publish by
known from some source such as a drawdown test, the the Society of Petroieum Engineers of AIME. Copyright 1979
turbulent effects can be calculated using the results of a SPE-AIME.
test. This will be used later to distinguish between actual
where
formation damage and turbulence. Values of the velocity
coefficient 13 for various permeabilities and porosities can S = dimensionless skin factor, and
be obtained from Figure 3_41 or calculated from Equa-
D = turbulence coefficient.
tion 3-8.
It is frequently necessary to solve Equation 3-10 for
2.33 X 1010
13= (3-8) pressure or pressure drop for a known q",
-a , _ 1422 T iii [In (.472 r,/rw) + Slq"
where k is in millidarcies. PR - Pw - kh
1422 T iiiD q;,
Pseudo-Steady-State Flow +
An equation for pseudo-steady-state flow can be de- kh
rived that will show that or
6
703 x 10- kh(p.' - Pw')
(39)
q" = T fL i In (0.472r,/r.) . where
Although time does not appear explicitly in Equation 1422T iii [In (.472 r.Jr w ) + S]
3-9, it should be remembered that both PR and p; will A=
kh
be declining at the same rate for a constant q once the
pressure disturbance has reached the reservoir boundary .
B = .::.14.:.::2=2..::T~ii.::.Z=--::..D
The effects of skin damage and turbulence are some- kh
times included in Equation 3-9 as follows:
Unsteady-State Flow
703 x 10-6 kh (P.' - Pw') It was stated earlier that any well flows in the un-
qsc = _ (3-10)
T fL Z [In (.472r,/rw) + S + D q,J steady-state or transient regime until the pressure dis-
54 Gas Production Operations
turbance reaches a reservoir boundary or until interfer- Solutions to Equation 3-18 depend on the reservoir type
ence from other wells takes effect. Although the flow and boundary conditions. The following solutions will
capacity of a well is desired for pseudo-steady-state or be presented:
stabilized conditions, much useful information can be
I. Constant rate at well, infinite-acting reservoir (tran-
obtained from transient tests. This information includes
sient)
permeability, skin factor, turbulence coefficient, and av-
erage reservoir pressure. The procedures are developed 2. Constant rate at well, finite-acting (closed) reservoir
in the section on transient testing. The relationships among (pseudo-steady-state)
flow rate, pressure, and time will be presented in this 3. Constant rate at well, constant pressure at outer
section for various conditions of well performance and boundary (steady-state)
reservoir types. It will be seen that the steady-state and 4. Constant well pressure
pseudo-steady-state equations can be obtained from so-
lution of the diffusivity equation as special cases. Case 1
The diffusivity equation can be derived by combining The most useful solution for transient flow is the so-
an unsteady-state continuity equation with Darcy's Law called line source solution. The solution is
and the gas equation of state. The equation is
a' p' I ap 2 <I> fl. C ap2 I!J,Po = -0.5 E, ( __I ). (3-19)
-- + -- = --- (3-12) 4to
ar r ar k at
Values for the E, or exponential integral term as a
This equation can be solved for pressure as a function function of to can be found in various mathematics hand-
of flow rate and time, but the solutions and application books, but for all practical purposes the function may be
of the solutions are simplified if the diffusivity equation represented by a logarithmic approximation. That is,
is written in dimensionless form. This is accomplished
by defining the following dimensionless variables: I!J,Po = 0.5 (In to + 0.809) (3-20)
The following units are to be used in calculating val- Once a value of the dimensionless pressure drop I!J,Po
ues for the dimensionless numbers in Table 3-1: is obtained, the actual pressures may be calculated by
k = millidarcies C = psi' I using the definition of I!J,Po from Table 3-1.
t = hours r = ft
fl. = cp T = OR
Example 3-2:
q" = Mscfd h=ft Using the following data and assuming the well is still
P = psia in the transient regime, calculate the pressure at the
well after a flowing time of 1.5 days.
The diffusivity equation in dimensionless variables
becomes h = 36 ft T= 5800R
<I> = 0.15 qsc = 7000 Mscfd
a21!J,po lal!J,po al!J,po k= 20 md Z= 0.85
---
2
+- -- = -- (3-18)
P, = 2000 psia ;;. = 0.0152 cp
a ro to a r ato
rw = O.4 ft C = 0.00061 psi"
r. = 2000 ft
TABLE 3-1
Dimensionless Variables
SolutIon:
Dimensionless
Variable Symbol Definition Calculate 10 for r = rw:
2.64 x 10-' kl 2.64 x 10'4 kt
Time to (3-13) -_....,c-o---c,o---c
low = - ...
<I>iL C r' 't'1..I. rw
r
Radius ro - (3-14) 2.64 x 10'4 (20)(36)
r;
1422 Tq"ZiJ. 0.15 (0.0152)(0.00061 )(0.4)'
Flow rate qo (3-15)
khp,2 low = 8.54 X 10'
p'
Pressure Po
p,2 qD
(3-16) IJ.Po = 0.5 (In (8.54 x 10') + 0.809) = 7.23
pl- p2 1422 Tq,cZ;;.
Pressure drop IJ.Po (3-17)
PI" qo qo = kh P,'
Gas Reservoir Performance 55
1422(580)(7000)(0.85)(0.0152) than 100. That is,
20 (36)(2000)' 2.64 X 10- 4 kt
qo = 0.0259 tD = - , > 100. (3-22)
q, ~ C r
Case 2
= (2000)' - (2000)' (0.0259)(7.23) The solution for wells that have reached pseudo-steady-
Pw' = 3250972 o; = 1803 psia state was presented by Van Everdingen and Hurst' in
1949. The solution can be applied to calculate the pres-
Equation 3-20 applies for values of dimensionless time sure at any radius where the flow rate is known, which
based on the well's drainage radius, to, less than 0.25. effectively limits its application to calculating well pres-
That is, the well will still be infinite-acting if sures. The solution is presented both in graphical form
and equation form. Values of (j.PD versus t Dw are pre-
2.64 X 10- 4 kt
to, = _ , < 0.25 (3-21) sented in Figure 3-5 for various reservoir sizes, that is
q, ~ C r, for various values of rD,' The equation form of the so-
lution is
Another restriction on the validity of Equation 3-20 is
that to should be greater than 100. If tD is less than 100, 2tDw
the E, solution (Equation 3-19) must be used. For most (j.PDw = - , + In (0.472 rD, ) (3-23)
practical cases tD will be greater than 100. rD,
Equation 3-20 may also be used to calculate pressure
at a location other than the well. That is, r need not Example 33:
always be rw- For the solution to be valid, the dimen- Using the data given in Example 3-2, find the pressure
sionless time based on the radius of interest must be greater at the well after the well has been flowing for 1800 hours.
s
.-
S! ~ ~ 8N 8
~ ~
0
l'l
~ ~
"0
8
~ ~ 8
~
12
II
r ~!I.
~ ,-
/
1/
10
// ./
Il~~"
now
U/ c-
toooo
NO
eXTERNAl
BOUNDARY 1/ 1/ 1/ """
~
3000
:lOOO
I / i'"
-; 1
1000
v~ r....
~
<1
/ / .- 600
'00
II
/- ~ T~?~ltmJ~Ri~~~b:kY
'00
s
/ /~~ 100
1>0
.0
3
.- ~ 20
r.o")()
'V
1
10 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10'
r .,;s
.0 {.
III 10'
'ow
Fig. 3-5. Vaiues 01 t.polwellior inlinite reservoirs, for finite circular reservoirs with no flow at the externai boundary, and
for finite circular reservoirs with constant pressure at the external boundary. After Aziz and Flock (1963). Courtesy The
Journal 01 Canadian Petroleum Technology, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
56 Gas Production Operations
Pw' = P,' (1 - qD A PDW)
Solution:
Check for finite or pseudo-steady-state validity: = (2000)' (1 - 0.0259 (11.183))
2.64 x 10-' kt Po' = 2.841 X 10' p; = 1686 psia
tD = -.l.-'-C-=---=-'-
' jJ.. '8
Case 3
2.64 X 10-' (20)(1800) If a wen is producing from a reservoir with constant
1.71
0.15(0.0152)(0.00061 )(2000)' pressure at the outer boundary, that is, in the steady-state
Since tDe > 0.25, the well is finite acting. condition, the solution to the diffusivity equation is
APD = In rs. (3-24)
tDw = De,.~' =
t
4.271 X 107 (>100)
rw In this case the fixed pressure used in the definition
re 2000 of APD is P, rather than PI' where P, is the constant pres-
rDe = - = - - = 5000 sure at the outer boundary. Substituting the definitions
r; 0.4
of the dimensionless variables will result in Equation 3-
2tDw 6 presented earlier for steady-state flow.
APDw = - , + In (0.472 rDe)
rDe
Case 4
= 2 (4.271 X, 10 7
) + In (0.472 (5000)) The constant pressure solution to the diffusivity equa-
(5000) tion can be expressed as a function of a dimensionless
= 3.417 + 7.766 cumulative production, Q'D' Q,D is defined as
APDw = 11.183 GpZT
(3-25)
From Exampie 3-2, qo = 0.0259 Q'D = 0.111 </> h rw' C (pi - Pw')'
10'
V. ,,\.~,.... . re 1.200
Infinite o.ut~r radiusI": - to -
-I;J - '. 800 -
._-
~ l.-
,
V
10'
f-
'.
-_.
400
.. -
f - -- f-- . .. f-
-
/ V '. 200 -
-
10'
".... I--' .... ,
I'
-
... - f- ..
I
10' 10' 105 106 107 10' 109
Dimensionless time, to
Fig. 3-6. Constant pressure functions. From Slider, Practical Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell
Books.
Gas Reservoir Performance 57
10
-
~I- Infin ite outer radius
10'
v III I I
-
'. 3,200_ .
- '. 2,400
,
/.. .J' - '.- 1,600
10 tWP '.
- 1,200 _
_ Ii -
- ru 800 , - -
-
_.
.-
10 ... :
I
I
la'
V -
la' 10' 1~ 1~
Dimensionless time, to
Fig. 3-7. Constant pressure functions. From Slider, Practicai Reservoir Engineering Methods, copyright 1976, PennWell
Books.
STABILIZED STABILIZED
CONDITIONS CONDITIONS
InCA CA FOR tOA> InCA CA FOR tOA>
IN BOUNDED RESERVOIRS
EBI 2
2.38 10.8 0.3
IIJ~ 1
3.09 21.9 0.4
m 1.22 3.39 0.6
4
I 1.68 5.38 0.7 lIB!}2
-0.50 0.607 1.0
5
I 0.86 2.36 0.7 _I -2.20 0.111 1.2
2
~
IN WATERDRIVE RESERVOIRS
1.52 4.57 0.5
8 2.95 19.1
IN RESERVOIRS OF UNKNOWN PRODUCTION CHARACTER
0.1
8
Permission 10 publish by the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. Copyright 1965, SPEAIME.
3.22 25 0.1
Gas Reservoir Performance 59
/lpo = 8.517 + 4.461 = 12.978
1.0
Pw' = PI' (1 - qo /l Po) = (2000)' (1 - 0.0259(12.978))
0.9
pw' = 2.655 x 10 p; = 1630 psia
~ 0.8
Rock Permeability g
All of the equations for reservoir gas flow contain rock 'i 0.7
flow, about 35% in this case. It can also be seen that where
there is a gas saturation below which gas will not flow.
This is the equilibrium or critical gas saturation and can- A= 1422 T fi, z (In (.472
--- r.) + s) ,and
not be recovered. kh r;
1422T fi, t
Well Dellverablllty or Capacity B= D.
kh
The stabilized flow capacity or deliverability of a gas
well is required for planning the operation of any gas For wells not located in the center of a circular drain-
field. The flow capacity must be determined for different age area, the A term is defined as
back pressures or flowing bottom-hole pressures at any 1422T az 2
time in the life of the reservoir and the change of flow A = [0.5 In (2.246 Air w CAl + S]
kh
capacity with average reservoir pressure change must be
considered. The flow equations developed earlier are used where CA is obtained from Table 3-2.
60 Gas Production Operations
It is sometimes convenient to establish a relationship 5.18 x 1O-'"yg
between the two parameters that indicate the degree of D = (3-30)
ji h rw kO.,
turbulence occurring in a gas reservoir. These parame-
ters are the velocity coefficient and the Turbulence Coef- Equation 3-11 can also be written in the form
ficient D. Equation 3-7 can be written for pseudo-steady-
q" = C (p.' - Pw/)". (3-31)
state flow as
For wells in which turbulence is important the value
_z , _ 1422 T ji
PR - Pwf - kh
z(In -.472- -r, + S) '[sc
of n approaches 0.5, while for wells in which turbulence
rw is negligible, n approaches 1.0. In most cases the value
of n obtained from well tests will fall between 0.5 and
1.0.
(3-29)
If values for the flow coefficient C and exponent n
can be determined, the flow rate corresponding to any
This form of the equation includes the assumption that value of PwI can be calculated and an inflow performance
r, rw- Equating the terms multiplying q,/ in Equa- curve can be constructed. A parameter commonly used
tions 3-11 and 3-29 yields to characterize or compare gas wells is the flow rate that
would occur if PwI could be brought to zero. This is called
B=
1422 T':;' zD= 3.161 X 10- 12 "Y- z T 13 g the Absolute Open Flow Potential, or AOF.
kh rwh' Examination of Equation 3-31 reveals that a plot of
or A(p') = p.' - Pw/ versus q" on log-log scales should
result in a straight line having a slope of lin. At a value
2.22 X 1O-15 "Yg k of A(p') equal to one, C = q". This is made evident by
D= 13
jihr w taking the log of both sides of Equation 3-31.
q.c
q2
I
q,
10,000 Solution:
--------1---
Stabilized deliverability
2
3
4
3970
4440
5550
195
193
190
2.376
3.152
4.301
Reflects the sandtace
1,000 pressure related to a --il'---I-------1 A plot of qso versus A(p') is shown in Figure 3-11.
particular back From the plot it is apparent that tests 1 and 4 lie on
_~e::~ __\. the straight line and can thus be used to determine n.
log q, - log q,
Slope ~ 1/n I Sandface potential n= ,.-,.-"=';'''-,.-.=...c''-:--;;:-
I at the particular Absolute open log A (p'), - log A (p'),
I back pressure flow potential
log(2730) - log(5550)
I n= 0.92.
log(1.985 x 10') - log(4.301 X 10')
100L1L - . L - _ - J L -_ _.L- ,-J
q,
q,
Extended flow rate, q,
q,
I
q, I
:
1_
jlR_r::.:....J~W"
- :- 1- -: - - I
I
-T- -
Pw" I I I
--r------------
I
I I I I I
P : I I Pw" I 1\ I~
I I I I I
I I I I I PWl4
PWfS
I I I I I
i I I I
1 2 3 4 1_ 12 3 4
1.000 10,000
/
100 / I,
1/ I Stabilized
deliverability
~
Extended fIOW ......
~,10 /1 1.000r----/-~,--____jr+_-------_j
". / i 1
S.
/
/
.
"I
~
Transient I
deliverability 1
1
1.0
/ I
I
I
I AOF = 8.5 MMscfd
100 -1..1- -'
100 1.000 10.000 100.000 1 10 100
q ee qsc' MMscfd
Fig. 3-13. Isochronal test data. Fig. 3-14. Plot of 4 p 2 versus q,,-isochronai test.
If the log-log plot is used to determine the absolute well test. The procedure is very similar to the isochronal
open flow or the inflow performance, the line drawn test, except that the shut-in period between each flow
through the stabilized test must be used. rate is not long enough to allow the well to return to the
initial average reservoir pressure. In the modified method
Modified Isochronal Testing the well is shut-in for the same length of time that it was
The modified isochronal testing procedure was intro- allowed to flow for each choke size. During this time
duced so that even less flowing time is required for the the static well pressure will rebuild to some value, Pw,'
64 Gas Production Operations
2,200
2,000
1,800 r-
1,800
1,400
,!!!
V>
0-
0-
~
1,200
1,000
800 r-
<.
600 r
400 r-
200 r-
0
, , ,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
qsc. MMscfd
which will be lower after each flow period, The flow bilized value of the laminar coefficient A. No transient
rate-pressure behavior with time is shown in Figure 3- tests are required-to evaluate the completion efficiency
16. An extended flow period is still required to evaluate if this method is applied. Jones, et aI., also suggested
. the flow coefficient, C. The analysis is the same as the methods to estimate the improvement in inflow perfor-
regular isochronal test, with the exception that mance which would result from reperforating a well to
lenglhen the completion interval and presented guide-
t:J.(p') = Pw'/ - PwJ;' lines to determine if the turbulent effects were excessive.
is plotted versus q" to obtain a value for n. The value Equation 3-11 can be divided through by q" and written
of C is calculated using the initial static or average res- as
ervoir pressure and the extended test values for PWf and -, ,
q", Figure 3-17 illustrates a plot of typical modified iso- PR - Pwf = A + B qse. (3-11)
chronal test data.
where A and B are the laminar and turbulent coefficients
Jones, Blount and Glaze Method respectively and are defined in Equation 3-11, From
The method of plotting test data which was proposed Equation 3-11 it is apparent that a plot of (fiR' - Pw/)f
by Jones, et al.," can be applied to gas well testing to q" versus q.; on cartesian coordinates will yield a line
determine real or present time inflow performance re- that has a slope of B and an intercept of A = t:J.(p')fq"
lationships. The analysis procedure allows determination as q" approaches zero. These plots apply to both linear
of turbulence or non-Darcy effects on completion effi- and radial flow, but the definitions of A and B would
ciency irrespective of skin effect and laminar flow, The depend on the type of flow,
procedure also evaluates the laminar flow coefficient A,
and if kgh is known, an estimate of skin effect can be Equation 3-11 can be solved for flow rate to yield
made, The data required are either two or more stabi-
lized flow tests or two or more Isochronal flow tests. At -A + lA' + 4B(p~ - p~f)loS
qsc = 2B (3-32)
least one stabilized flow test is required to obtain a sta-
Gas Reservoir Performance 65
q3
q, I
I
I
I
I'-'~'-''I'-''---'-'r'-'r-'-'-'-'-'-
P.., I
---"'I P.. 3 I I I
I I I I Pws4 I
I I I I I
P I Pw<2 I I I
I I P." I
I I
I I ,Pm,
I I I Pm'
I I
where
4' o
'---~-~~".--:':-:,--~~-~-:-:-'".-~c-:'.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
q.."Mscfd
I 637TI1Z
m= (3-35)
kh
Fig. 3-17a. Jones et aI., Method. For transient flow,
Gas Reservoir Performance 67
7. Calculate the stabilized well performance from Equa-
tl(p') = m[IOg( ok:Cr ,) - 3.23 + .869S]q" tion 3-11 using the stabilized values for A and B.
<l>fL
The method of least squares may be used to determine
+ 0.869mDq,/ (3-36)
A, and B from N transient flow tests.
Comparing Equations 3-34 and 3-36 to Equation 3-11
implies that I tl(p') Iq' - Itl(p')Iq
q
A = 2m [ log ( 0.472r,) +--
r;
S]
2.303
(3-37) NIq' - IqIq
(340)
NItl(p') - I tl(p') Iq
A, = m[IOg( ok:Cr ,) - 3.23 + 0.869S] (3.38) B= q (341)
<l>fL NIq' - "iq"iq
and Values for A, and B will be obtained for each time at
B = 0.869mD (339)
which P./ was measured. The value of B should be con-
The object of the analysis is to be able to determine stant, and Brar and Aziz suggest using the value of B
the values of A and B for stabilized flow, then Equation obtained from the longest flow test as the representative
3-11 can be used to calculate inflow performance. The value.
skin factor S, the turbulence coefficient D, and the per- Values for A, and B can also be obtained by plotting
meability k can also be determined. the data as illustrated in Figure 3-17a. In this case a dif-
Equation 3-36 may be written as ferent line would be obtained for each time at which
tl(P') pressures were measured, resulting in a value of A, which
- - =A, + Bq.. will increase with increasing time.
q"
where A, and B are defined in Equations 3-38 and 3-39
Example 36:
respectively. The value of A, will increase with time until A modified isochronal test was conducted using four
stabilized flow is reached. A plot of tl(p')/q" versus q" different flow rates, and the flowing bottom-hole pres-
on cartesian coordinates will result in a series of straight, sure was measured at periods of 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours.
parallel lines having slopes equal to B and intercepts A, The test data are tabulated below,
equal to tl(p')/q" for each flow time. The slopes and
intercepts can also be determined using least squares
h = 12 It PR 922.6 psta
=
r; = 0.23 It Ji. 0.0116 cp
=
analysis. Equation 3-38 can be expressed as t 0.972
=
'" = 0.23
C = 0.00109 psta"
~
T = 582"R
A, = m[IOg _ , - 3.23 + .869S] + m log t '. = 2000 It
<l>fLCr
Therefore a plot of A, versus t on the semi-log scales
p~
will result in a straight line having a slope equal to m
and an intercept at t = I hr (log 1 = 0) equal to A,I' 922.6 921.9 919.9 I 917.6
The procedure for analyzing an Isochronal test is: P.,
t q = 0.4746 q = 0.8797 q = 1.2716 q = 1.6589
I. Determine A, and B from transient tests for several
flow times using plots of Equation 3-36 or least 1.0 900.1 863.0 798.9 676.3
squares. 2.0 897.1 853.9 769.9 662,2
4.0 892.2 833,0 754.9 642.0
2. Plot A, versus t on semi-log scales to determine m 6.0 890,1 827.9 732.6 635.2
and A,I' 8.0 888.1 825.1 727.3 629.3
3. Using the value of m, calculate k from Equation 3-
35. Use the test data to determine k, S, D, and the sta-
4. Solve Equation 3-38 for S using the values of m, k, bilized deliverability equation.
and A,I'
5. Calculate a stabilized value for A using Equation 3-
Solution:
37. Table 33 may be constructed to conveniently calculate
6. Using the value of B from Step I, calculate Dusing the vaiue for At and B. To further illustrate the proce-
Equation 3-39. dure, some of the entries for t = 2 hr are calculated.
68 Gas Production Operations
TABLE 3-3
'in Mpsia2/MMscfd
The value chosen for 8 is 119.07
MMscfd
2 = 0.1191
a. Slope m = 58.7 --'-_-,-__
::I! 60 cycle psia2
.t Mscfd2
40 The stabilized fiow equation for determining inflow per-
o
29.5 formance is then (JR' - pol = 209q" + 0.1191 q,,' for
p in psia and q,c in Mscfd.
20
1 10 100 Equation 3-29 may be solved for q" to obtain
time, hrs.
-A + (A2 + 48((JR2 - Pwl)),'
q,c = 28 (342)
Fig. 3-18. At versus log I, Example 3-6.
Gas Reservoir Performance 69
For A = 209 and B = 0.1191 703 X 10- 6 kh
q", =
-209 + (43681 + 0.4764( PR'
0.2382
- Pwt'))"" C = Tj1Z
__ [ In (.472r,)
-- + S
] (343)
rw
The AOF for this weil can be calculated using Pw' =0
as The possible causes of changes in each parameter are
discussed and modifications of C are suggested.
AOF = _-.=20::9=--+.:.--.'.-(4:.:3:::68:.:1~+:...:::0.~4 7:..:6:..:4~(9::2::2.::::.6)!...c')c-" -The only factor that has an appreciable effect on per-
0.2382 meability to gas, k is liquid saturation in the reservoir.
AOF = 1936 Mscfd As pressure declines from depletion, the remaining gas
expands to keep S, constant, unless retrograde conden-
Factors Affecting Inflow Performance sation occurs or water influx is present. For dry gas res-
Once a well has been tested and the deliverability or ervoirs, the change in k with time can be considered neg-
inflow performance equation established, it is sometimes ligible. .
desirable to be able to predict how changes in certain
-In most cases the value of formation thickness, h can
parameters will affect the inflow performance. These
be considered constant. A possible exception is if the
changes may be the result of reservoir depletion or time,
completion interval is changed by perforating a longer
or they may result from well workovers.
section. It is likely that the well would be re-tested at
The effects of various' changes can be estimated by this time.
reference to Equations 3-31 and 3-10.
-Reservoir temperature, T will remain constant, except
'[sc = C( PR- ' - Pwj')" (331) for possible small changes around the wellbore.
Comparing this with Equation 3-10, it can be seen that -Gas Viscosity and Compressibility Factor, f1, and i
the effects of turbulence, Dq.; are included in the ex- are the parameters that are subject to the greatest change
ponent n, and the coefficient C contains several param- as fiR changes. The best method to handle these changes
eters subject to change. will be discussed in a later section on pseudo-pressure
2,200
2,OOOf---------------------f-----------------1
1,800
1,600
1,200
..
'iii
~ 1,OOOI'"'-=:-------------~_e_-----l_-------".....- - - - - - - - -
Do
800
600
400
200
o\..----+----+----!-L---l------b--..L-+---+----J.--.l----i
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
qsc. MMscfd
q3
q3-q2
q,
, -----'---- - -- --- -- - ----
q2 -ql I
q,
q ----
. . . ..1 __ - - - - - - - ---- - - - - - ---
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
t, t, t
---- ---------------
_ _ _
J Pressure drop caused
by production at rate q,
- -- - - - --- - ----
I ------- - - -- -- -- - --- --
I } Additional pressure drop caused by
I increasing production rate an amount (q2 - q.)
Pwt I
I I
.---- - r-. - - -- - -
Additional pressure drop caused by - - - --
I I ~reasing production rate an amount (q3 - q2)
I I
I
I
I
: i t
t, t,
Fig. 3-20. Superposition. Courtesy the Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary.
Adding the effect of the two rates flowing for their Pressure Drawdown Testing
respective times gives: Several important reservoir parameters can be deter-
2 2_ 2 A + Pi2QD2uPD2
A mined by flowing a well at a constant rate and measuring
Pi - Pwf - Pi qDluPDl (345)
flowing wellbore pressure as a function of time. This is
where called drawdown testing and it can utilize information
obtained in both the transient and pseudo-steady-state
(346) flow regimes. If the flow extends to pseudo-steady-state,
the test is referred to as a Reservoir Limit Test and can
l422TZii be used to estimate the reservoir pore volume. Both sin-
qD2 = khp,' (q2 - q,), (347) gle rate and two rate tests are utilized, depending on the
information required. Some of the reservoir parameters
tl.PDI is based on total flowing time, t , + t 2, tl.PD2 is which may be obtained from drawdown testing are flow
based on flowing time t - t., capacity kh, skin factor S, and turbulence coefficient D.
A drawdown test begins from a shut-in condition and
Superposition in Space. When more than one well is a constant flow rate is maintained while pressure is mea-
producing in a reservoir, the effects of both pressure dis- sured constantly. The early time pressure data will be
turbances must be added to calculate the total pressure affected by wellbore storage and is usually used only to
effect at any point in the reservoir. This of course re- determine the beginning of the transient flow period. This
quires evaluation of pressure at points other than the well. can be identified as the beginning of the straight line
This is the basis for interference testing involving two segment of the plot of (tl.p2) versus time.
or more wells. Superposition in time and space can be The equation for transient flow, Equation 3-20, may
applied simultaneously. be written including formation damage and turbulence
72 Gas Production Operations
effects as flow is
dpo = 0.5(ln 10 + .809) + S' (348) 0.03 :5 ID , :5 0.25.
~
1.60 3729 0.022
pi - PI'>' = m[IOg _ , - 3.23 + 0.869S'], (3-51) 2.67 3546 1.354
<j>fl.Crw 3.20 3509 1.615
5.07 3491 1.741
where PUrr is obtained from an extrapolation of the linear 6.13 3481 1.810
segment of the plot. Solving for S' in Equation 3-51 gives 8.00 3433 2.142
15.20 3388 2.449
S
, = l.l51 [p/ - Pt 2
hr
- log
k
__ ,
]
+ 3.23. (3-52) 20.00 3366 2.598
m <j>fl.Crw 30.13 3354 2.679
40.00 3342 2.759
Since S' is rate dependent, two single rate drawdown 60.27 3323 2.885
tests may be conducted to determine Sand D. That is, 80.00 3315 2.939
from the two tests, 100.27 3306 2.998
120.53 3295 3.071
S'I=S+Dqt
S', = S + Dq2' From the graph of A(p') versus log t (Fig. 3-21) the
slope is
The removable pressure drop due to actual damage can
be calculated from x 10- 2.42 X 10
m = 3:......,-...:...:.,-:-::-=::......,-~
log 100 - log 10
d(p')s = 0.869mS, (3-53)
= 5.8 X 10' psia2/cycle, and
and the rate dependent pressure drop from
kh = 1637q" Tilt = 1637(5650)(673)(0.021)(0.85)
d(P')D = 0.869mDq". (3-54)
m 5.8 x 10'
An estimate of the beginning and end of the transient kh = 192 md-It,
flow period can be obtained from the dimensionless time
once an estimate of k is obtained from the analysis. The 192
k=-= 9.6md.
approximate range of dimensionless time for transient 20
Gas Reservoir Performance 73
,
o
~
x
N : r
Ci:
0-1.0
To obtain P'h', extend the line to t = 1 hr and read By applying superposition in time it can be shown that
a plot of
tl.(p') = 1.84 x 10' psia'
..
-
74 Gas Production Operations
q,
q
~ q2
I~
II Time for rate readjustment
t 1"4 I at
I ..
Past history not required. I
~
single-rate analysis. ....
I
.1
I
Pwf I
I .. Two-rate analysis applies
I
I
I
I .
Fig. 3-22. Two-rate test-flow rate and pressure diagrams. Courtesy the Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary.
reservoirs or by Equation 3-27 for noncircular reser- perposition in time. In order to represent the shut-in con-
voirs. By rearranging Equation 3-23 and putting it in terms dition, an injection rate of -q" beginning at /it = 0 is
of real variables, it can be shown that a plot of /i(p') superposed on the flow rate q" that began at time t =
versus time on cartesian coordinates will yield a straight O. Writing Equation 3-48 for both q" and -q" and add-
line of slope m. This can be used to estimate the in place ing the expressions, results in
volume of gas in the reservoir, G.
1637q"Tp,t t+1it
G = _2._34_8--,q"",,_T p? - Pws
2
= log--. (3-56)
kh lit
",Cm
From this expression it can be seen that a plot of Pw,'
where G is the gas volume in MMscf. versus log t + lit) / /it) will result in a straight line of
slope - m, where
Pressure Buildup Testing
A pressure buildup test is the simplest test that can be 1637 q" T P, t
run, on a gas well. If the effects of wellbore storage can m= (3-50)
kh
be determined, much useful information can be ob-
tained. This information includes permeability, k, ap- from which kh or k can be determined.
parent skin factor, S'; and average reservoir pressure, Extrapolation of the line to an infinite shut in time /it,
fiR or (t + /it)/ /it = I, results in a value for p/ for an in-
The test consists of flowing the well at a constant rate finite reservoir. For a bounded reservoir this value is la-
q,,, for a period of time t, shutting the well in (at /it = beled P'" and can be used to obtain PR, as described later.
0), and measuring wellbore pressure increase with shut- The apparent skin factor can be determined by assum-
in time /it. ing that (t/(t + /it = I at /it = I hr and using the
The test was developed by Horner', and his method following equation
of analysis is generally considered best. Other methods
include those of Miller, Dyes, and Hutchinson" and
Muskat". The method was extended to allow determi-
log _~
<p",Crw
2 + 3.23], (3-57)
16 . . . "
~ h
. -r
",
.- I'" '.-'-
,
,
15 - ..-
1--. 4
1-'
t-. _. oj
.
f-- +-'-
14
.'.. ,
3-
-
.. -
.
.
I;: t-
::~+t~, ""
.. _. ::j:::.+--
t-.- ,
.."
~
",.
.,
"
+~ , ,
--.........,.-
" ,."
.
--t-J .;..,.... .
o
~
oJ
2
}-". f-- tC'" -- " ..
.,.1--
- .
...L
.
:-~
_. .
---.~
,
"
.,
:
+- t-". ~:E..
."
+.
1 - -- I- :t -.
t-'
_. _. . ."
".
10
. _ - l--t-t
._J- 1::-+=
"
,
9 .' .r-
. ! . ~~
5
_.~'~;.:~
I I Squ~re H :1#1/
-_.- ~~
I I I I I V .
4
Equilateral triangle \'
~~E>'
~ .~v
-- ""'-,
I
~ 1\ R~Om~U~
~~ /
,
"'V \ Right triangle
i ' I I
c 2 ~ ~ V-
~V
Q. I
<1
... -
J ~ "/' -- . - f---- -
~ V
""~~,
o
om
-. ,
0.05
I
I
I
0.1
I I
0.5 1.0
_
_..- . - - _._.- ...
I
5.0
I
10
Fig. 3-24. MBH curves for well in center of area. Permission to publish by the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME.
Copyright 1954 SPE-AIME.
containing 22 x 10' sq. ft. The pressure versus time The plot of Pw.' versus log((I + I1Q/I1Q is shown in Fig-
data are tabulated below. ure 3-23.
The slope may be obtained by taking the change in
Solution: Pw.' over 2 log cycles.
(13.92 - 12.72) x 10'
t + III m= = 6 X 10' psia'/cycle
log 100 - log 1
Ill, hr Pws, psis ar Pw/ x 10- 6
, psis 2
1637qsc TiiZ 1637(5650)(673)(0.021)(0.85)
0 3295 10.86 kh =
.53 3296 228.4 10.86 m 6 x 10'
1.60 3385 76.3 11.46 185
2.67 3547 . 46.1 12.58 kh ,,; 185 mo-rt k = - = 9.3 md
3.73 3573 33.3 12.77 20
4.80 3591 26.1 12.90 t+11t a ,
5.87 3605 21.5 13.00 At I1t = 1 hr, - - = 121.5, P1h' = 12.69 x 10
6.93 3614 18.4 13.06 I1t
8.00 3623 16.1 13.13 e-3295'
3634 13.2 13.21 ,_ [12.69 xl0
9.87 S - 1.151 s
12.00 3644 11.0 13.28 6 x 10
14.67 3654 9.2 13.35
18.67 3664 7.5 13.42 10 ( 92 + 3.23
) ]
24.53 3672 5.9 13.48 g (0.1)(0.021)(2.2 x 10.4)(0.29)'
29.33 3676 5.1 13.51
35.73 3684 4.4 13.57 S' = 1.151(3.055 - 8.379 + 3.23) = -2.41
45.87 3688 3.6 13.60 The values obtained for k and S' agree with those
49.87 3691 3.4 13.62
obtained from the drawdown test, Example 3-8.
Gas Reservoir Performance 77
In order to estimate PR, obtain p'2 from the graph the pseudo-pressure terms and eliminating the ",t prod-
where (t + M)/M = 1 to be 13.92 x 10' psia", Using uct from the equation. As an example, Equation 3-11
the value for k to calculate tDA gives becomes
2.64 x 10-'(9.3)(120.5)
m(fiR) - m(pw)
1422 T q"
= kh [In(0.472r,/rw ) + S + Dq,,], (3-61)
1422 T q"
qD = kh m(p,) ,
m(p)
Po = ,
m(p,) qo
A m(p,) - m (p)
upn = ,
m(p,) qD
2.64 X 10-' kt
ta =
<l>jJ.,C, r'
J
2
Pw
-.
fJZ
(3-59) ble or graph of m(p) versus p for the gas in question at
reservoir temperature. This is easily accomplished by
numerical integration of Equation 3-60 when values of
Both jJ. and Z are functions of pressure and therefore
should be included in the integration. In order to sim- jJ. and Z are available for the range of pressures required.
plify the derivation it was assumed that jJ. and Z could Correlations for jJ. and Z can be found in Chapter 2. A
be considered constant at reservoir temperature and av- computer. program for generating the m(p) versus p val-
erage pressure in the drainage area, which resulted in '" ues is given in the appendix. An example calculation of
z
and appearing in all of the flow equations. For fairly m(p) data, as presented by Dake'? is illustrated.
low pressure reservoirs (PR :5 2500 psia) this approach
is adequate, but for some pressure ranges the fJZ product
is far from linear with pressure. A method to more rig- Example 3-10:
orously evaluate the effects of jJ. and Z was introduced A reservoir existing at a temperature of 200'F contains
a gas having a gravity of 0.85. Generate a relationship
by Al-Hussainy in 1965". He defined the integral in
between m(p) and p over the pressure range of 4400
Equation 3-59 as the real gas pseudo-pressure, m(p).
to zero psia.
m(p) = r 2.!!.... dp
JPm fJZ
(3-60)
Solution:
All of the previously derived equations in this chapter The following table is used to tabulate the data, taking
can be modified to the pseudo-pressure analysis from the pressure increments of 400 psi for averaging. The re-
p' analysis by replacing the pressure squared terms with sults are plotted in Figure 325.
b
78 Gas Production Operations
1,200
-:
-:
1,000
v
BOO
N
-..
l
...Co
V
.:
!. 600
~
x
aE
400
/
-:
200
->
o
o --- 1,000 2,000
Pressure, psis
3,000 4,000
a.
830 I-
/
/ At il.t = 1 hr,
.!1 810
..
N
'iii
a.
, -
0
~
790
770
750
-
- /
/ S' = 1.151 [m(plh') - m(Pwf) - log
, _
m
[(809.0 - 709.8) x 10
k 2 + 3.23]
4> I'-,C, rw
980
960 ,
-.
'H ','
...
'"
'
"
I
",;:,
,.
hi
"
I"
940
'-i~- =t -
920
900
--_. =*.' -
880 -t-:
c.
o
<,
"'al 860 '" ,."
'in .- -f' ._..,
c. ,
. "r'- ~F?::, ,.
'f0 840
~
,
_x 820
c. ., .
E 800
780
760
740
720 ,,
700 I="~' ..
1.0 10.0 t + At 100.0 1000
At
Fig. 3-27. Horner buiid-up plot for Example 3-11. Courtesy the Energy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary.
..
80 Gas Production Operations
responds to a value of Pi = 3730 psia, which is equal h = average reservoir thickness, ft,
to the result obtained previously. ef> = porosity,
S; = water saturation, and
It has generally been recommended in the literature
B g = gas formation volume factor, ft'/scf.
that the pseudo-pressure analysis be used in preference
to the pressure-squared analysis when Pi > 2500 psia. This equation can be applied at both initial and aban-
The only extra work involved in using the m(p) method donment conditions in order to calculate the recoverable
is generation of the m(p) versus P data. This task has gas.
somehow delayed the acceptance of the m(p) method
among field engineers, and many prefer using the more
Gas produced = Initial gas - Remaining gas
familiar p' analysis. Some advantages of the m(p) method or
are:
c, = 43560Ahef>(l - Sw) (...!.. - _I), (3.63)
- It is more theoretically correct, s; Bga
- It applies for all ranges of pressure, where B ga is evaluated at abandonment pressure. Appli-
- Iteration to obtain P = (Pi + pwf)/2 for evaluating il cation of the volumetric method assumes that the pore
t is not necessary, and volume occupied by gas is constant. If water influx is
- Once m(p) versus p is available, it is simpler to use.
occurring, A, h, and S; will change.
In order to evaluate a gas reservoir the original gas in 2651 0.83 0.0057
1000 0.90 0.0154
place G, must be determined and the gas recoverable at 500 0.95 0.0346
different values of h must be calculated. The decline in
PR with Gp can be calculated using the gas laws presented
in Chapter 2 for a volumetric reservoir. If the volume SolutIon:
occupied by gas changes because of water influx, it must At P = 1000 psis
be accounted for in the balance. This section will present
Gp = 43560(2550)(50)(0.2)(1 - 0.2)
methods to determine gas reservoir behavior using vol-
(0.0~57 - 0.0~54)
umetric methods and material balance methods.
.
Reserve Estimates-Volumetric Method
Gp = 8.886 x 10'(175.44 - 64.94)
The volumetric method for determining initial gas in
place and reserves requires enough geologic data to de- = 9.818 x 10'0 set
termine reservoir pore volume and water saturation. Res- B' 0.0057
ervoir pressure is also required, but no production his- Eg = 1- - o =1 - - - = 0.63 = 63%
Bga 0.0154
tory is necessary. It is applied mainly in new fields for
rough estimates. Atp=500
The equation for calculating gas in place is
G = 8.886 x 10' (_1 1_)
hef>-,--(:.. .I_-_Sc:;,w) p 0.0057 0.0346
G = _43_5_60_A_
(362)
Bg ' Gp = 8.886 x 10'(175.44 - 28.90)
That is,
Figure 3-28 illustrates typical plots of Equations 3-67
Moles Produced = initial moles in place -
and 3-68.
remaining moles.
in equation form Example 313:
The following production history was obtained from a
(3-64) volumetric gas reservoir. Plotting of p!Z versus Gp re-
vealed that data points 1 and 4 fall on the best straight
Applying the gas law, pV = ZnRT gives line through the data. Use these points to find G and
p,; Z,. Also estimate the gas recovery if the reservoir
(3-65) pressure is drawn down to 300 psia, T, = 200F, 'Yg =
0.9
where p, psla Z e, Bel
p/Z
7J = formation temperature, 1 1885 0.767 2458 6.873
Vi : : : ; reservoir gas volume, 2 1620 0.787 2058 14.002
P, = initial reservoir pressure, and 3 1205 0.828 1455 23.687
4 B88 0.866 1025 31.009
P = reservoir pressure after producing Gp scf,
5 645 0.900 717 36.207
The reservoir gas volume can be put in units of scf by
use of B". That is, SolutIon:
Vi = GB". (3-66) Using points 1 and 4, calculate the slope:
Combining Equations 3-65 and 3-66 and solving for _ (p! Z), - (p! Z), 2.:.4-,5.:.8_-_1:..:0.:.25:.. psia
m = 59.37-
p/Z gives Gp4 - Gp , 31.009 - 6.873 Bel
3000
P I
e- ~ =
I '.1
2866 psta __ "- _ ..
-, I I
f---r..!.
b;2
1 1 2000 - ' - I - - K --"- --- j -
p '- -,
-,
~PSI. 3 e--- _._" --- I---
z Z
-, !'---.
-,
'-
1000 -- I--- e- ~ 5- +---- 1 -
,
-, '"
"- -I-
'-
AF (RFloomp
G. '"
G
o
0 10 20 30 40 55o
G =48,35
Fig. 3-28. Gas malerial balance plots. Fig. 3-28a, Example 3-13 Solution,
82 Gas Production Operations
To find p,/Z;, use Equation 3-67 and data point 1:
A p ,
-Z =- + m Gp = 2458 + 59,37(6,873) = 2866 PSIa
I Z
t, Z, 0,0283(660)
B., = 0,0283 - = 0,0065 It"Iscf
p, 2866 ~
=~ = "
G= Ttp"
T" Bgi m
= 48,3 Bcf
ZfT'
2866
59,37
p
Z " -,
-,
-, Moderate
-,
Recovery at p = 300 psia: -,
At p = 300 psia, Z = 0,949, piZ = 316 psia "- Weak
-,
= (-p,- -p)/ (2866 - 316) -,
Gp m= = 42,95 Bct,
Z, Z 59,37
The value of P, can be obtained from p,lZ; by tria/-
and-error, Values of P, are estimated; Z, and p,/Z, are Fig, 3-29, Effect of water drive,
calculated until a value is determined that gives 2866
psta, C = water influx constant,
lip = p, - p,
z QdJ = dimensionless water influx,
2200 ,750 2933
2100 ,752 2793 The value of QdJ depends on the ratio of the aquifer
2150 ,751 2863 volume to the gas reservoir volume and the time that the
reservoir has been produced. Values may be obtained
Linear interpolation between 2200 and 2150 gives p, from Figures 3-6 and 3-7.
= 2151 psla.
The above discussion applies to a reservoir in which Energy Plots
the pore volume occupied by gas does not change, If
Many other graphieal methods have been proposed for
water influx is occurring, V, will be reduced by water solving the material balance equation that are useful in
influx as p declines.
detecting the presence of water influx. Equation 3-67 can
Equation 3-67 then becomes
be rearranged and using the definition of B" = (p" Z,
p_(
--
GB"
-- G
)p, r.; (369)
Tt)/(p, T,,), it can be written as
Z GB" - W, Z, T"(GB,, - W,) p : Z,p GB" [ Gp ]
The slope now includes a quantity that varies with G,
p, Z = G B" - W, I - G' (3-71)
or time. This is the water influx W,. Therefore, a plot For W, = 0, this becomes
of plZ versus G, will no longer be linear but will deviate
upward with pressure decline depending on the strength Z,p o,
1--=-. (3-72)
of the water drive. This is illustrated in Figure 3-29. p,Z G
If water influx is occurring, it can be calculated by
Taking the logarithm of both sides of Equation 3-72 yields
using the constant pressure solution to the diffusivity
[ ZP]
equation, Equation 3-70. This involves the correct de-
termination of certain water influx parameters. Havlena log 1--'- =logGp-logG, (3-73)
p,Z
and Odeh" have described a procedure by which the ma-
terial balance equation can be used to determine if these From Equation 3-73, it is obvious that a plot of I -
parameters have been correctly evaluated. Z,p/p(Z versus G; on log-log coordinates will yield a
Water influx is a function of time, and can be ex- straight line with a slope of one (45' angle), An extrap-
pressed as olation to one on the vertical axis (p = 0) yields a value
for initial gas in place, G. The graphs obtained from this
W, = C I lip QdJ' (3-70)
type of analysis have been referred to as Energy Plots.
where They have been found to be useful in detecting water
Gas Reservoir Performance 83
influx early in the life of a reservoir. If W, is oot zero, gible. Further effects of abnormal reservoir pressure on
the slope of the plot will be less than one, and will also reserve estimates are discussed in Chapter 9.
decrease with time, since W, increases with time. An
increasing slope can only occur as a result of either gas
WELL COMPLETION EFFECTS
leaking from the reservoir or bad data, since the increas-
ing slope would imply that the gas occupied pore volume In many cases the inflow into a well is controlled more
was increasing with time. This is also true for plots of by the completion efficiency than by the actual reservoir
p/Z versus o; characteristics.
The detection of production problems by observing There are basically three types of completions that may
anomalies in these plots is discussed further in Chapter be made on a well, depending on the type of well, the
9. well depth, and the type of reservoir or formation. In
some cases the well is completed open-hole. That is, the
ABNORMALLY PRESSURED RESERVOIRS casing is set at the top of the producing formation, and
the formation is not exposed to cement. Also, no per-
In most gas reservoirs the gas is much more com- forations are required. This type of completion is not
pressible than the rock and the connate water, which jus- nearly as common as it was several years ago, and most
tifies ignoring the rock and water expansion in the ma- wells are now completed by cementing the casing through
terial balance equation. However, in abnormally high the producing formation.
pressured reservoirs, this may introduce some error in The most widely used completion method is one in
estimating gas reserves. Including rock and water com- which the pipe is set through the formation, and cement
pressibility, Equation 3-67 becomes is used to fill the annulus between the casing and the
hole. This of course requires perforating the well to es-
P
~
~[I-~]
---::--------::
tablish communication with the producing formation. This
type of completion permits selection of the zones that
(3-74)
are to be opened. The efficiency of the completion is
Z I _ [(Pi - p)(CwSWi + Cr)] highly dependent on the number ofholes or perforations,
1- Swi the depth to which the perforation extends into the for-
where mation, the perforation pattern, and whether there is a
positive pressure differential from the well to the for-
Swi = connate water saturation, mation or vice versa. Compaction of the formation im-
Cw ~ connate water compressibility, and mediately around the perforation can reduce the effi-
Cr ~ formation compressibility. ciency considerably.
An estimate of the effect of water and rock compress- In some reservoirs the lack of cementing material in
ibility on errors in estimating gas-in-place from Equation the reservoir allows sand to be produced into the well.
3-67 can be made by the following procedure: When completing wells in which the formation is in-
competent or unconsolidated, a gravel pack completion
I. Solve Equation 3-67 for G"L scheme is frequently employed. In this type of comple-
2. Solve Equation 3-74 for G~1U~ tion a perforated or slotted liner or a screen liner is set
3. Substitute these expressions into the equation for per- inside the casing opposite the producing formation. The
cent error annulus between the casing and the liner is then filled
with a sand that is more coarse than the formation sand.
% error ~ [G~1U~ - G,~,] X ioo The size of the sand, or gravel, depends on the reservoir
Gacmal sand characteristics and on the type of gravel pack. The
This results in the following equation: gravel pack sand also fills the perforation tunnels, and
in some cases a zone is washed out behind the pipe,
Z which is also filled with pack sand. Even though the pack
100 (Pi - p)(C w Swi
I] + Cr ) [P_i -
ZiP sand is loosely packed and has a high permeability, non-
% error ~ -------------- (3-75) Darcy or turbulent flow through the sand-filled perfo-
1- Swi ration tunnels can cause a considerable pressure drop
From Equation 3-75, it can be seen that the error in across the gravel pack. This pressure drop not only de-
G obtained from a plot of p/Z versus G, increases as creases inflow into the wellbore but also destroys the
Cwo Cr, and Pi increase. It has been found that for values gravel pack if it is too large.
of Pi less than 5000 psia and C, less than 5 X 10- 6 psi -1, In order to calculate the extra pressure drop caused by
the error in neglecting the compressibilities was negli- the completion, the general inflow equations can be
84 Gas Production Operations
modified to include the completion efficiency for any kg. = unaltered reservoir permeability to gas, and
type of completion. The equations for gas flow are given Sd = skin factor due to permeability alteration around
as: the wellbore.
6
703 X 10- kg h(p.' - p"/) A value for Sd may be estimated from the following
(310)
q,,= I1g i T[ln(0.472r,jrw ) + S']' equation:
where
(379)
S' = S + Dq.;
where
The value of S' can be obtained from a single transient
test, but obtaining accurate values for Sand D requires k. = reservoir permeability,
transient tests conducted at two different rates. kd = altered zone permeability,
Equation 3-10 may be written in a different form, as rw = wellbore radius, and
shown previously. rd = altered zone radius.
-2
PR - Pwj2 = A qsc +Bqsc2 . (3-11) The actual calculation of an accurate value of Sd is
difficult, because values of kd and rd must be estimated.
where A is the laminar coefficient, and B is the turbu-
If a value of S can be obtained from a transient test, this
lence multiplier. Those coefficients may be written as
will be equal to Sd for an open hole completion.
composites of several terms that depend on the comple-
The value of B R will usually be low except for high
tion characteristics.
rate gas wells. It may be calculated from
A = A. + Ap +A G (3-76)
3.161 x 10- 121> -
t'. 'Yg ZT
B = B. + B p + BG (3-77)
BR = 2 (3-80)
h rw
where Values of the velocity coefficient 13 may be calculated
An = laminar reservoir component, from
A p = laminar perforation component, 2.33 X 10 10
AG = laminar gravel pack component, I3R = (3-8)
~....-- 0.33
0.25 0.5 7.9
0.50
0.6
6 ~ 2,0
t
3 ,.,...--'---------30.--------7'---,'...,------7''7'4'----+0.9- "8~ 0.9
<i:
o 1.0- 0.0
1.1- -0.7
I /
900 Phasing I /
Crushed zone relative
permeability (kor,/k A )
~/
1/
I r
I
7' -r'-C-t'--"L---"L------i
/
I
/
Fig. 3-30. Nomograph for productivity ratio. Permission to pubiish by the Society of Petroieum Engineers of
A/ME. Copyright 1981 SPE-A/ME.
...I
-
86 Gas Production Operations
SdP = effect of flow through the compacted and dam- \
aged zone around the perforation. \
\
If sufficient data regarding the perforation are known,
,/
-
values for S and SdP may be calculated. Sp is a function
of perforating density, perforation length, perforation di- \
\
ameter, ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability, and
damaged zone radius.
->: ,
I
-
I
Values of S, may be obtained from nomographs pub-
\
~~
lished by Hong" or Locke. IS An equation for estimating \
Sp was given by Saidikowski. 19 \
J
/
'71
I
where
L,-+j
--t I
\
-
'dO
h = total formation thickness, "
I kA
L
h, = perforated interval length, \
kR = reservoir permeability in the horizontal direc- I
-
tion, and I
k; = vertical permeability. \
\
The nomograph presented by Locke is shown in Fig- kd I
ure 3-30.
McLeod derived an equation for calculating the effect
/
/
of flow through the compacted zone as
I- 'd
-I
(3S3)
Fig. 3-31. Fiow into a perforation.
where
There are several variables in the equations for per-
h = total formation thickness,
forated completions that are hard to determine. These
L, = perforation length,
include the altered zone permeability, the compacted zone
N = total number of perforations,
permeability, the compacted zone radius, the perforation
kR = unaltered reservoir permeability,
length, and the altered zone radius. Some of these pa-
k d = altered reservoir permeability,
rameters can be estimated from API-RP-43 test data pub-
kdP = compacted zone permeability,
lished by the perforating companies. The following
rp = perforation radius, and guidelines have been recommended by McLeod:
rdP = compacted zone radius
For wells perforated in mud
Figure 3-31, from Reference 16 shows a schematic of
a perforated completion and the relationship among the k dP = ~ (386)
various parameters in Equation 3-83. kR k
The largest part of .the pressure drop through a per-
foration is caused by turbulent or non-Darcy flow through For wells perforated in brine
the compacted zone. The equation for calculating this kdP k,
effect is -=- (387)
u- kd k
3 .161 x /0- I3dP'YgZT
Bp = 2 2 . (3-84) where kJk values are obtained from the API test data.
rpLpN Guidelines for estimating k,/k when no tests are avail-
The value of the velocity coefficient must be calcu- able were also presented by McLeod in Table 3-4.
lated using the compacted zone permeability. The equa- McLeod also suggests that the compacted zone thick-
tion is ness is usually about 0.5 in. That is, rdP = rp + 0.5 if
rp is in inches. If no information is available regarding
(385)
the altered zone radius, a value of rd = rw + I may be
used, where r w is given in ft.
r Gas Reservoir Performance 87
Fluid in Hole
TABLE 3-4
Perforating Parameter Guidelines
-
Unfiltered brine overbalance 0.04-0.06
Filtered brine overbalance 0.08-0.16
,
Filtered brine underbalance 0.15-0.25
Clean lIuid underbaiance 0.30-0.50
Ideal fluid underbalance
-
p..
+ (BR + B; + BG)q,/. (3-88)
L~
tunnel that is filled with pack sand can cause a signifi-
cant non-Darcy flow pressure drop. The equations for I
AG and BG are
I
::.28=-4~4..:Z:..:T..!iJ1!.,=L (3-89) Fig. 3-32. Gravei-packed completion.
AG = kN"
G fp
_ 1.263 X 10- 11 r'>G'Y,ZTL times convenient to break down the total pressure draw-
(3-90)
BG - N' f p 4 ' down into two separate components. That is, the pres-
sure drop in the reservoir and the pressure drop in the
where gravel pack. This can be expressed as
kG = gravel permeability, md, (3-92)
L = perforation tunnel length, ft, and
where Pwt' is the pressure existing at the sand face, as
1.47 X 10' illustrated in Figure 332. Most operators agree that the
a, = k o."
G
(3-91)
pressure drop across the gravel pack, Pwt' - Pw!, should
be below about 300 psi. The equations for the two pres-
The following data, from Gurley, '0 may be used to
sure drops, ignoring A p and B p , may be written as
estimate the gravel permeability based on its size.
Sieve Size
10 ~
""
::.:l
~
~
C
::;.
~
'"
~
~
1';
,...-18
~
'"
a:
~z
o
Cii kht>.p
z OIL
~ 10- 1 qo 141.2 qfLl3
o kht>.(p2)
~
0-
qo 1424 qfLZT
kh[1I.m(p)]
@ GAS
a: qo 1424 qT
2.634 x 10-4 kl
rr 1D>q = --'-:":""_--'-=---'-
tPJ-LiCtXf
::::. ...............
lO-'tj -q:":t"TB-1-rE ._ ....j....:...:.. 4:T"j
Fig. 3-34. Constant-pressure log-log type curves for finite flow-capacity vertical fractures. Permission to publish
by the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. Copyright 1979 SPE-AIME.
~
..
!~
Xf -
<l> (",e)i tox
5. The actual fracture flow capacity can then be calcu-
lated from
kfw = Fco(kXf)
To predict future performance:
6. Select a value for real time t and calculate tox using
--~ -
the values of k and Xf obtained in Step 4.
7. From Figure 3-34 determine the value of qo for this
tox using the correct F co curve. F co was determined time ..
in Step 2.
8. Calculate the actual flow rate corresponding to this Fig. 3-36. Producing rate for constant Pwf.
time from
qo kh(p,' - Pwr'l be obtained by shifting the real data curve in the hori-
: = 1422 '" t T zontal direction only.
The procedure outlined here is only one of many
9. Repeat Steps 6 through 8 for various values of time methods that may be used for analyzing fractured gas
t and Pwt to obtain inflow performance curves appli-
wells. A discussion of all of the methods is beyond the
cable at various times. The data may be plotted as scope of this book.
shown in Figure 3-35 if the effect of changing Pwt
values is to be considered. To observe the decline in
flow rate with time at a constant bottom-hole flowing GUIDELINES FOR GAS WELL TESTING
pressure, a plot such as shown in Figure 3-36 may The accuracy of the results calculated using the pre-
be constructed. viously presented procedures depends on the accuracy of
The accuracy of the previously described method can the data used. Obtaining accurate field data can be ac-
be increased somewhat if formation permeability k is complished only' if the field personnel follow established
known from a pre-frac Horner type analysis. In this case, procedures for data collection. These procedures, as pre-
qo can be calculated for each real flow rate q", and a sented in Reference 6, are summarized here.
plot of 1/ qo versus t can be constructed and used to find
a match for the proper F co value. The match would then Testing Equipment
The two important factors that govern the selection of
testing equipment are the nature of the produced fluids
and the type of test being conducted. This section de-
scribes the essential features of various wellhead testing
facilities that are necessitated by the presence of con-
densate, water, or acid gases in the natural gas being
I
produced.
Thermowell
-,I
I
Vent/flare
Pressure Pressure Pressure Critical-flow
gauge controller gauge prover
Fig. 3-38. Schematic flow diagram of wei/head rigging for constant-rate tests.
b
92 Gas Production Operations
color alcohol may be injected into the gas stream to systems, it is important to monitor any water production
prevent the formation of hydrates. during a test. A knowledge of water production during
tests is also important to the analysis and application of
test results.
Sour Gas
For testing sour gas wells, more elaborate facilities are
Pressure Measuring
required. In addition to the standard equipment, de-
pending on whether the gas is dry or wet, a gas meter The accurate measurement of static pressures and the
and a flow line to an appropriate flare stack are required. pressures corresponding to flow rates measured during
In addition, liquid seals may also be necessary to protect the flow periods of various tests is of great importance
the gas meter and pressure measuring device from H2S in gas well testing. Since interpretation of deliverability,
gas. drawdown and build-up test results must be based on the
theory of flow in the reservoir, it follows that the im-
Flow Measuring
portant pressure in interpreting the tests is the reservoir
sandface pressure (in the wellbore). Ideally, this pres-
The accurate measurement of gas and liquid produc- sure is measured directly through use of an accurate,
tion rates is essential to the proper conduct and analysis carefully calibrated bottom-hole pressure gage. There are
of well tests. Correct sampling procedures are also nec- many types of such gages available today, all of which,
essary in order to obtain representative samples of the when used properly, are quite adequate for accurate
produced fluids and an accurate estimate of the constit- measurement of sandface pressures.
uents of the reservoir gas. In some instances, due to mechanical difficulties, sour
All flow measurement devices should be installed in gases, or other reasons, it is not practical to use a bot-
accordance with recommended specifications since biased tom-hole gage. In such situations, wellhead pressures are
measurement errors can cause anomalous test results. measured and subsequently converted to reservoir sand-
Some of the more common biased errors are caused by face pressures by the methods described in Chapter 4.
insufficient pipe upstream and downstream of the meter, The highest possible accuracy in wellhead pressure mea-
insufficient liquid retention time in the separators, in- surement is important, and for best results these pres-
adequate liquid dumping cycles, incorrect meter coef- sures should be taken with a dead-weight gage. This is
ficients or calibration factors, meter vibration, and other a device that balances the force created by the well pres-
metering problems. sure with calibrated weights.
The most commonly used gas flow measurement de-
,
vices are orifice meters and critical flow provers. Tur-
Test Design
bine and displacement meters are not as commonly used,
but it is expected that with the advent of portable units If a deliverability test is to be conducted on a well,
their utility will increase. the test designer must make a decision regarding the range
When the condensate flow rate is being measured, tur- of production or flow rates and also the duration of each
bine or positive displacement meters are usually used. flow rate. A decision must also be made as to what type
The meter should be installed with sufficient straight pipe of test is better, flow-after-flow or isochronal. If stabi-
and should be located upstream of a snap-acting valve. lization time is short a conventional flow-after-flow test
This valve should be regulated so that there is sufficient may be selected, but if the well is producing from a low
retention time to ensure equilibrium of the gas and liquid . permeability reservoir or draining a large area, an iso-
in the separator. chronal or modified isochronal may be more feasible. If
In many instances, condensate is gaged in a stock tank. estimates of permeability and drainage area can be made,
This method should be used only in instances where the Equation 3-33 can be used for estimating stabilization
input to the stock tank is from a low-pressure separator time. Equation 3-33 can also be solved for radius and
or when the flashed vapors are being collected. In the used to estimate how far a pressure disturbance created
former case, care should be taken to ensure that the amount at the well will have traveled at a particular time.
of flashed vapors is small enough to be neglected in re- A flow-after-flow test requires at least two tests in which
combination calculations. the rates are held constant until the well is stabilized.
Water flow rates may be measured with turbine or dis- The best indication of stabilization is a constant flowing
placement meters, or gaged in a storage tank. If meters bottomhole pressure, but unless a surface readout of this
are being used, a snap-acting water dump valve should pressure is available, the tester must rely on surface in-
be used to ensure that there is sufficient flow to activate dications of stabilized conditions. Some surface indica-
the meter. Since water, if present in gas, often presents tions of stabilization are constant wellhead pressure and
a problem in the operation of gas wells and gas gathering constant gas and liquid production rates, although these
Gas Reservoir Performance 93
E
0>
.~
~
..,0>
OJ ~
'"
'" OJ
DC)
Choke
Thermowell
S - Alternative sampling
points for gas and
condensate
Fig. 339. Schematic flow diagram of surface well testing facilities for wet gas (two separators).
E
0>
.~
~
..,0>
OJ ~
'" To atmosphere,
'" OJ
DC) S---r--C}-- flare or pipeline
Flow prover
Choke or orifice meter
S
Thermowell
Fig. 3-40. Schematic flow diagram of surface well testing facilities for wet gas (single separator).
b
94 Gas Production Operations
do not necessarily mean that the bottomhole pressure is problems such as water coning and unconsolidated for-
remaining constant. If there is considerable doubt as to mations must be taken in selecting the maximum rate.
the stabilization time, an isochronal test should be se-
lected. It should also be kept in mind that any change
PROBLEMS IN GAS-WELL TESTING
in pressure or rate during the test creates another pres-
sure disturbance and will require restabilization. There are several problems unique in testing gas wells
An isochronal test requires at least two transient tests that can result in erroneous results. These problems are
for determining turbulence characteristics and one sta- discussed from the standpoint of the types of errors that
bilized test for calculating the laminar flow behavior. Even can result in the test data obtained.
though the well need not flow past stabilization time dur-
ing the transient tests, the duration of these tests must Liquid Loading. The problem of liquid loading usu-
be sufficiently long to insure that the measured pressures ally occurs when testing low productivity gas wells with
are not affected by wellbore storage effects and that the high liquid-gas ratios. Wide variations of surface pres-
pressure disturbance has traveled past any formation sures may indicate liquid loading.
damage or stimulation zones. The duration of each tran-
sient test should be at least four times longer than the Hydrate Formation. The problem of hydrate forma-
larger of either the wellbore storage time or the time re- tion occurs normally in high pressure gas wells. How-
quired for the pressure disturbance to have moved 100 ever, if adequate production equipment is available, this
feet from the well. problem can be eliminated by maintaining the well-
Equation 3-33 can be used to calculate the time when stream temperature above the hydrate formation tem-
r = 100 ft, and the following equation can be used to perature. Conditions promoting hydrate formation are
estimate wellbore storage time. discussed in Chapter 9.
b
T
Piping System
4 Performance
C
HAPTER 3 demonstrated that the ability of a ing thermodynamic principles, is modified to a pressure
gas reservoir to produce for a given set of res- gradient equation form.
ervoir conditions depends directly on the The steady-state energy balance simply states that the
flowing bottom-hole pressure, Pwf. Figure 1- energy of a fluid entering a control volume, plus any
6 illustrates that Pwf depends on the separator pressure shaft work done on or by the fluid, plus any heat energy
and the configuration of the piping system; that is, added to or taken from the fluid must equal the energy
leaving the control volume. Figure 4-1 may be used to
Pwf = Prep + lipfl + lip,. + lip"" + lip", (4.1) illustrate the control volume principle.
where Considering a steady-state system, the energy balance
may be written as
Psep = separator pressure,
lipfl = pressure drop in the flowline, U' + V + mv/ + m g hi + '
1 PI 1 2 q
lip,. = pressure drop in the surface choke, gc gc
lip,., = pressure drop in the well tubing, and
lip", = pressure drop in other restrictions, such as +W'=U'+ V +mv,' +mgh, (4.2)
s 2 pz 2 2
subsurface safety valves (SSSVS), valves and s, s,
fittings, etc.
where
ItI order to determine the deliverability of the total well U' = internal energy,
system, it is necessary to be able to calculate all of the pV = energy of expansion or compression,
pressure drops listed in Equation 4-1. This chapter will mv'
develop equations to make these calculations and dem- - = kinetic energy,
onstrate their application. The effects of liquids in the 2g,
flow stream will be discussed, and the use of previously mgh
- - = potential energy,
prepared pressure traverse curves for quick estimates will g,
be demonstrated. Only steady-state, one-dimensional flow q' = heat energy added to fluid, and
will be considered in this chapter. W; = work done on the fluid by the surroundings.
Dividing Equation 4-2 by m to obtain an energy per
BASIC FLOW EQUATION unit mass balance and writing in differential form gives:
The theoretical basis for most fluid flow equations is
the general energy equation, an expression for the bal- dU=d(E) + vdv +!.dh+dq+dW,=O. (43)
dp g . p v d v (dP) ,
-=-psm8+--+ - (4-9)
apply because of the internal energy term, so it is usually dL s, s. d L dL I
converted to a mechanical energy balance using well-
known thermodynamic relations. From thermodynamics: where
dP ) = P dL w
dU = dh - d(~), (4-4) ( dL
l dL
is the pressure gradient due to viscous shear or friction
and
losses.
dp In horizontal pipe flow the energy losses or pressure
dh=TdS+-, drops are caused by change in kinetic energy and friction
P
losses only. Since most of the viscous shear occurs at
or the pipe wall, the ratio of wall shear stress (7wl to kinetic
energy per unit volume (p v' /2 gJ reflects the relative
dU = TdS +P
dp - d (p)
~ (4-5) importance of wall shear stress to the total losses. This
ratio forms a dimensionless group and defines a friction
where factor.
h = enthalpy,
(4-10)
S = entropy, and
T = temperature.
To evaluate the wall shear stress, a force balance be-
Substituting Equation 4-5 into Equation 4-3 and sim- tween pressure forces and wall shear stress can be formed,
plifying results in Referring to Figure 4-3,
dp v d v g
TdS + - + - - + - dh + d q + d W, = O. (4-6)
P g, g,
For an irreversible process, the Clausius inequality states
that
-r dq I
dS 2:. - - , or I
T I
I dh
TdS = -d q + d Lw ,
I
;..--- a
where d L; = losses due to irreversibilities, such as fric-
tion. Using this relationship and assuming no work is ~ J _ I
_ _ _ _ _1
done on or by the fluid, Equation 4-6 becomes /' dX
dp vdv g
- + - - + - dh + dLw = 0 (4-7)
P e, s, Fig. 4-2. Flow geometry.
Piping System Performance 99
to distinguish between laminar and turbulent fluid flow.
For engineering calculations, the dividing point between
of) !~)_(P'-~L)
<
<
Flow
Tw
Tw
laminar and turbulent flow can be assumed to occur at
a Reynolds number of 2100 for flow in a circular pipe.
Using units of lbm/fr', ft/sec, ft and centipoise, the
Reynolds number equation is
I"- - - - d L - - -.."I 1488 pvd
N., = ---'--
fL
Fig. 4-3. Force balance.
(:)1 2:,:V', =
i.e., the smooth-wall pipe, proceed to the partially rough
wall, and finally to the fully rough wall. Only the most
accurate empirical equations available for friction factors
which is the well-known Fanning equation. In terms of are presented here.
a Darcy-Weisbach or Moody friction factor, f = 41',
and Smooth-Wall Pipe. For smooth-wall pipes, several
equations have been developed, each valid over different
dP)1= fp v'
2g,i
(4-12) ranges of Reynolds numbers. The most commonly used
(dL equation-since it is explicit in f and also covers a wide
range of Reynolds numbers (3000 < N., < 3 X 106) _
Laminar SlnglePhase Flow was presented by Drew, Koo, and McAdams' in 1932.
The friction factor for laminar flow can be determined f = 0.0056 + 0.5N;:32 (4-13)
analytically by combining Equation 4-12 with the Hagen- An equation proposed by Blasius may be used for
Poiseuille equation for laminar flow Reynolds numbers up to 100,000 for smooth pipes.
32 fL dL 1
Rough-Wall Pipe. The inside wall of a pipe is not
or nonnallysmooth, and in turbulent flow, the roughness
can have a definite effect on the friction factor, and thus
dP)1= 32g, fLd'v. the pressure gradient. Wall roughness is a function of
(dL the pipe material, the method of manufacture, and the
Equating the expressions for frictional pressure gradient environment to which it has been exposed.
gives From a microscopic sense, wall roughness is not uni-
form. Individual protrusions, indentations, etc. vary in
height, width, length, shape, and distribution. The ab-
solute roughness of a pipe, e, is the mean protruding
height of relatively uniformly distributed and sized, tightly
or packed sand grains that would give the same pressure
gradient behavior as the actual pipe.
f= 64fL = 64. Dimensional analysis suggests that the effect of rough-
P v d N., ness is not due to its absolute dimensions, but rather to
The dimensionless group, N., = P v d/fL is the ratio its dimensions relative to the inside diameter of the pipe,
of fluid momentum forces to viscous shear forces and is e]d. In turbulent flow, the effect of wall roughness has
known as the Reynolds number. It is used as a parameter been found to be dependent on both the relative rough-
100 Gas Production Operations
ness and on the Reynolds number. If the laminar sub- the equation for friction factor.
layer that exists within the boundary layer is thick enough,
(~+ 1~)}'
the behavior is similar to a smooth pipe. The sublayer
thickness is directly related to the Reynolds number.
Nikuradse's' famous sand grain experiments formed I,= {1.74 _ ZLog
the basis for friction factor data from rough pipes. His NR, Ig
correlation for fully rough-wall pipe is still the best one Values of I g are estimated and then to is calculated
available. The friction factor may be calculated explic- until!. andj, agree to an an acceptable tolerance. Using
itly from the Drew, Koo, and McAdams equation as an initial guess
E
is recommended. After each unsuccessful iteration, the
0=1.74-ZLOg(Zd ) . (415) calculated value becomes the assumed value for the next
iteration. Also, if more than one pressure loss calcula-
The equation that is used as the basis for modern fric- tion is to be made as in the case of the iterative proce-
dures discussed in later sections, then the "converged"
tion factor charts was proposed by Colebrook and White'
in 1939. value of the previous calculation should be used for the
initial guess in the next calculation. Convergence using
I = 1.74 - Z Log (ZE 18.7 this method is rapid, normally taking only two or three
- - +- -) (4-16)
Vi d NR,Yj: iterations. The variation of single-phase friction factor
with Reynolds number and relative roughness is shown
The friction factor cannot be extracted readily from the graphically in Figure 4-4. The Colebrook equation may
Colebrook equation. By rearranging the equation as fol- be applied to flow problems in the smooth, transition,
lows, a trial-and-error procedure may be used to solve and fully rough zones of turbulent flow. For large values
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07 0.05
0.04
II
0.03
0.02
0.015
om .,'0
N
0.008
0.006
'"
~
~
e
" 0.03
.
Rei.'r ~
,
'"
0.004 e
'"
I'"
0.002
0.02 0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.015
1-Hf+t-+-++I-t+tH+t++--++++++-HSmooth pipes 0.0002
<,
0.0001
0.000,05
234568104 2 34568105234568106 2
10'
pVD
Reynolds number, N~ = -.-
Fig. 4-4. Friction factor for fully-deveioped flow in circular pipes. Courtesy The American Societyof Mechanical Engineers.
ASME Transactions, Vol. 66, November 1944.
Piping System Performance 101
of Reynolds number, it degenerates to the Nikuradse fg = 0.0056 + 0.5 W~.32= 0.0056 + 0.5
equation. 32
(253,824ro.
An explicit friction factor equation was proposed by
e
Jain" and compared in accuracy to the Colebrook equa- fg = 0.Q15
tion. Jain found that for a range of relative roughness
between 10-6 and 10-2 and a range of Reynolds number f, = [1.74 - 2 Log + 18~)]-'
between 5 x 10' and 10' the errors were within I. 0% NR8 fg
when compared with the Colebrook equation. The equa-
tion gives a maximum error of 3% for Reynolds numbers f, = [1.74 - 2 Log (2(.00045)
as low as 2000. The equation is
18.7 )]-'
I
, t: = 1.14 - 2 Log -
( + -0:9'
21.25)
(4-17)
+ 253,824 v:Di5
vr . d N R,
f, = 0.0183
Equation 4-17 is recommended for all calculations re- This value is not close enough to fg ; therefore an-
quiring a friction factor determination for turbulent flow. other trial Is required using fg = 0.0183.
It is much easier to use than Equation 4-16 and, since
the value of will usually not be known to any high
f, = [1.74 - 2 Log (2(.00045)
degree of accuracy, will give satisfactory results.
The determination of the value to use for pipe wall 18.7 )]-'
roughness in the friction factor equations is sometimes + 253,824 V.0183
difficult. It is important to emphasize that e is not a prop-
erty that is physically measured. Rather, it is the sand
grain roughness that would result in the same friction
....
factor. The only way this can be evaluated is by com-
parison of the behavior of a normal pipe with one that
".
...."'''''...-t-Hd-t+P--+-+++-Hl...f---H
."
is sand-roughened. Moody has done this, and his results,
given in Figure 4-5, are still the accepted values. These
values should not be considered inviolate and could change
significantly by such things as paraffin deposition, ero-
sion, or corrosion. Thus, if measured pressure gradients
are available, a friction factor and Reynolds number can
be calculated, and an effective /d obtained from the
Moody diagram. This value of efd should then be used
for future predictions until updated again. If no infor-
mation on roughness is available, a value of = 0.0006
ft is recommended for tubing and line pipe that has been
in service for some time.
Example 4-1:
A liquid of specific gravity 0.82 and viscosity of 3 cp
(.003 kg/m-sec) flows in a 4 in. (101.6 mm) diameter
pipe at a velocity of 30 It/sec (9.14 m/sec). The pipe
material is new commercial steel. Caiculate the friction
factor using both the Colebrook equation and the Jain
equation.
"
,,~
" .:<t
, , 4561U) 20 3040!i06080100
PIpe dlllMtef. D (inches)
200 ..
Solution:
From Figure 4-5, for commerical steel, /d = 0.00045
Fig. 4-5. Relalive roughness values for pipes of common
Colebrook Solution: Use the Drew, Koo and McAdams
engineering materials. Courtesy The American Society of
equation for a first guess. Mechanical Engineers. ASME Transactions, Vol. 66, No-
NR8 = P v d/IJ- = (820)(9.14)(.1016)/.003 = 253,824 vember 1944.
hz
102 Gas Production Operations
t, = 0.0182 losses are linearly proportional to the fluid velocity. In
A third trial using tg = 0.0182 gives t, = 0.0182. turbulent flow the friction losses are proportional to v",
Jain Soiution: where 1.7 S n S 2.
The kinetic energy change or acceleration component
t= [114 - 2 Log (.: + 21.25)]-2 is zero for constant area, incompressible flow. For any
. d NR. O.s flow condition in which a velocity change occurs, such
as compressible flow, a pressure drop will occur in the
t= [1.14 - 2 Log (0.00045 + 21.25 0.)]-2 direction of the velocity increase.
(253,824) .
Although single-phase flow has been studied exten-
t= 0.0183 sively, it still requires an empirically determined friction
Combining Equations 4-9 and 4-12, the pressure gra- factor for turbulent flow calculations. The dependence
dient equation, which is applicable to any fluid at any of this friction factor on pipe roughness, which must
pipe inclination angle, becomes usually be estimated, makes the calculated pressure gra-
dients subject to considerable error.
dp g. fpv' pvdv Equation 4-18 is a differential equation and must be
- =- p sm e + -- + --, (4-18)
dL s, 2g,d s; dL integrated in order to apply it to calculate pressure drop
as a function of flow rate or velocity and pipe diameter.
where the friction factor, f, is a function of Reynolds
It must be combined with a continuity equation and an
number and pipe roughness. This relationship is shown
equation of state to express velocity and density in terms
in the Moody diagram (Fig. 4-4). The total pressure gra-
of pressure. The following sections describe various as-
dient can be considered to be composed of three distinct
sumptions made in integrating the equation for appli-
components; that is, cation.
(:t = _:,_v~_v
4. From laboratory data or empirical correlations, de-
termine the necessary fluid and PVT properties at
conditions of average pressure and temperature (p"
is the component due to kinetic energy change or con- v" 1-',).
vective acceleration. Equation 4-18 applies for any fluid 5. Calculate the pressure gradient, dpjdL, in the incre-
in steady-state, one-dimensional flow for whichf, p, and ment at average conditions of pressure, temperature,
v can be defmed. and pipe inclination, using Equation 4-18.
The elevation change or hydrostatic component is zero
6. Calculate the pressure increment corresponding to the
for horizontal flow only. It applies for compressible or
selected length increment, lip = ilL (dpjdL).
incompressible, steady-state or transient flow in both
vertical and inclined pipes. For downward flow the sine 7. Compare the estimated and calculated values of I1p
of the angle is negative, and the hydrostatic pressure in- obtained in steps 2 and 6. If they are not sufficiently
creases in the direction of flow. close, estimate a new pressure increment and return
The friction loss component applies for any type of to step 3. Repeat steps 3 through 7 until the estimated
flow at any pipe angle. It always causes a drop of pres- and calculated values are sufficiently close.
sure in the direction of flow. In laminar flow the friction 8. Set L = L, + II1L and P = PI + Illp.
r
Piping System Performance 103
Read data
Initialize
L 1 P1
j == 1
Estimate
ap'
I
ITER ~ 0
Set aL
l' ~ P, ap/2
T= I(L)
e ~ I(L)
Calc. PVT
properties
~ f(T,ji)
ap'~ ap
? NO ? NO ITER
lap'-ap! <e
~
=ITER+1
YES YES
Print error (
L=L,+aL STOP
Message
P=PI.6.P \.
i = i+1
NO ~YES L < TL
Print
results
STOP
Fig. 4-6. Flow chart for caicuiaffng a pressure traverse (incrementing on pressure).
b
-
104 Gas Production Operations
9. If "iI1L is less than the total conduit length, return to 'Y, = gas gravity (air = I),
step 2. H = well depth, ft,
Using this procedure the length increments can be se-
t = average temperature in the tubing, 'R, and
lected so that their sum is exactly equal to the total con-
z = gas compressibility factor evaluated at t, p =
duit length and interpolation is not required in the last
(Pw, + p,,)/2.
step. z
Evaluation of makes the calculation iterative, and the
procedure outlined previously can be used.
FLOW IN WELLS
Example 4-2:
Several methods are available for calculating static and Using the follOWing data, calculate P., with Equation 4-
flowing pressure drop in gas wells. The most widely used 23.
method is that of Cullender and Smith'. All of the meth- H = 10,000 It, 'Yg = 0.6, Pis = 4000 psia,
ods begin with Equation 4-18, with modifications for flow T, = 70'F = 530'R, T, = 220'F = 680'R
geometry. In most cases the acceleration gradient is ig-
nored. Since it is frequently necessary to calculate the
static bottom-hole pressure in a gas well, this procedure Solution:
will be presented first. A good first guess for P., can be obtained from
p;,. = p~ (1 + 2.5 x 10-5 H)
Static Bottom-Hole Pressure p;" = 4000(1 + 2.5 x 10-5 (10000) = 5000 psla
_ T,+T, 530+680
For a vertical (8 = 90', sin 8 = I), shut-in (v = 0) T= - - = = 605'R
2 2
gas well, Equation 4-18 becomes _ P~ + p;" 4000 + 5000 .
P= 2 2 = 4500psla
dp g P,
-=- (4-20)
PPC = 709.6 - 58.7(.6) = 674.3 psia (Eq. 2-15)
dh s,
Tpc = 170.5 + 307.3(.6} = 354.9'R (Eq. 2-14)
where P
PP' = - = 4500/674.3 = 6.67
pM PPC
p, = ZRT' f
Tp, = - = 605/354.9 = 1.70
Tpc
. Combining this with Equation (4-20),
From Figure 2-6, Z = 0.950
dp gMdh
-= (4-21) P., = 4000 EXP [(0.01875}(.6}(10000)/(605}(2)]
P g,ZRT P., = 4000 EXP [0.18595/ZJ
= 4000 EXP [0.18595/0.950]
Average Pressure and Temperature Method. If Z is
P., = 4865 psia
evaluated at average pressure and temperature in the in-
crement, This is not close enough to the estimated value of 5000
PW
' dp gM fH dh
psia. Set the calculated value of P., as the next esti-
mated value and continue until convergence is reached.
fP'I P = gcR t t o ' 4000 + 4865
p;" = 4865 psia p = 2 4433 psia
from which
PP' = 4433/674.3 = 6.57 Z = 0.947
Pw, = p" EXP ( g M
g,RZT
If_) , (4-22) P., = 4000 EXP [0.18595/0.947] = 4868 psla
This equation holds for any consistent set of units. For This value is probably close enough to the previously
conventional field units, estimated value of 4865. However, one more iteration
using 4868 as the estimated value yields a calculated
p" = p" EXP [(0.01875 'Y,H)/(ti)] (423) value of 4868 also, which is therefore the correct bot-
where tomhole pressure.
The calculation could also be made by estimating an
p" = static or shut-in BHP, psia, initial value for Z and comparing calculated and esti-
p" = static tubing pressure, psia, mated values until convergence on Z is obtained.
Piping System Performance 105
i ' '' 12 dp
,,,P
=M i
s ),
H
dh = MH = 0.01875 "I, H.
R
Pm> = 4000 + 465 = 4465 psia
This is not close enough to the estimated value of 4500
psia, therefore set A:" = 4465 and repeat.
The integral is written in short notation as At T = 145, P = 4465, Z = 0.95
605(.95)
iP" I dp = 0.01875 "I, H 1m> = =0.1287
f ' '' -12 dp =
p,. P plJ
h
106 Gas Production Operations
Average Pressure and Temperature Method. Sub- lowing directional weil:
stituting the expression for gas density in terms of p, T,
and Z into Equation 4-25 results in
"yg= 0.75, MO = 10,000 ft, TVO = 7,000 ft
T, = 110'F, T, = 245'F, Pff = 2000 psia,
dp =pM
- - ( cosjil+-- .IV') (426)
q" = 4.915 MMscfd, d = 2.441 ln., e = 0.0006 in.,
iL = 0.012 cp at P = 2000 psia, T = r
a. ZRT 2g,d
Integration of Equation 4-26 assuming an average Solution:
temperature in the flow string and evaluating Z at av- In terms of mass flow rate, the Reynolds number is
erage conditions of pressure and temperature gives N _ C 'Yg q",
(4-28)
d
Pw/ = p/ EXP (S) where
Re - ""
using the procedure described earlier will give more ac- (2) Pwl = (2000)2 EXP (0.3086/Z*) +
curate results. Actually, any of the methods will give 25(.75)(4.915)2(638) Z* (.015) (TERM CONTINUEO)
identical results if the well is divided into short enough
increments. 0,:;'86 (2.441)'
Convergence is sometimes obtained faster if iteration
is performed on the Z-factor rather than the unknown (10,000)[EXP (0.3086/2") - 1]
pressure. The procedure for this method is:
Pwl = 4 x 10' EXP (0.3086/Z*)
I. Estimate z* (A good first estimate is 0.9). Viscosity + 1.821 x 10' (Z*)2 (EXP(.3086/Z*) - 1)
may be either estimated or evaluated at the known
pressure. For Z* = 0.9, Pwl = 5.636 x 10' + 536,966
2. Calculate the unknown pressure using Equation 4-27 Pwl = 6.173 x 10', Pwr = 2485 psia
with Z = Z*.
2000 + 2485
3. Calculate the average pressure, fi = (Pif + pwf)/2. (3) P = (Pff + pwr)/2 = 2 2242 psia
4. Evaluate Z and IJ. at fi and t.
5. Compare Z and Z*. If not close enough, set Z* = Z (4) At P = 2242 psia and T = 178'F, Z = 0.806,
IJ. = 0.012
and go to Step 2. Repeat until abs(Z - 2*)/Z < 0.001
or any other tolerance preferred. When the tolerance 0.9 - 0.806
is met, the pressure calculated in Step 2 is the correct 0.806 = 0.117,
value.
which is too large.
Example 4-3a: (2)' For Z* = 0.806, Pwr2 = 5.866 x 10' + 491,187
Use the average pressure and temperature method to
calculate the flowing bottom-hole pressure for the fol- Pwr 2
= 6.357 x 10', Pwr = 2521 psia
T
Piping System Performance 107
2000 + 2521 Writing Equation 4-30 in short notation and dividing
(3)' P= 2261 psia
the well into two increments of length H/2 gives:
2
Upper half of well:
(4)' At P = 2261 psia and T = 178'F, Z = 0.805
18.75 'Yg(MD) = (P"!f - Pif)(Imf + lif)'
5)' abs(Z - Z") abs (.805 - .806)
( Z .805 0.001, which Lower half of well:
is close enough.
Therefore, Pwr = 2521 psla, where
s: dp
ZTdL
= M
R [ ZT
(.!'.--)
z
cos ~+ c] '
The following data pertain to a flowing gas well. Use
the Cullender and Smith method to calculate the flow-
ing bottom-hole pressure.
where ~g = 0.75, H = 10,000 ft, T, = 110'F,
C = 8p,/q,/j T, = 245'F, P. = 2000 psla, q,c = 4.915 MMscfd,
d = 2.441 in., E = 0.0006 ln., Ii' = 0'
Ts/ s- 'i1'2 d S ;;. = 0.012 cp (assume constant)
which is constant for a given flow rate in a particular
pipe size. Separating the variables gives: Solution:
Calculate I and 1=':
p
PwI ZT dp M IMD N
R.
= 20011(0.75)(4.915) = 2.518 x 10.
0.012(2.441)
IP< (p)'
-
III
cos,,+C
= R o a;
(429)
E
- = -- =
0.0006
0.0002
ZT d 2.441
which is applicable for any consistent set of units. Sub- From Equation 417: f = 0.015
stituting field units and integrating the right-hand side of
Equation 4-29 gives: ,..., 0.667 (0.015)(4.915)2
r: = = 0.00279
(2.441 )5
p
PwI -dp Calculate '.:
I
P< 0.001
ZT,
(.!'.--)
ZT
TVD + F'
MD
l8.75'YgMD, (4-30)
At P = 2000 psla,
.E... = 2000
T
4.942
= 110'F, Z = 0.71
TZ (570)(.71)
where
0.667 jq,/ I = 4.942 = 181.60
F' (0.001 )(4.942)2 + 0.00279
d' (4-31)
,
..,
108 Gas Production Operations
Calculate ' m,: Calculate ' wI : (Second Trial)
At P = 2250, T= 110 + 67.5 = 178, Z= 0.797 At P = 2741, T = 245, Z = 0.868
E: = 2250
4.425 P 2741
TZ (638)(.797) - = = 4.479
TZ 705(0.868)
4.425
I = = 197.81 4.479
mf (0.001)(4.425)' + 0.00279 '
wl
= (0.001)(4.479)' + 0.00279 = 196.00
Calculate Pm.
Calculate PwI:
= P + 18.75 ~g H = 2000 + _18_'._75...:.(._75...:.)('-.1_00--,0-,-0)
P 9 140625
' m, + I. 197.81 + 181.60
mf
PwI = 237 + 196.00 + 189.41 = 2744 psla
Pm' = 2000 + 371 = 2371 (notclose enough to p;",)
Calculate 'mf : (Second Trial) This is close enough to the previously calculated value
of 2741 psia. Therefore, the flowing bottom-hole pres-
At P = 2371, T = 178, Z = 0.796 sure is 2744 psia.
P 2371
- = = 4.669
TZ 638(.796) Annular Flow. Many gas wells are dually completed,
and one zone may produce through the tubing-casing an-
4.669 nulus. This presents no problem in calculating static
I = = 189.88
mt 0.001 (4.669)' + 0.00279 pressures, and either of the previously described meth-
Calculate Pmf: ods can be used. For flowing wells either the Average
Pressure and Temperature or the Cullender and Smith
140625 method may be used if the Hydraulic Radius concept is
employed. The only modifications necessary are in cal-
culating the effective diameter and area and the Rey-
nolds number. It can be shown that the correct effective
diameter is
(433)
where
dh = effective diameter,
d; = casing inside diameter,
d, = tubing outside diameter.
140625 .
Pmf = 2000 + = 2379 psra This diameter is used in calculating both relative
189.41 + 181.60
roughness and Reynold's number. The effective area
Therefore, the pressure at the mid-point of the well is through which the gas is flowing is A = ",(d~ - d;)/4.
2379 psia, The value of PwI is now calculated. Therefore, when using either Equation 4-27 or the Cul-
Estimate p';.,: lender and Smith method, the d' term is replaced by
P';., = 2379 (1 + 2:5 x 10- 5(5000)) = 2676 (d~ - d;)' (d; - d,).
Calculate ' wI : There are no published data on values of roughness
for an annulus. It would seem that a somewhat rougher
At P = 2676, T = 245, Z = 0.867 surface than that for a round pipe would be applicable
P 2676 since the flow must pass the tubing collars. If one mea-
TZ = 705(0.867) = 4.378 surement of pressure drop and flow rate can be made,
roughness can be back-calculated, and this value can be
4.378 used for other flow rates.
I = = 199.39
wi (0.001 )(4.378)' + 0.00279 The Cullender and Smith and Equation 4-27 methods
Calculate PwI: (First Trial) can also be used to estimate pressure drop occurring dur-
ing gas injection by using a negative value for F' in
140625 Equation 4-30 or making the friction loss term negative
PwI = Pm' + = 2379 + 362 = 2741
199.39 + 189.41 in Equation 4-27.
Piping System Performance 109
FLOW IN PIPELINES TABLE 41
Valua of C lor Various Units
For most practical cases of gas flow in pipelines, the
line can be considered horizontal and the hydrostatic or P T d L q C
elevation component, as well as the acceleration com- psla 'R in. ml scld 77.54
ponent, can be dropped from the general equation, Equa- psia 'R in. ft seld 5634
tion 4-18. This is not true if the line is transporting liq- psla 'R in. ft MMsefd 5.634 x 10-'
uids, as will be discussed later. The general equation is kPa 'K m m m'ld 1.149 x 10'
dp jp v' pMjv'
p= p', + P, + 600
-=--= (4-34) 864
dX 2g,d ZRT 2g,d = 732 psia
2 2
Many solutions to Equation 4-34 have been proposed At p = 732 psla, T = 45'F, Z = 0.844,
over the years. The difference in most of the solutions
results from the method used to handle the friction fac- = 0.012 ep (assume constant)
IJ.
tor,f, and the gas compressibility factor, Z. In most cases Determine f:
temperature is assumed constant and Z is evaluated at N = 20011 'Yg q = 20011 (0.67)(320) = 14.1 x 106
average pressure in the line. This requires an iterative Re IJ. d 0.012 (25.375)
solution if one of the pressures is unknown. Integration
of Equation 4-34 over some distance, L, between up- From Equation 4-17 (Jain Eq.), f = 0.0097
stream pressure P I and downstream pressure p, results in Calculate p,:
, ,25'1g
,- -
q TZjL , ,25'Ygq TZfL
, --
P, - Pi = d' ' (4-35) p,=p,+ d'
where
p = psia, , = (600)' + 25(0.67)(320)'(505)(Z)(Q.0097)(528,000)
P
L = ft, , (25.375)'
T= 'R p,' = 360,000 + 421,680 Z = 360,000 + 355,898
q = MMscfd (14.7 psia, 60'F)
d = inches, and p,' = 715,898 p, = 846 psla
j = j (N." E/d) (Moody diagram or Jain eq.). This is not close enough to the estimated value of
864. Set p', = 846 and re-calculate P,:
Equation 4-35 was derived using base or standard con-
Second Triai:
ditions as 14.7 psia and 60'F. It can be put in a more
general form by leaving the base conditions in the equa- 600 + 846
P= = 723 psia
tion as variables. It is frequently advantageous to express 2
Equation 4-35 in terms of flow rate; that is
Z = 0.846
= C Tb P,' - p,,]0" d,.5 P,' + 421,680 (.846)
q
p; ['1.JT- -
ZL
. (4-36) = 360,000
p, = 847 psia
= 716,567
The value of C depends on the units used in the equa- Since' two successive values of p, are approximately
tion. Table 4-1 gives the value of C for various com- equai, the iterative solution has converged. The re-
binations of units. quired upstream pressure is 847 psia.
Example 45:
Example 46:
A pipeline is to deliver 320 MMscfd of gas to a down-
stream pressure of 600 psia. Using the following data, Caiculate the flow capacity of the following pipeline.
calculate the required upstream pressure. p, = 4140 kPa, p, = 2760 kPa, L = 30,000 m,
d = 0.152 m, = 4.572 X 10" m, 'Yg = 0.75
t = 45'F = 505'R, 't = 0.67, d = 25.375 in., Th = 288'K, Ph = 101.4 kPa, t = 294'K,
L = 100 miles = 528,000 ft, E = 0.0006 in. I" = 1.2 x 10" kg/m-sec, Z = 0.889
Solution:
Use Equation 4-35. p, must be estimated to determine Solution:
p and Z. Estimate Ap/AL = 0.0005 psi/ft. Then p', = The soiution will be trial-and-error or iterative since fric-
p, + 0.0005 (528,000) = 600 + 264 = 864 psia. tion factor is required in Equation 4-36. This requires
..
no Gas Production Operations
a value of Reynolds number, which requires flow rate, The expressions incorporated into Equation 4-35 for f
the unknown. Rather than estimate flow rate, it Is eas- in several of the most popular pipeline equations are listed
Ier to estimate friction factor. The procedure is as fol- below.
lows:
Equation f
1. Estimate I'
2. Caiculate q using Equation 4-36 Panhandle A 0.085
3. Calculate NR = I(q) N 0.147
R,
4. Calculate 1using the Moody diagram or Equation
4-17 Panhandle B 0.015
5. Compare 1 and I'. If not close, set t: = 1 and NR,0.183
go to Step 2. Continue until 1 = I'.
lOT' 0.187
1. Estimate I' = 0.01, a reasonable value for pipe-
lines. N"
R,
(4140)' - (2760)' ]0,5 25 Using these relationships for friction factor in Equa-
[ 0.75(1)(294)(0.889)(30,000) (0.152) . tion 4-36, the general form of the pipeline flow equation
without f becomes
q= 31,783/(05 = 31,783/(0.01)5
= 317,830 m'/d q -_ a, E (T)"'[P,'-_ _ P,']"' (1)"'
~
Pb TZL
- d"
'Vg
(4-37)
1..7~.9:..::6-,,'Vg!!..:!q 17.98(0.75) q
3. NR =- where E is the efficiency factor, and the values of the a,
",d (1.2 x 10 5)(0.152)
constants used in the various equations are tabulated be-
= 7.385 x 10 q low.
NR = 7.385 x 10 (0.31783) = 2.347 x 10 The efficiency factor depends on the condition of the
5 pipe and usually varies between about 0.7 and 0.92 for
4. .: = 4.572 x 10- = 0.0003 dry gas. It must be estimated just as pipe roughness was
r'
d 0.152 estimated in the previous equations.
The flow capacities using the various equations vary it can be shown that
considerably and can be compared to the results of Ex-
ample 4-5, which showed that the line would deliver 320
fL, =
S
L: j,L,
N
(4-39)
MMscfd at the specified pressures. If it is assumed that d i=1 d/'
this is the correct value for q, efficiency factors of I. 061, where N = number of pipe segments. If the specialized
0.890, and 0.879 would have to be applied to the Wey- equations are used, the friction factor is not required and
mouth, Panhandle B, and Panhandle A equations re- the equation becomes
spectively to make the. calculated results agree.
(L.)"" N (L,)""
The choice of which equation to use can be difficult. -- = " --
It is generally assumed that the Panhandle A equation is (d}"" i:t (d,)"'" (4-40)
more applicable at Reynolds numbers in the transition where a, and a, are obtained from the previous table.
region, and the B equation is more accurate in the fully For example, if the Weymouth equation is used, since
turbulent region. If pipe roughness data are available, a, = 0.5 and a, = 2.667, Equation 4-40 becomes
the value of friction factor can be determined and Equa-
N L-
tion 4-36 should be used.
Le = d''33 "L.., - '-
dS.333'
(4-41)
All of the pipeline equations considered to this point 1=1 i
have been applicable to horizontal or near-horizontal pipes
only. That is, all of the calculated pressure drop is due
Pipelines In Parallel
to friction. If the gas changes elevation, an elevation
component will apply even though it is very small for For pipes in parallel the total flow rate is the sum of
most pipelines. However, the elevation or hydrostatic the rates in the individual pipes, or N
q_ -
CT. 2 , ]0" d a.s ,
- (PI __- P, e')S If the lengths of the individual pipes are the same, the
[
P. 'YgfTZ (e' - I)L
(4-38)
total flow capacity is calculated from
where qT = C L:1=1/;d'"~.5
N
(4-43)
e = natural log base = 2.718,
When applied to the specialized equations, Equation
0.0375 'YgH
S = zt ,and 4-43 becomes N
L
--
112 Gas Production Operations
The diameter do of a single line having the same flow necessary to apply a two-phase pressure drop method to
capacity as N parallel lines of diameters d, is design the piping system. Methods for use in both wells
N ]1/0' and pipelines will be discussed in this section.
do = ["do,
L.J' (4.45)
1=1
Well Performance
In many cases only part of an existing pipeline will
be paralleled or "looped" in order to increase its flow The two-phase flow problem in flowing wells can be
capacity. Equations 4-41, 4-44, and 4-45 can be com- handled by either fluid gravity adjustment or by applying
bined to give a two-phase flow correlation. There are many such cor-
relations available, but only the Hagedorn and Brown'
method will be discussed in detail for vertical flow. The
q"w = [ (q;ld ) ]0," (446)
Beggs and Brill' method, which will be used for pipeline
I+Y ,-I flow, can also be used for well performance, but it has
(I + W) been found to sometimes overpredict pressure drop in
where vertical flow. Other well-known vertical, two-phase flow
correlations are those of Poettmann and Carpenter,
q"w = new flow capacity after looping,
Orkiszewski 10, Duns and Ros II and Gray. 13
qold = flow capacity before looping,
Y = fraction of the original line that was paralleled Gravity Adjustment. The gravity adjustment proce-
starting at the outlet,
dure consists of adjusting the gas gravity to a mixture
W = (~:)" ~) 0." gravity to account for the added density due to the liquid
and then using one of the equations presented earlier to
calculate pressure drop in a well. Either Equation 4-27
d, = diameter of original line, or the Cullender and Smith method can be used. The
d, = diameter of parallel line, mixture gravity is given by
II = friction factor for original line, and 'Yg + 4591 'YdR
f, = friction factor for parallel line. (4.48)
"1m = I + 1123/R '
Using the specialized equations, the expression for W
where
becomes
W-_(d'
- ) 0, .
"1m = adjusted fluid gravity (air = 1),
(4.47) "Ig = dry gas gravity,
d, 'YL = liquid specific gravity, and
Equation 4-46 can easily be solved for either W or Y R = producing gas-liquid ratio, scf/STB.
to determine either the necessary line size for the parallel The gravity adjustment method may be used with con-
line or the length of line to be looped. fidence for wells producing at high gas-liquid ratios. If
a well is producing at a gas-liquid ratio of less than ap-
EFFECTS OF LIQUIDS proximately 10000 scf/STB, the two-phase correlations
should be used. A gas-liquid ratio of 10000 scf/STB
The equations presented in the previous sections were expressed in terms of liquid loading is 100 STB/MMscf.
derived for calculating the relationship between flow rate This simple method of adjusting the gas density for
and pressure drop for dry gases. There are many cases the presence of liquids assumes that the fluids are flow-
in gas production operations in which some liquid will ing as a homogeneous mixture. It should not be used for
be traveling in the pipe along with the gas. These include any gas-liquid ratio unless the well is flowing at a high
gas wells producing some condensate or water and pipe- enough rate to keep it from loading with liquids. The
lines in which condensationmay occur or water may form. loading phenomenon is discussed in the next section.
The presence of these liquids greatly increases the pres-
. sure drop for a given gas rate and reduces the efficiency Hagedorn and Brown Method. The Hagedorn and
of gathering systems. Brown method, ignoring acceleration, requires solution
If the liquid loading is low, the increased pressure drop of Equation 4-25 for each increment that the well is di-
in the tubing can be handled by adjusting the gas gravity vided into.
used in the vertical gas flow equations. This will not
suffice for pipeline flow because the liquids will accu- dp g fp/v m'
- = - p cosll+-- (4-49)
mulate in the low sections in the line. It then becomes dh s, m 2g,d
r
0.05
-
- 2.0
0.01
z"
I-
1=
r:: /' ...
1.8
1.6
/'
~ -r -
~
0 f- 1.4
-, l-
f-
f- _ 1.2
J
~.
..;.'
0.00 I I , " I I,,, I , I" I 1.00 0.02 0,04 0,06 0.08 0,10
1.001 0.01 0.10 1.
NL (NovNt..380)/N o 2.14
Fig. 4-7. Correlation for viscosity number coefficient C. Fig. 4-9. CorrelatIon for secondary correction factor. Per-
Permission to publish by the Society of Petroleum Engi- missIon to publish by the Society of Petroleum Engineers
neers of AIME. Copyright 1965 SPEAIME. of A/ME. Copyright 1965 SPE-A/ME.
---
114 Gas Production Operations
The procedure for finding H L is:
J. Calculate NL d1 -
-ljI- N/ 14 Fig. 4-9a. Effect of tubing size and flow rate on liquid
loading.
6. Find w from Figure 4-9
7. Calculate HL = '" (Hd"') termined at the average pressure and temperature in
A constraint on liquid holdup is that H L ~ A. the pipe increment:
Once HL is determined, NR, and thus f can be calcu- p = 1500 psia v,. = 30 It/sec
lated. The pressure gradient can then be calculated. This T= 180'F V,L = 5 It/sec
is Step 5 in the procedure for calculating a pressure tra- d= 2.992 in. = 0.0006 It
1Jo. = 0.012 cp PL = 50 lbm/cu It
verse, which was presented earlier. All of the fluid prop-
IJoL = 0.45 cp P. = 8 lbrn/eu It
erties and velocities used in the above equations are eval- a = 25 dynes/em
uated at the average pressure and temperature in the tubing
increment. Using the Hagedorn and Brown method, determine the
When gas and liquid flow simultaneously in a pipe, pressure gradient.
the velocity of the mixture must be great enough so that
the drag forces acting upward on the liquid are great Solution: ,
enough to offset the gravity forces acting downward. Before finding HL and t, some preliminary calculations
Otherwise, the liquid will fall back and accumulate in are made:
the pipe. This increase in liquid holdup will increase the Vm = V,L + v", = 5 + 30 = 35 It/sec
density of the mixture and therefore, the hydrostatic or
elevation pressure gradient. The resulting increase in A = 5/35 = 0.143
bottornhole pressure will result in a decrease in rate COm- Pn = 50(0.143) + 8(1 - 0.143) = 14Ib/tt"
ing from the reservoir and therefore, a further decrease
in velocity of the fluid in the pipe. If steps are not taken Ap = -rrd'/4 = 0.7854(0.249)' = 0.0487 It'
to increase the velocity, the well may die. The velocity pela = 50/25 = 2
of the fluid in the pipe depends on both the pipe size
and the volumetric flow rate. The velocity may become NL, = 1.938(5)(2)25 = 11.52
too low if either the tubing is too large or the flow rate
N., = 1.938(30)(2)25 = 69.14
is too small. The liquid loading phenomenon is illus-
trated qualitatively in Figure 4-9a. Most of the two-phase Nd = 120.872(0.249)(2)5 = 42.56
flow correlations mentioned earlier can be used to con-
NL = 0.15726(0.45)[1/(50)(25)3)'25 = 0.0024
struct plots as illustrated in Figure 4-9a and thus deter-
mine the minimum gas rate to avoid loading for a par- Determine HL:
ticular tubing size. A simple equation for predicting this 1. NL = 0.0024
minimum rate will be presented in a subsequent section.
2. From Figure 4-7, eNL = 0.002
- 11.52(0.002)(1500)"" -5
Example 4-8: 3. X = =753x10
_H 42.56(69.14)0.575 (14.7)0' .
During the calculation of a pressure traverse in a gas
well producing liquid, the following conditions were de- 4. From Figure 4-8, HLN = 0.29
Piping System Performance 115
100 ---
90
80
70
60
... 50
""
c
c 40
.!!
~ 30
..,c
.!!
II 25
.c
c
II
Do 20
15
1.0 10
Ga. veloclty/(lIquld 10 ga. rallo)o."
N
R m
= 1488(14)(35)(0.249) = 5.29 x 10. Flanigan Method. Flanigan proposed using the Pan-
0.034 handle A equation to calculate the pressure drop due to
E 0.0072 friction, based on the gas flow rate. A correlation for
- =- - = 0.0024 efficiency factor as a function of superficial gas velocity
d 2.992
and liquid loading is presented in Figure 4-10. The gas
From Figure 44 or Equation 417, velocity and liquid to gas ratio are in ft/sec and bbls/
f = 0.025 MMscf, respectively.
The additional pressure drop due to hills is calculated
dp = 20.18 + 0.025(9.71 )(35)' = 20.18 + 18.54 from
dh 2(32.2)(0.249)
(4-51)
dp
-, dh = 38.72 Ib/lt' = 0.269 psI/it
where
A FORTRAN computer subroutine for the Hagedorn and Ap" = pressure drop due to hills, psi,
Brown method is included in the appendix. PL = liquid phase density, lb/ft',
HF = holdup factor, and
Pipeline Performance ~h = sum of the vertical heights of the hills.
Two methods will be presented for handling pipelines The holdup factor is a function of gas superficial velocity
in which both liquid and gas are flowing. The Flanigan" and is calculated from
,
116 Gas Production Operations
Itt
- -
@
-_. __
e doW*
_.
...... ~, ~
Figure 4-11.
Determination of the correct flow pattern requires cal-
Wavy culating several dimensionless numbers, including a two-
phase Froude number.
The following variables are used to determine which
flow pattern would exist if the pipe were in a horizontal
position. This flow pattern is a correlating parameter and
gives no information about the actual flow pattern unless
Annular the pipe is horizontal.
Intermittent V '
NFR=~
gd
L 4 = 0.5 AL -6.738
Sll.Ig
--_.. _ ..--
---------- or AL 2: 0.01 and N FR < L,
.. Transition:
Bubble
Limits: AL 2: 0.01 and L, < N FR :5 L,
Intermittent:
Limits: 0.01:5 AL < 0.4 and L, < N FR :5 L I
or AL 2: 0.4 and L, < NFR :5 L 4
Distributed:
Limits: AL < 0.4 and NFR 2: L I
or AL 2: 0.4 and N FR > L 4
Fig. 4-11. Horizontal flow patterns. When the flow falls in the transition region, the liquid
holdup must be calculated using both the segregated and
I intermittent equations and interpolated using the follow-
H - ---=---:-= (452) ing weighting factors.
F - I + 0.3264 V,g 1.006'
H L (transition) = A x H L (segregated)
The superficial gas velocity used in Figure 4-10 and
Equation 452 must be calculated at the average pressure +B x H L (intermittent),
r
Piping System Performance 117
a b G where H, = 1 - H L
Flow Pattern
The pressure gradient due to elevation change is then
Segregated 0.98 0.4846 0.0868
Intermittent 0.845 0.5351 0.0173 P)
Distributed 1.065 0.5824 0.0609 (d =1. P, sin l'l. (4-55)
dZ el gc
The pressure gradient due to friction is
where
dP ) =f~ P, vm' ,
L_'c--~N.:-F-". ( dZ f
(4-56)
A= and 2 s, d
L, - L,'
where:
B = 1 -A.
The same equations are used to calculate liquid holdup
for all flow patterns. The coefficients and exponents used f~
in the equations are different for each flow pattern. t; = I; f.
The liquid holdup depends on flow pattern and is cal-
The no-slip friction factorf, is determined from the Moody
culated from
diagram or from Equation 4-17 using the following Rey-
(4-53)
nolds number:
where HL(o) is the holdup that would exist at the same
flow and pressure conditions in a horizontal pipe. It is
calculated from:
where
(4-54)
fL, = fLL AL + fL, A,.
where a, b, and c are determined for each flow pattern The ratio of the two-phase to no-slip friction factor is
from Table 4-2. calculated from:
The value calculated for HL(o) is constrained by
.&. = e' (4-57)
HL(o) '" AL' f, '
The factor for correcting the holdup for the effect of pipe where
inclination is given by: S = [In (y)1/{-0.0523 + 3.182 In (y)
'" = 1 + C [sin (1.8l'l) - 0.333 sin' (1.8l'l)], - 0.8725 [In (y)l' + 0.01853 [In(y)l'}, (4-58)
and
where l'l is the actual angle of the pipe from horizontal,
and AL
y=--,.
C = (1 - AL) In (ctAL' Nul NFl), [HL(~)]
where o , e, f, and g are determined for each flow con- The value of S becomes unbounded at a point in the
dition from Table 4-3. interval 1 < Y < 1.2; for y in this interval, the function
The value for C must be positive, and if a negative S is calculated from
value is calculated, C is set equal to zero. S = In (2.2y - 1.2).
Once HL(~) is determined, the two-phase density is cal-
Althoughthe acceleration pressure gradient is very small
culated from except for high velocity flow, it should be included for
more accurate results.
TABLE 4-3
dP) = Ps Vm vsg dp (4-59)
Flow Pattern a e f 9 ( dZ ace g,p dZ'
Segregated uphill 0.011 -3.768 3.539 -1.614
Intermittent uphill 2.96 0.305 -0.4473 0.0978 If an acceleration term is defined as
Distributed uphill No correction C = 0 '" ~ 1 H, ~ f (<1
All fiow patterns
downhill 4.70 -0.3692 0.1244 -0.5056
118 Gas Production Operations
the total pressure gradient can be calculated from 5. Determine the flow pattern
(~t + (~)f
VsL .617
AL = - = - - = 0.0457
dp Vm 13.49
-= (4-60)
dZ 1 - E, NFR = vm2 / gd = (13.49)2/(32.2)(1) = 5.65
.25
2. From fluid property correlations, at 410 psla and ~ = arcsin (300/5280) = 3.257
90F: '" = 1 +C [sin (1.8~) - sin' (1.8 ~)/3] =
R, = 96 scf/STB (10 19.6 dyne/em 1.56
Bo = 1.047 Z = .925 HLI~) (segregated) = HL1o) '" = .189 (1.56) = .295
1'-0 = 2.4 cp I'-g 0.0105 cp
b. Intermittent
3. Calculate flow rates and densities
.845 AL,5351
350 ~o + 0.0764 R, ~g HL(o) =. N .0173 .157
; FR
Po = 5.615 Bo
C = (1 - AL) In (2.96 AL'05 NL, - 44' 7 NFFi097' )
350 (.83) + .0764 (96)(.7) = .1246
5.615 (1.047)
'" = 1 + C(.1015) = 1.013
Po = 50.29 lbrn/cu It
HLI~) (intermittent) = .157(1.013) = .159
= 2.7 P~g = 2.7(410)(.7) = 1.52 Ibm/cult A = L, - NFR
Pg ZT .925(550)
L, - L2
a; = 6.49 x 10-5 q~ Bo = 6.49 x 10- 5 (7140)(1.047)
= =:8.:.:.82=--...:5...:.6:.:.5
= 0.485 It'/sec = .455
8.82 - 1.86
3.27 x 10- 7 Z(q~ - q~ Rs)T
qg= P B=1-A=.545
HL (transition) =Ax H L (seg.) + B x HL
qg = (int.)
3.27 x 10- 7 (.925)[25.7 x 10' - 7140(96)](550) = .455 (.295) + .545 (.159)
410 = .221
qg = 10.1 It'/sec 7. Calculate the actual and no-slip densities
4. Caiculate the in-situ superlicial velocities P, = PL H L + Pg Hg = 50.29 (.221) + 1,52 (.779)
= 12.3 lbrn/cu It
V,L = qdA = .485/.785(1)2 = 0.617 It/sec
V,g = qg/A = 10.1/.785 = 12.87 It/sec Pn = PL AL + Pg Ag = 50.29 (.0457) + 1.52 (.9543)
Vm = V,L + V,g = .617 + 12.87 = 13.49 It/sec = 3.75 ibm/cu It
Piping System Performance 119
8. Calculate the friction factor = 50.28 lbrn/cu It
_ 1488pn vm d 2.7(392.8)(.7)
NRen -
Pg = .925(550) 1.46 tbrn/cu It
I'-L l\L + I'-g l\g
= --.:1~48=8:.;:(3:::.:.7~5!.l.)(1:.:3:...:.
4:!.9)l:,(1
!.....)_
.485(1.046) 3
qo = 1.047 .484 1t / sec
2.4 (.0457) + .0105 (.9543)
= 6.29 x 105 3.27 x 10-7(.925)
qg = 392.8 x
From Equation 417
where where
M = molecular weight, Ibm/mole, q" = flow rate, Mscfd,
C;= specific heat, BTU/Ibm - 'R A = area of choke opening, in.',
PI = upstream pressure, psia,
The pressure ratio at which flow becomes critical de-
Cd = discharge coefficient, usually = 0.82,
pends on the k value for the flowing gas and is given by
T = upstream temperature, 'R, and
R -_ ( -2-
pc k+I
)'1'-' "I, = gas specific gravity.
Example iIll:
In calculating the values for C, given in Table 4-5, a Recalculate the flow rate in Example 410b using
discharge coefficient of 0.865 was used. The discharge Equation 461a.
coefficient actually depends on the Reynolds number, d = 10 mm = 0.394 in. P, = 3546 kPa = 514 psia
the ratio of the diameter of the pipe to the diameter of T, = 333'K = 600'R 'Y. = 0.69
the restriction, and the geometry of the restriction.
Solution:
Example 410: A = .7854(0.394)2 = 0.122 in.'
Using the following data, find the flow rate through the
choke for: q = 605.4(0.122)(514)(0.82) = 1530 Mscfd
a) P2 = 2837 kPa, and ec [(600)(0.69W 5
b) P2 = 1420 kPa
= 43,337 m' I d
d = 10 mm, 'Y. = 0.69, k = 1.25, Cd = 0.865
P,c = 101.325 kPa T", = 288.72'K, An equation for calculating the pressure drop across a
T, = 333'K, P, = 3546 kPa, Z, = 0.93 subsurface safety valve operating in subcritical flow was
presented by the API" in 1974. For the English System
of units given in Table 4-4, the equation is
Solution:
From Table 4-5, c; = 4.0075 _ _ 2.7 "I,PI (1 _ (34)
PI P, - 2, T
2 )'/'-' ( 2 ) '.25/.25 I
R = (-- = = 0.555
pc k+1 1.25 + 1
[
6.23 X 1~-4 2, T, q,,]', (4.62)
P, d CdY
(a) -P2 2837
=- - = 0.80, therefore fl ow .IS su bcrl
crltical,
P, 3546 where
Using Equation 461: 13 = d/dp ,
4.0075(3546)(10)2 dp = pipe diameter, inches,
(5[(.8)'" - (.8),'])5 Cd = discharge coefficient (API suggests using 0.9),
q", = [(0.69)(333)(.93)]5
and
q" = 97,213 (0.391) = 38,000 ro' I d Y = expansion factor,
(b) -P2
P,
1420
=- - = 0.4, therefore fl ow .IS cn't'teat.I
3546
Y = I - [0.41 + 0.3513 4] (PI -
k p,
p').
q" = 97,213 (5[(.555),6 - (.555)"'1)5 The solution of Equation 4-62 is iterative since Y is a
q: = 97,213 (0.465) = 45,235 m'ld
function of !:J.p = P, - p,. The value for Y ranges from
about 0.67 to 1.0. For quick estimates of !:J.p, a value of
Equation 4-61 has been modified for particular types 0.85 can be used.
of wellhead chokes. An equation which is used for the
types of chokes manufactured by the Thornhill-Craver Example 412:
company is given below. This equation applies for 6 in. A subsurface safety valve having a bean diameter of
long chokes with rounded entrances operating in critical 1.0 in. is installed in a gas well equipped with 3.5 In.
flow. The equation is tubing (2.992 in. 10). The well is flowing at a rate of 20
,..
122 Gas Production Operations
MMscfd. Calculate the pressure drop across the SSSV the equivalent depth of 2000 It, which represents the
if the pressure upstream of the SSSV is 2000 psia. The wellhead.
temperature is 180F. Assume Cd = 0.9, Y = 0.85. Gas 3. Add the well depth to the equivalent depth found in
gravity is 0.70. Step 2 to get 10,000 + 2000 = 12,000 It.
4. Draw a horizontal line from 12,000 It to intersect the
10 MMscfd line.
Solution: 5. From this intersection, draw a vertical line to the
d 1.0 pressure axis and read Pwf = 2150 psig.
~ = - = - - = 0.334 Z, = 0.84
dp 2.992
'"
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.
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R
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.
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rp\'\I~C.
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2-
~
=1+;'H ' '-'
."
g'
r:' l:ihF ' J . :L, s
.--t:7r.
'.' . -}
-';'1-.
~~;if.
"'~'mmt'~.~'~~.
!il-~"
i".-
:,~ 'I' '-I- - f
-M r" I' .' - j
-.
- - _
t
, ~
, '.'
mi'~4+ttt
~l+ ",;1"'
n:;:,
I-i-
_ . . t ~l:tt -.ttrt l~t
f4 +j:j:j:j:j:j:mm~tR
r....
-'"
~
~.
i::;
J
Piping System Performance 125
The equation was adjusted using experimental data to where the velocities are in ft/sec and the pressures are
evaluate the drag coefficient, and when surface tension in psia. The minimum volumetric flow rate for a partic-
is expressed in dynes/em, Equation 4-63 becomes ular velocity and pipe size may be calculated from
(T1/4 (PL _ p,)'/4 3.06v, Ap
V, = 20.4 1/2' (4-64) qsc (mln.) = TZ ' (4-67)
P,
Turner, et al. also presented simplified versions of where
Equation 4-64 for field use that are easier to use since qsc (mtn.) = minimum flow rate for continuous liquid
only the minimum pressure in the flow string is required. removal, MMscfd,
Equations were presented for use when the liquid is either v, = gas velocity, ft/sec,
water or condensate, which necessitate assuming aver- A = conduit area, ft2,
age values for the fluid properties. The assumptions used T = flowing temperature, "1<,
were Z = gas compressibility factor evaluated at T
Liquid (T, dynes/em p, lbmlft' and the pressure used to calculate v" and
Water 60 67 p = wellhead pressure, psia.
Condensate 20 45 Equations 4-65 and 4-66 were derived using wellhead
It was. also assumed that the gas density could be put in flowing pressures since this was the only pressure mea-
terms of pressure if a gas gravity of 0.6 and a temper- sured in the field tests. Actually, the minimum velocity
ature of 120"F were used. This resulted in separate equa- in a gas well will occur at the point of highest pressure,
tions for water and condensate. that is, at the bottom of the well. Using the bottom-hole
flowing pressure to determine q" (min.) will introduce a
5.62(67 - 0.003Ip)'/4 safety factor in the design.
v (water) = (465)
, (0.003Ip)1 / 2 A nomograph of Equation 4-67 is presented in Figure
4-17. The product qZ is obtained from the nomograph,
4.02(45 - 0.003Ip)1 / 4
v, (condensate) = 1/2 (4-66)
and to obtain q" (min.) , the Z factor must be calculated at
(0.003Ip) surface conditions .
qz MMcllD
Example Conditions: Surface flowing pressure 600 psra
Surface flowing temperature 540 A.
0
SG = 0.70
15.0
Z = 0.90
10.0
6.0
Flow area
P, psis II' 4.0
0.20
T (OR)
3.0
0.2
0.4 ".," 31/2 2.0
..... ........ 3
1.0':....----1...... 21/2
1.0
2.0 " 2
',1% 0.8
4.0 1%
0.6
10.0
20.0 0.4
0.3
600
PIT = - = 1.11
100 400 1.000 4.000 540
Pressure, psis 0.2
Fig. 4-17. Nomograph for calculating gas rate required to lift liquids through tubing of various sizes (after Turner, et al.).
Permission to publish by the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. Copyright 1969 SPE-AIME.
Example 414:
Turner, et al., observed that Ibeir melbod was appli-
A gas well is producing against a fixed wellhead pres- cable for liquid loading up to 130 bbl/MMscf. If bolb
sure of 1150 psia through 3-1/2 in. (2.992 ID) tubing. water and condensate are present, the equation for water
Wellhead temperature is 140'F and gas gravity is 0.70. should be used.
Calculate the minimum flow rate required to keep this
well unloaded il it produces salt water along with the
gas. Liquid Removal Methods
Various melbods for removing liquids from gas wells,
SolutIon: sometimes called dewatering, have been used in Ibe past.
Descriptions of the methods and Ibe degree of success
5.62(67 - 0.0031 p)0.2' of Ibe various melbods are described in papers by Hutlas
v9 = --'----='-'--
(0.0031 p)o., and Granberry" and by Libson and Henry". Libson and
5.62 (67 - 0.0031 (1150))25 Henry found Ibat Ibe minimum surface velocity for keep-
v = = 8.4 ft/sec ing wells unloaded in the Intermediate Shelf Area of
o (0.0031 (1150))0.,
soulbwest Texas was 1000 ft/min or about 17 ft/sec.
at p = 1150, T = 140'F, 'Yo = 0.7, the Melbods for liquid removal include pumping units, gas
Zlactor is 0.86. lift, plunger lift, intermittent flow wilb flow controllers,
small tubing installation, and soap injection.
A = 2: d 2 = .7854 (2.992/12)2 = 0.0488 ft2
4 Beam Pumping Units. Pumping units may be used to
3.06(1150)(8.4)(0.0488)
pump Ibe liquids up Ibe tubing, allowing the gas to be
3.06 P voA
qsc (min.) = TZ produced through Ibe annulus. An advantage of using
(600)(0.86) pumping units is Ibat they do not depend on gas velocity
q", (m'".) = 2.8 MMscfd for lift and can be used to deplete Ibe field to a very low
Piping System Performance 127
pressure. It is desirable to have the tubing set as close Small Tubing. Smaller tubing may be installed in gas
as possible to the bottom perforations or even below the wells as the flow rate decreases in order to maintain the
perforations. A liquid cushion above the pump helps pre- velocity above a critical value. In some cases a smaller
vent gas from entering the pump. string may be run inside the existing tubing string, such
On low liquid-rate wells, difficulties arise because a as running I in. inside 2-7/8 in. tubing. This method
beam pumping unit cannot be adjusted for very low rates. works best on low volume wells in which friction loss
The wells are sometimes pumped intermittently. is not severe.
Plunger Lift. A plunger installed in a gas well pro- Gas-Lift. A recent development in removing liquid
ducing liquid acts as an interface between the gas stored from gas wells is the combination of a liquid diverter
in the annulus and the liquid accumulated in the tubing and gas-lift system. This system lifts liquid up the tubing
above the plunger. A schematic of a plunger lift well is string and produces gas through the annulus.
shown in Figure 4-18. The well remains shut in for a A liquid diverter is a device that opens when a pre-
period of time and is then opened to allow the plunger, determined head of liquid is accumulated above it, al-
pushed by the annulus gas, to unload the liquids. lowing the liquid to enter the tubing from the annulus.
The automatic opening of the well may be accom- The tubing is open to atmospheric pressure at the sur-
plished by a motor valve on the flowline. The motor valve face. As liquid is diverted to the tubing, it accumulates
may be operated by a clock or by monitoring the flow until the gas-lift valve opens to lift the liquid slug to the
rate of the well. If a clock is used the time cycles are surface.
adjusted by trial-and-error to find the optimum. The gas-lift valve may be actuated by the liquid head
Surface flow controllers may be used that permit the in the tubing if it is a so-called fluid operated valve.
well to flow until the gas velocity drops to some critical Various other means have been proposed to control the
value. The well is then shut in for a time period that still opening and closing of the gas-lift valve. Some of these
must be determined by trial. The advantage of the flow are described by Hutlas and Granberry".
controller is that it allows the well to flow for the max- Soap Injection. Injection of surfactants or foaming
imum length of time before shut-in. agents into the annulus with a chemical pump and timer
has produced successful results in some wells. By the
reduction of the surface tension, water can be unloaded
Motor valve
continuously in a foamed state. Soap injection has not
been as successful in wells producing condensate be-
cause of the difficulty involved in obtaining a surfactant
that will foam condensate.
,
lime clock
EROSIONAL VELOCITY
Gas produced each
Casmg-tubing annulus cycle up tubing When fluid flows through a pipe at high velocities,
stored energy erosion of the pipe can occur. This is especially true for
reservoir
high capacity gas flow in which the in-situ velocity may
exceed 60 to 70 ft/sec. Erosion is not as much of a prob-
lem in oil wells, although some high gas-liquid ratio wells
may be subject to erosion.
Walerproduced each
cycle UP tubing The velocity at which erosion begins to occur cannot
be determined exactly, and if solid particles such as sand
Gas enters annulus are in the fluid, erosion may occur at relatively low ve-
Irom pay dUring shut-In
as etterucw to crovoe Plunger 1111 locities.
!!!gh pressure gas lor
next cycle
I.... Casing perls The velocity at which erosion may occur has been re-
Buffer spnng
lated to the density of the fluid by the following equa-
- LiqUid
tion.
Tubing stop
.., Casing-tubing anmnus
storagegas (4.68)
Produced tUbing gas
where
Fig. 4-18. Plunger lift operations. v, = erosional velocity, ft/sec,
--
128 Gas Production Operations
P = fluid density, lbm/fr', and calculations. The linear assumption for well flow will
C = a constant that ranges between 75 and 150. usually not introduce significant errors if a good value
for surface flowing temperature can be obtained. The heat
A good value for C has been found to be about 100.
loss from a fluid in a pipe is a function of the mass flow
If C is set equal to 100, and the gas equation of state is
rate in the pipe, and will therefore change with a change
used to express density, Equation 4-68 becomes
in producing rate.
100 An algorithm for coupling pressure and heat loss cal-
culations requires an iterative solution because the over-
v, = [2~;'r' all heat transfer coefficient and the enthalpy change de-
pend on pressure. If some average heat transfer coefficient
can be determined, an approximate temperature profile
where p , T, and Z are determined at the conditions at can be calculated independent of the pressure loss cal-
which the velocity is to be determined. culations. This will of course be less accurate, but in
The equation may be expressed in terms of gas flow many cases the amount of data available will not be suf-
rate at standard conditions by ficient to perform the more accurate calculation.
0,'
T
HERE are many cases in gas production op- TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
erations in which the pressure of a gas must The principal types of compressors are positive-dis-
be raised to a higher value. As the pressure in
placement, or intermittent flow, units and continuous flow
a gas reservoir depletes, it will eventually reach units. Positive-displacement units are those in which
a point where it will no longer overcome all the pressure
successive volumes of gas are confined within a closed
losses in the system and the pressure of the line into space and elevated to a higher pressure. Continuous flow
which the gas is being delivered. It is then necessary to units are those in which a rapidly rotating element ac-
add a compressor to the system to supplement the res- celerates the gas as it passes through the element, con-
ervoir energy. In this type of application, the suction or verting the velocity head into pressure, partially in the
intake pressure, and possibly the volume compressed, rotating element and partially in stationary diffusers or
will change with time even though the discharge pres- blades. The principal compressor types are defined be-
sure may remain constant. Compressors have been used low (see Fig. 5-1).
to lower the wellhead pressure below atmospheric, that
is, to pull a vacuum on the well in order to obtain max- -s-Reciprocating compressors are positive-displacement
imum rates. machines in which the compressing and displacing
Compressors are also used to overcome the losses in- element is a piston having a reciprocating motion within
curred in the long distance transportation of natural gas a cylinder.
through transmission lines. This may require large ca-
-Rotary positive-displacement compressors are ma-
pacity machines operating at essentially constant con-
chines in which compression and displacement are ef-
ditions.
fected by the positive action of rotating elements.
The reinjection of gas for pressure maintenance or cy-
cling requires compression of produced gas to a high -Sliding-vane compressors are rotary positive-displace-
pressure to move sufficient volumes into the reservoir. ment machines in which axial vanes slide radially in
Injection of gas into storage fields also requires a com- a rotor eccentrically mounted in a cylindrical casing.
pressor capable of operating under a wide range of con- Gas trapped between vanes is compressed and dis-
ditions. placed.
The engineer is concerned with essentially two types -s-Liquid-piston compressors are rotary positive-dis-
of compressor design problems: (I) determination of the placement machines in which water or other liquid is
power required to compress a certain volume of gas from used as the piston to compress and displace the gas
some given intake pressure to a given discharge pressure handled.
and (2) estimation of the capacity of an existing com- -Two-impeller straight-lobe compressors are rotary
pressor under required pressure increase conditions. It is positive-displacement machines in which two straight
also frequently necessary to calculate the temperature in- mating lobed impellers trap gas and carry it from in-
crease occurring in the gas as it is compressed. take to discharge. There is no internal compression.
131
--
132 Gas Production Operations
Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge pres-
Compressors sure divided by absolute intake pressure) may cause ex-
cessive discharge temperature or other design problems.
It therefore may become necessary to combine elements
or groups of elements in series to form a multistage unit,
in which there will be two or more steps of compression.
The gas is frequently cooled between stages to reduce
the temperature and volume entering the following stage.
Positive-displacement ContinJus-floW Note that each stage is an individual basic compressor
Iintermrnt flow) within itself. It is sized to operate in series with one or
more additional basic compressors, and even though they
may all operate from one power source, each is still a
separate compressor. The following simplified discus-
sions show the principles of operation of each principal
Reciprocating Rotary Dynamic Ejector type of compressor.
A
Receiver pressure
P2
. _ Clearance volume
Inlet pressure
p, 1
0
Stroke
DiS~~. ...i~ o
Receiver pressure
p, 3 2
Clearance volume
Inlet pressure
P,
oYI---------+_
1+--- Stroke ------1~
B
DiSCh~rge. -
P, 1"-+'=-"'-==-------=""'..
Inlet -
------
Expansion
o~I--------~1-
I+--Stroke
DiSC~8. 3E _ E
p,
Receiver pressure
Compression 3 2
Clearance volume --'I'-
Inlet pressure
4
c
oL-f----------l--
P2
Receiver pressure
14---Stroke ------..1
,- 3
Clearance volume
21~
DiSC~III....: ~
P,
o
Inlet pressure
1
In~ ....1C
Stroke
Intake
l G a r,g e
Disc
-----
Inlet .if.
Discharge
Fig. 5-2. The various steps in a reciprocating compressor cycle. From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copyright 1980.
Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand. 4
134 Gas Production Operations
i\4 l
inlet. Looking at the pV diagram (Fig. 5-3), the condi-
.-..
m stage tions before starting compression are points I and 5 for
~ 60 - referred the first and second stages, respectively, after compres-
..e
40
to
~8 first stage ~ 2
sion, points 2 and 6, and after delivery, 3 and 7. Ex-
pansion of gas trapped in the clearance spaces as the
20
~ Fi~stst~ 1
pistons reverse brings the pressures and volumes to points
4 and 8, and on the intake stroke the cylinders are again
filled at points I and 5, and the cycle is set for repetition.
, , , , , Multiple staging of any positive displacement compres-
0 sor follows this pattern.
Volume The rotary sliding-vane compressor has as its basic
element the cylindrical casing with its heads and rotor
Fig. 5-3. Combined theoretical indicator card for a two-stage, assembly. When running at design pressure, the theo-
two-element 100 pslg positlve-displacemenl compressor. retical p V diagram is identical to the reciprocator. There
From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copyright 1980. Cour-
is one difference of importance, however. The sliding-
tesy Ingersoll-Rand.'
vane machine has no valves. The times in the cycle when
A c
B
D
+
As rotor turns, gas is trapped Discharge
in pockets formed by vanes.
Compressed gas is pushed out
through discharge port.
Fig. 5-4. The steps in compression for a sliding-vane rotary compressor. From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copyright
1980. Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand.'
Gas Compression 135
@.,)
A
(
Fig. 5-5. The operating cycle of a two-impeller straight-iobe rotary compressor. From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copy-
right 1980. Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand.'
the inlet and discharge are open are determined by the There are several other types of positive displacement
location of ports over which the vanes pass (Fig. 5-4). compressors available, as indicated in Figure 5-1. Most
The pocket volume decreases as the rotor turns and of these are seldom used in the gas industry and are not
the gas is compressed. Compression continues until the described.
discharge port is uncovered by the leading vane of each
pocket. This point must be preset or built-in when the
Dynamic Compressors
unit is manufactured. Thus, the compressor always com-
presses the gas to design pressure, regardless of the pres- Compression in any dynamic compressor depends on
sure in the receiver into which it is discharging. the transfer of energy from a rotating set of blades to the
A two-impeller straight-lobe positive-displacement gas. The rotor accomplishes this energy transfer by
compressor element consists of a casing containing du- changing the momentum and pressure of the gas. The
plicate symmetrical rotors or impellers usually having a momentum (related to kinetic energy) then is converted
figure eight cross section. These intermesh, are kept in into useful pressure energy by slowing the gas down in
phase by external timing gears, and rotate in opposite a stationary diffuser or another set of blades.
directions. The centrifugal designation is used when the gas flow
There is no compression or reduction of gas volume is radial, and the energy transfer is predominantly due
during the turning of the rotors. The rotors merely move to a change in the centrifugal forces acting on the gas.
the gas from the inlet to the discharge. Compression is The axial designation is used when the gas flow is
by backflow into the casing from the discharge line at parallel to the compressor shaft. Energy transfer is caused
the time the discharge port is uncovered. Displacement by the action of a number of rows of blades on a rotor,
of the compressed gas into the discharge system then each row followed by a fixed row fastened to the casing.
t~es place. There is no contact between the impellers The centrifugal compressor has an impeller with radial
or between impellers and casing. Sealing is by close or backward slanted vanes usually between two shrouds.
clearances and lubrication is not required within the gas The gas is forced through the impeller by the mechanical
chamber. One impeller is driven directly while the other action of the rapidly rotating impeller vanes. The veloc-
is driven through phasing gears. The operation can be ity generated is converted into pressure. Figure 5-6 il-
visualized from the diagrams of Figure 5-5. Light shad- lustrates a single-stage centrifugal compressor with ra-
ing shows gas at inlet pressure. Dark shading shows gas dial vanes. This utilizes a radial diffuser and a volute
at discharge pressure. gas collector ending in a volute diffuser.
136 Gas Production Operations
~ Volute Volute
/----<, Volute
diffuser diffuser collector
I ' .- .... , " \\
I
~
r--::--t--...i..._ Stream line
spacer
I :', '
I
I
\\, .-' / Volute
-, ,/ collector
___~- Impeller -___.J /
InJet
Radial
diffuser
Volute
collector
Arrows show direction of air flow
Fig. 5-6. Typicai overhung impei/er single-stage centrifugal compressor. From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copyright
1980. Courtesy Ingersoi/-Rand.4
Rotor blades
Stator blades
Inlet guide
vane
Fig. 5-7. Cross-section of a typical mUltistage uncooled Fig, 5-8. Cross-section of a typical axial-flow dynamic com-
centrifugalcompressor. From Compressed Air and Gas Data, pressor. From Compressed Air and Gas Data. copyright
copyright 1980. Courtesy Ingersoi/-Rand.4 1980. Courtesy Ingersoi/-Rand.4
Multistage centrifugal compressors utilize two or more erated in the rotor blades and half in the stator. Figure
impellers arranged for series flow, each with a radial dif- 5-8 shows a multistage unit. Gas flow is predominantly
fuser and return channel separating impellers. The num- in an axial direction, there being no appreciable vortex
ber of impellers per casing is dependent upon many fac- action.
tors, but usually eight to ten is the limit. Figure 5-7 shows
a section of a typical uncooled multistage compressor.
Ejector Compressors
An axial-flow dynamic compressor is shown in Figure
5-8. It is essentially a large-capacity high-speed machine An ejector consists of a relatively high-pressure mo-
with characteristics quite different from the centrifugal. tive steam or gas nozzle discharging a high-velocity jet
Each stage consists of two rows of blades, one row ro- across a suction chamber into a venturi-shaped diffuser.
tating and the next row stationary. The rotor blades im- The gas, whose pressure is to be increased, is entrained
part velocity and pressure to the gas as the rotor turns, by the jet in the suction chamber. The mixture at this
the velocity being converted to pressure in the stationary point has high velocity and is at the pressure of the in-
blades. Frequently about half the pressure rise is gen- duced gas. Compression takes place as velocity energy
Gas Compression 137
is transformed into pressure inside the diffuser. is kept constant as the pressure increases. This requires
Ejectors are principally used to compress from pres- continuous removal of the heat of compression. The
sures below atmospheric to a discharge pressure close to compression process follows the formula
atmospheric. They may, however, involve compression
from a near atmospheric intake to some higher level. PI VI = P,V, = Constant. (5-1)
A vacuum ejector, using steam as motive fluid and However, it is never commercially possible to remove
compressing air, is shown in Figure 5-9. Pressure and the heat of compression as rapidly as it is generated.
velocity changes are indicated for various sections of the Adiabatic compression is obtained when there is no
device. Temperature changes follow the pressure curve heat added to or removed from the gas during compres-
closely. sion. The compression process is expressed by Equation
Ejectors have no moving parts. They can handle liquid 5-2.
carry-over without physical damage although they should
not be exposed to a steady flow of liquid. PI V\ = P,V;. (52)
U
,
,, - pressure mated) from a prior test. The k value of any gas or gas
--
Steamand
--
Enterrng air
pressure
. .' n- 1 k- I
It!
/
Mach 1 --=--, (5-4)
, n k1]p
- - - - Steam only Air only - - Steam and alf mixture
Either nor (n - I)/n can also be experimentally cal-
Fig. 59. A diagram of the pressure and veiocity variations culated from test data if inlet and discharge pressures and
within a steam jet ejector handiing air. From Compressed temperatures are known. The following formula may be
Air and Gas Data, copyright 1980. Courtesy Ingersoii-Rand. 4 used:
-
138 Gas Production Operations
T, = (p,)('-ll!' = r(,-I)!,
(5-5) E o
T1 PI
-:
76
the second stage.
Dynamic compressors would, in most cases, have sev-
l- eral staging elements in the same casing. There would
'"
0
c normally be no intercooling between those stages con-
.~ 74 tained in a given casing although the internal diffusers
~
~ I- - --_- --- or diaphragms are sometimes water-cooled. The gas can
.~
~
e 1-/ I
be brought out to external exchangers for intercooling at
the end of several stages of compression. Frequently,
72
8.
*
.~
E
0-
70
+I
j
ries to cover the entire compression range, each machine
equipped with several stages and with external inter-
cooling between the machines. They are usually coupled
~ I in tandem to one driver. The extent to which intercooling
1 5 10 50 100
is used depends largely on power cost.
Inlet volume - thousands of efm
0.90
(5-9)
where
w =
p" =
power required, Hp/MMscfd,
pressure at standard conditions, psia,
~
~ai
",g 8-~ 0.70
0.00
I
V -
T" = temperature at standard conditions, "R, and
T1 = suction temperature, "R,
1;,g
:;::
~
!~
2
Gl
~
~ 060 I
Example 5-2:
Calculate the horsepower required to compress 1
MMscfd of a 0.6 gravity gas from 100 psla and 80F
"
..
~
c
c
ffi
0.50
/
to 1600 psia using the adiabatic equation. Assume that
a two stage compressor is used, and that the gas is 0.40
cooled back 10 80'F between stages. Also find the finai 1. '.0 '0 40 50 60 70
discharge temperature. Compression ratio
8000
I
.. ENTHALPY - ENTROPY DIAGRAM .
70001\1$\:1; fOR
o.e GRAVITY NATURAL GAS
~.672 P.5.l. ASS., ..Tc-380 ~
GEORGE GRANGER BROWN
ANN ....RBOR
..
~
~ 0
~
:l
~
i,ooo
...1 000
-10 -8 -6 -4 0 2 4 8 8
ENTROPY a T.U PER pouND totOLE: PER DEGREE
Fig. 513. Enthalpy-enlropy diagram for 0.6 gravity natural gas. Permission to publish by the Sociely of Petroieum Engi-
neers of A/ME. Copyright 1945 SPE-A/ME!
Q = <l.H23 = H2 - H3 = 1990 - 220 This compares well with the value of 147.4 Hp ob-
= 1770 BTUjib-mole, tained using the equations. The Mollier diagram solution
is considered to be more accurate and should preferably
or be used. Mollier diagrams for other gases are included
BTU lbmole BTU in the appendix.
Q = 1770--x--=4.67-
Ib-mole 379 scI scI For making rough estimates of power requirement the
142 Gas Production Operations
following equation can be used:
II 0
N = number of stages,
q" = flow rate in MMscfd, and
F = correction for pressure drop between stages,
. V
V
V
.~
r,4
1/
depending on N. 2
/ / ' I 1/ / v I.
90
r/ 1/V
..
1/ / 1/
N
1
F
1.00.
I I 'I '/ V V 1/
1
'I / V 1/ V
2 1.08 'I V V /1.
3 1.10
80
2
'I V V '" v IIj
Graphical solutions to Equation 5-9 have been pre- / II V '", 1/ it
pared for specific conditions of compression efficiency, '"
7
/ V r/
'"
/ ."
standard conditions, and gas gravity. Examples are shown f/J. ' I IVIV 1/
74
'11,,/ 'IV 1./ V 1/
.,
7
'II
....
II
70
72
I:Y .. '
.
70
1/
V
.
,
~ I. 84
'1/
"/IV
84
VI 1 2,,/1/
60
2
1
17. r7
,,/
1
,
I.
60
, v.- I/ 1/ '\:9 1.0 3.1 32 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 ".0 4.1 42 4.3 4.4 .. 5
50
W. rJ Compression ratio
IA (~ f/ "
54
, 2
r.r: r/ Fig. 5-15. Compressor power requirements. From Com-
50
48
, V;
17
pressed Air and Gas Data, copyright 1980. Courtesy In-
gersoil-Rand. 4
17
46
44
f/ in Figures 5-14 through 5-16.' Correction to other gas
VI
40
2 gravities and for low suction pressure are obtained from
Figures 5-17 and 5-18 respectively.
,
..,..
2
Example 5-4:
Solve Example 5-2 using both Equations 5-14 and the
soI- graphs presented in Figures 5-14 through 5-16.
2 .~ q" = 1 MMscfd, P, = 100 psia, p, = 1600 psia
2
k = 1.28, 'Yg = 0.6
2 4fD
2 2,;
20 SolutIon:
Using Equation 5-14,
. L4 1.5 1.1 1.7 1.1 I.' 2.0 2.1 1.1 1.1 ZA Z 2 ZTUUJ,O bhp = 22(4)(2)(1)(1.08) = 190 Hp
Compression ratio Using Figure 5-15, for r = 4 and k = 1.28, read bhp/
MMscfd = 84. For 2 stages this will be 2(84) = 168
Fig. 5-14. Compressor power requirements. From Com- Hp. There is no correction for low suction pressure or
pressed Air and Gas Data, copyright 1980. Courtesy in- gas gravity since r is greater than 3.4, the limit of the
gersoil-Rand. 4 correction graphs.
Gas Compression 143
.se the energy required will vary only a fraction of one per-
/ 1 10
cent for rather large variations in the actual compression
"4
/ . ratios for individual stages. Designers take advantage of
I!! '" V 1.60
~
this fact for economic and engineering reasons.
.
i! ''0
./ Each stage is best designed as a separate compressor,
".'" V
Co
E the capacity of each stage being separately calculated from
"
.
.!!
l!
,,.
'''0"
V
v
./
/
..,
''0
the flrst stage real intake volume, corrected to the actual
pressure and temperature conditions existing at the higher
.5 '40 stage cylinder inlet, allowing for pressure drop through
V ;I'
..
-e
e '"
/
/
./
'"
cooler and piping. Allowances must also be made for
.!!
"
Co
".
"4
./
1/
./
./
;I'
./
v
V V 130
any reduction in the moisture content if there is conden-
sation between stages in an intercooler. The theoretical
"l
~
~
'"
"0
./
;/
;/
1/
./
/' V
~ l/
V
~ "" IZ5 power per stage can then be calculated and the total
s 10'
./ horsepower obtained. A compression ratio per stage
-e ./ ./ ;/ ./ V 120
greater than four is seldom used because of heating and
- 10& ./ ./
I!! ./ V ./ ./ l/ V
~
.E
'04
'0'
100
./ ./
./ ./ ~ V
"" ./ ./
V
/'
./ '"
rod loading problems.
v 110
~
'"
=
~
.
9'
./
V
./
/' v
./
""
./
~
:.~
Effect of Clearance
Although cylinder clearance reduces the volumetric
.. V
./ ./
" 94
v efficiency of a compressor (Eq. 5-7), it cannot be com-
~"
./ ;I' t> ./
'4
V ./
ea 1.40
Multlstaglng
It has been previously stated that there are practical
limits to the amount of compression permissible within
a single stage or element beyond which two or more steps
or stages must be used with intercooling between stages
in most cases.
Theoretically minimum power with perfect intercool-
ing and no pressure loss between stages is obtained by
making the ratio of compression the same in all stages.
The following formula may be used to determine the op-
timum compression ratio per stage:
r, =~ = (r,)l/$ (5-15)
\ where
r, is the theoretically best compression ratio per stage, 0.88 l--'-_-'---'::----'-_L--'-_:'-:----!-:--::
r, is the overall compression ratio (p_),
Pinidal
and
1.4 1.5 16 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
Compression ratio
1 14 .---,..--,---.---.-.----.---,--r--r--,--.---.-~-~-~-r_-r__,-_,-~
\
1.13 \ \
r.,:-\t---t--t--t--r--t--+-t--t--t-+--+---t--+---+-+---+----.j--i--....j
1.12
,
1.11 \' \
1.10 \ \
\
,
\ \
--- - >---1---+--1--1--1
""0(;,
'f~ ...,1---t----+---1--t----+---1--l---1----1--l---1--+--\---1
.o~
~ ..."
~~ +-+---+--j-j---!- ------+---1-- ~ .... >-- -1----+--1
-,
"l.~
-+--+-j-+--+--+-j-+--I--+-+-+--I
Fig. 5-18. Suction pressure correction. From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copyright'1980. Courtesy IngersoN-Rand.'
cieerance
60
~/i~ "
,~
7%
40
\~ '~
.... 21%
f-- :o;i,:i:: ....~
20
Actual capacity I"'
Piston displacement I 64.6% VE
76.4% VE
88.1% VE
o 114 100 60 60 40 20 o
121 107
Fig. 5-19. Effect of ciearance on the capacity of a recip- Percent piston displacement
60
i
I ,!
..i
40
20
~..,
~
62% VE
80 60 40 20 0 69.6% VE
Percent displacement 74.5% VE
0
115 100 80 60 40 20 0
Percentpiston displacement
60 c
o 1.'
0
..I 20
H-j
~~ s"
umetric efficiency of a given cylinder. From Compressed Air
and Gas Data, copyright 1980. Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand.'
0. V2 load VE
0
134.5 100 80 60 40 20 0
8.06.0 4.0 10
Percentdisplacement r.qo.ou
,
60 ~~
g 0 ~v rv.
,e #. //.
.i 40 "----I
~i r:%:/'; 'i'l/
20 P 0
....'" 2000
1500
Vh ~,o
VE = zero
1000
--
o
159 100 80 60
PercentdIsplacement
40 20 0
..
;; 80 0
600
.'
000
400 " '/
""/'
Rg. 5-21. Effectof adding clearance for capacity purposes. .00
From Compressed Air and Gas Data, copyright 1980. cour- :/vv/
..1/
tesy Ingersoll-Rand. 4
zoo
100
./ ...-
./ /
100
sion ratio and clearance. The lower the value of k, the 1 1.52 :5" 56810 1520 30 5070100
INTAKE VOLUME - THOUSANDS OF' CFM
lower the volumetric efficiency.
Fig. 5-23. Basic horsepower. From Compressed Air and Gas
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Data, copyright 1980. Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand.'
The performance of a centrifugal compressor is usu-
ally estimated based on the polytropic process. The same where
equation (Eq. 5-9) given for a reciprocating compressor
can be used if k is replaced with n, where Hp = polytropic head,
R = gas constant,
n-l k-l T, = gas inlet temperature,
--=-- (5-4)
n k'l]p t = average compressibility factor, (2, + 2,)/2,
and
The concept of polytropic head is frequently used in M = gas molecular weight.
~esigning centrifugal machines since the head developed
is independent of the fluid being moved. The polytropic The actual power required then depends on the amount
head is the work in energy per unit mass of the gas. It of gas being moved, or the mass flow rate, w. In terms
can be calculated from of horsepower,
wn,
Hp - ---"-- (517)
(5-16)
- 33000 'l]/
146 Gas Production Operations
where
1,04
Hp = power required, horsepower, ,.50
Solution:
The actual inlet volume is
q = q" Bg = 50 X
sct It' day
10' - x 0.131 - x.,....,.=::'....,...
day scf 1440 min
100,...---
90
r--- -
Basic head
1
.
ft3
= 4550-.
min '0 f - - - - - + - -
I
From Figure 5-10, Tjp = 0.72
n-1 k-1 1.28-1
70
I
--=--= =0.3 ! I
'f
I
n kTjp 1.28(0.72)
T, = T, r,n-'I/n = 540 (4)"'3 = 818"R o 1,----,'H;~-- --t----"1 - 1
H. = R T, nt (r n-1 I/n'- 1)
I 1 -K value other than 1.396 j
2. Molecular weIghtother
p M(n - 1) ' 30 I than 28.95
3 Average compreSSibility
HP =
W Hp
33,000 Tjp
=
1592(81,700)
(33,000)(0.72)
H
= 5474 P o , .__L .__
2
l .
3
L
4
: j
5
I
Ii A
COMPRESSION RATIO, (P2,pd
Estimates of the horsepower, number of stages, and
compressor speed can be made by referring to Figures Fig. 5-25. Basic head. From Compressed Air and Gas Data,
5-23 through 5-26. The horsepower required for a cen- copyright 1980. Courtesy Ingersoli-Rand4
Gas Compression 147
12,000 N = number of stages,
(BASIC HEAD) is obtained from Figure 5-25,
11,000
(K"rr) is obtained from Figure 5-24,
10,000
Z = average 2 factor, and
M = molecular weight of the gas.
9,000
i 7 000
24. Also, estimate the number of stages required and
the approximate compressor speed using Figure 5-25
~6.00 and Figure 5-26.
5.00
Solution:
4,000
,...- - -- - - .. From Figure 5-23, for an intake volume of 4550 ft'l
min, the basic bhp = 720 for a compression ratio of 4.
3,00
2,000
., From Figure 5-24, for a k value of 1.28 the k value
correction factor is 0.956 for r = 4. Therefore,
0 10 20 '0 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Intake volume in thOusands of cnn bhp = 720(0.956)(100)(0.99) 4757 HP.
14.5(0.988)
Fig. 526. Compressor speed. From Compressed Air and
In order to estimate the number of stages required, from
Gas Data, copyright 1980. Courlesy Ingersoli-Rand. 4
Figure 5-25, for r = 4 and T, = 80F, Basic Head
=53,000 ft.
trifugal compressor is obtained from:
The number of stages is then
PIZ
Hp = (BASIC BHP) (K,orr) = (53000)(0.956)(28.95)(0.99)
14.52, N 8.9
17.38(9500)
where
This indicates that 9 stages will be required.
(BASIC BHP) is obtained from Figure 5-23, The compressor speed is estimated by entering Figure
(K,orr) is obtained from Figure 5-24, 5-26 at an intake volume of 4550 ft'lmin and reading
PI = suction pressure, psia, the speed as 9800 rpm.
Z = average 2 factor, and
2 1 = 2 factor at P" T , REFERENCES
The number of stages required for a centrifugal com- 1. Ridgeway, R. S.: CNGA Meeting, Los Angeles, Ca. Mar. 1,
pressor may be estimated from: 1945.
2. Brown. G. G.: "A Series of Enthalpy-Entropy Charts for Natural
(BASIC HEAD)(K,orr)(28.95)Z Gases," Trans., AIME (1945) 160.
N = -'------'"'--''''''-'--'-
M(9500) 3. NGPSA Data Book, 9th Edition, Tulsa, Ok (1972).
4. Compressed Air and Gas Data, Ingersoll-Rand Co.. Woodcliff Lake,
where N.J.
\
-
6 Total System Analysis
HE object of any gas production operation is which to divide the system depends on the purpose of
occur if the well has a very short flowline between the and 4 can be repeated for various tubing sizes. The effect
wellhead and separator. In this case the well is divided of Pif can also be determined by repeating for various
at the bottom of the hole, node 6. The expressions for wellhead pressures. For this case, the two subsystems
the inflow and outflow are. are: (I) the reservoir and (2) the tubing plus the wellhead
pressure.
Inflow: fiR - tJ.p~, = Pwf
r;:===~Compressor):===J Psales
Stock tank
Node location
1 Separator
2 Surface choke
3 Wellhead
4 Safety valve
5 Restriction
6 P",
7 Pwls
8 PR
Example 62:
A 10,000 It vertical well is equipped with 1.995 10 tub-
600
ing and a 6000 It flowline. Separator pressure is fixed
at 1000 psia. Using the following data, determine the
flow capacity for the system for both a 1.995 10 flowline 400
and a 2.441 10 flowline.
2
qoe' MMsctd
3 4 5
Inflow Outflow
q~, Mscfd p., p, (tubing) p, (1.995) p, (2.441) '.i
~
~
1,000
1.600 values are read from Figure 6-6 at the flow rates of
interest:
1,400
q~, Mscfd p.." r = PdIs/P"ep z,
3500 810 1030 1.27 0.86
1,200 4000 500 1040 2.08 0.92
Pe..
Solution:
The well performance is tabulated below for the lower 0", OA
subsystem:
'00
a; Mscfd Pwt, psis Pvt, psia
1000 1877 1606 \ . .0---0 = 0.5
2000 1774 1506
3000 1653 1378
4000 1512 1218
, 3 4 5 6
The performance for the upper subsystem is calculated q.. , MMscfd
by starting at a separator pressure of 1000 psla:
Fig. 6-8. Example 6-5 Solution.
c; Mscfd o. psis PV2' psis
1000 1006 1088 lated beiow. An example calculation of Ap using Equa-
2000 1022 1113 tion 4-62 is presented for the 0.5 in. SSSV using Cd =
3000 1049 1154 0.9 and. Y = 0.85 for a flow rate of 2 MMscfd.
4000 1085 1209
Ap = 2.7"ygp, (1 _ 134)
The pressures above and beiow the SSSV are plotted Z, T,
versus qscon Figure 67. The intersection gives an un
_[6.23 X 10- Z, T, qsc]'
4
restricted flow rate of 4 MMscfd. The pressure drop (462)
across the SSSV (p" - PV2) is determined for several p, d' Cd Y
flow rates from Figure 67. The pressure drop for each
flow rate and SSSV size is also calculated using Equa- 0.5
13 = - = 0.20
tion 4-62 and plotted on Figure 6-8. These are tabu- 2.441
...
156 Gas Production Operations
2.7(.67)(1506)(1 - .24 ) 5. Read values of Pwt' and Pwt at various q,c and plot !:J.Pl
!:J.p - -'--'---''----'-
0.86(578) = Pw/s - Pwt versus qsc'
.[6.23 x 10- 4 (.86)(578)(2000)]' 6. Assume various q,c and calculate the pressure drop
across the gravel pack, !:J.p, using Equation 3-94. This
1506(.5)'(0.9)(0.85)
should be done for various perforating densities.
!:J.p = 5.467 (4.628) = 25.3 psi 7. Plot !:J.p, versus q" on the same graph as used in Step
5. The intersection of the curves gives the flow ca-
lip, psi pacity and the gravel pack pressure drop for various
qro, Mscfd PVI, psia PV1 - PV2 o~ 0.4 D ~ 0.5 perforating densities.
1000 1606 518 15 6
2000 1506 393 62 25
3000 1378 224 152 62 Example 6-6:
4000 1218 9 306 125 The foHowing data apply to the qas weH shown in Fig-
ure 6-9 (see figs. 6-10 and 6-11 for solution). Deter-
The results are obtained from Figure 6-8. The inter- mine the flow capacities and gravel pack pressure drops
sections of the !:J.p curves indicate flow capacities of for 4, 12, and 24 perforations per foot for both 1.995
3230 and 3600 Mscfd for the 0.4 and 0.5 in. SSSV's and 2.441 in. tubing.
respectively. Pff = 1200 psia, T, = 100'F, ~g = 0.82,
= 0.0008 in., H = 13350 ft, TR = 273'F,
EFFECT OF PERFORATING DENSITY
I'g = 0.012 cp, r, = 1040 ft, rw = 0.50 ft,
In many areas of the world, especially the Gulf Coast
region of the United States, high capacity gas wells are S = 0, PR = 5400 psia,
completed in unconsolidated, high permeability forma- h = 20 tt, Perforation diameter = 0.7 in., Z = .97
tions. In order to control production of sand, the wells
are completed by gravel packing. The flow capacity of Formation permeabiiity = 130 md
the well may be controlled by the number of perfora- Gravel permeability = 45 darcys
tions, since the actual reservoir flow capacity is ex-
tremely high. Screen outside diameter = 3.06 in.
Another consideration in the well completion design Hoie diameter = 12.25 in.
is the pressure drop across the gravel pack. If it is too N = (spf)h = (spf)(20)
large, the gravel pack may be destroyed. The consensus
is that this pressure drop should be less than about 300
psi, which means that the number of perforations re- SolutIon:
quired to meet this limit must be determined. 1. Calculation of Pw,":
The method of analysis is the same as that used to
analyze subsurface safety valve effect, except that the 1422 TIiZ(ln(.472r./rw ) + S)
A = ---'---'-k"-h.,..--'--"-'-------"
system is divided at the perforations. The equation for
determining the !:J.p across the gravel pack was given in A = 1422(733)(0.012)(0.97)[ln(.472(1040)/.50] + 0)
Chapter 3 (Eq. 3-94). 130(20)
The two subsystems are: (I) the reservoir, including
any actual skin damage and (2) the separator, flowline, A = 32.15
surface choke, SSSV, and tubing. 2.33 x 10' 2.33 X 10'
The solution procedure is: ~= k'" (130)'"
I. Using the reservoir gas flow equation (Eq. 3-11), de- =6.77 x 10'
termine the pressure at the sandface, upstream of the
gravel pack, Pwt' for various flow rates, q". 3.161 x lO-12~~gZT
B = ---.,;- 2
-'-"'--
2. Plot Pwt' versus q", h fw
3. Starting at the separator pressure, determine the bot- 3.161 x 10- 12(6.77 x 10')(.82)(.97)(733)
tom-hole flowing pressure required for the upper sub- =
(20)'(.50)
system, pWf for various flow rates, q".
B = 6.24 X 10- 4
4. Plot Pwt versus q" on the same graph as used in Step
2. p." = [PR' - A qsc - B qsc'l"'s
Total System Analysis 157
P ~ 1,200 T ~ 100F 2.
3,000 .
2,000 4
2.441
Ap, psi.
1,000 .
o 5
q.<, MMscfd 10 20 25 30
EFFECT OF DEPLETION
q~, Mscfd Pwta, psia N=80N=240 N = 480 All of the previous analyses were performed at a con-
30000 5257 3058 248 62 stant reservoir pressure, PR, that is, at a particular time
20000 5317 1061 108 27 in the life of the reservoir. As gas is produced and PR
15000 5342 566 61 15
declines, the deliverability of the total system will de-
10000 5364 244 27 7
5000 5384 60 7 2 cline. In order to maintain production at a constant rate,
the flowing bottom-hole pressure Pw/ must be reduced as
The results of the system analysis are tabulated be- fiR declines. This can be accomplished by installing a
low: compressor to lower separator pressure or by installing
a larger flowline and 'tubing to reduce the pressure drop
in the piping system.
Flow Capacity, Mscfd
Inflow performance curves for declining PR are illus-
Tubing 10 SPF=4 SPF=12 SPF=24 trated in Figure 3-19 for the reservoir described in Ex-
1.995 13700 14500 14600 ample 3-7. The decline in flow capacity for a given pip-
2.441 21000 25000 26000
Pwt, psia
q~, Mscfd p, ~ 1000 p, = 500
1000 1256 635
3000 1283 685
5000 1337 780
7000 1415 905
9000 1510 1045
2,000
1,600
1,200
~
"
\,} 800
400
2345678910
TIme
q..,. MMscfd
Fig. 6-13. Example 6-7 Solution. Fig. 6-14. Relating performance to time.
160 Gas Production Operations
capacity drops below the allowable rate. flowline sizes or tubing sizes. The effect of tubing size
Prediction of the rate versus time and cumulative pro- on injection rate will be illustrated by an example. For
duction versus time requires plots of PR or PR!Z versus this example it is assumed that wellhead pressure is Con-
Gp and PR versus q". A plot of PR versus q" can be stant so that the inflow will include only the pressure
obtained from a systems analysis of the effect of deple- drop in the tubing. That is,
tion, as illustrated in Example 6-7 and Figure 6-13. The Inflow
total field flow capacity can be obtained by summing the
Pwh - ~.ptubing = Pwf
flow capacities of individual wells. A plot of h!Z or PR
versus Gp is obtained from a material balance calcula- Equation 4-27 may be used to calculate Pwj for various
tion, as described in Chapter 3. rates. The outflow performance may be calculated using
The procedure involves selecting time periods small the back-pressure equation for gas wells. That is,
enough such that PR can be considered constant during Outflow
the period. The smaller the time period, or the smaller PR + lip", = Pwj
the value of IiGp selected, the more accurate the predic-
tion will be. The procedure is: where
5. Calculate t = llit and G, = lliGp Plot Gp , PR and From a previous injection test:
q," versus t. Repeat until the economic limit is reached. C = 2 X 10-5 MMscfd/psia'", n = 0.86
This type of analysis could be used to determine the I. Assume a value for Pwj
effects on injection rate of various compressor pressures, 2. Calculate P = (Pwh + Pw/)!2
Total System Analysis 161
3. Calculate Z and i1, at p, t Outflow
Injection Rats P""
4. Calculate Pw! and compare with the assumed value.
MMscfd psis
If not close, use the calculated Pw! as next estimate
and go to step 2. o 2000
4 2336
The procedure will be illustrated by calculating the 8 2695
12 3039
bottomhole pressure for the 2-3/8 (1.995) tubing for an 16 3363
injection rate of 4 MMscfd. For this rate: 20 3671
24 3964
200 II (0.7)(4) 28086 28 4245
N Re = =--
1-', (1.995) 1-', 32 4514
.00 18 21.25)]2
f= [ 1.14 - 2 log ( - +-.:.- The intersections of the various inflow curves with the
1.995 N R,
outflow curve in Figure 6-15 represent the injection rates
0.0375 (0.7)(10000) 0.4303 possible for the 3 tubing sizes. The results are tabulated
S= =-- below:
(150 + 460) Z Z
p~! = (4000)2 EXP(S) Tubing Size, Injection Rate,
25 (0.7)(150 + 460)(l0000)(EXP(S) - l)fZ (4)2 inches MMscfd
6000 .
fT~': 1' 1
' .
.. .
..
............ . : ; :. : :
-. d . . . . ,
"""'-'$ . . : : :
~ \ . .- - 1D.: _,;" : . . ~ ~
4000 '~::.""""" . , ~:::""""" : : ..... ,
~ll:I": " ....... 2-3/8
: tiI:
:..........;....I:.. L'::::" ....Lj.........;
-'1- 2-7/8
Pw"
3000 .......... .: '.: ~ . ;
psig : : : <,8.. : ........ 3-1/2
I' :: I: OUTFLOW :''',,:
: I ...... -+-
2000 ..f..:.. ~ .... I....:.. .. ji;.... jr::'~ '--_ _-..I
: :.. :.. 'I:.. :.. :.. :.. I :..
1000 ..-f..-!-..f.. I.. +.. ..: I..f...... jj'!
\ ~ ~ I: . . : .
.
0+---+---+----l---'--+----+.....lL--f--..-41-'----l
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Injection Rate, MMscfd
The location of the node for the final analysis must be point where flow streams commingle upstream of the fi-
selected at a point such that there is no further comming- nal node, points A and B in the system shown. The anal-
ling of flow streams downstream of the node. For the ysis must begin at the reservoir pressure which is inde-
system shown in Figure 6-16 this would be at either point pendent of rate and end at some fmal outlet pressure which
C or point D. Intermediate nodes must be selected at any is also independent of rate.
To illustrate the procedure consideration will be given
to either changing the pressure at point D or looping the
surface line between points C and D. The node will be
selected at point C. Intermediate nodes must be consid-
ered at points A and B.
The inflow to point A will be calculated from:
Pc
q,
Q, QA Qc
mingling occurs, point C, the inflow expressions for the the correct GLR and t; for each commingled rate are
flows coming from points A and B are: calculated using:
Pc = PA - !:J.PAC and 2: q,GLR,
Pc = Ps - !ipsc GLRAC = and
QA
This will result in a relationship between pressure at
point C and the inflow rate into point C as illustrated in , _ 2: q,/w'
Figure 6-19. The calculation of the pressure drops be- JwAC - QA
tween points A and C, !:J.PAC and between points Band
C, !:J.Psc is complicated by the fact that the GLR and Similar expressions are used to determine these values
water fractions are functions of rate if the individual wells for calculating !:J.psc.
have different values of these parameters. In this case The expression for the outflow from point C is
i
PB Pc
q, q, Q,
QB=2:q,~ Qc
INTRODUCTION v/ - v/
PIVI - P2 V2 = -'----=- (7-1)
2g
N essential part of any gas production op-
-
""",--
t-f marily a function of pipe diameter, orifice diameter, and
the location of the differential-pressure taps.
1'B-j-O-j
~ Orifice Vanes
-+----C---I
gl=='B==jJ=ce~==~ ~llCO .... \j,
Orifice Vanes
/r-B--r-f-C--i-~-,lol --Ib
t:f
g
r-B1
Orifice
Orifice
K,
Vanes Th
rBr;~
~:.~
,,~,
~-
Orifice
gc~
---
r::c-t~~
B
i Orifice Vanes Orifice Vanes
Fig. 7-2. Proper installation of a meter run for an orifice meter. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
168 Gas Production Operations
Straightening Vanes. The purpose of straightening 2. The meter run ID should be at least one-third larger
vanes is to minimize the effect of swirls, eddy currents, than the orifice opening;
or irregular velocity distribution on meter accuracy. These 3. Both the differential and static-pressure pens should
vanes are built into a nipple and consist of a bundle of preferably operate within the middle 60% of the re-
small pipe or tubing as shown in Figure 7-2. The di- cording chart range.
ameter of each tube d should not exceed 1/4 the inside
pipe diameter D. The length should be at least !Od. Un- As a practical matter, the meter run ID should not be
less necessary, vanes should not be used, since they are less than 3 in. in nominal diameter regardless of the small
susceptible to erosion, introduce additional pressure loss, quantity of gas flowing. As a first approximation Equa-
and clog easily. tion 7-4 should be solved for C' at the flow rate, hwand
PI desired. Then
Orifice Location. Figure 7-2 shows the minimum dis-
tance from valves and fittings that the orifice should be Orifice ID (in.) = ( -
C' )0' (7-6)
250
placed in order that proper metering might result.
If the maximum anticipated flow rate is used to find
Size of Orifice and Meter Run. The meter run should C', multiplying the orifice size found in Equation 7-6
be sized so that the anticipated maximum and minimum by 1.5 gives the approximate minimum pipe diameter
flow rates may be handled within the satisfactory ratio needed. Once this has been established it is a relatively
of orifice to pipe diameter. In doing this it should be simple matter to change orifice plates as the flow varies
kept in mind that: to keep the values of h; and PI in the desired range.
Standard sharp-edged orifice plates should be used,
I. The differential h; should not exceed the static pres- the thickness of which is at least 1/16 in. For pipes larger
sure Pf; than 4 in. the thickness of the plate should be at least
(b)
(a) Flow
"'
Atmosphere
Damping screw
Teflon seal
Loside
end-plate Check valve
(Bond. syn. rub.)
Mercury
Roller seat
lock nut
Plug
Fig. 7-3. Views showing construction of meters. (a) Printed with permission of the American Meter Division of the Singer
Company. (b) Courtesy The Foxboro Company.
Flow Measuring 169
1/8 in. The thickness should not exceed one-eighth the placed on each of the leads to the pressure taps, two
orifice opening. valves on the bypass, plus a vent valve. When the meter
is placed in operation the bypass valves would be open,
Recorder. The normal orifice meter is equipped with as would the two main valves, with the vent valve closed.
a two-pen recorder for measuring both static and differ- The meter is then placed in service by slowly closing the
ential pressure. The differential pen is normally actuated bypass valves, followed by opening of the vent valve.
through a mechanical system using either a mercury ma- This procedure prevents momentary pressure surges that
nometer or a bellows. Both types are shown in Figure might damage the meter or upset the calibration. The
7-3. reverse procedure would then be used in taking the meter
With the former a slight change in flow rate changes out of service. When the leads are bypassed the vent
the level in the mercury manometer. A large float resting valve is an excellent place to obtain a gas sample.
on the mercury changes level correspondingly and trans- Standard calibration procedure on the differential pen
mits this movement to the chart pen through a system of involves connecting one side of a water manometer into
levers. the high-pressure side of the meter. The low-pressure
The bellows-type meter consists of two bellows filled side of the meter is then opened to the atmosphere. This
with some fluid such as glycol. As the pressure differ- gives two manometers in parallel. By superimposing
ential changes this fluid moves between the bellows pressure on the high-pressure cell with a hand pump or
through a damping device, causing the bellows to ex- similar device one may compare the meter reading with
pand or contract. The pen is actuated by a center rod that of the manometer. If they are different the meter
that is connected to the free ends of the bellows. The must be adjusted accordingly.
small liquid-filled bellows located on the high-pressure The bourdon tube may be calibrated simply by placing
side serves as an expansion device to correct for changes a dead-weight tester or a calibrated pressure gage in the
in ambient temperature. lead line to the bourdon tube. By proper manipulation
Both types of instruments are equipped with check of the valves, the vent valve may be used to make this
valves to protect them from differential pressures that connection.
exceed the range of the instrument. This is more of a The circular charts used usually cover a time period
problem with the mercury meter, since excessive differ- of either 24 hours or 7 days. Many meters have clocks
ential pressure can blow mercury out of the meter, which that may be easily adjusted for either time period. In
destroys its calibration. In the bellows meter, soft-seated most production operations 7-day periods are preferred,
check valves prevent the flow of fluid between the bel- since this minimizes the cost of changing charts and the
lows. Then the bellows are not likely to rupture since number of charts to be handled.
they are supported internally by the fluid contained within The charts used to record the static and differential
them. pressures may be either the standard type, which record
The bellows meter has gained increasing popularity, directly the values of h; and PI' or the square root or
particularly in field operations. Even though the initial L-1O type, which record the square root of the static
cost is higher, many operators feel that this is compen- pressure and differential pressure. Since the zero reading
sated for by decreasing maintenance. It also offers the on the L-1O chart corresponds to zero pounds absolute,
advantage of operating either properly or not at all, with the pressure pen must be set at local atmospheric pres-
little range in between. The problems of mercury loss sure. The position of the pen for zero gage pressure (at-
and worrying about the change in calibration with the mospheric pressure) depends on the atmospheric pres-
amount of mercury are eliminated. Until it fails, expe- sure and the range of the static spring in the recorder. It
rience has shown that this meter needs little routine cal- may be calculated from:
ibration.
Puro = IO(PaIRp)"-', (7.7)
With both types the static pressure is read from a pen
actuated by a bourdon tube. The lead for this may come where
off either the upstream or downstream tap. In most in-
Puro = pen setting for zero line pressure, psi,
stallations it is good practice to install a bourdon tube
p; = local atmospheric pressure, psia, and
having about twice the maximum pressure anticipated. Rp = pressure range of meter, psi.
This minimizes the problem of distortion, which de-
stroys the original calibration of the tube. These tubes The actual scale of the L-l 0 charts is from zero to ten;
are available in many materials, the type depending on therefore, the correct values of static and differential
the service and the pressure rating desired. pressures depend on the ranges of the static and differ-
Most meters are installed using a standard five-valve ential springs in the meter. The actual flow rate is cal-
manifold of the type shown in Figure 7-4. One valve is culated from:
--
170 Gas Production Operations
~~~~~;==~[ Instrument
shut-off valves
By-pass valves
Standard weight steel pipe. required only
W' I.P.S. with screwed fittings if recorder has
no by-pass
ilj1-
:I:I
Settling chambers for
dirty or tarry gas
LU
.#4~ Blow down valves
W .'IdI
Fig. 7-4. Piping arrangements for orifice meters. Courtesy The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. From Fluid
Meters, 6th ed.
(7-8) Solution:
or
1. Calculate C' = Fb Fpb F'b Fg F, Fp ,r,Y. r:
From the tables, for d = 3.000 and D = 6.065, Fb =
q,sc = C' M hUPUl (7-9) 1891.9.
i
~
FLANGE TAPS-BASIC ORIFICE FACTORS-F. FLANGE TAPS-BASIC ORIFICE FACTORS-F.
Internal Diameter of Pipe, D, locbes or Pipe, D.
Orifice
Diul..,
d.
2 3
Orifice
Oiam., to
Interoal Diameter
12
Iuchee
16
'"....
;::
l~'" 1.689 1.939 2.067 2.300 2.626 2.900 3.068 3.152 3.438
~ ~.
- - - - - - --- --- ------ ,~", '.564 10.020 10.136 11.376 11.938
- - - --- - - - --- - - - ---
12.090 14.688 I~OOO 1~250
.250
.375
12.695
28.474
12.708
28._
12.711
28.427
12.714
28.411
12.712
28.393
12.708
28.382
12.705
28.376
12.703
28.373
12.697
28.364
1.000 200.20
i~.47
... . ... . ... .
50.587 SO.521 50.356 1.125 253.56 253.48 ....
50.771
50~ 78.599 78.523
.500 50.435 50.313 50.283 50.258 1.250 313.31 313.20 313.18 312.94 '312'.85 312.83
.62' eo.esc 79.508 79.311 79.052 78.817 78.687 78.6 1.375 379.44 379.29 379.26 378.94 378.82 378.79
.750 117.09 115.62 115.14 114.52 113.99 113.70 113.56 113.SO 113.33 1.500 451.95 451.76 451.72 451.30 451.14 451.10 450.53 450.48
.87. 162.95 159.56 158.47 157.12 156.00 155.41 155.14 155.03 1504.71 1.625 530.87 530.63 530.57 530.04 529.84 529.78
1.000 219.77 212.41 210.22 207.44 205.18 204.04 203.54 202.75 529.06 528.99 528.94
203.33 1.750 616.20 615.90 615.83 615.16 614.91 614.84 613.94 613.85
1.125 290.99 276.19 211.70 266.35 262.06 259.95 259.04 258.65 257.63 613.78
1.875 707.98 707.60 707.51 706.68 706.36 706.28 705.18 705.07 704.99
1.250 385.78 353.58 345.13 335.12 327.39 323.63 322.03 321.37 319.61 2.000 806.23 805.76 805.65 804.61 804.23
1.375 4-48.59 433.50 415.75 402.18 395.80 393.09 391.97 804.13 802.78 802.65 802.55
389.03 2.125 910.97 910.38 910.24 908.98 908.51 908.99 906.n 906.61 906.49
1.500 542.27 510.86 487.98 477.36 ..n.96 411.14 466.99 2.250 1022.2 1021.5 1021.3 1019.8 1019.2 1019.1 1017.1 1017.0 1016.8
1.625 623.91 586.82 569.65 582.58 559.72 552.31 2.375 1140.1 1139.2 1139.0 1137.1 1136.4
1.750 701.26 674.44 663.42 658.96 647.54 1136.2 1133.9 1133.7 1133.5
77().44 2.500 1264.5 1263.4 1263.1 1260.8 1260.0 1259.8 1257.1 1256.8 1256.6
1.875 834.88 793.88 777.18 753.17 2.625 1395.6 139-1.2 1393.9 1391.1 1390.1 1389.9
2.000 930.65 906.01 896.06 870.59 1386.7 1386.4 1386.1
2.750 1533.4 1531.7 1531.3 1528.0 1526.8 1526.5 1522.7 1522.4 1522.1
2.125 1091.2 1052.5 1038.1 1001.4 2.875 1678.0 1675.9 1675.4 1671.4 1670.0
2.250 ... 1223.2 1199.9 1147.7 3.000 1826.9 1826.3 1821.4
1669.6 1665.2 1664.8 1664.5
2.375 ... .. .... 1311.7 3.125
1829.4
1987.8 1984.7 1984.0 1978.1
1819.7
1976.1
1819.3
1975.6
1814.1
1969.6
1813.7
1969.0
1813.3
1968.6
2.500 1498.4 3.250 2153.2 2149.5 2148.6 2141.5 2139.2 2138.6 2131.5 2130..9 2130.4
3.375 2325.7 2321.2 2320.2 2311.7 2308.. 2308.2 2299.' 2299.2 2298.7
Internal Diameter of Pipe. D. lochea 3.500 2505.6 2500.1 2498.9 2488.7 2485.4 2484.6 2474.9 2474.1 2473.5
On6~ 3.625 2692.8 2686.2 2684.7 2612.6 2668.7 2667.7 2656.4 2655.5 2854.'
OiaUl.
d.
lnehes 3.826
'.025 4.897 5.189
6
5.761 6.065 7.625
7.981 8.071
3.750
3.875
'.000
2887.6
3090.1
3300.6
2879.7
_.7
3289.3
28n.9
3078.5
3286.8
2863.5
3061.4
3266.4
2858.8
3055.9
3260.0
2857.7
3054.6
3258.5
2844.6
3039.4
3240.8
2843.5
3038.1
3239.4
2842.7
3037.2
3238.3
- - - - - - - - - ------------ 4.250 3746.1 3730.2 3726.7 3698.4 3680 . 3687.5 3663.' 3661.9 3660.5
250 12.688 12.683 .... ... . ... . ... '.500 4226.0 4204.1 4199.2 4160.4 4148.4 4145.5 4113.9 4111.5 4109.7
.375 28.353 28.348 4.750 4742.7 4712.8 4706.2 4653.4 4637.2 4633.' 4591.5 4588.4 4!)86.0
.500 50.234 50.224 '50'.;97 '50'.191 50.182 '50.178 '.000 5298.6 5258.4 5249.6 5179.0 5157.4 5152.3 5097.2 5093.1 5090.1
.625 78.450 78.421 78.338 78.321 78.296 78.287 ... 5.250 5897.4 5843.6 5831.8 5738.5 5710.0 5703.3 5631.4 5626.1 5622.2
.750 113.15 113.08 112.87 112.82 112.75 112.72 ... '.500 6543.1 6471.9 6456.3 6333.' 6296.6 6287.9 6194.8 6188.-1 6183.1
.87'
1.000
1~.4O
202.20
lM.27
201.99
153.88
201.34
153.78
201.19
153.63
200.96
153.56
200.85
153.34
200.46
153.31
200.40
153.31
200.38
5.750 mo.a 7146.9 7126.5 6966.9 6919.0 6907.8 6788.1 6n9.6 ezra.a
6.000 7993.3 7872.9 7846.6 7640.4 7579.0 7564.7 7412.3 7401.5 7393.6
1.125 256.69 256.33 255.31 2550S 254.22 254.56 253.99 253.89 253.87
1.250 318.03 317.45 315.83 315.48 314.95 314.72 313.91 313.78 313.74
6.250
6.500
8808.'
9693.3
8654.8
9498.1
8621.1
94553
8357.3
9121.0
8278.9
9021.7
8260.7
8998.7
8068.3
8757.3
l1054.'
8740.3
8044.'
8727.9
1.375 386.45 385.51 382.99 382.47 381.70 381.37 380.25 990.06 990.02
6.750 10654 10409 1035. 9935.2 9810.5 9781.6 9480.4 9459.4 94.0
1.500 462.27 460.79 456.93 456.16 455.03 4M.57 453.02 452.78 452.72 7.000 11711 11394 11327 10804 1064. 10613 10239 10213 10194
1.625 545.89 543.61 537.n 538." 535.03 534.99 532.27 531.95 531.87 7.250 12467 12381 11m 11540 11496 11035 11003 1098()
1.750 637.83 834.99 625.73 624.09 621.79 620.89 618.02 617.60 617.50 7.500 13656 13541 12725 12489 12434 11869 11831 11803
1.875
2.000
138.15
649.41
733.68
842.12
721.03
823.99
718.69
820."
715.44
816.13
714.18
814.41
710.32
809.22
709.n
808.50
709.64
808.34
7.750 .... 13787 13500 13433 12745 12698 12664
'.000 .... ... 14927 14578 14498 13664 13607 13586
2.125
2.250
970.90
1104.7
960.48
1089.9
934.97
1054.4
930.35
1048.1
924.07
1039.5
921.71
1036.3
914.78
1027.1
913.85
1025.9
913.64
1025.6
8.250 ... 16158 15730 15633 14628 14560 14510
'.500 17505 16963 1684. 15642 16560 15500
2.375 1252.1 1231.7 1182.9 1174.2 1162.6 1158.3 1146.2 1144.7 1144.3 8.750 18297 18148 16706 16609 16538
2.500
2.625
1415.0
1595-6
1387.2
1558.2
1320.9
1469.2
1309.3
1453.9
1293.8
1433.5
1288.2
1426.0
1272.3
1405.4
1270.3
1402.9
1269.8
1402.3
'.000 ... 19566 17826 Inn 17627
2.750 1791.1 1746.1 1628.9 1608.7 1582.0 1572.3 1545.7 1542.5 1Ml.8
9.250 .. 19004 1.... 18769
'.500 .... 20245 20065 1996.
2.875 1955.5 1801.0 ln4.5 1740.0 1727.5 1693.4 1689.3 1688.4 9.750 .... .... 21552 21365 21229
3.000 2195.0 1986.6 1952.4 1907.8 1891.9 1..... 1843.5 1842.3 10.000 22930 22712 22554
3.125 2187.2 2143.4 2086.' 2086.1 2011.6 2005.2 2003.' 10.250 24365 24132 23947
3.250 2404~2 2348.8 2276.5 2250.8 2182.6 2174.6 2172.9
3.375 2639.5 2569.8 2479.1 2446.8 2361.8 2352.o 2349.9
10.500 .. 25924 25828 25414
10.750 27567 27210 28960
3.500 2895.5 2808.1 2695.1 2654.9 2549.7 2537.7 2535.0 11.000 ... 29331 28899 28598
3.625
3.750
3180.8 3065.3
3345.5
2925.7
3172.1
2876.0
3111.2
2746.5
2952.6
2731.8
2934.'
222...
2930.'
11.250 .... ... 30710 30346
3.675 3657.7 3435.8 3361.5 3168.3 3146.9 3142.1
'.000 .... .... ... 3718.2 3628.2 3394.3 3368.' 3362.'
'.250 .... . ... .... .....8 4216.6 3879.4 3842.3 3834.2
'.500 .... .. . ... 4900.9 4412.8 4360.' 4349.0
4.750 .... .. 5000.7 m'.1 4912.2
'.000 .... . ... .. 5650.0 5551.1 5529.5
'.250
'.500
~750
I ...
....
....
... ..
..
6369.3
7170.9
6236.4
6992 .c
7830.0
6207.3
6953.6
7771.' .....
6.000 ..
I I 87070
~
"It' VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR, .....
FLANGE TAPS-BASIC ORIFICE FACTORS-F. F,-FLANGE TAPS ~
b
F,=l+,~
Orifice
Internal Diameter or Pipe. D. Inches v h.pt
DiaID_. 20 2< 30
d. lilteroal Diameter orPipe, D. IIIChea
IDebes 18.81. 19.000 19.250 22.626 23.000 23.250
29.250 28.628 29.000 0riIi00
2.125 905.11 905.05 904.98 ... .... 1.689 1.939 2.067 2.300 2.626 2.900 3.068 3.152 3.438
2.250
2.375
1015.2
1131.6
1015.1
1131.5
1015.0
1131.4 1130.2 1130.1 1130.0 .250 .0879 .0911 .0926 .0950 .0979 .0999
------
.1010 .1014 .1030
2.500 1254.4 1254~ 1254.2 1252.8 1252.6 1252.6 .... .375
.500
.0621
.0562
.0709
.0576
.0726
.0588
.0755
.0612
.0792
.0648
.0820
.0621
.0836
.0698
.0844
.0703
.0867
2.625 1383.6 1383.5 1383.3 13&:l.7' 1381.5 1381.4 .... .625 .0520 .0505 .0506 .0516 .0541 .0566 .0583 .0591
.0730
2.750 1519.1 1519.0 1518.8 1517.0 1516.8 1516.7 .... .750 .0536 .0485 .1>471 .0462 .<1470 .0466 .0498 .0504
.0618
.0528
2.875 1661.0 1660.9 1660.7 1658.6 1658.'4 1~ 1656.0 .875 .0595 .0506 .<1478 .0445 .0429 .0433 .0438 .0442
3.000 1809.4 1809.2 1809.0 1806.6 180M 1806.2 1803.7 1803.5 1803.4 .046Il
1.000 .0621 .0559 .0515 .0458 .0416 .0403 .0402 .0403 .0411
3.125 1964.1 1983.9 1963.7 1961.0 1960.7 1960.6 1957.7 1957.5 1957.4
3.250
3.375
2125.3
2292.9
2125.1
2292.6
2124.8
2292.3
2121.7
2288.9
2121.5
2288
2121.3
2288.4
2118.0
2284.7
2117.9
2284.5
2117.7
2284.4
1.125
1250
.0762
,('824
.0630
n707 ..,...
.0574 .0498
.0550
.0427
.<1456
.oJ96
.ll408
.0386
.oJ88
.0383
.0381
.<l38O
.0365
3.500 2466.9 2466.6 2466.3 2462 . 2462.1 2461.8 2457.8 2457.6 2<'S7.4 1.375 .om .0715 .0614 .0501 .<1435 .0406 .0394 .0365
3.625 2647.3 2647.0 2646.6 2642.' 2642.0 2641.7 2637.3 2637.0 ,.,..8 1.500 .On3 .0679 .0554 .<1474 .0438 .0420 .0378
3.750 2834.2 2833.9 2833.5 282ll.7 2828.3 2 sse.0 2823.1 2822.6 2822.6 1.625 .. .0735 .0613 .0522 .04n .<1457 .Il402
3.875 3027.5 3027.3 3026.8 3021.5 3021.0 3020.7 3015.2 3014.9 3014.7 1.750 .066' .0575 .0524 .0500 .\l434
4.000 3227.5 3227.1 3226.5 3220.6 3220.1 3219.8 3213.8 3213.5 3213.3 1.875
2.000
.0717 .0628
.0676
.0574
.0624
.054'
.cese
.0473
.0517
'.250 3646.7 3646.2 3645.6 3638~ 3637.7 3637.2 3630.1 3629.7 3629.'
4.500
4.750
4092.1
4563.7
<4091.5
4562.9
4090.6
4561.9 "'1.8
4551.1
4081.0
4550.1
4080.5
4549.5
4071.9
4539~
4071.4
4538.8
4071.1
4538.4 2.125
...
.0715 .066' .0644 .0563
.000
5.250
.500
5061.8
5586.6
6138.2
......
5060.8
6136.7
5059.6
5583.8
6134.8
5046.4
5567.7
6115.3
5045.2
5566.4
6113.6
5044.5
55655
6112.6
5032.'
5551~
6095.8
5031.8
5550.5
6094.9
5031.4
5550.0
6094.4
2.250
2.375
2.500
..
.0706 .ceea .0607
.0648
.0683
<750 6717.1 6715.2 6712.8 6689.1 6687.2 66859 6666.2 6666.2 6664.5 lilteroal Diameter orPipe, D. Inebea
6.000
.,50
6.500
6.750
7.000
7.250
7323.4
7957.5
8619.9
9311.1
10031
7321.1
7954.7
8616.5
9306.9
10026
10n6
7318.2
7951.2
8612.2
9301.6
10020
10768
7289.4
7916.4
8570.2
9251.1
9959.3
10698
7287.1
7913.7
8566.9
9247.2
9954.6
10589
7285.6
7911.9
8564.8
"".7
9951.7
10686
7262.5
7884.7
8533.0
9207.4
9908.0
10635
7261.3
7883.4
M31.4
9205.6
9905.9
10533
7260.5
7882.5
8530.4
9204.4
9904.6
10631
I.-
Orifice
DilUD. d.
.250
3.826
.1047
.026
.1054
4.897 5.189
6
5.761 8.071
------ - - - --- - - - --- --- 6.065 7.625
8
7.981
10782
~75 .0894 .0907
7.500 11562 11555 11546 11459 11<452 11448 11388 11386 11384
7.750 12374 12365 12354 12250 12243 12238 12168 12165 12163 .500
.625
.0763
.0553
.On9
.0670
.08.36 .0852 .0880 .0892 ... ,
..~5
8.000 13218 13207 13194 13071 13062 13056 12971 1296. .0753 .0785 .0801
1297' .750 .0561 .0578 .oess .0701 .0718
8.250 14095 I_ I_ 13920 13910 13903 13809 tseos 13802 .875 .0467 .0502 .0567 .om .0738
8.500 15005 14990 14971 14799 14787 14n9 14669 ,-ses 14661 1.000 .0430 .0442 .0500
.0507
.0520
.0625
.0557
.0643
.0576 .0660 .0676
.0742
.06ll0
8.750 15950 15933 15911 15708 15693 15684 15557 15552 t ....
9.000
9.250
9.500
9.750
16932
17950
19007
20104
16911
17926
18979
20071
16885
17898
18943
16647
17618
18620
16630
17598
18597
19628
16620
17585
18582
19611
16473
17416
18387
19386
16466
17409
18379
19321
16462
17404
18373
19371
1.125
1.250
1.375
.0388
.0381
.0347
.0398
.oJ64
.0344
.0444
.0399
.0363
.0462
.<1414
.0375
.0498
.0447
.0403
.....
.0517
.0419
.0502
.0549
.0501
.0619
.0566
.0518
.0623
.0571
.05"
20030 19655 1.500 .0345 .oJ36 .0336 .0344 .0367 .0381 .0457 .0474 .0479
10.000 21243 21205 21157 20723 20692 206n 20414 20403 20396 1.626 .0354 .0338 .0318 .oaea .Il337 .0348 .0418 .0435 .0439
10.250 22426 22382 23325 21825 21789 21767 21471 21458 21450 1.750 .0372 .0350 .0307 .0306 .oJ14 .0322 .0J83 .0399 .0403
10.500 "... 23603 23538 22982 22921 22898 22556 ""'2 22533 \.875 .oJ96 .oJ70 .0005 .()298 .Il298 n303 .Il353 .0386 .0371
10.750 24931 24872 24797 2<134 2_ 2_ 236n 23656 23846 2.000 .0430 .0395 .0308 .0296 .eee7 .0288 .om .0340 .0343
11.000 26257 26190 26104 2"" 25290 25257 24817 24799 2<787
2_ 2.125 .0467 .0427 9318 .0300 .0261 .om .0304 .0315 .0318
11.250
11.500
27636
29070
27559
28982
27460
28870
26592
27878
26531
27809
25492
22166
25972
27199 _ 27176
2595'
27161
2.250 .1>507 .0462 .0334 .0310 .eee, .0274 .0288 .0296 .0297
.om
11.750 30563 30462 30334 29205 29126 29021 28436 28411 28394
2.375
2.500
.0548
.oeee
.0501
.0540
.0354
.0378
.0394
.0342
.0286
.0295
.0274
.0279
.0271
.0259 .- .Il28O
.0265
~
12.000 32116 32001 31856 30574 30485 30429 29708 29621 29659 2.625 .0626 .0579 .0406 .0365 .oJ08 .0287 .0251 .0253 .0254
12.500 33259 32343 32306 32283
13.000
13.500
35417
39003
42913
35270
38lI17
42673
""'"
38581
42375
33444
36502
39762
33330
36357
39581
36267
39467
35114
38025
35068
37988
35039
37932
2.750
2.875
3.000
.0659
....
....
.06"
.0647
.0673
.0436
.0466
.0500
.0391
.0418
.0448
.032'
.0343
.0388
.0300
.0314
.0332
.11246
.0244
.0245
.0245
.0240
.0238
.02<5
.0240
.11237
14.000 4n44 <6921 46523 43241 43015 42874 41082 41012 40988
.... .. '"tl
14.500
15.000
46958
50934
4667.
50591
46505
50378
54513
44291
47661
44206
47557
44152
47490
3.125
3.250
3.375
....
.... . ...
.0533
.l1564
.0594
.<1479
.0510
.0541
.0389
.<1416
.0443
.0353
.oJ75
.0400
.0248
.0254
.Il263
.0239
.0242
.0248
.11237
.0240
.0244
;:;
51202 51075 50994
15.500 55192 54274
....
-"
12-
58935 54671 3.500 .0620 .0569 .04n .0426 .0273 .11255 .0251
16.000 59759 59251
64060 63671
54923
58835
54769
5864. 58531 3.625 .... .0643 .0597 .0500 .<1452 .0288 .11265 .0280
16.500 64701
.... 68792 62950 62728 62586 3.750 .... .. .0621 .0527 .<1479 .0300 .11276 .0271
17.000
....
69288
... 3.875 .... . ... .0640 .0553 .0505 .0316 .0289
17.500
18.000
....
... ....
67282
71844
67017
71530
66648
71330
4.000 .... ... .. .... .0578 .0531 .0334 .oJ04
.11283
.11297 '
18.500
..
76653 76282 76046 '.250 . ... . .. ... .0620 .0579 .0372 .0338 .oJ3O
19.000 8.725 81289 81011 ....
~
'.500 .0618 .0414 .oJ75 .oJ66
19.500 ... 87078 eesee ""44 4.750 .... ... .0457 .0416 .0405
20.000 92734 92140 91761 5000 .... ... .0500 .0457 .ll446
-
~
20.500 ... ..no 98025 97584
21.000
21.500
105134 104282
110983
103752
110340
.250
'500
e, 750
....
....
. ...
....
....
....
....
. ...
....
....
. ...
....
. ...
. ...
. ...
. ...
.0539
.05"
. ...
.<1497
.Q535 ...,.
..... .....
..... .0487
~
"Ii' VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR,
F,-FLANGE TAPS
~
b
"
~....
"b" VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR, F,=l+--
F,-FLANGE TAPS Yh.p,
b IDterllll.l DialQeter Df Pi~. D. Inch ... ;:
F,:;;1 +--
Yh.p,
Orifice
Dialll.. d.
IDCbea
20 ,. 30
~.
18.81<1 19.000 19.250 22.626 23.000 23.250 28.628 29.000 29.250
JllternaJ Diameter or Pipe, D. ID~ .-- - - - --- --- --- --- --- ---
...
on... 2.000 .066' .0671 .0676
Di&m. d. to ta 16
2.125
2.250
.06<0
.0614
.06M
.0618
.06<9
.0622
[~
9.... 10.020 10.136 11.376 11.938 12.090 14.688 ,5.000 2-375 .0556 .0592 .0597 .0059 .066' .0669
15.250
- - - ------ - - - - - - - - - --- 2.500
2.625
.0563
.0'""
.0568
.0544
.0573
.0549
.0636
.0614
.06<,
.0620
.06<,
.0624
'.000 .0738
.0701 .0705 2.750 .0517 .052\ .0526 .0392 .0599 .0603
1.125
.aeo
.0085
.oeae .0652 .0656
.....
.0698 .0714 .oila .... 2.875 .04" .0499
.00n
.050< .0571 .0578 .0582 .0662
.-_. ....
.osee 3.000 .0473 .0463 .0551 .055' .0562 .06M' .06<9 .0652
1.375 .<l606 .0610 .0671 .067'
.-
1.eoc .0545
~'" .0556 .0612 .()63' .0635 .0706 .0713 3.125 .0452 .0457 .o-ea .053\ .0538 .0542 .0626 .063' .063<
t.ees
1.7SO
t.ers
.....,
~50<
.0433
.0523
.0485
.0451
.0527
.0490
.oes
.0513
.0,""
.050'
.0592
.0555
.0521
.059'
.0560
.0526
.0670
.0636
.0678
.oeta
.ose-
.0690
.0618
3.250
3.375
3.500
.0<33
.0414
.0395
.0437
.0418
.cass
.04<2
.0423
.040'
.0511
.0493
.0474
.0518
.0500
.oe ,
.0523
.050<
.0486
.0601l
.0590
.0574
.0613
.0596
.0379
.0616
.0599
.0582
2.000 .040' .0419 .0423 .0469 .04811 .0492 .0522 .0581
."".
.059' 3.625
3.750
.0378
.036'
.0382
.036'
.0387
.0370
.0457
.04<0 .0447
.0458
.0451
.oss
.0541 ......
.0562 .oeee
.oeeo
2.125
2=
."22
~346
.oaea
.0389
.0362
.0393
.0360
.0438
.0410
.0458
.0429
.0463
.1>13'
.040,
.0542
.0514
.....t
.0523
.0556
.0529
3.875
'.000
.03<,
.0329
.03<9
.0333 .""
.0339
.0423
.040'
.0430
.0414
.0435
.0419
.0525
.0509
.0530
.0515
.053<
.0518
2.3" A33' .03<' .0383 .0402 .04'" .0502 4.250 .030' 030< .0310 .0376 .038< .0366 .0479 .cees .04811
.-
2.eoo m02 .0315 .0319 .0359 .0377 .O31l2 .04'" .0476 '.500 .0275 .0279 .0263 .0346 .0356 .0250 .0450 .0456 .oeo
2.... .0283 .0296 .0299 0336 .038< .0358 .0436 .04<, .0452 4.750 .0252 .0286 .0260 .0322 .0326 .0333 .0423 .0429 .0433
2.750 .026' .0278 .028' .0316 .0332 m36 .0413 .0422 .0426 '.000 .0232 .0235 .0239 .029' .0304 .0308 .039' .0403 .040'
2..875 .025< .0263 .0265 .029' .0312 .0317 .0391 ."99 .0406 5.250 .02\4 .0217 .0220 .0275 .026' .0285 .0373 .0378 .0382
3000 .02<3 .0250 .0252 .027' .0298 .0370 .0378 .0385
'.500 .0199 .020' .0204 .0254 .0260 .025< .0349 .03" .0359
3.125 .023< .0239 .02<, .026< .0278 .0292 .0250 .0358 5.750 A'98 .0\88 .0191 .0236 .0241 .0245 .0327 .0333 .0337
.0365 .0176 .0177 .0179 .0219 .om .0226
'.000 .0306 .0312 .0316
3.250 .0226 .0230 .025'
.-
.023' .0263 .0266 .0331 .0339 .0346
3.375
3.ecc
.022'
.0219
.0223
.0218
.022'
.0218
.0239
.0229
M50
.0238
.0253
.0241
.0314
.0298
.032'
.0305
.0328
.0311
6.250
'.500
.0167
.0161
.0168
.0162
.0170
.0163
0204
.0191
.0208
.0195
.0212
.0198
.026'
.02<9
.0292
.0274
.0298
.0277
3.625 .0218 .0214 .0214 .022' .0226 .0230 .0282 .0290 .0295 6.750 .0157 .0157 .0157 .0179 .018J .0185 .0252 .0257 .0260
>750
3.875
.0218
.022'
.0213
.0213
.02"
.0211
.0214
.0206
.0219
.0212
.022'
.0213
.0298
.0255
.027'
.0262
.026'
.0267
'.000 .0\55 .0155 .0154 .0169 .00n .0174 .0236 .0240
'.250 .0155 .0\54 .0153 .0161 .0163 .0165 .022' .0226 .0229
'.000 .022' .0214 .0212 .0204 .oaos .020' .02<3 .02<9 .025< '.500 .0157 .0155 .0154 .0\54 .0156 .0157 .0208 .0212 .0215
,....
7.750 .0180 .0158 .0156 .0148 .0150 .0151 .0195 .0199 .0202
''-250 .0238 .0222 .0219 .0200 .0198 .0198 ~223 .0226 .0232 6AOO :0166 .0163 .0160 .0144 .0145 .01<46 .0184 .0187 .0190
.0298 .0236 .0231 .020' 0195 .0194 .0206 .0210 .0213 8.250 .01n .0169 .0165 .0142 .0142 .0142 .0174 .0177 .0179
<4.750 .0279 .02" .02<49 .020' .0\96 .OHM .0193 .0196 .0198
.-
&... .0180 .0177 .00n .0141 .0140 .0140 .0164 .0168
~OOO .030' .0277 .0270 .0217 .0202 .0199 .018<4 .0185 .0187 .0170
... &'90 .0190 .0186 .0180 .0141 .0140 .0139 .01S6 .0159 .0161
.-
s.aeo .033' .0303 .0295 .0231 .0212 .0208 .0178 .0178 .0179
9.000 .020' .0196 .0190 .0143 .0\41 .0140 .0149 .0152 .0153
~ .0370 .0322 .0323 .02<9 .0226 .022' .0176 .017<4 .0174 9.250 .0213 .0208 .020' .0146 .0143 .0141 .0143 .0145 .0146
S.750
~OOO .0438
.llJ63
.0396
.03"
.0386
.0270 .02<3
.0263
.0237
.02S5
.0176
.0180
.017<4
.0176
.00n
.0173
9.500
9.7SO
.0226
.02...
.0220
.023<
.0213
.0226
.0150
.0155
.0146
.0150
.0144-
.0147
.0138
.0133
.0139
.0135
.0141
.0136
10.000 .0256 .02<9 .02<0 .0161 .0155 .0152 .0130 .0131 .0\32
~250
e .500
.0473
.050S
.0429
.oea
.0418
.0451
.0320
.03<,
.02115
.0309
.0277
.0300
.0186
.019S
.0180 .0177 10.250 .0271 .026< .02" .ctea .0162 .0158 .0128 A,26 .0128
.0188 .0183 10.500 .0298 .0280 .0270 .0\76 .0169 .0164 .0126 .0126 .0126
~'50 .0'"" .0493 .0463 .0376 .0335 .032' .ceoe .0198 .0192 10.750 .0305 .029' .0298 .0185 .0176 .01n .0125 .0125 .0125
'ADO .0S62 .0523 .0513 .0406 .0362 .035' .0220 .0210 .0202 11.000 .0322 .0314 .0303 .0194 .0186 .0\81 .0125 .0124 .0124
.om 11.250 .03<0 .0332 .0320 .020' .0\96 .0190 .0126 .0125 .0124
7.250 .0550 .05<0 .0435
..... .....
.0390 .0379 .0235 .0216 11.500 .0358 .0349 .0338 .0216 .020' .0200 .0128 .0126 .0125
.-
'.500 .0522 .0564 .0463 .0418 .040' .0252 .02<0 .0230
7.750 .0491 .043< .027' .025' .02"
11.750 .0376 .036' .eass .0228 .0218 .021\ .0130 .0128 .0\27
&000 .0$17 .0473 .0276
12.000 .".. .0385 .0373 .0241 .0230 .0223 .0134 .0131 .0129
.029' .025<
.,50 .05<0 .0498 ....,
. m12 .0295 .0283
12.500
13.000
.0429
.0463
.0420 .0408
.04<2
.0267
.0295
.02S5
.0282
.02<8
.0274
.0142
.0153
.0138
.0148
A'36
.0145
11.500
.. .. .0560 .0522 .0511 .033< m17 .0303 13.500 .,," .oes .0474 .0326 .0311 .0302 .0166 .0160 .0157
&7..
9.000
9.250
.05<3 .053<
.0553
.035'
mao
.0402
=.
.0336
.0383
.0324
A346
.ll368
14.000
14.500
re. 000
.0520 .0512 .0502 .0356
.0366
.0415
.03<,
.0370
.0400
.033'
.0360
.0390
.0182
.0199
.0216
.0175
.0192
.0209
.0171
.0187
.0204
9.500
9.750
.~OOO . .. ....
.0425
.04<,
.oe9
.0406
.0428
.04<9
.0390
.0412
.043<
15.500
16.000
16.500
.04<3
.0470
.0426
.04"
.0480
.,...
.0418
.0471
.0239
.0260
.0283
.0230
.0250
.0273
.-
.022<
.04" .0256
10.250 .... .. .... . ... .0489 .0470 .oes
17= .0503 .04" .030' .0295 .oaee
10.500 .... ... ... .0508 .0490 .0475
17.500 .0331 .0319 .cne
.-...
10.750 .. .... .. .0526 .0509 .04"
18.000 .0356 .03<3 .0335
11.000 ... ... ..., .054' .0526 .0513 18.500
.. ."79 .0356 .0358
11.250 ... .. .. .0S41 .0526 19.000 .0402 .0390 .0382
19.500
20.000
eo, eoo
.. .,...
.0424 .0412
.043<
,...,
0426
0466 .04"
21.000 .oes .0475
21.500
--
.0492 .0498
.....
::::J
"b" VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR, "b" VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR, ......
F,-FLANGE TAPS F,-FLANGE TAPS OJ
b b
F,=1+,~ F,=1+,~
v hwp, yhwp,
. -
Illternal Diameter of Pipe. D. inches
Internal Diameter of Pipe. D, iucM.
2
, 4 0
10 12
4.897 5.189 5.76~ 0.065 7.625 7.981 8.071 9.... 10.020 10.136 11.376 11.938 12.090
a.cee
- - - '.438
1.ees 1.939 2.067 2.300 226 2.900 3.152 3.826 4.026
-- ._---
0.1062 0.1027
- - ---- - - - -
0.1012 0.0987 0.0958 o.csae 0.0927 0.0921
--- -
0.0905 0.0886
O.08n
(J.W 0.0845 0.0636 0.0821 0.0814 0.0784 0.On8 a.om 0.0757 0.0752 0.0151 0.0739 0.0734 0.0733
0.10 0.11 0.0803 0.0795 0.0779 0.0772 0.0742 0.0736 0.0735 0.0716 0.0710 0.0709 0.0691 0.0692 0.0691
0.11 0.1020 0.<l985 0.0970 0.094' 0.0916 0.0896 0.0885 0 . _ 0.0863 0.0844 0.0835
0.0732 0.0702 0.0696 0.0695 0.0676 0.0670 0.0669 0.0657 0.0652 0.0651
0.0876 0.0856 0.0845 0 . _ 0.0823 0 . _ 0.0795 0.12 0.0763 0.0155 0.0739
0.12 0.0981 0.0945 0.0930 0.0905 0.13 0.0725 0.0117 0.0701 0.0694 0.0664 0.0658 0.0657 0.0638 0.0632 0.0631 0.0619 0.0614 0.0613
0.13 0.0943 0.0907 0.0892 0.0667 0.0838 0.0818 0.0807 0.0802 0-0785 0.0766 0.0757
0.0658 0.0628 0.0622 0.0621 0.0601 0.0596 0.0595 0.0583 0.0578 0.0577
0.0802 0.0782 c.ern 0.0765 0.0749 0.0730 0.0121 0.1' 0.0689 0.0560 0.0665
0.14 0.0906 0.0871 0.0856 0.0831 0.0543
0.0687 0.15 0.0655 0.0646 0.0631 0.0624 0.0594 0.0586 0.0587 0.0567 0.0562 0.0561 0.0549 0.0544
0.15 0.0872 0.0837 0.0822 0.0797 0.0768 0.0748 0.0736 0.0731 0.0715 0.0696 0._ 0.05504 0.0535 O.O~ 0.0528 0.0516 0.0512 0.0510
0.0704 0.0699 0.0682 0.0663 0.0654 0.16 0.0623 0.0614 0.0599 0.0591 0.0561
0.16 0.0840 0.0805 0.0789 0.0764 0.0736 0.0715 0.17 0.0592 0.0583 0.0566 0.0561 0.0531 0.0525 0.0524 0.0504 0.0499 0.0498 O.O41l6 0.0481 0.0460
0.17 0.0809 0.0774 0.0759 0.0734 0.0705 0.0685 0.0673 0.0668 0.0652 0.0633 0.0624
0.0495 0.()04.75 0.00170 0..... 0.00157 0.0452 0.0451
0.0645 0.0639 0.0623 0.0504 0.0595 0.18 0.0563 0.0554 0.0539 0.0532 0.0502 0.0496
0.18 0.0780 0.0745 0.0730 0.0705 0.0676 0.0656 0.19 0~535 0.0527 0.0512 O.<l5O' 0.00175 0.0469 0 .c-ee 0.Q44' O.Q44' 0.Q442 0.0430 0.0425 0.0424
0.19 0.0753 0.0718 0.0703 0.0678 0.0649 0.0529 0..0617 0.0612 0.0596 0.0577 0.0568
0.20 0.0511 0.0502 0.0487 0.00179 0.0449 0."'" 0.0442 0.00123 0.0418 0.0416 0.0404 0.0400 0.0398
0.20 0.0728 0.0693 0.0677 0.0653 0.0624 0.0603 0.0592 0.0587 0.0570 0.0551 0.0542
0.00455 0.00418 0.0398 0.0393 o.easa 0.0360 0.0375 0.0374
0.0.07 0.0!)62 0.0546 0.0527 0.0518 0.21 0.0486 0.0477 0.0462 OJK25 0.0419
0.21 0.0703 0.0668 0.0652 0.0628 0.0599 0.1)579
0.22 0.04&4 0.0455 0.0440 0.00433 0.0403 0.0397 0.0396 0.0376 0.0371 0.0370 0.0356 O.03E13 0.0352
0.0545 0.0540 0.0524 0.0505 0.00496
0.22
0.23
0.0681 0.0646
0.0650 0.0625
0.0630
0.0610
0.0606 0.0577
0.0585 0.0556
0."""
0.0536 -0.0525 0.0520 0.0503 0.0484 0.0475 0.23
0.24
0.0444
0.0425
0.0435
0.00416
0.0420
0.0401
0.0412
0.0393
0.0362
0.0364
0.0377
0.0358
0.0375
0.0357
O.g'56
O. 337
0.0351
0.0332
0.0350
0.0331
0.0338
0.0319
0.0333
0.0314
0.0332
0.0313
0.24 0.0642 0.0606 0.0591 0.0566 0.0536 0.0517 0.0506 0.0501 0.0484 0.0455 0.0457
0.25 0.0407 0.0399 0.0383 0.0376 0.0346 0.0341 0.0339 0.0320 0.0315 0.0313 0.0301 0.0297 0.""
0.25 0.0624 0.0589 0.0574 0.0549 0.0520 0.0500 0.0489 0.1)183 0.00467 0.0446 0.00439 0.0298 0.0297 0.0285 0.0280 0.0279
0.0472 0.00467 0.0451 0.00431 0.0423 0.26 0.0391 0.0382 0.0367 0.0360 0.0330 0.0324 0.0323 0.0303
0.20 0.0607 0.0572 0.~7 0.0532 0.0504 0.0483
0.27 0.0377 0.0368 0.0353 0.0345 0.0315 0.0310 0.0009 0.0289 0.0264 0.0283 0.0271 0.0266 0.0265
0.27 0.0593 0.0556 0.05043 0.0518 0.0489 0.0469 0.0458 0,(M52 0.00436 0.00417 0.0408 0._ 0.0270 0.0258 0.0253 0.0252
0.0445 0.0440 0.0423 0.0404 0.0095 0.28 0.0364 0.0355 0.0340 0.0332 0.0303 0.0297 0.0276 0.0271
0.28 0.0580 0.0545 0.0530 0.0505 0.&176 0.0456 ooasa 0.0343 0.0321 o.oast 0.0264 0.0265 0.0260 0-0258 0.02-'16 0.02'2 0.0240
0.049'1 0.0465 0.- 0.0433 0.0428 0.0412 0.0393 0.0384 0.29 0.0328 0.<1286
0.29 0.0569 0.0534 0.0518 0.0231 0.0230
0.0402 0.0383 0.0374 0.30 0.0342 0.0333 0.0318 0.0311 0.0281 0.0275 0.0274 0.0255 0.0249 0.0246 0.0235
0.30 0.0559 0.0524 0.0506 0.0484 0.0455 0.0434 0.0423 0.0418 0.0302 0.0265 0.0245 0.0240 0.0239 0.022 n o.oeea 0.0221
0.0414 0.0409 0.03t2 0.0373 0.0364 0.31 0.0333 0.0324 0.0009 0.0272 0.0266
0.31 0.0549 0.0514 0.0499 0.00474 0.0445 0.0425
0.32 0.0325 0.0317 0.0301 0.0294 0.0264 0.0259 0-0257 0.0238 0.0233 0.0232 0.0220 0.0215 0.0214
0.32 0.0541 0.0506 0.0491 0.0467 0.(04)8 0.00117 0.0406 0.00401 0.0365 0.0356 0.0357 0.0225 0.0213 0.0206 0.0207
0.0399 0 . _ 0.0378 0.0359 0.0350 0.33 0.0319 0.0310 0.0295 0.0286 0.0258 0._ 0.0251 0.0231 0.0226
0.33 0.05304 0.0499 0.0484 0.00460 0.0431 0.0411
0.34 0.0314 0.0305 0.0280 0.0283 0.0253 0.0247 0.0246 0.0226 0.0221 0.0220 0.0208 0.0203 0.0202
0.34 0.0529 0.0495 0.0479 0.0455 0.0426 0.0406 0.0,"", 0.0361l 0.0373 0.0354 0.0345
0.35 0.0310 0.0301 0.0266 0.0278 0.0249 0.02'3 0.0242 0.0222 0.0217 0.0216 0.0204 0.0199 0.0198
0.35 0.0525 0.00490 0.0475 0.0450 0.0422 0.0401 0.0390 0.0365 0.0369 0.0350 0.0341 0.0201 0.0196 0.0195
0.0387 0.0382 0.0356 0.0347 0.0338 0.36 0.0306 0.0298 0.0283 0.0275 0.0246 0.0240 0.0239 0.0219 0.021' 0.0213
0.36 0.0521 0.()487 0.0471 0.0447 0.0418 0.0398 0.0305 0._ 0.0274 0.0244 0.0239 0.0237 0.0218 0.0213 0.0212 0.0200 0.0195 0.0194
0.0446 0.00417 0.0397 0.0366 0.0360 0.0364 0.0345 0.0337 0.37 0.0281
0.37 0.0520 0.lH85 0.0470 0.36 0.0304 0.0285 0.0280 0.0273 0.0244 0.0238 0.0237 0.0217 0.0212 0.0211 0.0199 0.0195 0.0193
0.38 0.0519 0.00484 0.0469 0.0445 0.0416 0.0396 0.0365 0.0360 0.0363 0 . _ 0.0336
0.9238 0.0213 0.0212 0.0200 0.0195 0.0194
0.D366 0.0360 0.ll364 0.0345 0=7 0.39 0.0305 0.0286 0.0281 0.0274 0.0244 0.0239 0.0218
0.39 0.0620 0.lH85 0.0470 0.0446 0.0417 0.0397
0.0196
0.0338 0.40 0.0306 0._ 0.0283 0.0276 0.0246 0.0240 0.0239 0.0220 0.0215 0.0213 0.0202 0.0197
0.40 0.0521 0.0486 0.0471 0.0446 0.0418 0.0398 0.0387 0.0382 0.0365 0.0346 0.0278 0.0241 0.0217 0.0216 0.0204 0.0199 0.0198
0.0400 0.0361l 0.0384 0.0368. 0.0349 0.0340 0.41 0.0309 0.0300 0.0285 0.0248 0.02'3 0.0222
0.41 0.0523 0.0488 0.0473 0.0449 0.0420 0.42 0.0312 0.0303 0.0286 0.0281 0.0252 0.0246 0.0245 0.0226 0.0221 0.0219 0.0208 0.0203 0.0202
0-42 0.0523 0.0491 0.0476 0.0452 0.0423 0.0403 O.om 0.0387 0.0371 0.0352 0.0343
0.0249 0.0225 0.0224 0.0212 0.0207 0.0206
0.0396 0.0391 0.0375 0.0356 0.0346 0.43 0.0316 0.0306 0.0293 0.0286 0.0256 0.0251 0.0230
0.43 0.0530 0.00495 0.0460 0.00456 0.0427 0.0407 0.0321 0.0313 0.0286 0.0291 0.0261 0.0256 0.0254 0.0235 0.0230 0.0229 0.0217 0.0213 0.0211
0.lH85 0.0461 0.0432 0.00412 0.00401 0.0396 0.0360 0.0361 0.0353 0."
0." 0.05304 0.0500 0.0261 0.0241 0.0236 0.0235 0.0223 0.0219 0.0217
0.(K07 0.0402 0.0366 0.0367 0.0359 0.'5 0.0327 0.0319 0.0304 0.0297 0.0267 0.0262
0.45 0.0640 0.0506 0.0490 0.0456 0.0438 0.0418
0.46 0.0334 0.0326 0.OJ11 0.0304 0.027' 0.0269 0.0267 0.0248 0.0243 0.02'2 0.0230 0.0226 0.0224
0.46 0.0546 0.0512 0.0497 0.0473 0.0445 0.0425 0.0414 0.0409 0.0393 0.0374 0.0365
0.0275 0.0251 0.0236 0.0233 0.0232
0.0421 0.00415 0.0400 0.0381 0.0372 0.47 0.0341 0.0333 0.0318 0.0311 0.0282 0.0276 0.0256 0.02'9
0.47 0.0653 0.0519 0.0504 0.0479 0.0451 0.0431 0.46 0.0350 0.0341 0.0326 0.0319 0.0280 0.0264 0.0283 0.0264 0.0259 0.0258 0.0246 0.0242 0.0240
0.46 0.0561 0.0527 0.0512 0 .oee 0.0459 0.0440 0.0429 0.00424 0.0408 0.0361l 0.0360
0.'9 0.0358 0.0349 0.0335 0.0328 0.0299 0.0293 0.0292 0.0273 0.0268 0.0267 0.0255 0.0250 0.0249
0.49 0.0569 0.0535 0.0520 0.0496 0.0468 0.0448 0.0437 0.0432 O.Qol16 0.0397 0.ll389
0.50 0.0368 0.0359 0._ 0.0337 0.0306 0.0303 0.0302 0.0283 0.0278 0.0276 0.0265 0.0260 0.0259
0.50 0.0578 0.0544 0.0529 0 ' - O.04n 0.00457 0.0446 0.0441 0.00426 0.0407 0.0398
0.0369 0.03047 0.0318 0.0313 0.0312 0.0293 0.0266 0.0287 0.0275 0.0270 0.0269
0.00456 0.00451 0.00435 0.0417 0.0408 0.51 0.0378 0.0354
0.51 0.0587 0.0653 0.0536 0.0514 0.0466 0.0467 0.52 0.0368 0.0360 0.0365 0.0358 0.0329 0.0324 0.0323 0._ 0.0299 0.0298 0.0266 0.0281 0.0280
0.52 0.0598 0.0564 0.0549 0.0525 0.0497 0.00478 0.0467 0.0462 0.0446 0.00127 0.00419
0._ 0.0334 0.0310 0.0009 0.0297 0.0293 0.0291
O.04n 0.0422 0.0457 0.0438 0.00430 0.53 0.0391 0.0'7' 0.0369 0.0340 0.0335 0.0315
0.53 0.0506 0.0574 0.0559 0.0535 0.0506 0..... 0.54 0.00410 0.0402 0.0387 0.0360 0.0351 0.0346 0.034' 0.0326 0.0321 0.0320 0.0306 0._ 0.0303
0.54 0.0617 0.05&4 0.0569 0.0646 0.0518 0.0498 Q.0468 0.0483 0.0467 0.0449 0.0440
~
0.55 0.00422 0.001130._ 0.0392 0.0363 0.0358 0.0357 0.0338 0.0333 0.0332 0.0321 0.0316 o.OJn
0.55 0.0529 0.0595 0.0580 0.0557 0.05>9 0.0510 0.0499 0.049'1 0.0479 0.0460 0.00452
0.56 0.0433 0.001250.00111 0.0404 0.0375 0.0370 0.0369 0.0350 0.0345 0.0344 0.0333 0.0328 0.0327
0.56 0.0639 0.0606 0.0591 0.0568 0.0540 0.0521 0.0511 0.0606 0.00190 0.00172 0..... 0.0357 0.0341 0.0340
0.0503 0.0484 0.00476 0.57 0.0446 0.0438 0.0423 0.0416 0.0366 0.0383 0.0381 0.0363 0.0358 0.0346
0.57 0.0651 0.0618 0.0603 0.0560 0.0653 0.0534 0.0523 0.0518 0.58 0.0458 0.0450 0.0438 0.0429 0.0401 0.0395 0._ 0.0376 0.0371 0.0370 0.0358 0.0354 0.0353
0.0663 0.0630 0.0615 0.0592 0.Q565 0.0545 0.0535 0.0530 0.0515 0.00196 0..... 0.0366
0.58
0.59 0.0675 0.06042 0.0628 0.0606 0.Q578 0.ll658 0.ll548 0.0543 0.0528 0.0510 0.0501 0.59 0.0422 0.0463 0.0449 0.0442 0.00114 0.0409 0.0408 0.0361l 0.0384 0.0363 0.0322 0.0367
0.0381 0.0380
"tl
~~
0._ 0.0365
~
0.0540 0.0522 0.0514 0.60 0.0484 0.00176 0.0455 0.0427 0.0422 0.&121 0.0402 0.0398
0.60 0.0687 0.0654 0._ 0.0617 0.0590 0.0571 0.0560 0.""" 0.61 O.lK97 0.0489 0.00174 0..... 0.0440 0.00435 0.0433 0.0415 0.0411 O. 0.0398 0._ 0.0393
0.61 0.0698 0.0666 0.0651 0.0628 0.0602 0.0583 0.0522 0.0567 0.0552 0.0534 0.0526
0.0510 0.0502 0.0481 0.0447 0.0429 0.0424 O.CK2) 0.0412 0.0407 0.0406
0.0595 0.0585 0.0560 0.0565 0.0546 0.0639 0.62 0..... 0.0402 0.0446
0.62 0.0711 0.0678 0.0664 0.0641 0.0614 0.63 0.0523 0.0515 0.0501 0.00494 0.0456 0.0461 0.0460 0._ 0.0437 0.0438 0.0425 0.0421 0.0420
0.0722 0.0690 0.0676 0.0653 0.0626 0.0608 0.0597 0.0593 0.0578 0.0560 0.0552 0.0434 0.0433
0.63 0.64 0.0635 0.0527 0.0513 0.0507 0.00179 O.IM74 0.0473 0.0455 0.00451 0.0+49 0.00438
0.64 0.0733 0.0701 0.0687 0.0685 0.0638 0.0620 0.0610 0.0605 0.0590 0.0512 0.0664
0 .cee 0.0446 ~
0.0546
~:;;
0.0802 0.0585 O.05n 0.65 0.0540 0.0626 0.0620 0.00192 0.0487 0.0486 0..... 0.0463 0.0452
0.65
0.66
0.0745 0.0713
0.0756 O.om
0.0699
0.0110
0.0677 0.0651
0.0668 0.0662
0.0632
0.06043
0.0622 0.0617
0.0633 0.0629 0.061' 0.0597 0.05ll9 0.66
0.67
0.0560
0.0572
0.0552
0.0564
0.0636
0.0551
0.0532
0.0544
0.0505 0.0500 0.(K99
0.0511
0.0481 0.00476
0.0494 Q.0469
0.0475
0.....
0.0465
0.(K77 g0473
0.0469
0.0472 ~.
!~
0.0645 0 . _ 0.0626 0.0608 0.0601 0.0512
0.67 0.0766 0.0735 0.0721 0.0699 0.0673 0.0655 0.06&4 0.0500 0.0490 0.0486 0.0484
s'"
0.0637 0.0620 0.0612 0.68 0.0576 0.0663 0.0566 O. 0.0525 0.0523 0.0506 0.0502
0.58 o.om 0.0745 0.0732 0.0710 0.06&4 0.0666 0.0666 0.0652
0.0646 0.0631 0.0623 0.69 0.0596 0.0587 0.0674 0.0567 O.OMI 0.0536 0.0635 0.0518 0.0513 0.0512 0.0502 0.0497 0._
0." 0.0786 M755 0.01., o~no 0 _ 0.0676 D.0667 0.0662 0.0608
0.0634 0.70 0.0606 0.0598 0._ 0.0579 0.0552 0.0546 0.0646 0.05>9 0.0525 0.0524 0.0513 0.0509
0.70 0.0795 0.0765 0.0151 0.0730 M704 0.0687 O.06n 0.0672 0.0658 0.0641 0.0524 0.0520 0.0519
0.71 0.0616 0.0608 0.0596 0.0589 0.0663 0.0558 0.0657 0.0540 0.0635 0.0534
0.71 0.0603 o.om 0.0759 0.0738 0.0713 0.0695 0.0686 0.0681 0.0667 0.0651 0.0643
0.22 0.0625 0.0618 0.0605 ll.O599 0.0513 0.0568 0.0587 0.0650 0.0646 D.064' 0.0635 0.0530 0.05>9
0.0695 0.0690 0.0676 0.0660 Cl.0662
....tl
0.0141 0.0722 0.0704
1=
0.22 0.0811 0.0781 0.0768 0.73 0.0630 0-0627 0.0614 0.0577 0.0565 0.ll546 O.OMl 0._
0.0818 0~789 0.0776 0.0755 0.0730 0.0713 0.0704 0.0699 0.0685 0...... Cl.0662 0.0608 0.0683 0.0578 O.~ 0."""
!= g:= g~
0.73 0.7' 0.0617 0.0587 0.0686 0.05 0..... 0.0664 0.0664 0.0560 D.064'
0.74 0 . _ 0.0795 0.0182 0.0762 0.0738 0.0721 0.0711 0~707 0.0693 o.o6n Q.l107O
0._ 0.0558 0....7
~.
0.0699 0.0683 II.OIi77 0.75 O. 0..... 0..... 0.0577 0.0573 0.0572 0."""
0.75 0 . _ 0.oo 0.0788 0.0767 0.01013 0.0726 o.on' 0.0713
~
EXPANSION FACTORS-FLANGE TAPS- Y,
~
"ti' VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR,
F,-FLANGE TAPS Stallc Pressure Taken from Upstream Taps
b _.- - _.
F,=1+,~ -- -
.,~
- ~--
~
v hwp, d Ra'
.....
:::1
IJ-lJ uc
--
.- '"...l::
Internal DialDllter of Pipe. D. inches .1 2 ~ .4 ~ ~ ~ .~ ~ ~ $ ~
- ---------:-=-:=---
16 20 2< 30 0.0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 i.cooc 1.0000 1.000c t.OOOO 1.000( 1.0000 .0000
14.6881 ~5~~1'5.250118.814119.0001 19.250122.6261 23.000123.250128.6281 29.0001 29.250 0.1
0.2
.'989 .'999
.99T7 .99n
.9999
.99T7
.9988
.99"
.9988
.9976
.9988
.9976
:=..... .9988
.9976
.9988
.9975
.9998
.9975
.9987
.9975 .9975
9987
.""
~.
:=
..,0 0.3 .9966 .9966 .9966 .sses .9985
..0.12" .....
.'964 .9983 .9983 .9983 .9982 .9982 9982
0.13
D.'
0.5
.995<
.9943 .""
.ssea ."" ."'3
.9953
."'2
.9953
.""
.9952 .9951
.9939
.995'
.993'
.!!!!! .sses
.9938 .9932
.99"
.9936
9949
9936
.'.9918
929
."
0.14 0.'
0.7
.'932
.'.'909
920
.9932
.'.9909
920
.993'
.9920
.9930
.9919
.9928
.9916
.9927
.9915
.9927
.9915
.992'
.9914 ::1i .992'
.9912
.992'
.9911
.9923
"0
0.16
0.17
..l8
....20"
0.'
D.'
1.0
.9898 .9897
.9886 9886 .....
.9908
.9897
.9907
.9899
.""
.9906
.98"
.9882
.990<
.9892
.9880
.9903
.9891
.9879
.9902
.9890
.98"
.9901
.9889
.98"
.9900
.9888
.9875
.9999
.9886
.987'
.9998
.eees
.9873
i97
9885
.szss
.,78<
.9819
.9808
.,'"
.9817
.9805
.9815
....3
.'792 .'790
.9813
.9800
.9788
.981
.9798
.9785
.9809
.9796
.'.9771
78< '79'
..
'782
0.27
0.28
1.'
I.'
.'799 .'799
.9784 .'783
.,'"
.'782
.9791
.'779
.'788
.9776 .srra
.9782
.'.9758
770 .'780 .9na
.9768 .9788
.9775
.9763
.,m
.'780 .9758
69
'56
0.29 2.0 srn .,m .9771 .9761 .97" .9760 .9756 .9753 .9750 .9747 .9745
..30
0.31 2.1
V! .~~ .976'
.97 .9749
.9759
.9748
.'.9744
788 .9753 .9748 .9746 .9744 .9741 .'738
.'725
.97" .9733
.sraa .'720
'731
..... .....
0.32 .9741 .9736 .9734 .9731 .9729 'l8
0.33
D."
2.3
2.'
.9738
.9127
.'738
.'726
.9736
.9125
.'.9121
732 .'.9717
729 .'72< .stea
.9712 .9710
.9719
.9707
.9716
.,70<
.9713
.!..~
.9709
.9697
.9707 '05
'92
0.35 2.5 .9715 .9115 .9113 .'709 .'705 9700 .9698 .9695 .9692 .9688 .9682 9860
0.38
0.37 2.6
2.1
.9104
.9593
.,70<
.9S:n
.9702
.969'
.9698 .9594
.'688 .'982
~588
.'.968< :~
876 .9061
.9683
.9670
.9679
.9887
.~~
.9883
.9611
.9659 .....
.966'
."" ."',
.9656
9667
:=
0.38
0.39 2.8 .988' .9681 .9879 .957-i .9670 .9858 .985< .~~ .964'
2.' .9870 .986' .9556 .9883 .9858 .9852 .964 .,8<6 .9642 .9633 .983' '28
0.<0 3.0 .9888 .'598 .9856 .9651 .9540 .9837 .9621
.." "
."'7 .953< .9630 .9618
.."
....0."
.-.....
3.1 ."'7 .9647 ."'5 .9639 .9835 .9529 .9625 .9822 .9617 .9613 .9608 .9805
.." .....
9603
0."
3.2
3.3
3.'
3.'
.9836
.962'
.9613
.9602
.9635
.""
.9612
.9601
.9633
.9822
.9610
.eeee
.....
.9628
.9616
.9593
.9623
.9611
.95~
.seee .seeo
.9015
.ssoe
.9992
.9613
.9801
.9589
.99" .9513
.9805
.9593
.9601
.9576
.9883
.9695
.9983
.9970
.9958
:~
.9567
9990
99"
""
95$1
.
0.47
.essa
.."
0." 3.'
3.7
3.'
.9990
.9979
.9957
.9990
.99"
.9997
.9587
."" .""
.'555
.95715
.....
.""
.9581
.9970
.9958
.9576
.9952
.9565
.99"
.95S0
.""
.9536
.9958
.,5<3
.9831
.95$1
.9538
.9926
."'5
.9532
.9520
."'2
.9926
.9516
9538
9926
....,
9513
....0."
0.52
0.53
0.56
0.57
0.58
........
0.59
0.62
0.83
0.8<
0."
0.86
....
0.67
0.68
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.79 .....
;(l
......
~
.9874
.9860
.9846
.9832
.9818
.9804
.9790
.9915
.9901
.9887
.9873
.9859
.9844
.9830
.9816
.9802
.9788
.9914
.9900
.9886
.9871
.9857
.9843
.9828
.9814
.9800
.9786
- 0.s
0.7
0.8
0.'
1.0
l.l
1.2
1.3
'.5
I .....
1.0047
1.0054
1.0060
1.0067
1.0074
UlO8O
U)()87
I .....
1.0101
1.0074
'.0060
1.0087
I .....
1.0101
1.0073 1.0071
I."" 1.0078
1..... I.ooee
LOO93 1.0091
1.0100 1.0097
......
I..... I."'" 1.0039 1.0038 1.0038 1.0038 1.0035 UI034
1.0047 I.oo-e 1.0045 1.0043 1.0042 1.0041 UIO.O
LOO53 1.0053 1.0052 '.0050 1.004 1.0048 1.004 1.coes
1.0060 1.0060 1.0058 1.0057 UI055 1..... 1.0053 1.0052
1.0067 l.llO66 Ul0.5 UIO.3 1.0061 '.0060 1.0059 1.0058
1.0069 t.cosz l.llO66 t.ooss 1.0063
1.0076 1.0073 1.0072 l.()071 1.0069
1.0082 I."" 1.0078 1.00n 1.0075
1..... 1.oces 1..... 1.0083 1.(1081
1.0095 1.0092 1.0090 1..... 1.0087
1.0034 1.0033 1.0032 1 00J2
1.0039 LOO38 1.0038 1 0037
1.0045 I..... 1.(l043 1 .0042
'.0050
UIO.2
1.0069
1.0073
1.0079
1.0085
1.0049 1.ClO48 1
t.ccse UI055 1.0054 1 .0053
'.0060
l.llO66
1.0071
1.0077
1.0082
1.0059
1.0065
UI070
1.0076
1.0081
.....
.....
1 0058
1
1
1
1 ...."
1.6 .9793.~ .!~ .9788 .f11ff7 .9785 '~!!3 .9781 .9778 .!~ .!~~ .9771 I.. 1.0108 1.0107 1.0106 1.0104 1.0101 "')098 1.0096 1.0095 1.0093 1.0090 1.0088 1.0087 1 0085
1.7 .9780 .~~: .~~~, .9n5 .9773 .9771 .~~~ .976 .9764 .~~,:" .!!~ ,~~, 1.7 1.0114 1.0114 1.0113 1.011 1.0108 1.0104 1.0103 1.0HH 1.0099 '.0096 1.coe- 1.0092 1 0091
1.8 .9768 .9766 .9764 .9762 .9760 .9758 .9755 .9753 .9751 .9748 .9745 .~~ 1.8 1.0121 1.0121 1.0120 1.0117 1.0114 1.01l1 1.0109 1.0107 1.0104 1.0102 '.0099 1.0098 1 0096
1.9 .9755 .9753 .9751 .9749 .9747 .9744 .9742 .9739 .9737 .9734 .9731 .9728 I.' 1.0128 1.0128 1.0126 1.0123 1.0121 1.0117 1.0115 1.0113 1.011 1.0108 1.0105 1.0103 1 02
2.0 .9742 .9740 .9738 .9735 .9733 .9731 .9728 .9726 .9723 .9720 .9717 .9714 2.0 1.0135 1.0134 1.0133 1.0130 1.0127 1.0123 1.0121 1.0119 1.0116 1.0114 1.0110 1.0109 1 '7
2.1 .9729.ff127.9725 .9722 .9720 .9717 .9715 .9712 -.~ .9706 .9703 .9700 2.1 1.0142 1.0141 1.0140 1.0136 1.0134 1.0129 1.0127 1,0125 1.0122 1.0119 1.0116 1.0114 1 2
2.2 .9716 .9714 .9711 .9709 .9706 .9704 .9701 .9698 .9695 .9692 .9689 .9685 2.2 1.0148 1.0148 1.0147 1.0143 1.0140 1.0136 1.0133 1.0131 1.0128 1.0125 1.0122 1.0120 1 8
2.3 .9703 .9701 .9698 .9696 .9693 .9690 .9688 .9685 .9681 .9678 .9675 .9671 2.3 1.0155 1.0155 1.0154 1.0150 1.0146 1.0142 1.0140 1.0137 1.0134 1.0131 1.0127 1.0126 1 24
...
2.4 .9690.9688.9685.9683.9680.9677 .9674 9671 .9668 .9664 .9661 .9657 2.4 1.0162 1.0162 1.0160 1.0156 1.0153 1.0148 1.0140 1.0143 1.0140 1.0137 1.0133 1.0131 29
2.5 .9677 .9675 .967'2 .9669 .9666 .9663 .9660 .9657 .9654 .9650 .9646 .9643 2.5 1.0169 1.0168 1.0167 1.0163 1.0159 1.0154 1.0152 1.0149 1.0146 1.0142 1.0139 1.0137 1
2.6 .9664 .9662 .9659 .9656 .9653 .9650 .9647 .9643 .9640 .9636 .S632 .9628 2.6 1.0176 1.0175 1.0174 1.0170 1.0166 1.0161 1.0158 1.0155 1.0152 1.0148 1.0144 1.0142 1
2.7 .9651 .9649 .9646 .9643 .9640 .9637 .9633 .9630 .9626 .9622 .9618 .9614 2.7 1.0182 1.0182 1.0180 1.0176 1.0172 1.0167 1.0164 1.0161 1.0158 1.0154 1.0150 1.0148 1
2.8 .9638 .9636 .9633 .9630 .9626 .9623 .9620 .9616 .9612 .9608 .9604 .9600 2.8 1.0189 1.0189 1.0187 1.0183 1.0179 1.0173 1.~~~ 1.0167 1.0164 1.0160 1.0156 1.0154 1 51
2.9 .9625.9623.9620 .9616 .9613 .9610 .9606 .9602 .9598 .9594 .9590 .9585 2.' 1.0195 1.0195 1.0194 1.0189 1.0185 1.0180 1.0177 1.0173 1.0170 1.0166 1.0162 1.0159 1 57
3.0 .9613 .9610 .9606 .9603 .9600 .9596 .9592 .9588 .9584 .9580 .9576 .95V 10 1.0203 1.0203 1.0201 1.0195 1.0192 1.0186 1.0183 1.0180 1.0176 1.0172 1.0167 1.0165 1 62
3.1 .~ .9597 .9593 .9590 .9586 .9583 .9579 .9575 .9571 .9566 .9562 .9557 11 1.0210 1.0210 1.0208 '.0203 1.0198 1.0192 1.0189 1.0186 1.0182 1.0178 1.0173 1.0170 1 68
3.2 .9587.9584 .9580 .9577 .9573 .9569 .9565 .9561 .9557 .9552 .9M1 .9542 3.2 1.0217 1.0216 1.0214 '.0209 1.0205 1.0198 1.0195 1.0192 1.0188 1.0184 1.0179 1.0176 1 73 Q
I:l
3.3 .9574 .9571 .9567 .9564 .9560 .9555 .9552 .9547 .9543 .9538 .9533 .9528 3.3 1.0224 1.0223 1.0221 1.0216 1.0211 1.0205 '1.0202
...,20.
1.0198 1.0194 1.0189 1.0184 1.0182 1
3.4
3.5
.9561.9558 .9554 .9550 .9546
.9548.9545.9541.9537.9533
.9542
.9529
.9538
.9524
.9534
.9520
.9529
.9515
.9524
.9510
.9519
.9505
.9514
.9500
3.'
3.5
1.02J0
...,_
1.0237
1.0230
1.0237
1.0228
1.0235
'.0223 1.0218 1.0211 1.0208
1.0229 1.0224 1.0217 1.0214
1.0200 1.0195 1.0190
1.0210 1.0206 1.0201 1.0196
1.0187
1.0193
1
1 '""'tl
.~ .....
..... 3.e L = 1.0216 1.0212 1.0207 '.0202 1.0199 1
~
3.6 .9532 .9528 .9524 .9520 .9515 .9511 .9506 .9501 .9496 .9491 .9485 1.0244 1.0242 1.0236 1.0231 '.0224 96
3.7 .9522 .9518 .9515 .9511 .9506 .9502 .9497 .9492 .9487 .9482 .9477 .9471 3.7 1.0251 1.0251 1.0248 1.0243 1.0237 1.0230 L0226 1.0222 1.0218 1.0213 1.0207 1.0204 1
~:~~~ ~
3.8 .9509 .9505 .9502 .9497 .9493 .9488 .9484 .9479 .9474 .9468 .9463 .945 3.8 1.0258 1.0258 1.0255 1.0249 1.0244 1.0236 1.0233 1.0229 1.0224 1.0219 1.0213
3.9 .9496 .9492 .9488 .9484 .9480 .9475 .9470 .9465 .9460 .9454 .9448 .9442 1. ""265 '.0264 1.0262 1.0256 1.0250 1.0243 1.0239 1.0235 1.0230 1.0225 1.0219 3
4.0 .9483 .9479 .9475 .9471 .9466 .9462 .9457 .9451 .9446 .9440 .9434 .9428 '.0 .0272 1.0271 1.0299 ""263 1.0257 1.0249 1.0245 1.0241 ""236
1.0231 1.= 1.0222 1 8
Q
S
;"
~
'"~
'
'"
J
ExPANSION FACTORS-FLANGE TAPS-Y, PIPE TAPS-BASIC ORIFICE FACTORS-F. ~
Static Pressure Taken from Downstream Taps
- . Orifi:
Internal Diameter or Pipe, D, Incbea .,~
-"-~--=~ Diam..
'...."""
2 3
hw p=~Ratiu d,
Inches
D 1.689 1.939 2.067 2.300 2.826 2.900 3.068 3.152 3.438
I'f:
Balio .63 .6' .65 .66 .67 .66 .69 .70 .71 .72 .73 .74 .250 12.850 12.813 12.800 12.782
---
12.764
- - - - - - --- - - -
12.753 12.148 12.145 12.737
~.
- - _ . - _._. .---- -_.- .- -_.- - -, ... - . -- .375 29.359 29.098 29.005 28.882 28.nl 28.710 28.681 28.669 28.834
0.0 1.OO 1.OO r.occo 1.OO r.oooc 1.OO t.ccoo r.oooo t.oooo r.oooc r.oooc 1.OO 1 oo .500 53.703 52.816 52.481 52.019 51.591 51.353 51.243 51.196 51.064
.625 87.212 84.918 84.083 62.922 81.795 81.142 80.835 80.702 80.332
0.1 1JXlO5 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1 0004 .750 132.23 126.86 124.99 122.45 120.06 118.67 118.00 117.70 116.86
0.2 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1 . _ 1._ 1._ 1.0008 I '7 .875 192.74 181.02 177.09 171.92 167.23 164.58 163.31 162.76 161.17
03 1.0015 l.(lO15 1.0015 l.00H 1.0014 1.0014 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0012 1.0012 1.0011 1
0.'
0.5
1.0021
1.0026
1.0020
1.0025
1.0020
1.0025
1.(XH9 1.0019 1.0018
1.0024 1.0024 1.0023
UlO18 1.0017 1.0017
1.0022 1.0022 1.0021
1.0016
1.0020
1.0016
1.0020
l.(X)15 1
1.0019 1. 8 1.000
1.125
1.250
276.45
391.93
251.10
342.98
465.99
243.27
321.98
437.99
233.30
309.43
404.52
224.56
293.79
377.36
219.76
285.48
363.41
217.52
281.66
357.12
216.55
280.02
354.44
213.79
275.42
347.03
1.375 583.96 524.68 478.68 455.82 445.74 441.48 429.83
0.6 1.0031 1.0030 1.0030 1.0029 1.0028 1.0028 1.0027 1.0026 1.0025 1.0025 1,(1024 1.0023 1 0022
0.7 1.0036 1.0036 1.0035 1.0034 1.0033 1.0032 1.0032 1.0031 1.0030 1.0029 1.0028 1.0027 1 0028 1.500 679.10 602.45 565.19 549.94- 543.31 525.40
0.8 1.0042 1.0041 1.0040 1.0039 1.0038 1.0037 1.0036 1.0035 1.0034 1.0033 1.00J2 1.0030 1 0029 1.625 155.34 697.43 612.95 662.81 635.16
0.9 1.0047 1.0046 1.0045 1.0044 1.0043 1.0042 l.(lO41 1.0040 r.ocae 1.0037 1.0036 1.0034 1 1.750 948.99 856.37 819.05 803.n 763.51
1.0 1.0052 1.0051 1.0050 1.0049 1.0046 1.0047 1.0045 1.0044 1.0043 1.0041 1.0040 1.0038 1 1.875 1050.4 993.98 911.19 911.98
2.000 1290.7 1205.6 1111.8 1085.5
1.1 1.0057 1.0056 1.0055 1.0054 1.0053 1.0051 1.0046
1.0050 1.1)049 1.0047 1.0044 1.0042 1 2.125 1465.1 1415.0 1289.7
1.0048 1.0046 1
.
1.2 1.0062 1.0061 1.0060 1.0059 1.0058 1.0056 1.0050
1.0055 1.00f3 1.0052 2.250 1532.0
1.3 1.0068 1.0068 1.0065 1.0064 1.0062 1.0061 1.0054
1.()O59 1.0058 1.0056 1.COS2 1.0050 1. 2.375 1822.8
I.' 1.0073 1.0072 1.0070 1.0069 1.0067 1.0066 1.0064 1.0062 1.0060 1.0058 1.0056 1.0054 1 0052
1.5 UlO78 1.0077 1.0076 1.0074 1.0072 1.0070 1.0069 1.0067 \.0066 1.0063 1.0060 1.0058 1 '
1.0075 1.0073 1.0071 1.0069 1.0067 1.0065 1.0062 1 0060 Orifice
Internal Diameter or Pipe. D. lochea
1.6 1.0084 1.0082 1.0081 1.0079 1.0077
1.7
1.8
1.0089
1.0094
1.0088
1.0093
1.0086
1.0091
1.0096
1.0084
1.0089
1.0094
1.0082
1.0087
1.0092
1.0080
1.0085
1.0090
1.0078
1.0083
\.0088
1.0076
1.0080
1.0085
1.0074
1.0078
1.0083
1.0071
1.0076
1.0080
1.0069 1.0068 I 0064
1.0073 1.0070 1 0068
r.oc 1.0074 1 0071
Oiam.,
d,
Inches
6 8
1.9 1.0100 1.0098 3.826 '.026 4.897 5.189 5.71)1 6.065 1.625 1.981 8.071
2.0 1.0105 1.0103 1.0101 1.0099 1.0097 1.0095 1.0092 1.0090 1.0087 1.0084 1.0081 1.0078 1 '5 - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
.250 12.n1 12.m
2.1 1.0111 1.0109 1.0106 1.0104 1.0102 1.0100 UI097 1.0094 1.0092 1.0089 1.0086 1.0083 1 .315 28.599 28.584 .. . ...
2.2
2.3
1.0116
1.0121
1.0114
1.0119
1.0112
1.0117
1.0109
1.0114
1.0107
1.0112
1.0104
1.0109
1.0102
1.0106
1.0099
1.0104
1.0096
1.0101
1.0093
1.0098
1.0090
10094
1.0087
1.0091
1
1
.500 50.938 50.'" 50.739 SO.105 50.652 50.628 ..
.625 79.914 79.835 19.436 79.349 79.217 19.162 ...
2,' 1.0127 1.0124 1.0122 1.0120 1.0117 1.0114 1.0111 1.0108 1.0105 1.0102 1.0098 UXl95 1 .750 116.05 115.73 114.81 114.61 114.32 114.20
2.5 1.0132 1.0130 1.0121 1.0125 1.0122 1.0119 1.0116 1.0113 1.0110 1.0106 1.0103 1.0099 1
.815 159.57 158.94 157.11 156.11 156.13 155.89 155.11 154.99 154.96
1.0135 1.0133 1.0130 1.0127 1.0124 1.0118 1.0114 1.0111 1.0107 1.0103 1 1.000 211.03 209.91 206.62 205.91 204.84 204.41 203.00 202.80 202.75
2.' 1.0138 l.g'2' 1.125 270.90 269.09 263.71 262.51 260.71
1.0107 1 259.98 251.61 257.28 251.20
1.~!~
27 1.0143 1.0140 1.0138 1.0135 1.0132 1.0129 1. 126 1.0122 1.0119 1.0111
1.0148 1.0146 1.0143 1.0140 1.0137 1.0134 1.0131 1.0127 1.0124 1.01 1.0116 1.0112 1 1.250 339.87 337.05 328.13 326.85 324.02 322.86 319.10 318.56 318.44
2.8 1.315 418.80 414.51 402.06 399.30
29 1.0154 1.0151 1.0148 1.0145 1.0142 1.0139 1.0136 1.0132 1.0128 1.0124 1.0120 1.0116 1 395.08 393.33 387.62 386.81 386.62
3.0 1.0160 1.0157 1.0154 1.01~ 1.0147 1.0144 1.0140 1.0137 1.0133 1.0129 1.0124 1.0120 1 1.500 508.76 502.38 484.20 480.23 474.20 411.69 463.39 462.19 461.9'2
1.625 611.11 601.80 515.13 610.14 561.73 558.24 546.61 544.92 544.53
3.1 1.0165 1.0162 1.0159 1.0156 1.0152 1.0149 1.0145 1.0141 1.0137 1.0133 1.0129 1.0124 1 20 1.150 n1.54 714.16 677.38 669.63 658.08 653.33 637.51 635.19 834.65
32 1.0170 1.0167 1.0164 1.0161 1.0158 1.0154 1.01~ 1.0146 1.0142 1.0138 1.0133 1.0128 1 24 1.815 860.11 841.19 789.99 779.40 163.77 151.39 736.34 733.23 132.52
3.3 1.0176 1.0173 1.0170 1.0166 1.0163 1.01!)9 1.0155 1.0151 1.0147 1.0142 1.0138 1.0133 1 '8 2.000 1011.7 985.04 914.57 900.28 819.38 870.93 843.34 839.29 838.35
3.' 1.0181 1.0178 1.0175 1.0171 1.0168 1.0164 1.0160 1.0106 1.0151 1.0147 1.0142 1.0137 1 2.125 1185.3 1148.4 1052.3 1033.2 1005.6 994.52 952.38
1.0151 1.0146 1.0141 1 958.78 953.58
3.5 1.0187 1.0184 1.0180 1.0177 1.0173 1.0169 1.0165 1.0160 1.0156 2.250 1385.4 1334.4 1204.1 1119.4 1143.2 1128.8 1083.0 1076.4 1074.9
2.315 1611.2 1547.3 1373.4 1340.2 1293.1 1274.6 1216.3 1208.0 1206.1
3.8 1.0192 1.0189 1.0186 1.0182 1.0178 1.0174 1.0170 l,(1165 1.0161 1.0156 1.0151 1.0146 1 2.500 1887.6 1792.3
1.0165 1.0160 1.0155 1.01SO 1 1560.5 1517.2 1456.4 1432.1 1359.2 1348.8 1346.5
3.7 1.0198 1.0195 1.0191 1.0187 1.0183 1.0179 1.0175 1.0170 2.625 2208.0 2015.9 1168.3 1712.3 1634.3 1604.3 1512.0 1499.2 1496.3
3.8 1.l1204 1.0200 1.0196 1.0192 1.0188 1.0184 1.0180 1.0175 1.0170 1.0165 1.0160 1.0154 1
3.9 1.0209 1.0206 1.0202 1.0198 1.0194 1.0189 1.0185 1.0180 1.0175 1.0170 1.0164 1.0159 1 2.750 2401.0 1999.8 1927.6 1828.3 1190.3 1615.4 1659.1 1656.1
1.0215 1.0211 1.0207 1.0203 1.0199 1.0194 1.0190 1.0185 1.0180 1.0174 1.0169 1.0163 1 2.875 2258.5 2165.9 2039.9 1992.2 1849.8 1830.6 1826.3
'.0 3.000 2548.6 2430.2 2007.3
2271.2 2211.6 2036.0 2012.7
3.125 .... 2815.2 2n4.4 2524.3 2450.1 2234.1 2208.. 2199.9
3.250 3244.8 3052.8 2801.8 2709.9 2446.5 2412.4 2404.1
3.375 3885.6 3420.9 3106.9 2993.3 2612.5 2631.6 2622.3
3.500 3835.7 3443.0 3303.0 2913.1 2884.7 2853.7
3.625 4305.7 3814.4 3642.3 3171.1 3112.1 3099.6
3.150 4226.3 4014.8 3446.0 3316.6 336 1 0
3.815 .....9 4425.1 3739.9 3651.6 3639.2
'.000 5191.7 4818.4 4054.2 3951.0 1 3935.2
.250 4151 4 4616.6 4586.6
.500 5554.7 5369.0 532 7 9
4.150 64853 623 1 6175.2
.
5.000 i 1511.4 1 7224.3
1.1 1148.1
5.250
5.500
I
I 88503
8316.4
9123.8
' 82].4.0
, 9665\
.. - -- -_. . I__
.....
00
.....
......
~
PIPE TAPS-BASIC ORIFICE FACTORS-F.
PIPE TAPS-BASIC ORIFICE FACTORS-F.
Internal Diameter o( Pipe. D. Inchea
Oriti
......
Oriioo
~
10
Internal Diameter of Pipe. D, IQche.
12 te
Diu1~
d
I~"" 18.814
20
19.000 19.250 22.626
24
23.000 23.250 26.626
30
29.000
I ..... 9.... 10.020 10.136 11.376 11.938 12.090 14.688 15.llOO 16250
2.000 806.71 806.57 606.40
--- --- - - - - - - -29.250
--
1.000 202.1' .... -... . ... .... . ... . ... 2.125 911.52 911.35 911.13
'-125 256.22 256:01 255',96 .... .... 2,250 1022.9 1022.7 1022.4
1.250 316.90 316.56 316.49 31'5.81 "315.57 31'5.51 .... .... . ... 2.375 1141.0 1140.7 1140.4 11-36.8 1136.5 1136.3
1.375 384.29 383.79 ssa, 68 382.66 382.30 382.22 .... 2.500 1265.7 1265.4 1265.0 1260.6 1260.2 1259.9
1.500 .58.52 457.19 457.63 456.16 . '56.64 .56.52 453:92 '453.78 .... 2.625 1397.2 1396.8 1396.3 1390.9 1390.5 1390.2
1.629
1.760
",?~
628.03
538.69
628.61 ""45
626.29
536.38
623...
536.66
622.45
536.. .
622.20
633.27
619.18
633.07
618.92
532.93
618.73
2.750
2.875
1535.5
1680.7
1535.0
1680.1
1534.4
1679.3
1527.9
1671.5
1527.3
1670.9
1527.0
1670.4 1663.8
1.876 723.61 721.70 721.26 717.43 716.10 715.78 711.73 m.as 711.13 3.000
3.125
1832.7 1832.1 1831.2
1990.0
1821.9
1978.9
1821.1
1978.0
1820.6
1977.4
1812.7
1568.1
1(112.3
1967.7
1812.0
1967.4
2.llOO 826.63 824.12 823." 818.48 816.13 816.30 810.99 810.53 810.19 1991.8 1991.0
2.129
2260
937.27
1056.7
....02
1051.6
93327
1050.6
926.71
1042.3
924."
1039.4
923.88
1038.7
917.01
1029.9
916.43
1029.1
915.99
1028..
3.250
'.37. 2158.0
2331.3
2157.0
2330.2
2155.8
2328.7
2142.8
2313.5
2141.7
2312.3
2141.0
2311.5
2130.2
2296.6
2129.6
2296.2
2129.3
2297.7
2.375 1182.2 ttn-O 1175.8 1165..3 1161.6 1160.7 1149.7 1148.8 1148.1 '.500 2511.9 2510.6 2508.8 2491.2 2489.7 2489.8 2474.1 2473.3 24n.8
eess.r eece
,,.....
1.29 2699.7 2698.2 2696.2 2675.8 2674.1 2673.0 2656.0
2.500
2.629
2.760
1316.9
1460.0
1611.7
1310.5
1452.1
1602.3
1761.0
.....,
1309.0
1450.3
1295.9
1434.3
1580.7
1735.1
1291.4
1428.7
1573.9
1726..
1290.2
1427.4-
1572.2
1724.9
1276.5
1410.5
1551.7
1700.1
1275.4
1409.1
1549.9
1698.0
1274.5
1408.0
......
3.750
3.875
'.000
2696.0
3097.7
3306.0
2893.2
3095.7
3306.7
2890.9
3093.0
3302.7
2867.4
30....
3271.8
2865.4
3063.'
3269.2
2864.1
3062.3
3267.6
2844.6
3040.0
3242.1
2843.7
3036.9
3240.9
2843.0
3038.2
3240.1
2.876
3.000
3.'29
1772.5
1942.5
2122.1
,.29.8
2105.1
1758.4
192...
2101.9
1891.8
2069.0
",8.1
2067...
, ....7
2064.7
1856.1
2019.5
1853.6
2016.6
1851.1
2014.3
'.290
'.600
3751.6
.226a
3748.7
4223.0
3744.8
4218.1
3705.0
4167.6
3701.7
4163.4
3699.6
4160.7
3666.'
4119.3
3665.'
4117.3
.....3
4116.0
3.290 2311.6 2292.2 2287.8 2248.. 2236 2232.0 2190.7 2187.2 21..... 4.750 4734.1 4729.4 4723.3 .....0 4654.8 4651.4 4599.6 4597.1 4595.4
3.376 2511.5 2468.. 2483.. 2437.1 2421.8 2418.0 2369.' 2366.. 2362.' 6000 5274.6 5268.7 5261.2 5183.0 5176.4 5172.3 5108.2 5105.0 5103.0
3.500 2722.3 2696.3 2686.1 2636.' 2617.2
2621.'
2612.6 2556..6 2551.7 2948.1
2141.7
6290
6500
5849.0
6458.6
5841.9
6449.9
>832.'
6438.7
5737.0
6322.9
5729.1
6313.2
5723.9
6307.0
5645.4
6211.8
5641.6
6207.2
5639.1
6204.2
3.629
3.760
_.3
3178.1
2912.7
3141.2
29066
3132.1
2..3.0
3060.2 3036., 2816.3
3029.,
2151.4
2964'"
27'"
2948.1 2943.3 6760 7104.5 7094.0 70.... 6941.3 6929.7 6922.2 6807.7 6802.' 6798.5
3.87.
.llOO ....... .......
"24.3 3381.3 3371...
3622.1
3287.4
3624.9
3258.7
.......
"92~
3251.1
.....o
3165.9
3386.a
3158.6
3377...
3153.1
33712
6.000 7787.9
8510.4
m5.4
8495.4
n59.1
8476.0
7592.8
8278.4
7579.0
8262~
7570.1
8251.5
7433.6
8089.9
7426.9
8062~
7422.6
8076.9
.....
..... ......
290 .243.9
.....1
4176.8
.776.2
4161.6
4156.1
4032.9
4587.0 4530.8
3979~
4517.2
3851.6
4353.4
3840.9
4339.a
3832.a
4329.'
.......,
....... ......
4862.'
'.290
'.600
6.750
9273.4
10079
925>.'
t ccee
9232.5
10030
10871
8998.8
9755.0
8979.5
9732.4
10522 ,....
8967.1
9717.9
87n.2
9496.0
10247
8767.9
.....2
.02..
8761.9
9478.1
......
6437.' 5411.5 5191.5 5119.0 5101.5 4892.' 4875.8 7.000 .0928 10003 t .... '0226
'.760 7.290 11824 11794 11756 11379 11348 11329 11030 11016 11006
.735., 5471.9
......
6322.2 6169.2 6134.9 5850.6 5751.8
.....
6260 7177.7
8134.1
6676,'
7877-2 7820.0
6569.'
7364.1
6451.5
_.1
6423.2
7169.5
6092.'
6757.0
74''''
.....9
6724.1
7.500
7.750
a.ooo
1'2767
13762
.2733
13722
.2686
13670
12249
13160
12214
13119
12191
.309'
ncas
11847
12697
11630
12678
.....
11819
reese
.446.
...... ,
6024.2 7979.6 74'27.7 1397.4 14810 14763 14703 14113 '406> '3562 '3560
....
9207.0 8876.4 8603.. 8211.4
,....
'.760 ,..n
.....
6.000 10415 9991.2 9891.7 9149.5 8915.4 8869.9 6228.. 8179.2 8142.3 8.250 15914 15860 15791 15109 16064 '6020 14501
...... '604'
,....
6937~ 8.500 17015 16150 '6067 15457 15411
6.290 11763 11240 11121 10178 9811.2 9041.6 8981.7 '7076
"'" '''29
6.760
7.llOO
7260
13340
....
....
....
12644
14230
16036
....
12492
,.790
14038
. ...
11307
12560
13923
....2
12103
13371
14762 ,....
11998
13242
99112
10841
11837
12902
6638.7
10754
11732
12777
9784.7
11_
12684
8.760
'.000
9.250
9.500
19598
20663
22402
18232
19515
20667
22292
18139
.9408
20743
22151
..... ,....
17237
18373
20600
17166
18292
20696
17121
18241
'9409
20626 ,..... ,....
16460
....
17480
16418
17444
19611
16397
17421
16462
"682
. ...
,....
7.... . ... .... 17131 16294 16101 1_ 13894 13763 9.750 23923 23796 23634 22094 21976 21600 20806 207.. 20721
7.760 .... .... . ... 19017 17986 17760 15268 .6090 14969 .0.llOO 2..29 25384 25198 23447 23312 23227 21696 21938 2'902
.... 2-ese
6.000
......
6.260
..
....
....
....
....
....
....
. ...
....
. ...
. ...
....
....
....
1966'
21947
.....
...
.9672
21593
. ...
....
17998
19517
16371
17746
19221
16216
17561
19003
10.250
10.500
10.750
27227
2902'
3092.
27061
2....
30709 .....
26849
28692
32382
2633>
27.76
29490
2'709
26.64
2766>
24612
290"
27663
29136
23228
2....
25827
27196
23165
2....
25749
27109
23124
2.389
2....
27052
_,
6.760 21156 20807 20661 11.000 32940 32696 2927'
1.000 .... . ... .... .... . ... .... 22926 2261> 22214, 11.250 "798 ....a 31175 30932 30779 26613 28516 26463
.....
9260 ....
....
.....
... ....
. ...
....
....
. ...
. ...
.... 2-ese 24003 11.500
3607'
'7348 '7030 36626 32938 32666 32.94 30060 29972 29903
~
,.
. ... 26917 26346 29932 11.750 39762 39400 38941 "763 3447. 34285 31698 31479 31402
.... .... .... . ... .... 36373
,.....
9.150
10.000 ....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
. ...
....
....
....
. ...
. ...
. ...
....
....
....
29172
.........
31629
26601
30839
33383
29014
30268
32713
12.000
.2....
13.000
.2330
'7991
64463
41920
47460
63778
....
41'"
46790
52914
. ...
36714
ass
.....
.6406
40429
..an .....
36168
40161
33169
38476
40024
33038
363.a
.....
39829
32963
3821.
39704 ."
..... ~
10.600 36.60 36372 13.500 60420 49763 49352 .382. 434'7
14.000 .... .,094
55147 64638 47698 47615 47434
.. .,932
-
14.500 62099 52271 51714
......
15.000
.......
16.000
....
...
.... ..
68929
76662
...
67687
76026
83231
66915
74074
62066
"667
620.7
67454
66662
"633
66876
66301
.,223
66606 "'
. .. . ...
11.000 .... . ...
.....
"'14
7964'
72930
7883.
72193
76313
7....
18.000
18.500
18.000
. ...
.. . ...
..
....
..
. ...
... . ...
. ...
93900
101954
110722
85626
927es
100612
109135
84913
92042
99769
108128
s
19.500
20.000
....
....
.. ....
....
....
....
. ...
. ...
. ...
. ...
120296
130781
118411
1296>6
117229
1'27150
-
~
c'
1;;
I J
"b" VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR,
F,-PIPE TAPS
b
"b" VALUES FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER FACTOR,
~
on.."
F,=l+,~
v hwp,
Internal DiaIl1eter of Pipe, D. Incbea
F,-PIPE TAPS
b
F,=l+,~
vh",p,
f
1;
.......
Diam . d. a
'.900
3
Internal Diameter or Pipe, D, lnehet.
~-
-'.300
1.... 1.939 2.067 '.626 3.068 3.152 3.<38
--- - - --- --- - - - - - - - - - Orifice
16
.aso .1105 .1091 .1087 .1081 .1078 .1078 .1080 .1081 .1'" DI~d, 10 12
.cese
.....
.375 .0890 .0878 .0877 .0879 .0888 .0905 .0908 .0918
'.56< 10.020 10.136 11.376 11.938 12.090 14.688 15.000 15.250
.0728 .0737 .0750 .0758 .0763 .On8
--- - - - - - - - - - ---
... ---
..... .....
.900 .0758 .0734 .0729
....a ---
.625 .06" ....7 .0635 .062' .0624
.....
.0634
..... .....
.0662
..... .....
..... .....
.750 .0586 .05<6 .05<8 .0552 .0655 .0558 1.000 .0728
.06" .0559
...
875
1.000 .0702
.0802
.0614
.os70
.0576
..." .....
.0528 .0497
...73
.oee
...52 ....5 ....3 ....3
1.125
1.250
1.375
0674
.0624
.0576
.....t
.oees ...., ...., .....
.0687
....3
.....
.0704
....,
0708 ....
1.125
1.250
.0708
...
.0635
.ceec
.05"
.0616
0532
.0502 ........"
.0478
...35
.....
.....
.0<"
.G414
.0417 ....7
.0387
1.900
1.625
.0532
...eo
.0550
.0509
.0555
..... .....
.0514 .0561
.0697 .0705
.0620
.....
.0625
.0585
.... ,
.0676 .0670
1.375 ... .06,.
....
.0574
.essc
.oee ....3 .0418 .0379 1.750
1.875
...52
.0417
.0471
.0<35
.....
.0476 .0523
.....
....3
.0508
.05<8
.0513
.06,. .ll635
.0603 .0610
........"
.03" '.000 .0355 .0<03 ....7
..... .0475
...., .0663 .0572 .0578
."
1.750 0553 .050< .0471
.....
.. .... .0<77 2.125 .0355 .0372 .0377 .0<23 ....3 .0532 .05<8
..... ......
1.875 .0521
ecce
..
....
....
....
... .... .... "'19
.0532 0<" e.eec
2.375
,.500
.0329
.0305
.0263
.03<5
.0320
.0298
.03<,
.0324
.0301
.0394
.0367
.0342 .....
.0414
.0387
.0361
.0419
.0392
........" .....
.0366
.....
.0603
.0475
.0512 .0519
.-
,.3" .... .. 2.750
2.875
.0248
.02"
.0250
.02"
.0262
.02<6
.0265
.oete
.0316
.0295
.0320
.0300 .0:178 .0367
.0417
.039<
3_ .0222 .0230 .0232 .0262 .0277 .0281 .0356 .0355 .0372
Ia.\omal Diameter orPipe, D, Iocbee 3.125 .0212 .oara .0220 .0260 .026< .0336 .03<5 .0352
on.." .02<.
D..... d.
I ...... 6 8 3.250
3.375
3.900
.020<
.0199
.0195
.0209
.0201
.0195
.0210
.0202
.0196
.0232
.0220
.0210
.0245
.0232
.0220
JYl35
.0222
.0317
.0300
.0293
.0326
.0306
.0291
.0332
.0314
.0297
3.826 .eee ....7 5.189 5.761 6.068 7.625 7.981 8.071
------------ - - - ------ 3.625 .0193 .0191 .0191 .0200 .0209 .0212 .0268 .0275 .0281
.eeo .... . ... 3.750 .0192 .0188 .0188 .0193 .O2llO .0202 .025< .0251 .0267
.375
.900
.1087
.0932
.0799
,1091
.093'
.0810
...
.0850 .0a62 .0ai3 .0a95
....
...
. ..
....
. ...
....
3.875
4.000
.0193
.0195
.0187
.0187
~186
.0186
.0187
.0182
.0192
.0185
.0194
.0187
.02<0
.0228
.0247
JYl35 ..,..,
.0253
.ceee .....
.
1.125
1.250
1.375
1.900
.0375
.0358
.0350
.0412
.0377
.oasa
.03<0
.0363
.033<
.04la
.0373
.03<0
....a
.0397
.0360
.0512
.oee
.0412
.0372
.....
.0592
.0538
.....
....5
.....
.ll609
...., .....
.0613
.0510
5.250
5.900
5.750
6.000
.0257
.0287
.0307
.0326
.0263
.0282
.0302
.0239
.0257
.0276
.0295
.0194
.0207
.0221
JYl3.
.0181
.0190
.0202
.0215
~178
.0186
.0197
JYll0
.0160
~1"
~155
.0157
.0161
~1"
.01M
.01M
.0162
.0156
.0163
.0163
1.625
1.750
1.875
'.000
.0351
.0358
.0371
.0388
.....
.0336
.03<0
.0363
.0313
.0300
.0293
.0292
.0315
.0298
.0287
.0281
.0329
.030<
.0265
.0273
033'
.0311
.0290
.0273
.036.
.0338
.0311
.0421
.O3&l
.0302
.0323
...25
.0388
.0355
.0327
6.250
6.500
6.750
.03<3
.0358
....
.0320
.0336
.0351
.0316
.0331
.03<6
.0253
.0270
.0288
.0230
.02<6
.025'
.om
.0239
.0256
.0161
.0167
.0174
.0157
.0162
.0169
.01"
.0159
~1"
7_ .... .0363 .0359 .030< .0279 .0272 .0184 .0177 ~172
2.125
eeec
2.375
'.900
..."
....7
.....
....5
.0380
.0398
.0417
...35
.um
.0305
.0316
.0330
.0281
.0285
.cesa
.030<
.0255
.0251
.0262
..,.7
.025'
.0258
.0253
.025<
.0298
.0268
.0262
.0239
.0265
JYl77
.0268
.02"
.030l
.0280
.eee
.02<6
7.""
7.900
7.750
....
....
....
...
....
..
.0320
.033<
.03<7
.0295
.0310
.0325
.-
JYl88
.0318
.0195
.eece
JYl19
.0187
.0198
.0209
.0181
.0191
.0202
'.625 ."72 ...50 .03<5 .0317 JYl" .0258 .0230 .0232 .0233 ....
2.750
,.."
3_
....
....
....a
. ...
.0362
.0379
.0395 .....
.0331
....7
029<
.0295
JJ308
.0255
.027<
.0285
.022'
.0220
.O2l'
.om
.0218
.0214
.022.
.0218
JYll3
8.000
8.250
8.900
8.750
....
....
....
....
. ...
...
.. ..
. ...
.. ..
. ...
....
. ...
. ...
.....
.0338
..
.....
.0332
....
.. .. . ...
.ll232
..,..
.0259
.0273
.ll222
.0235
.02<8
.0262
JYl14
.0227
JYl'"
.0253
3.125 .... . ...
......." .....
.0410 .0380 .0323 .0297 .0220 0213 JYlll '.000 .... .... .. .. . ... .ll286 .0276 ..,.7
-
3.250 .... .03" .0336 .0311 .0223 .0214 021'
3.375 ....
...
. ...
. ...
0<32 .0353 .0325 .0228 .0216 JYl" '~60 .. .. .... . .. . ... .. .. . ... .0299 JYl88 .0280
.. .. . ... . ... ... .... ....
.-
3.500 .0419 .0367 .0339 .0235 .0221 JYl18 '.900 .0311 ~ .0292
.... . ... .... ...za .035< .0227 .om . ... . ... . ... . ... ....
.....
3.625 .0361 .02" 9.750 .... .0322 .0312 .030<
3.750 ... ..,_
.... .... .0393 .0357 .0252 023< .0230 ... .... . .. . ... . ... .0315
,.." .... .... . ... ..,.. 10.00<1
. ...- .....
.0332 .0323
. ... ....,
.. .... . ... . ... "'13
.0380
.0391
.0262
JYl73 ..cesa .0238
10.250 ... .... . ... . ... . .. .0333 0326
.... . ... .... .... .... .... JYl96 .0268
10.900 ... ... I . ... .. .0335
'.250
.500
'.750
....
...
....
....
. ...
. ...
....
. ...
....
... -
. ...
. ...
....
....
....
....
....
....
..... .....
.0321
0273
JYl96
.0320
.0280
.03"
.0338
.....
5.000 .O3&l
.0672
--- --- --- --- ~--
--- 1.689 1.939 2.067
-~-
2.300 2.626 2.900
--- --- --- --- --- --- - - ---
3.068 3.152 3.438 3.826 '.028
2.125 .0635 .0639 .0644 . 0.10 0.1295 0.1209 0.1173 0.1118 0.1058 0.1017 0.0996 0.0986 0.0957 0.0924 0.0909
2.250 .0609 .0613 .0618 0.11 0.1253 0.1167 0.1132 0.1077 0.1016 0.0976 0.0954 0.0945 0.0915 0.0882 0.0867
2.375 .0583 .0588 .0593 .0658 .0665 .0669 0.12 0.1212 0.1126 0.1090 0.1035 0.0975 0.0934 0.0913 0.0903 0.0874 0.0841 0.0826
2.500 0558 .0562 .0568 .0635 .0642 .oee .. . ... 0.13 0.1172 0.1086 0.1051 0.0996 0.0935 0.0895 0.0874 0."" 0.0835 0.0902 0.0787
2.625 .0534 .0539 .0544 .0613 .0620 .0624 0.14 0.1134 0.1049 0.1013 0.0958 0.0898 0.0858 0.0837 0.0827 0.0797 0.0765 0.0750
2.750 .0510 .0515 .0520 .0591 .0598 .0603 0.15 0.1098 0.1013 0.0978 0.0923 0.0863 0.0801 0.0792 0.0762 0.0729 0.0715
2.875 .oee .0492 .0498 .0570 .0572 .0582 :0667 0.0823
0.16 0.1065 0.0980 0._ 0.0889 0.0829 0.0789 0.0768 0.0758 0.0729 0.0696 0.0682
3.000 .oee .0470 .0476 .0549 .0556 .0561 .0649 .0654 .0657 0.17 0.1033 0.0948 0.0912 0.0856 0.0798 0.0758 0.0737 0.0727 0.0698 0.0665 0.0650
3.125 .0445 .0449 .0455 .0529 .0536 .0541 .0630 .0636 .0639 0.18 0.1001 0.0916 0.0881 0.0827 0.0767 0.0727 0.0706 0.0696 0.0667 0.0634 0.0620
3.250 .0425 .0429 .0435 .0509 .0516 .0521 .0613 .0616 .0622 0.19 0.0973 0.0888 0.0853 0.0799 0.0739 0.0699 0.0678 0.0669 0.0639 0.0607 0.0592
3.375
3.500
.0406
.0387
.0410
.0391
.0416
.0397
.0490
.0471
.0497
.0479 ......
.0502 .0595
.0578
.0601
'<>584
.0604
.0567 0.20
0.21
0.0945
0.0919
0.0861
0.0835
0.0825 0.0771
0.0800 0.0746
0.0112
0.0687
0.0672
0.0647
0.0651
0.0626
0.0642 0.0613
0.0617 0.0588
0.0580
0.0555
0.0566
0.0541
3.625
3.750
3.875
.0369
.0352
.0336
.0373
.0356
.0340
.0379
.<>362
.0346
.0454
:0436
.0419
.......
.0461
.0427
.0466
.0449
.0432
.0561
.0545
.0528
.0561
'<>550
.0534
.0571
.0554
.0538
0.22
0.23
0 .....
0.0872
0.0811
0.0788
0.0776 0.0722
0.0753 0.0700
0.0663
0.0641
0.0623
0.0602
0.0503
0.0581
0.0593 0.0564
0.0571 0.0543
0.0532
0.0510
0.0518
0.0496
'.000 .0320 .0324 .0330 .0403 .0411 .0416 .0513 .0518 .0522 0.24 0.0851 0.0767 0.0733 0.0679 0.0621 0.0581 0.0561 0.0551 0.0523 0.0490 0.0476
4.250 .0291 .0295 .0301 .0372 .0380 0385 .0482 .oee .0492 0.25 0.0831 0.0748 0.0714 0.0660 0.0602 0.0563 0.0542 0.0533 0.0504 0.0472 0.0458
'.500 .0285 .0289 .0274 .0343 .0351 .0356 .0453 .0459 .0463 0.26 0.0812 0.0730 0.0695 0.0642 0.0584 0.0545 0.0524 0.0515 0.0487 0.0455 0.0441
4.750 .0242 .0246 .0250 .0316 .0324 .0328 .0425 .0431 .0435 0.27 0.0196 0.0713 0.0679 0.0626 0.0568 0.0530 0.0509 0.0500 0.0471 0.0440 0.0426
5000 .0221 .0225 .0229 .0292 .oaes .0303 .0399 .0405 .0409 0.28 0.0781 0.0699 0.0665 0.0612 0.0554 0.0516 0.0495 0.0486 0.0458 0.0426 0.0412
5.250 .0203 .0206 .0210 .0289 .0276 .0280 .0374 .0380 .0384 0.29 0.0766 0.0685 0.0651 0.0598 0.0541 0.0502 0.0482 0.0473 0.0445 0.(),n3 0.0399
5.500 .<>'88 .0190 .0194 .0248 .0255 .0259 .0350 .0356 .0360 0.30 0.0753 0.0672 0.0638 0.0461 0.0433 0.0401 0.0388
.0175 .Dln .0180 .0230 .0236 .0240 .0328 .0334 .0338 0.0586 0.0529 0.0490 0.0470
5.750 0.31 0.0741 0.0661 0.0627 0.0515 0.0518 0.0480 0.0480 0.0451 0.0423 0.0391 0.0378
6.000 .0104 .0165 .0168 .0212 .0218 .0222 .0307 .0313 .0317 0.0413
0.32 0.0730 0.0650 0.0616 0.0564 0.0508 0.0470 0.0480 0.0441 0.0382 0.0368
6.2&1 .0155 .0156 .0158 .0197 .0202 .0206 .0287 .0293 .0297 0.33 0.0720 0.0640 0.0606 0.0555 0.0499 0.0461 0.0441 0.0432 0.0405 0.0374 0.0360
6.500 .0148 .0149 .0150 .0184 .0189 .0192 .0289 .027' .0278 0.34 0.0712 0.0632 0.0599 0.0548 0.0492 0.0455 0.0435 0.0426 0.0398 0.0388 0.0354
6.750 .0143 .0144 .0145 .0172 .0176 .0179 .0252 .0257 .0280
7.000 .0141 .0141 .0141 .0162 .0166 .0168 .0236 .0241 .02 0.35 0.0705 0.0626 0.0593 0.0542 0.0486 0.0449 0.0429 0.0420 0.0393 0.0362 0.0349
.0158 .0228 .0229 0.36 0.0699 0.0620 0.0587 0.0537 0.0481 0.0444 0.0424 0.0416 0.0388 0.0358 0.0345
7.280 .0140 .0140 .0139 .0103 .0156 .0221 0.37 0.0593 0.0615 0.0582 0.0532 0.0477 0.0440 0.0421 0.0412 0.0385 0.0355 0.0341
7.500 .0140 .0140 .0139 .0146 .0148 .0150 .0207 .0212 .0215 0.38 0.0589 0.0611 0.0578
.0142 .0141 .0140 .0140 .0142 .0144 .0195 .0199 .0202 0.0529 0.0474 0.0437 0.0418 0.0409 0.0382 0.0352 0.0339
7.750 0.39 0.0564 0.0607 0.0575 0.0525 0.0471 0.0435 0.0415 0.0407 0.0380 0.0350 0.0337
8000 .0146 .0144 .0142 .0136 '<>138 .0138 .0183 .0187 .0190
8250 .0151 .0148 .0146 .0133 .0134 .0132 .0173 .0177 .0179 0.40 0.0681 0._ 0.0572 0.0523 0.0469 0.0433 0.0414 0.0406 0.0379 0.0349 0.0336
8.500 .0156 .0154 .0151 .0132 .0132 .0130 .0164 .0167 .0169 0.41 0.0678 0.0503 0.0571 0.0522 0.0468 0.0432 0.0414 0.0406 0.0379 0.0349 0.0336
8.750 .0163 .0160 .0157 .0131 .0130 .0130 .0155 .0158 .0161 0.42 O.06n 0.0602 0.0570 0.0521 0.0468 0.0433 0.0414 0.0405 0.0379 0.0350 0.0337
9.000 .0171 .0168 .0163 .0131 .0130 .0130 .0148 .0151 .0153 0.43 0.0676 0.0601 0.0570 0.0522 0.0469 0.0434 0.0415 0.0402 0.0381 0.0352 0.0339
0." 0.0675 0.0601 0.0570 0.0522 0.0470 0.0435 0.0417 0.0408 0.0382 0.0354 0.0341
9.250 '<>180 .0176 .0171 .0133 .0131 .0130 .0142 .0144 .0146
9.500 .0189 .0185 .0180 .0136 .0133 .0132 .0136 .0138 .0140 0.45 0.0675 0.0602 0.0571 0.0524 0.0472 0.0437 0.0419 0.0410 0.0385 0.0357 0.0344
9.750 .0198 .0194 .0189 .0139 .0136 .0134 .0132 .0133 .0134 0." 0.0676 0.0603 0.0572 0.0526 0.0474 0.0440 0.0422 0.0413 0.0388 0.0380 0.0347
10.000 .0209 .0204 .0198 .0143 .0140 .0138 .0128 .0129 .0130 0.47 0.0676 0._ 0.0574 0.0528 0.0416 0.0442 0.0424 0.0416 0.0391 0.0388 0.0351
10.250 .0219 .0214 .0209 .0148 .0144 .0142 .0125 .0126 ... .0127 0." O.06n 0.0606 0.0576 0.0530 0.0479 0.0446 0.0428 0.0420 0.0395 0.0367 0.0355
10.500 ..0230 .0225 .0219 .0154 .0150 .0147 .0123 .0124 .0124 0.49 0.0678 0.0808 0.0578 0.0532 0.0482 0.0449 0.0431 0.0423 0.0399 0.0372 0.0359
10.7&1 .0241 .0238 .0229 .0160 .0155 .0152 .0122 .0122 .0122 0._ 0.0428 0.0404 0.0377 0.0365
0.50 0.0511 0.0581 0.0536 0.0486 0.0453 0.0436
~
11.000 .0252 .0247 .0240 .0168 .0162 .0158 .0121 .0121 .0121 0.51 0.0682 0.0382 0.0370
0.0613 0.0584 0.0539 0.0490 0.0458 0.0440 0.0433 0.0409
11.250 .0283 .0281 .0251 .0175 .0169 .0165 .0122 .0121 .0121 0.52 0.0564 0.0615 0.0587 0.0543 0.0494 0.0462 0.0445 0.0431 0.0413 0.0387 0.0375
11.500 .0273 .0288 .0282 .0183 .0176 .0172 .0122 .0121 .0122 0.53 0.0687 0.0619 0.0590 0.0541 0.0499 0.0467 0.0450 0.0442 0.0419 0.0393 0.0381
11.750 .0284 .0278 .0272 .0191 .0184 .0180 .0124 .0123 .0122 0.54 0.0689 0.0622 0.0594 0.0551 0.0503 0.0472 0.0455 0.0448 0.0424 a.0398 0.0387
'"
I
12.000 .0293 .0288 .0282 .0200 .0192 .0190 .0126 .0124 .0123
.0130 0.55 0.0592 0.0628 0.0598 0.0555 0.0508 0.0477 0.0480 0.0453 0.0430 0.0404 0.0393
12;500 .0312 .0307 .0301 .0218 .0210 .0204 .0132 '<>128 0.56 0.0694 0.0628 0.0601 0.0559 0.0513 0.0482 0.0466 0.0458 0.0435 0.0410 0.0399
13.000 .0327 .0323 .0318 .0236 .0229 .0222 .0140 .0137 .0135
.-
0.57 0.0696 0.0632 0.0605 0.0563 0.0517 0.0487 0.0471 0...... 0.0441 0.0416 0.0406
13.500 .. . ... .0254 .0246 .0240 .01&1 ~146 .0143 0.58 0.0699 0.0635 0.0808 0.0567 0.0522 0.0492 0.0476 0.0469 0.0447 0.0422 0.0412
14.000 .02n .0254 .0258 .0161 .0156 .0153 0.59 0.0701 0.0638 0.0612 0.0571 0.0527 0.0497 0.0482 0.0474 0.0453 0.0428 0.0418
14.500 .... .0289 .0280 .0275 .0173 .0168 .0165 0.80 0.0704 0.0641 0.0615 0.0575 0.0532 0.0502 0.0487 0.0460 0.0458 0.0434 0.0424
.... .0181 .0177
15.000
15.500
16.000
..
..
.0318
..
.0296
.0311
.0323
.0291
.0306
.0318
.0186
.0200
.0215
.0194
.0209
.OHIO
.0204
0.61
0.52
0.63
0-0705 0.0643
0.0706 0.0645
0.0707 0.osaa
0.0618
0.0620
0.0623
0.0578
0.0581
O.O~
0.0535
0.0539
0.0543
0.0506
0.0510
0.0491 0......
0.0495 0.0489
0.0500 0.0493
0.0463
0.0468
0.0473
0.0439
0.0444
0.0450
0.0429
0.0434
0.0440
"
s
0.0515
... .... ... .0230 .0223 .0219 0." 0.0708 0.0649 0.0625 0.0587 0.0546 0.0518 0 . _ 0.0497 0.0477 0.0454 0.0444
.- .-
16.500
17.000 .... .. '<>244 .0238 .<l233 0.65 0.011J9 0.0651 0.0627 0.0590 0.0549 0.0522 0.0508 0.0501 0.0481 0.0459 0.0449
17.500 .... .... .... .0289 .0252 .0248 0.66 0.0708 0.0651 0.0628 0.0591 0.0551 0.0525 0.0511 0._ 0."" 0.0463 0.0453
...~'"
18.000 ... , .. .... .... .0272 .0266 .0261 0.67 0.0708 0.<>653 0.0629 0.0594 0.0554 0.0528 0.0514 0.0508 0..... 0.0467 0.0458
18500 .... .. .. , .0279 .0275 0.88 0.0708 0.0653 0.0630 0.0595 0.0556 0.0531 0.0517 0.0511 0.0492 0.0471 0.0462
19.000 .. . ... .... .... .... .0298 .0292 0.69 0.0705 0.0652 0.0629 0.0595 0.0557 0.0532 0.0518 0.0512 0.0494 0.0473 0......
~.
0.70 0.0704 0.0651 0.0514 0.0496 0.0476 0_0467
19.500 ... . ... .. . ... .. , .0309 .0303
.0313
.0299
.0010
0.0829 0.0595 0.0558 0.0533 0.0520
20.000 .0318
J
,I
0.3 0.0303 0.0291 0.0272 0.0263 0.0221 0.0220 0.0200 0.0195 0.0194 0.0183 0.0178 0 0.35 0.0162 0.0161 0.0160 0.0147 0.0146 0.0145 0.0137 0.0137 0.0136 0.0128 0.0127 0.0127
0.31 0.0299 0.0287 0.0268 0.0259 0.0224 0.0218 0.0216 0.0196 0.0192 0.0190 0.0179 0.0175 0 74 0.36 0.0159 0.0157 0.0156 0.0144 0.0143 0.0142 0.0134 0.0134 0.0133 0.0125 0.0124 0.0124
0.3 0.02;16 0.0284 0.0265 0.0256 0.0221 0.0215 0.0214 0.0194 0.0189 0.0188 0.Q177 0.0173 0 72 0.37 0.0157 0.0155 0.Q154 0.0141 0.0141 0.0140 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0123 0.0122 0.0122
0.38 0.0294 0.0282 0.0263 0.0254 0.0220 0.0214 0.0212 0.0193 0.0188 0.0187 0.0176 0.0171 0 70 0.38 0.0155 0.01!>4 0.0153 0.0140 0.0140 0.0139 0.0131 0.0130 0.0130 0.0122 0.0121 0.0121
0.39
0.40 ! 0.02;13
0.0292
0.0292
0.0281
0.0281
0.0262
0.0261
0.0253
0.0253
0.0219
0.0219
0.0220
0.0213
0.0213
0.0211
0.0212
0.0192
0.0192
0.0187
0.0187
0.0186
0.0186
0.0175
0.0175
0.0171
0.0171
0
0
0
70
70
72
0.39
0.40
0.0155
0.0156
0.0154
0.01~
0.0153
0.0153
0.0140
0.0141
0.0139
0.0140
0.0139
0.0139
0.0131
0.0132
0.0130
0.0131
0.0130
0.0130
0.0122
0.0122
0.0121
0.0122
0.0121
0.0122
,:
0.' 0.0281 0.0262 0.0253 0.0214 0.0213 0.0193 0.0189 .0.0187 0.0177 0.0173 0.41 0.0157 0.0155 0.0154 0.0142 0.0142 0.0141 0.0133 0.0132 0.0132 0.0124 0.0124 0.0123
0.' 0.0294 0.0282 0.0263 0.0255 0.0222 0.0216 0.0214 0.0195 0.0191 0.0189 0.0179 0.0175 0 7. 0.42 0.0159 0.0158 0.0157 0.0144 0.0144 0.0143 0.0136 U.Ol35 0.0134 0.0126 0.0126 0.0126
0.' 0.0296 0.0285 0.0266 0.0257 0.0224 0.0218 0.0217 0.0198 0.0193 0.0192 0.0182 0.0178 0 n 0.43 0.0162 0.0161 0.0160 0.0148 0.0147 0.0146 0.0139 0.0138 0.0138 0.0130 0.0129 0.0129
0.44 0.0298 0.0287 0.0268 0.0260 0.0227 0.0221 0.0220 0.0201 0.0197 0.0196 0.0185 0.0181 0 80 0.... 0.0166 0.0164 0.0163 0.0151 0.0151 0.015( 0.0143 0.0142 0.0141 0.0134 0.0133 0.0133
;:
0.4' 0.0301 O.02:lO 0.0272 0.0263 0.0231 0.0225 ~022' 0.0206 0.0201 0.0200 0.0189 0.0185 0 84 0.45 0.0170 0.0169 0.0168 0.0156 0.0155 0.0155 0.0147 0.0146 0.0146 0.0138 0.0138 0.0137
0.46 0.0305 0.0294 0.0276 0.0268 0.0235 0.0230 0.0228 0.0210 0.0205 0.0204 0.0194 0.0190 0 89 0.46 0.0175 0.0174 0.0173 0.0161 0.0160 0.0160 0.0152 0.0151 0.0151 0.0143 0.0143 0.0143
0.' 0.0309 0.02~ 0.0280 0.0272 0.0240 0.0235 0.0233 0.0215 0.0210 0.0209 0.0199 0.0195 0 94 0.47 0.0180 0.0179 0.0178 0.0166 0.0166 0.0165 0.0158 0.015 0.015 0.0149 0.0149 0.0148
:
0.4; 0.0314 0.0303 0.0285 0.0277 0.0245 0.0240 0.0238 0.0220 0.0216 0.0215 0.0205 0.0201 0 0200 0.48 0.0186 0.0185 0.0184 0.0172 0.0172 0.0171 0.0164 0.0163 0.0163 0.0155 0.0155 0.0154
0.4' 0.0319 0.0308 O.02:lO 0.0282 0.0251 0.0245 0.0244 o.oaae 0.0222 0.0'221 0.0211 0.0207 0 0206 0.49 0.0192 0.0191 0.0190 0.0178 0.0178 0.0177 0.017 0.0169 0.0169 0.0162 0.0161 0.0161
0.50
0.9
0.0324 0.0314 0.0296 0.0288 0.0257 0.0252 0.0250 0.0233 0.0228 0.0227 0.0217 0.0213 0 a 0.60
0.51
0.0199 0.0198 0.0197 0.0185 0.0185 0.0184 0.0177 0.0176 0.0176 6.0169 0.0168 0.0168
0.0330 0.0319 0.0302 0.0294 0.0263 0.0258 0.0257 0.0239 0.0235 0.0234 0.0224 0.0220 0 9 ~0206 0.0205 0.0204 0.0193 0.0192 0.0191 0.0184 0.0184 0.0183 0.0176 0.0176 0.0175
0.5: 0.0335 0.0325 0.0308 0.0300 0.0270 0.0265 0.0263 0.0246 0.0242 0.0241 0.0231 0.0227 0 om 0.52 0.02\3 0.0212 0.0211 0.0200 0.0199 0.0199 0.0192 0.0191 0.0191 0.0183 0.0183 0.0183
!
0.53 0.0342 0.0332 0.0315 0.0307 0.0277 0.0272 0.0270 0.0253 0.0249 0.0248 0.0238 0.0235 0 '34 0.53 0.0221 0.0220 0.0219 0.0208 0.0207 0.0207 0.0200 0.0199 0.0199 0.0191 0.0191 0.0191
0.54 0.0348 0.0338 0.0321 0.0314 0.0284 0.0279 0.0278 0.0261 0.0256 0.0255 0.0246 0.0242 0 1 0.54 0.0229 0.0227 cceae 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214 0.0208 0.0207 0.0207 0.0199 0.0199 0.0199
0.5' 0.0355 0.0345 0.0328 0.0321 0.0291 0.0286 0.0265 0.0268 0."" 0.0263 0.0254 0.Q250 0 9 0.53 0.0237 0.0235 0.0234 0.0224 0.0223 0.0223 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 ~0208 0.0207 0.0207
0.56 0.0361 0.0351 0.0335 0.0327 0.0298 0.0293 0.0292 0.0276 0.0272 0.0271 0.0261 0.0258 0 ,7 0.56 0.0244 0.0243 0.0242 0.0232 0.0231 0.0231 0.0224 0.0223 0.0223 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215
0.57 0.0368 0.0358 0.0342 0.0335 0.0306 0.0301 0.0300 0.0263 0.0279 0.0278 0.0269 0.0266 0 ,9 0.57 0.0253 0.0251 0.0250 0.0240 0.0239 0.0239 0.0232 ~0232 0.Q231 0.0224 0.0224 0.0224
0.58 0.0375 0.0365 0.0349 0.0342 0.0313 0.0309 0.0307 0.0291 0.0287 0.0286 o.om 0.0274 0 '3 0.58 0.0261 0.0260 0.0259 0.1)248 0.0248 0.0247 0.0241 0.0240 0.0240 0.0233 0.0233 0.0232
0.59 0.0381 0.0372 0.0356 0.0349 0.0321 0.0316 0.0315 0.1l299 0.0295 0.0294 0.0285 0.0282 0 0.59 0.0269 0.0268 0.0"7 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0249 0.0248 0.0248 0.0241 ~0241 0.0241
0.60 0.0388 0.0378 0.0363 0.0356 0.0328 0.0323 0.0322 0.0307 0.0303 0.0302 0.0293 0.0290 0 0289 0.60 0.0277 0.0276 0.0275 0.1)265 0."" 0."" 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0250 0.0249 0.0249
0.6 0.0393 0.0384 0.036 0.0362 0.0335 o.eaas 0.0314 0.0297 0 0296 0.1 0.0284 0.0283 0.0282 0.0272 0.0272 0.0271 0.0265 0.""" 0."" 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257
!
0.0330 0.0310 0.0309 0.0300
0.6: 0.0399 0.0390 0.037 5 0.0368 0.0342 0.0337 0.0336 0.0321 0.0317 0.0316 0.0307 0.0304 0 >3 0.62 0.0292 0.0291 0.0290 0.0280 e.0280 0.0279 0.0273 O.02n 0.0272 0.0266 0.0265 0.0265
0.53 0.0405 0.0396 0.0381 0.0375 0.0348 0.0344 0.0343 0.0328 0.0324 0.0323 0.0315 0.0311 0 1 0.53 0.1l299 0.0298 0.0297 0.0288 0.0287 0.0287 0.0281 0.U280 0.0280 0.0273 0.0273 0.0273
0.64 0.0411 0.0402 0.0387 0.0381 0.0355 0.0350 0.0349 0.0334 0.0331 0.0330 0.0322 0.0318 0
0.64 0.0306 0.0305 0.0304 0.0295 0.0295 0.0294 0.0288 0.0288 0.0287 0.0281 0.0281 0.0280
06'
0.66 ~ 0.0416
0.0421
0.0407
0.0412
0.0393
0.0398
0.0386
0.0391
0.036\ 0.0357 0.0355
0.0366 0.0362 0.0361
0.0341
0.0347
0.0337
0.0343
0.0336
0.0342
0.0328
0.0334
0.0325
0.0331
0
0 n"
0.65
0.66
0.0313
0.0320
0.0312
0.0319
0.0312
0.0318
0.0302
0.0309
0.0302
0.0308
0.0301
0.0308
0.0295
0.0302
0.0295
0.0301
0.0294
0.0301
~0288 0.0288
0.0295 0.0295
0.0288
0.0295
0.67
0.58 [ 0.0425
0.0430
0.0417
0.0422
0.0403
0.04081
0.0397
00402
o.om 0.0366 0.0367
0.0377 0.0373 O.03n
0.0352
0.0358
0.0349
0.0355
0.0349
0.0354
0.0341
0.0346
0.0338
0.0344
0 0337
0 0343
0.67
0.68
0.0326
0.0332
0.0326
0.0331
0.0324
0.0330
0.0315
0.0322
0.0315
0.0321
0.0314
0.0321
0.0309
0.0315
0.0308
0.0315
0.0308
0.0314
D.0302 0.0302
0.0308 0.0308
0.0302
0.0308
0.69
0.70 ~ 0.0433
0.0436
0.0425
00428
0.04111
0.0415
0.04051
0.0409
l
0.0381 0.0377 0.0376
0.0386 0.0382 0.0381
0.0363
0.0367
0.0359
0.036<
0.0359
0.0363
0.0351
0.0356
0.0348
0.0353
0 0347
0 0352
~'9
0.70
0-0337
0.034'
0.0336
0.0341
0.0336
0.0340
0.0327
0.0332
0.0326
0.0332
0.0326
0.0331
0.0320
0.0326
0.0320
~0325
0.0320
0.0325
0.0314 0.0314
D.0319 0.0319
0.0313
0.0319
.....
e;:
....
&
I.'
1.7
1.8
.9847
.9&17
.9828
.9832
.982'
.9811
.9805
.9793
.9781
.9767
.9752
.9738
.9742
.9726
.9710
.9713
.969~
.9672
.9700
.968'
.9662
.9685
.964'
.9670
.9649
.9628
.96~2
.9831
.96Q9
.9633
.9610
.9587
1.6
1.7
>'8
.9623
.9599
.9576
.9612
.9587
.9563
.96QO
.9575
.9550
.9587
.9561
.9535
.9573
.9547
.9620
.9558
.9531
.9503
.9542
.9514
.9485
.9525
.9495
.9465
.escs
.9474
.9443
.9484
.9452
.9419
1.9 .9818 .9800 .9769 .9723 .9694 .9659 .9543 .9620 .9608 .9587 .9565 1.9 .9552 .9539 .9525 .9510 .9493 .9476 .941>8 .9435 .9412 .9387
2.0 .sece .9790 .9757 .9709 .9678 .9641 .%25 .9607 .91>87 .9566 .9542 2.0 .9529 .9515 .9500 .9484 .9467 .9448 .9428 .9406 .9381 .9355
2.1 .9799 .9779 .9745 .9694 .9662 .9G23 .9606 .9587 .9986 .9544 .9519 2.' .950S .9490 .9475 .941>8 .9440 .9420 .9399 .9376 .9351 .9323
,..
2.2 .!:l790 .9768 .9m .9680 .9645 .9505 .9587 .9567 .9546 .~522 .9496 2.2 .9481 .9466 .94'" .9432 .9413 .9393 .9371 .9346 .9320 .9290
2.3 .9780 .9758 .9720 .9665 .9630 .9587 .9568 .9548 .9525 .9500 .9473 2.3 .9458 .9442 .9425 .9406 .9387 .9365 .9342 .9317 .9289 .921>8
2.' .9770 .9747 .9708 .9650 .9613 .9570 .9550 .9528 .9505 .9479 .94'" .9434 .9418 .9400 .9381 .9360 .9338 .9313 .9287 .9258 .922'
25 .9761 .9737 .9696 .9630 .9597 .9552 .9531 .9508 .9494 .9457 .9427 25 .9411 .9393 .9375 .9355 9333 .9310 .9285 .9257 .9227 .9194
2.' .9751 .9126 .9684 .9621 .9581 .9534 .9512 .9489 .9463 .9435 .94<l4 2.' .9387 .9369 .9350 .9329 .9307 .9282 .9256 .9227 .9196 .9161
2.7 .9742 .9716 .9672 .9607 .9965 .%16 .9493 .9469 .9443 .9414 .9381 2.7 .9364 .9345 .9325 .9303 .9280 .9255 .9227 .9198 .9165 .9129
2.8 .':1732 .9705 .9659 .9592 .9549 .9498 .9475 .9449 .9422 .9392 .9358 2.8 .9340 .9321 .9300 .9277 .9253 .9227 .9199 .9168 .9134 .9067
.9647 .9533 .941>8 .9335
.-
2.9 .9723 .9695 .9578 .9480 .!:l430 .9401 .9370 2.9 .9316 .9296 .9275 .9252 .9227 .9200 .9170 .9138 .9103 .9064
3.0 .':1713 .9684 .9635 .9563 .9517 .9462 .9437 .9410 .9381 .9348 .9312 3.0 .9283 .9272 .saso .9226 .9200 .9172 .9142 .9108 .9072 .9032
3.1 .9704 .9674 .9623 .9~9 .9501 .9444 .9418 .93'" .9360 .9327 .9290 3.' .9269 .9248 .9225 .9200 .9173 .9144 .9113 .9079 .904' .9000
~
3.2 .:J6!:l4 .9863 .9611 .9534 .9485 .9425 .9400 .9371 .9339 .9305 .9267 3.2 .9246 .9223 .9200 .9174 .9147 .9117 .9049 .9010 .8968
33 .1IGS4 .9653 .9599 .9519 .9469 .94<l8 .9381 .9351 .9319 .9283 .9244 3.3 .9222 .9199 .9175 .9148 .9120 .9089 .9058 .9019 .8979 .8935
3.4 .9575 .9642 .9587 .9505 .94" .9390 .9362 .9331 .9298 .9261 .9221 3.' .9199 .9175 .9150 .9122 .9093 .9062 .9027 .0990 .8'" .8903
35 .':/ti6!) .9632 .%74 .94'" .9436 .9372 .9343 .9312 .9277 .9240 .9198 3.5 .9175 .9151 .9125 .9067 .9067 .9034 .8999 .8960 .8918 .8871
~
3.6
3.7
3.8
3-9
.9656
.9646
.9637
.9627
.9621
.9611
.96QO
.9590
.9562
.9"'"
.9538
.9526
.9476
.9461
.9447
.9432
.9420
.940;
.9398
.sara
.9354
.9336
.9318
.9301
.9324
.9306
.9287
.9268
.9292
.9272
.9253
.9233
.9257
.9236
.9216
.9195
.9218
.9196
.9175
.9153
.9175
.9152
.9129
.9106
3.'
3.7
3.8
3.9
.9151
.9128
.9104
.9081
.9126
.9102
.9078
.9054
.9100
.9075
.9050
.9025
.9071
.9045
.9019
-8993
.9040
.9013
.8987
.8960
.9006
.8979
.8951
.8924
-8970
.....
.894'
.8913
-8930
-8900
.8871
.8841
.....
....7
.SS25
.8794
.8839
.9806
.8124
.8742
IS
~
.9356 .9283 .9131 .9083 .eeee ~
'.0 .9617 .9579 .9514 .9417 .9249 .9213 .9174 '.0 .9057 .9029 .9000 .8968 .8933 .8896 .8811 .8763 .8710
C
;:
s
-
~
C'
1:;
~
~
~
EXPANSION FACTORS-PIPE TAPS-Y,
Static Pressure Taken from Downstream Taps
EXPANSION FACTORS-PIPE TAPS-Y,
Static Pressure Taken from Downstream Taps
'"....l::
~.
---=-_....:::::::=--.:::.:..:..=-=-= --
d d
II,, d = Jj Ratio h. tJ = jj Rlltio
IIf
2 , .3 , .. f .4, so .52
I ... .56 .08 I
..80
P/2
Ratio _6. .62 .63 ... .6' .66 .67 .66 .69 .70
1oo1 1.OO r.ocoo i.oooo .oo11.oo 1.OO i.oooo r.occo -
r.oooo t.occo r.ccco i.eoco t.occo i.eoec r.ococ t.ccoo
..... .....
0.0 ioocou 0.0 t. oo t. oo
1.0008 1.0008 '.0006 1.0003 1.000211.oo .9999 .ssse .9997 .9996 _9992 _9987
.....
0.' 0.' .9993 .999' .9990 .9989 .9988 .9986
lJXXJ7
.....
.9938
....2
.993'
.9936
.992'
9930
.9916
.....
1.0086 1.0075 UlO59 .9986 996.
..... .....
.9909
.9908
.9899
....7
.9876
.9875
.9863
.986'
.-.....
1.4 1.0119 1.0106 1.0063 1.0051 1.0030 1.0004 .9993 .9981 9963 .9928 .9918 .9908 ...72 .eees .9827 .9809
1.0113 1.0089 '.0064 1.0032 1.0006 .9993 .9980 .9966 .9960 s-se
.....
1.0127
.....
1.' 1. .9923 .9912 .9902 ...90 ."12 .9833 .9815
'.6
I..
1.7
1.0136 1.0121 1.0096
1.0144 1.0128 1.0102
1.0153 1.0136 1.0108
1.00!>8 1.003<1 1.0006
1.0062 l.(JOJ< 1.0006
1.0068 1.003!:1 1.0007
.9993
.9992
.9992
.9979
.9978
.99n
.9964
.9962
.9960
....7 ,28
'2'
1.6
1.7
t.a
.9918
.9913
.....
.9907
.99:>2..... .....
.9883
.9876
.9870
.9862
.9855
....7
.9840
,9830
.9822
.9812 .s-sa
.9783
.9770
.....
9920 .9908 _9883 .9870 .9838 .980' .'780
1.9
2.0
1.0161 1.0144 1.0114
1.0170 1.0151 1.0120
1.0070 1.0041 1.0008
1.0073 1 . _ 1.0008
.9992
.9992
.9976
.9975
.9908
.9956
.9938
.9935 1.' .9904 .9891 ...12 .9863 ....7 .9830
.982'
.9811 .9791 .9769
.9757
.9744
..... .....
2.0 .9899 .9872 .9856 .9840 .9822 .9802 .9781 .9757 .9732
21
22
2.3
1.0178
1.0187
1.0159
1.0167
1.0195 1.0174
1.0126
1.0132
1.0138
1.0077
1.0081
1.0046
1.0048
1.0086 1.0051
1.0009
1.0010
1.0010
.9992
.9992
.9992
.9974
.9973
.9972
.99"
.9952
.99"
.9932
.9929
.9927
...
9900
'
'08 2.'
2.2
.se95
.....
.9890
.....
.9876
.....
....
.9860
.sees
....3
.9832
.9825
.9813
.9805
....
.'793
.....
.9784
.sno
.9760
.Q746
.9734
.9719
.e706
.sees 2.3 ...70 .9836 .9817 .9797
.....
.9774 .9700 .9723 .
.-
2.4 l.(l2t)4 1.0182 1.0144 1.0089 1.0053 1.0011 .9992 .9971 .992' . .96 2.' .seee . .9830 .9810 .9789 .9765 .9740 .9712
2.'
2.e
1.0212 1.0189
1.0221 1.0197
1.0150
1.0156
'.0093 1.0056
1.(l097
1.0012
1.0058 1.0013
.9992
_9992
.9971
.9970
..... .....
....7
....s
.992'
.9919 ....
9893
....
2.5
as
...12
..... .....
.9860
.....
.....
_...2
.....
.9823 .9803
.s".
.9180
srn
.9756
.....
.9730
.sno
.9701
.ses7
.....
.9873 .9837 .9817 .9747 ...90
27 t. 0229 1.0205 1.0162 1.0101 l.(l061 1.0014 .9992 .996' .9916 .9788 ",9764 .9738 .9644
.....
'.7 .983' .98" .9710 .9679
2.e 1.0063 1.0014 .9992 ....2 .9914 .ee26 .s700
.... .....
1.0238 1.0212 1.0169 1.0104 9882 2.8 .9781 .9757 .9730 _9632
2. 1.0246 1.0220 1.0115 1.0108 1.0066 1.0015 .9992 .9966 .9911 '78 2.' .9860 .9820 .a". .9774 .9749 .9721 ...90 .ses7 .9620
3.0 1.0255 1.0228 1.0181 1.0112 1.0068 1.0016 .9993 .9967 .9939 .9908
'. 3.0
.....
.9856 .9836 .9815 .9792 .9767 .9141
.....
.9712
.....
- .9608
3'
3.2
1.0264 1.0235 1.0187 1.0116 1.0071 1.0017
1.02n 1.0243 1.0193 1.0120 1.0074 1.0018
.9993
.9993
..... .....
.eese
.9966
.9966 .9936
....
.9906
.9904 i7
3.1
3.' ..... 983'
9826 .....
.9809 .9786
.9780
.9160
.9754 ..... .....
..... .....
.9733
.9725
.e703
....
.9671 .963'
.9625
.-
.sss
33 1.0280 1.0250 1.0199 1.0124 1.0076 1.0019
.....
.9993 .9935 .990' 3_3 ....3 .9822 .9798 .9774 .9747
.... .9718
.... 2 .9614 .9572
..... .....
3.6 1.0306 1.0273 1.0218 1.0137 l.(J'.4 1.0022 3.6 .9832 .9808 .9756 .9727 .9695 .9623 .9582 .9537
.sese .9963 . .9892 .sna .eno
.....
3.7 1.0314 1.0281 1.0224 1.0141 1.0':187 1.0024 9860 . .72 _9526
.....
3.7 .9828 .9803 .9750 .9614
3 .e 1.0289 1.0230 1.0145 1.0090 1.0025 .9995 .9963 .9926 ."90 3.e .sm
.....
1.0323 .9680 .9644
.....
.982' .9'" .9744 .9713 .9605 .9514
3.' 1.0332 1.0296 1.0237 1 1.0149 1.0093 1.0026 9963 .9927 . 3.' .9820 .sm .9167 .9738 .9707 .9673 .9638 .9503
4.' 1.0340 1.0304 1.0243 1.0153 1.0096 1.0027 .9996 9962 .9926 9840 '.0 .9816 790 .9762 .9732 .'700 .9628 .9541 .9491
.....
00
'-l
188 Gas Production Operations
in the development stage presently. Other than those al- REFERENCES
ready discussed are the magnetic flowmeters, thermal
1. American Gas Association: "Orifice Metering of Natural Gas,It
meters, anemometers, current meters, vortex shedding Gas Measurement Committee Report No.3 (1969) Revision.
meters, and sonic flowmeters. A thorough discussion of 2. Fluid Meters-Their Theory and Application: Report of ASME
all types of fluid meters may be found in Reference 2. Research Committee on Fluid Meters. 6th Edition, The American
A limited selection of tables for determining the con- Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York (1971).
3. Orifice Meter Constants: Handbook E2, Singer American Meter
stants for use in orifice metering are included in this
Division (1973).
chapter. A more complete set of tables and charts may 4, Belcher, Phil: "Calculator Program Written for Accurate AGA
be found in References I and 3. A programmable cal- Orifice Metering of Natural Gas, Oil & Gas J. (Aug. 8, 1983).
It
culator program for use in a Hewlett-Packard model 41- 5. Martin, 1. R.: "Program Computes OrificeMeter Flow Rate," Oil
C calculator may be found in Reference 4. A similar & Gas J. (Oct. 12. 1981).
program for the Texas Instruments model 59 was pub-
lished in Reference 5.
Gas-Condensate
8 Reservoirs
T
HE importance of gas-condensate reservoirs has and a pressure-volume-temperature (pVT) analysis be
increased considerably in the last few years be- made. This will permit planning for the most efficient
cause of the increased demand for all types of and profitable development of the reservoir. Where the
hydrocarbon energy sources and because, as initial gas-oil ratio is between 3000 and 6000 scf/STB,
deeper drilling occurs, more and more condensate res- the reservoir may contain either a volatile oil or a retro-
ervoirs are being discovered. grade gas condensate. A representative fluid sample can
Gas-condensate reservoirs may occur at pressures be- be obtained and pVT studies made to make the distinc-
low 2000 psi and temperatures below lOO'F and prob- tion between the two types. The distinction is important,
ably can occur at any higher fluid pressures and tem- since optimum exploitation for the two different types of
peratures. Most known gas-condensate reservoirs are in reservoirs may be substantially different. Where spacing
the range of 3000 to 6000 psi and 200 to 400F. These regulations exist, spacing would normally be wider for
pressure and temperature ranges, together with wide a ..gas reservoir as opposed to an ..oil" reservoir. These
composition ranges, provide a great variety of conditions regulations recognize the increased mobility of gas, as
for the physical behavior of gas-condensate deposits. This contrasted with oil and the different migration capabil-
emphasizes the need for engineering studies of each gas- ities of each during producing operations.
condensate reservoir in order to arrive at the best mode Below an initial producing gas-oil ratio of 3000 scf/
of development and operation. STB, the reservoir will contain oil, volatile or otherwise.
Condensate reservoirs include both wet gas and retro- It is theoretically possible to have a retrograde gas con-
grade condensate types, as described in Chapter 2. The densate reservoir with an initial producing gas-oil ratio
phase diagrams for the two types are shown in Figures as low as 2000 scf/STB, but this would take a unique
2-28 and 2-29. In both types the fluid exists as a single combination of very high discovery pressure (exceeding
phase gas at initial reservoir conditions, the distinction 8000 psia), modest temperatures, and high concentra-
being that liquid is formed in the reservoir only for the tions of intermediates, C, through C.
retrograde type. Table 8-1 shows the mole compositions of a typical
A rough classification can be made based on the per- dry gas, single-phase wet gas, retrograde gas conden-
formance of the reservoir at initial conditions. If initial sate, and a volatile oil reservoir.
producing gas-oil ratio (GOR) exceeds about 15,000 scf/ Figure 8-1 illustrates a pressure-temperature phase
STB, and pressure and temperature do not exceed 8000 diagram for a reservoir fluid. The development of this
psia and 225'F, respectively, it is likely that no liquid diagram assumes that volume and the total composition
will form in the reservoir. of the fluid are constants. The figure is useful as a guide
Where producing gas-oil ratios exceed 6000 but not to relationships among the several reservoir fluid types
15,000 scf/STB, the reservoir may experience retro- but is not truly representative of all types since both sin-
grade behavior. Under these conditions it is important gle phase gas reservoirs and oil reservoirs are repre-
that a representative reservoir fluid sample be obtained sented, with only pressure and temperature allowed to
189
-
190 Gas Production Operations
TABLE 8-1 Retrograde gas condensate reservoirs exist at pres-
Mole Composition of Typical Hydrocarbon Reservoir Fluids sures sufficient to be at or above the upper boundary of
the two-phase envelope and at a temperature between the
Single Retrograde
Dry Phase Gas Volatile critical and cricondentherm values. Frequently, retro-
Component Gas Wet Gas Condensate Oii grade gas condensate reservoirs are found to be on, or
e, 96.0 90.0 75.0 60.0
very close to, the dew-point line at the time of discov-
C, 2.0 3.0 7.0 8.0 ery. Apparently this is due to the presence of a large
C, 1.0 2.0 4.5 4.0 percentage of intermediates (C, to C6 ) . It is also quite
c, 0.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 common to find a small volatile oil rim in the reservoir.
e, 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 By definition, in this latter instance the gas cap would
e, 0.5 2.5 4.0
be exactly at the dew point. Should the observed dew
c.; 1.5 6.0 17.0
point in the laboratory duplicate the discovery pressure
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
within a few percent, an oil rim would probably be pres-
Mol. WI. c,. ent.
115 125 180
GOR, scf/8TB High 26,000 7,000 2,000 Figure 8-2 presents descriptive phase diagrams for a
Tank Gravity, gas cap gas and oil zone fluid for the two cases of a
API 60 55 50 retrograde gas cap, and a nonretrograde gas cap. Notice
Liquid Color Water White Light Amber to the superimposing of the diagrams at the time of dis-
to Light Yeilow to Darker covery, since phase equilibrium exists.
Yeilow Yeilow Colors
.
3.500
I
I
B,
~
t, :
[,
minations of gas and liquid properties; and to determine
~
3.000 :, 1
,e ';:,
:! / ~I BP
~
/ -:1
~I
J ~I
1
~I
j
A,
T
500 Temperature Temperature
0 SO 100 'SO 200 2SO 300 35 (.) (0)
Reservoirtemperature, "F
Fig. 8-2. Phase diagrams of a gas cap gas and oii zone
Fig. 8-1. Pressure-lemperature diagram of a reservoir fluid. liquid for (a) retrograde gas cap gas and (b) nonretrograde
B. C. Craft/M. F. Hawkins, Appiied Petroieum Reservoir gas capgas. B. C. Craft/M. F. Hawkins, AppliedPetroleum
Engineering, copyright 1959, pp. 64, 66, 74, 76, 78. Re- Reservoir Engineering, copyright 1959, pp. 64, 66, 74, 76,
printed by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 78. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engie-
N.J. wood Cliffs, N.J.
c
Gas-Condensate Reservoirs 191
formation and well characteristics, including productiv- pearing during pressure reduction would remain immo-
ity, producibility, and injectivity. The first consideration bile in the reservoir. This assumption applies in those
for selecting wells for gas-condensate fluid samples is cases for which volume of condensation is low enough
that the well be far enough removed from the "black-oil that liquid saturation of the rock pores remains too low
ring" (if present) to minimize any chance that the liquid to provide significant permeability to the retrograde liq-
oil phase will enter the well during the test period. A uid. However, there are cases wherein reduction of pres-
second and highly important consideration is the selec- sure isothermally would condense relatively large vol-
tion of wells with productivities as high as possible, so umes of liquid in the pores, raising the liquid saturation
that minimum pressure drawdown will occur in actually high enough for some liquid to migrate to producing wells.
acquiring the reservoir fluid samples. If preliminary tests indicate this possibility, it is then
necessary to obtain relative-permeability curves for the
particular rock-liquid system to adjust the predicted be-
Well Conditioning and Sampling Procedures
havior of the reservoir.
Proper well conditioning is essential to obtaining rep- The actual test procedure for simulating pressure de-
resentative samples from the reservoir. The best pro- pletion (with immobile reservoir liquid) in a laboratory
duction rates prior to and during the sampling procedure visual cell is to place the properly recombined reservoir
have to be considered individually for each reservoir and fluid sample of known total composition in the cell at
for each well. Usually the best procedure is to employ original reservoir pressure and temperature. Maintaining
the lowest rate that results in smooth well operation and the cell volume and temperature constant (to simulate a
the most dependable measurements of surface products. constant-volume reservoir), pressure is reduced stepwise
Minimum drawdown of bottom-hole pressure during the at about 500 psi increments by removing gas. The vol-
conditioning period is desirable, and the produced gas- umes of gas and liquid (below the dew point) remaining
liquid ratio should remain constant (within about 2%) for in the cell are recorded. The gas removed at each step
several days; the less permeable reservoirs require longer is measured and analyzed. The fractional analyses yield
periods. The further the well deviates from a constant composition information for calculating the condensable
producing gas-liquid ratio, the greater the likelihood that liquids content of the gases produced at all stages of
the samples will not be representative. pressure depletion. Condensible liquids content can also
Recombined separator samples from gas condensate be determined experimentally by subjecting the cell out-
wells are usually considered more representative of the put gas stream to field separation conditions, but this
original reservoir fluid than are bottom-hole samples. The usually is not considered necessary. The computation of
tubing strings of gas-condensate wells almost invari- natural gas content is useful in designing gasoline plants
ably contain both liquid and gas, usually with a liquid for recovery of liquid products.
layer adhering to the tubing walls making it very difficult The stepwise pressure-depletion tests are usually car-
to obtain a representative sample from such a stream by ried to some level representing abandonment pressure of
employing bottom-hole samplers. In addition, the rela- the reservoir, after which the quantity and composition
tively large quantities of material required for adequate of the fluids remaining in the cell are determined. This
laboratory studies favor surface sampling. provides a means of checking the quantity of each com-
The original reservoir fluid cannot be simulated in the ponent produced in the gases during pressure-depletion,
laboratory unless accurate field measurements of all the since original system composition is known. An exam-
separator streams are taken. If the produced gas-con- ple of a pressure-depletion test starting at the dew point
densate ratio from field measurements is in error by as pressure of 4265 psia is shown in Figure 8-3. The gas-
little as 5%, the dew point pressure determined in the oline content of the heavier components in the produced
laboratory may be in error by as much as 100 psi. gas is illustrated in Figure 8-4.
Separator pressures and temperatures should remain as
constant as possible during the well conditioning period;
CALCULATION OF INITIAL IN-PLACE
this will help maintain constancy of the stream rates and
GAS AND CONDENSATE
the observed hydrocarbon gas-liquid ratio.
The initial amounts of both the gas and the condensate
in a reservoir can be calculated on a unit volume basis
Laboratory Testing by two methods. The more accurate method requires a
With laboratory equipment, pressure-depletion tests can compositional analysis of the reservoir fluid, but an es-
be made on a gas-condensate reservoir fluid in such a timate can be made if limited data are available. A pro-
manner as to simulate pressure depletion of the actual cedure and example calculation for each case are pre-
reservoir, usually assuming that retrograde liquid ap- sented. The example was adapted from Reference I.
192 Gas Production Operations
100 Let R = initial surface gas-oil ratio of the
m e G C1
production, scf of dry or residue gas per
"8 barrel of oil,
e
~
~
"10 = specific gravity of the tank oil (water =
s , ,C, 1.00),
,---,--,
~0 10.0
M; = molecular weight of the tank oil, and
~
E
8
~_
--0 ,.-.<
c'
,,-oCr+
".....:.-oC3
N 't = average specific gravity of the gas produced
~ ,.... ,---,~~.CO' from the surface separator(s), air = 1.00.
0 ~ ~ _ _ _o B..nC
. ; ::::::-=0: 0 _O---e6
4
Standard conditions are 14.7 psia and 60F, at which
8-
10
f. .
0--
,
~'iC
'C,
....:::::2,-nCS
. conditions the molar volume is 379.4 scf/mole (other
base conditions yield different molar volumes).
~
, , Then, on the basis of one barrel of tank oil and R
0
, ,
"
.
7
= .
j;~::
"[m (83)
R + l32,800"l0/Mo
6 "iCs+
" 5 (;./t'
~'f;'C'+
If the molecular weight of the tank oil is not known
it may be estimated using the following formula devel-
:~:~'c,+
e,
CJ
~ oped by Cragoe'':
,~.~
S 4
s
0 44.29"10 6084
3 . M = = (84)
~..-::::~;~
~ a 1.03 - "10 API - 5.9
~ 2
1
....
o-
' ~:~'~
~o~"
: 0 0__ Example 8-1:
0 600
Calculate the Initial oil and gas in piace per acre-foot
\,000 2,000 3,000 4.000
for a gas-condensate reservoir, given:
Pressure, pela
Initial pressure 2740 psia
Fig. 84. Effect of pressure on gasoline content of pro- Reservoir temperature 215'F
duced gas during laboratory pressure-depletion test of a gas- Average porosity 25%
condensate system at 25(1'F. Permission to publish by the Average connate water 30%
Society of Petroieum Engineers of AiME. Copyright SPE Daily tank oil 242 bbl
AiME! Oil gravity, 60'F 48.0 API
0
Gas-Condensate Reservoirs 193
Daily separator gas 3100 MCF The total daily reservoir voidage by the gas law is
Separator gas gravity , 0.650
Daily tank gas 120 MCF 675) ( 14.7 )
Tank gas gravity 1.20 LI. V ~ 3,396,000 ( 520 2740 (0.820)
~ 19,400 cu It/day.
Solution:
This includes the stock tank vapors rather than just the
Average gas gravity ~ gas from the main, high-pressure separator; therefore,
the gas gravity should be the average of all gases pro-
(3100)(0.650) + (120)(1.20) ~ 0.670
duced. The gas deviation factor at initial reservoir tem-
3100 + 120 perature and pressure is estimated from the gas gravity
141.5 of the recombined oil and gas.
"Yo ~ 48.0 + 131.5 ~ 0.7883
TABLE 8-2
Calculations lor Example 8-2 on Gas Condensate Fluid
(1) (41 15) 16) 17) 18) (9) (10) (11) (12) 113) (14) (15)
Moles Moles Moles
(3) x (6) of Each of Each of Each
Mole bbl Component Component Component Mole Com- Partial Partial
Composition of Liquid Each in 59.11 in 2.107 in 61.217 position Critical Critical
Separator Fluids bbl/mole Component Moles 01 Molesof Moles of Gas of Total Critical Pressure, Temp. OR
(2) (3) Mol (3) x (4) for Each per Mole of Gas liqUid and Liquid Well Fluid Pressure, pale Crillcal (11) x
Gas Liquid WI. Ib/mole Component sap. llq. (2) x 59.11 (3) x 2.107 (8) + (9) (10) .;.. 61.217 psla (11) x (12) Temp. OR (14)
CO, 0.0120 0.0000 0.709 0.0000 0.7090 0.0116 1070 12.41 548 6.36
C, 0.9404 0.2024 16.04 3.247 0.1317 0.02666 55.587 0.4265 56.0135 0.9150 673 815.80 .343 313.85
C, 0.0305 0.0484 30.07 1.455 0.1771 0.00857 1.803 0.1020 1.9050 0.0311 708 22.02 550 17.11
C, 0.0095 0.0312 44.09 1.376 0.2480 0.00774 0.562 0.0657 0.6277 0.0102 617 6.29 666 6.79
,i.C4 0.0024 0.0113 58.12 0.657 0.2948 0.00333 0.142 0.0238 0.1658 0.0027 529 1.43 735 1.98
-c, 0.0023 0.0196 58.12 1.139 0.2840 0.00557 0.136 0.0413 0.1773 0.0029 550 1.60 766 2.22
,i.C5 0.0006 0.0159 72.15 1.147 0.3298 0.00524 0.035 0.0335 0.0685 0.0011 484 0.53 830 0.91
n-C5 0.0003 0.0170 72.15 1.227 0.3264 0.00555 0.018 0.0358 0.0536 0.0009 490 0.44 846 0.76
C, 0.0013 0.0384 66.17 3.309 0.3706 0.01423 0.077 0.0809 0.1579 0.0026 440 1.14 914 2.38
C" 0.0007 0.6158 185.0 113.923 0.6336' 0.39017 0.041 1.2975 1.3385 0.0219 300 6.57 1227 26.87
1.0000 1.0000 127.480 0.46706 59.110 2.1070 61.2170 1.0000 668.23 379.23
from the cell may be measured by passing the gas through "
J!
small-scale separators, or it may be calculated from the ~ 0.1 - C,
composition for usual field separation methods or for
gasoline plant methods. Liquid recovery of the pentanes l8- 0.08
0.06 t-
0 0 0----0 0 0
0.02
-
::::: : :Z
0-
~ C,
c,
C.
C, '
c,
J>
'.-<Y"
.J)
TABLE 8-3
Volume, Composition, and Gas Deviation Factors for a Retrograde Condensate Fluid
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 ) (12)
Produced Retrograde Retrograde
Gas, cu em Liquid Volume, Gas Deviation
Composition of Produced Gas Increments, at 195F Volume, cu em Per Cent of Factor at
Pressure Mole Fraction and Cell Cell Volume, Hydrocarbon 195F and
psia C, C, C, C, C, C. C,. Pressure 947.5 cu cm Volume Cell Pressure
2960 0.752 0.077 0.044 0.031 0.022 0.022 0.052 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.771
2500 0.783 0.077 0.043 0.028 0.019 0.Q16 0.034 175.3 62.5 6.6 0.794
2000 0.795 0.078 0.042 0.027 0.017 0.014 0.027 227.0 77.7 8.2 0.805
1500 0.798 0.079 0.042 0.027 0.016 0.013 0.025 340.4 75.0 7.9 0.835
1000 0.793 0.080 0.043 0.028 0.017 0.013 0.026 544.7 67.2 7.1 0.875
500 0.768 0.082 0.048 0.033 0.021 0.Q15 0.033 1080.7 56.9 6.0 0.945
B. C. Craft/M. F. Hawkins, Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, 1959, pp. 64, 66, 74, 76, 78. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
TABLE 8-4
Gas and Liquid Recoveries In Per Cent and Per Acre-Foot lor Example 8-3
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11 )
00
N' :g:;;; 0
"
o 00- c:>- E E
~u...-:'
'"
00u.
"Vol
c:>u: TI Vol
"u. S "u.o
a:
1l
a; " c~ "
eu oou
:g",
"u.
UJ
u .gu ",-
=
",.0
~w
00
:l
","
Ow a. "'c
C:>'" "w "S t"l
ace.
00 0.
0 T"' .- Q) '"
g~~
.5 (J) (J)
"0.
'w 0::0 5::0 ::l::O ~::o .c -
".0 g:g en Q) (I)
o
,,-
_ '"
<!.i C=-I.t) ~ 2"::r
,,~
i:l
$0: "> " - c:>.: "> " - ".0
UJ.: "> c- " E"
c;~c;<O
,,>,-
~88
" > '-
.i; 88
" 0.
;> c=-o
-0
'<,
"0):;:::::
E c
0
~:B " iii
:lE ~'fl ""
.-
."E
~2
-"1" 0).5 :;) - ",,-
:sOC x
"<D~
:;oc x ""~
"3~x
00
00
~
~-6
c e
:l :l
E'"
:l e
~~
<D o
:l :l
E'"
:l e
.-
:l " ~
:l :l
E'"
:l e
~-E~+ ::l- E 00 fll-
:3"~ >CdQ)- :l"_
0.. .so.. uo.. a:.s uo.. Uo.. <woc.:!. U(!)e U(!)!:!!. oa:t:::.
2960 0 0 0 0 0 0 10,600 0 0 0
2500 240.1 240.1 225.1 225.1 15.3 15.3 14,700 15.2 15.6 10.7
2000 245.2 485.3 232.3 457.4 13.1 28.4 17,730 30.7 31.7 19.8
1500 266.0 751.3 252.8 710.2 13.3 41.7 19,010 47.6 49.3 29.1
1000 270.8 1022.1 256.9 967.1 14.0 55.7 18,350 64.7 67.1 38.9
500 248.7 1270.8 233.0 1200.1 15.9 71.6 14,650 80.4 83.3 50.0
B. C. Craft/M. F. Hawkins, Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, 1959, pp 64, 66, 74, 76, 78. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Gas-Condensate Reservoirs 197
(3.808)(1580)
N= 42 = 143.2 bel/acre-ft.
I. At 2500 psta, then
(100)(240.1 )
Gross gas recovery = = 15.2%.
ta 1580
. (100)(225.1)
ReSidue gas recovery = = 15.6%.
1441
71.6 bbl ;:::><:-' . . (100)(15.3)
6.0% LIqUid recovery = = 10.7%.
4
143.2
c
9 Field Operation Problems
T
HE efficient operation of a gas well or gas field drive is present, the rate of pressure decline will be less
requires constant monitoring of the total field than would have been observed had the reservoir been
and individual well performance in order to on a straight pressure depletion, as shown in Figure 9-
detect problems that may seriously reduce gas I. Such a decline would be erroneously interpreted as
recovery or producing capacity. Parameters to be mon- indicating a much larger reservoir than actually exists.
itored include pressure, flow rate, cumulative produc- The performance observed must thus be closely tied to
tion, water production, and condensate production. the known geological configuration of the reservoir so
The best way to detect abnormal behavior is to plot that the reasons for the particular performance observed
these parameters, either as a function of time or cumu- can be properly evaluated.
lative production, and observe any sudden changes in In certain other cases, it may be found that the gas
behavior from the past or any deviation from expected reservoir is actually a gas cap on top of an oil reservoir.
behavior. Several of the most common production prob- In this case, the pressure decline will be influenced by
lems and the methods to detect them are described in the rate of oil production and the evolution of solution
this chapter. gas from the oil into the gas cap as the pressure declines.
In such a case, the entire reservoir must be analyzed,
including the effects of the oil production rate and the
PRESSURE-CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION PLOTS
effect of pressure reduction on solution gas. Transfer be-
By plotting total field or reservoir gas recovered ver- tween the oil and gas cap can go either way depending
sus p/Z on various scales, production problems such as on reservoir conditions of temperature, pressure, and fluid
abnormal pressure, water influx, leakage, or loss of gas, composition.
or bad data can be detected. Variation in the reservoir permeability can also affect
the observed pressure performance. A typical pattern is
a sharp drop in the reservoir pressure during the early
p/Z Versus a, Plots depletion, which will yield a very low ultimate recovery
As described in Chapter 3, for a volumetric gas res- if extrapolated in a straight-line manner, but which breaks
ervoir, a plot of p/Z versus G, on cartesian coordinates to a lower slope on a balance between the flow capacity
should yield a straight line of constant slope. of the unfractured matrix and the fracture system, as
Once sufficient production history has been obtained shown in the lowest diagram of Figure 9-1. In such cases,
under reasonably stabilized operating conditions, it is it is necessary to pass this breakpoint before any kind of
possible to extrapolate the historical plot to the antici- reliable pressure decline estimate can be made.
pated abandonment pressure and thus arrive at an esti- In order to determine reserves by the pressure decline
mate of ultimate reserves. versus cumulative method, ideally one should have ac-
Unfortunately, several factors will affect the validity curate cumulative production histories and accurate bot-
of this method of estimation. If a full or partial water tom-hole pressure data based on a shut-in period that is
201
202 Gas Production Operations
sure. Unless the depth to the liquid is reasonably known,
it is impossible to estimate the bottom-hole pressure from
the shut-in surface pressure. In such situations, bottom-
hole pressure recordings are imperative.
In some cases, the slope of the p/Z versus G, plot
will decrease with increasing Gp' This can result from
bad pressure or production data, loss of gas through
leakage to some other formation, or abnormal reservoir
pressure. A plot of p/Z versus G, for an abnormally
pressured gas reservoir is shown in Figure 9-2. Once the
Cumulative production ----.. reservoir pressure reaches a normal value, the slope re-
mains fairly constant but is steeper than the initial slope.
In this case, if the early data had been extrapolated to
. .- ... - - - the abandonment conditions, a recovery twice the actual
i
p
Z
---
Water drive
would have been predicted.
Energy Plots
In Chapter 3, it was shown that a plot of (I - pZ,j
p,Z) versus Gp on log-scales would yield a straight line
with a slope of one for volumetric gas reservoirs.
These energy plots are very useful in detecting water
Cumulative production
influx or abnormal pressure very early in the life of the
reservoir. An early estimate of gas-in-place can also be
made more accurately than by usingp/Z versus G, plots.
The principal reason for the advantage of using energy
Permeability variation
plots is that the slope of a p /Z plot depends on the initial
p
r gas-in-place, which may not be known early in the res-
ervoir's life. Therefore, the magnitude of the slope is of
Z no value in detecting abnormalities. Enough data must
be obtained to determine if a straight line plot occurs
before problems can be detected.
Conversely, the slope of an energy plot must be one
Cumulative production -. for normal behavior. Therefore, only enough data to de-
tect deviation of the slope from 45 are required to re-
Fig. 9-1. Effect of reservoir characteristics on production flect abnormal behavior. This could conceivably be only
performance.
two data points. An example energy plot is shown in
Figure 9-3.
sufficient for the well to achieve static conditions. Al-
though current practices normally yield adequate pro-
Rate Versus Time Plots
duction data, bottom-hole pressure data is often sparce
and, even when available, is based on short shut-in pe- Various types of production problems can be detected
riods. The most usual test provided is a shut-in wellhead by monitoring the performance of a gas well by plotting
pressure test that was obtained to meet regulatory re- production rates of gas, condensate and water, and pres-
quirements or as a result of the well having been shut- sure versus time. A typical performance plot is shown
in for some other purpose. in Figure 9-4.
In the event that the well produces a dry gas without Rate-time performance plots are especially useful when
condensate or water present, it is a very simple matter used in conjunction with well status maps. A well status
to arrive at a reasonable estimate of bottom-hole pressure map, such as shown in Figure 9-5, allows the engineer
from a shut-in wellhead pressure. If the well is produc- to compare the performance of wells in the same area
ing condensate and/or water with the gas stream when and to determine if a well is performing abnormally
it is shut-in, there will usually be an accumulation of compared to the other wells.
liquids in the bottom portion of the wellbore that will An example of abnormal production rate decline is
account for a substantial part of the bottom-hole pres- shown in Figure 9-4. The well's pressure remains high
Field Operation Problems 203
10
r.
5.47 5,425
7 5.89 5,099
Abnormal pressure
7.62 4,163
'"s:
-o 7.93 2,869
~
6
8.13 2,652
0'"
~ --, 8.30 2,888
<,
"
.~
5 I- Normal pressure
<,
8.89 2.467
Estimated recoverable reserves from P/Z curve 9.2 bet
a! 4 I- <, Estimated recoverable reserves from pore volume 9.5 bet
'"m
r-,
~
<,
<,
3 I- <,
<,
<,
2 r- Abandonment P/Z "-~
Normal pressure, 6,800 psi
1 '- P/Z at normal pressure, 5,850 psi
0
, , , I , , , ,
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Cumulative wet gas, bet
but tbe gas production rate is declining. Also, by com- perforation plugging by scale. After this well was re-
paring Well No. 42's performance witb tbe surrounding perforated, performance improved considerably, as shown
wells on the well status map, it can be seen to be pro- in Figure 9-6.
ducing at a much lower rate than tbe otber wells. This Water production problems can also be analyzed by
could be caused by such things as formation damage or observing rate-time plots. An increase in water rate with-
out an increase in drawdown can result from normal ad-
vance in tbe gas-water contact in a water drive reservoir.
If tbe water rate increases after tbe gas production rate
has been increased, tbis may indicate water coning. The
well rate should then be reduced to see if the water rate
returns to normal.
Water coning is the term used to describe the entry of
water tbat underlies tbe gas in a reservoir under exces-
"'-I
a. "i
a. Water influx sive drawdown pressures. The coning phenomenon is il-
I lustrated in Figure 9-7. If the vertical and horizontal
permeabilities are known, a maximum allowable pro-
Abnormal pressure
or bad data
duction rate to prevent water coning can be calculated.
Once tbe coning has occurred, a reduction in produc-
ing rate will not necessarily eliminate the problem. This
results from the fact that once a high water saturation
has built up around tbe wellbore, tbe permeability to water
will have increased, and tberefore a lower drawdown will
be required to support the coning process. Even if the
Fig. 9-3. Energy plot. well is shut-in, capillary forces will usually prevent the
-
204 Gas Production Operations
1000
~ Jessur~ .... :
-- a.
Ii:
r-
100
10,000
f-
-=
C'\..
~ f- ~
:2
.... Gas ..-
e-, ./ r-;
1,000 10.0
:
~
f-
V
f-
\ ""a.
4,000
41
1
4,295 605
50 10,800
2
650 Legend
10,000
3,919
1,800
25
3
650
6,000
*
39 - Well number
Gas well
3,125
41
5
650
9,800
I I 1,000
-
-
p~essur(.. ....
Q.
it
10,000 100
F
1= Analysis WO - Perf
~'-
~
.-.
~I;a::~
~ f-
--
:l!
'. f-
Gas . . . '/
"-
1,000 10.0
~~
F /Q/U/
1=
f- Y
I-
\ '0
Q.
1\
U
III
I-
L Condensate ~
./ 1.0
100 1968 1969 1970 1971 1973 I 1974 1975 1976 1977
1972
water from subsiding to its original level. Therefore, if from an associated crude-oil stream. Water vapor must
it is known that a gas reservoir is underlain by water, be removed from the gas stream because it will condense
calculations should be made to estimate the maximum into liquid and may cause hydrate formation as the gas
safe production rates for each well. is cooled from the high reservoir temperature to the cooler
surface temperature. Liquid water almost always accel-
HYDRATE FORMATION erates corrosion, and the solid hydrates may pack solidly
in gas-gathering systems, resulting in partial or complete
Most natural gas contains substantial amounts of water blocking of flow lines.
vapor at the time it is produced from a well or separated Hydrates are solid compounds that form as crystals
and resemble snow in appearance. They are created by
a reaction of natural gas with water, and when formed,
they are about 10% hydrocarbon and 90% water. Hy-
drates have a specific gravity of about 0.98 and will usu-
ally float in water and sink in hydrocarbon liquids. Water
is always necessary for hydrate formation as well as some
turbulence in the flowing gas stream.
30,000
20,000
eooo
6000
4000
3000
2000
~
'ii1000
800
:;:
il 600
~ 400
'E 300
~
~, 200
:I:
B
S 60
~
20
Hydrate Line
.
II YI
I 17 17 1'7 17
-70-60-50-40-3O-20~0 0 10203040 60 so 100 120140160 200230260 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature, of
Fig. 9-8. Water-vapor content of naturalgas at saturation. Courtesy Gas Processors Suppliers Association.
Field Operation Problems 207
1500 psig, for example, hydrates may form at 70oP, miles due to a ground temperature of 55F. At a higher
whereas at 200 psig, hydrates will not form unless the rate of flow, the gas would travel farther before the for-
gas is cooled to about 39P. Each curve on the chart mation of hydrates would become a problem. With a line
shows the water content of a saturated gas at that pres- pressure of 900 psi, it could be predicted that hydrates
sure when the temperature is at any of the various points would form at a temperature of about 60F. Some of the
shown along the bottom of the chart. For example, at flow lines in this field are as long as 15 miles between
100 psia and 60oP, each I million cu ft of gas would the well and the gasoline plant, so it would appear that
contain about 130 Ib of water vapor. The same gas at this gas would need to be heated again before it reached
100 psia and 200 P (instead of 60OP) could only hold 30 the plant.
Ib per MMscf. At OOP, this gas could only hold 13 lb Minimum ground temperatures at a depth of 18 in. in
per MMscf. the various gas-producing regions of the southwest are
It can thus be seen that as a gas is cooled, it can hold as follows:
less water in the vapor form. Therefore, cooling a gas
will cause some of the water vapor to condense with the I. Upper Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana, 50F to
balance remaining in the gas as water vapor. Pipeline 56F
specifications usually require that the water vapor con- 2. Permian Basin, east Texas, and north Louisiana fields,
tent of natural gas be 7 Ib/MMscf or less in order to 450P
minimize the problem of hydrate formation in the trans- 3. Hugoton-Panhandle gas areas, 25F to 30F
mission lines from the field to ultimate user. In some
fields, hydrates form in the tubing and the wellhead valves The figures are approximate and represent minimum
necessitating the application of heat down the hole to values. The ground temperatures may be expected to reach
keep the well from freezing up. In most fields, fortu- higher levels than this during most of the year, especially
nately, the temperature of the gas at the wellhead is 1000P in the southern part of Texas and Louisiana. On the other
or more; therefore, the hydrate problem does not usually hand, it is probable that in the gas-producing areas of
begin until the gas passes through the Christmas Tree. the Rocky Mountain states and in western Canada, the
An all-important factor in the movement of gas satu- frost line is below the 18-in. level. Gas lines in those
rated with water vapor is the retention of the heat, which areas should be buried at correspondingly greater depths.
is in the gas when it is produced. The temperature is It is convenient to divide hydrate formation into two
lowered at the wellhead when the gas is expanded through categories: (I) hydrate formation due to a decrease in
a choke to reduce the pressure and control the rate of temperature, with no sudden pressure drop, such as in
flow. After passing the choke, the gas enters the gath- the flow string or surface lines and (2) hydrate formation
ering lines, which are cooled by the ground. The effects where a sudden expansion occurs such as in flow prov-
of the ground temperature are shown in Figure 9-9. This ers, orifices, back-pressure regulators, or chokes.
curve was prepared from data taken in the Carthage gas
field of east Texas. Gas leaving a heater at 160F had
dropped to 750P by the time the gas had traveled 1-1/2 Hydrate Formation In the Flow String and Surface Lines
As mentioned above, free water is essential to hydrate
formation. Free water is almost certain to be present dur-
170 ing well testing since gas reservoirs are essentially water
160 ~ saturated, and a decrease in temperature results in a lower
solubility of water in gas. The hydrate temperature de-
\\
150
140 pends on the pressure and composition of the gas. Figure
130 9-10 gives approximate values of the hydrate tempera-
120 \ ture as a function of pressure and specific gravity. Hy-
\"
I!f 110
-, drates will form whenever temperature and pressure plot
<,
~
- - -- -
100 to the left of the hydrate formation line and the water
II
<,
~
90 - ...... dew point line for the gas in question. The water dew
'0 ...... point may be obtained from Figure 9-8 as follows:
70
60
50 0
-
..
1,000 2.000
_.
- - ; Average minimum ground temperature, 55
3,000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7,000
1. Find water content W, at fiR, TR
2. Draw a horizontal line on Figure 9-8 at W,.
3. Read the dew point temperature for various pressures
Distance from heater outlet, feet
at the intersection of the horizontal line and each
Fig. 9-9. Chart of temperature drop in natural gas flow lines. pressure line.
208 Gas Production Operations
o 6000
..
;; Example 9-2:
~
A 0.8 specific gravity gas is to be expanded from a
i 3.000 f-- -
pressure of 1000 psia at 100F. Determine the mini-
Q mum final pressure for no hydrate formation.
:( / .. --
:Ii /-
'"
0
~
1,000
~ SolutIon:
w 600I - .'
~
~
~ From Figure 9-13, the intersection of the 1000 psia ini-
~ f-. ./ tiai pressure line with the 1000F initial temperature line
'"
0
>- 300
~"",~,
'///
hr/ W gives a finai pressure of 440 psla, Therefore, lowering
J:
~&'l> the pressure below 440 psia wili possibly result in hy-
'"
0
~
,./ '/// drate formation.
w
too I:.Y/W
'"
=>
'"
..
'"
w
'" 40
"
30 40 50 eo 70 .0 90
Example 93:
A 0.6 gravity gas is to be expanded from 1000 psia to
600 psia. What is the minimum initial gas temperature
TEMPERATURE, of
permitted without the danger of hydrate formation?
Fig. 9-10. Hydrale forming conditions for natural gases
with various gravities.
Solution:
From Figure 9-11, the 1000 psla initial pressure line
intersects the 600 psia final pressure line at an initiai
temperature of approximately 74F. Therefore, if the gas
Example 9-1: is cooler than 74F at 1000 psia, hydrates may form
on expansion.
A gas of specific gravity 0.8 is at a pressure of 1000
psia. To what extent can the temperature be lowered
without hydrate formation, assuming presence of free
water?
10000
SolutIon: '"
INITI l
From Figure 9-10, at a specific gravity of 0.8 and a TEMPERATURE '"
pressure of 1000 psta, hydrate temperature = 66F. 5000
Hydrates may form at or below 66F. ," ~
I II
t'fI ;/ 'J
II
/
3000 -
,",
Figure 9-10 is applicable only to sweet natural gases.
0
.~ 2000 ~~ ~/
For sour gases it may be used, keeping in mind that the
w
. " ~ r:I
presence of H 2S and CO 2 will increase the hydrate tem- '"
=> ':s- V/
perature and reduce the pressure above which hydrates
will form. In other words, the presence of H 2S or CO 2
enhances the possibility of hydrate formation.
..
'"
'"
w
~
1000
I--
_. - +-..
";'-
[/
f-
;: 500
~ l'1'
z ._-
1/
Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Oritlces, and Back- 300
"'7
Pressure Regulators /
/
Sudden expansion in one of these devices is accom-
/
panied by a temperature drop, which may cause hydrate
100U/
formation. Figures 9-11 through 9-15 may be used to 100 200 AOO 600 1000 2000 4000
approximate the conditions for hydrate formation. The FINAL PRESSURE, p.;o
limitations of Figure 9-10, discussed above, also apply
to Figures 9-11 through 9-15. Figures 9-11 through 9- Fig. 9-11. Permissible expansion of a 0.6 gravity nalural gas
15 may be used for gases of other specific gravity by wilhout hydrate formalion. Courtesy Gas Processors Sup-
linear interpolation. pliers Association.
Field Operation Problems 209
' ....
".
10,000
000 ....,.. ..
~.TlAl 'NI IAl TfWEtATlME, F
6000
'000
tewe ... T R~.F\~ I
~
J
1/
.... ,0'
'000 , 0
T '/1 II. ,, JOOO
./
'000 \ .//;/ ,, ,DO 1/ / ;
.g , 110
V/ ~V//;
,, ....-
g, 2000
l-- Vhr./-:/ ~2 ,,0
~~~/
..
..;
,
, ~t/
,.;
~
II
r::: ~~/
:>
'"
'"
~ 1000 -- V ~
::l,
w
~
J.
"- .0 , , 0
. - '-j-
I
:;(
;:: .00
.00
'0. I-'"
,,
"~ '00
0 /
',-
.t.,
~ -
'00
,~ ....... L
,,'
.:
.00 60 /
----
'00 ,0
,
300 --
'iii ~
/ t
, 100
/
-- .1
i
t
'00 /
-
.!2.. ,,/
- //
30""
::; '00eo 100 200 JOO SOD 100<> 2000 JOOO
IO~OO 200 fINAl PRESSURE, pliO
300 '00 600 100 1000 2000 .000
FINAL PRESSURE, psro
Fig. 9-14. Permissible expansion of a 0.9 gravity naturai gas
Fig. 9-12. Permissible expansion of a 0.7 gravity natural gas without hydrate formation. Courtesy Gas Processors Sup-
without hydrate formation. Courtesy Gas Processors Sup- pliers Association.
pliers Association.
~
10,000
1000
lNlTlAl
6000
fEMPEUTU!{ f ecce
5000 t=-- T
Ii
"000
,I)Y
I l/ / / l/L ,
]000
"" T/!.
,,
// '000
220
INIH AL TEMPERATURE, F . -I-
i
0
2000
:/'/ '/., , '0
,
..
JOOO
..; I-- /'/, '00 tu :
, 190 tt I. / ;'
~
:> ~ 2000
'" ,." 1.'// /
~
;:: .00
'.0 oe
" l==
;:; '00
.00
T
,, "
t:
~ '00
,,
'00
,0 ,
,
JOO
. .0
.0
/
,, /
'00
, ,, 200 '0
'0,'
/
/
100 10'\:; 100 200 JOO SOD 1000 2000 JOOO
'00 '00 JOO 400 .00 soo 1000 '000 .000
FINAL PRESSURE, psio fiNAL PRESSURE. PliO
Fig. 9-13. Permissible expansion of a 0.8 gravity natural gas Fig. 9-15. Permissible expansion of a 1.0 gravity natural gas
without hydrate formation. Courtesy Gas Processors Sup- without hydrate formation. Courtesy Gas Processors Sup-
pliers Association. pliers Association.
Do
-
210 Gas Production Operations
Hydrate Control mal gas production operations. Some of these problems
are:
Ammonia, brines, glycol, and methanol have all been
used to lower the freezing point of water vapor and thus Toxicity-H,S is an extremely poisonous gas, and there-
prevent hydrate formation in flow lines. Low-volume in- fore special safety measures are required.
jectors or pumps are used to feed the inhibitor fluid into
the gas flow system. Methanol and glycol are the inhib- Sulfur deposition-Sour gases with high H2S contents
itors most widely used; however, they are expensive. often contain desolved elemental sulfur. Under certain
When hydrate problems arise so rarely that the instal- conditions this leads to sulfur precipitation in the for-
lation of a heater or dehydration equipment is not eco- mation, tubing, and gathering lines.
nomically feasible, methanol or glycol are usually used. Corrosion-The extreme corrosivity of sour gases, es-
For example, in some fields gas-producing operations pecially in the presence of brines, causes problems such
may be carried out without hydrate trouble except for as tubing and surface equipment failure.
two or three days each year. Injection of inhibitors might
conceivably be preferred in such cases over investment
in additional equipment. More information about hydrate CORROSION
control by methanol injection can be found in Chapter
Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of a metal
10.
or its properties because of a reaction with its environ-
In a majority of the situations where dehydration of
ment. Corrosion due to H2S occurs in three ways: (I) in
the gas is not economical and where some measures must
the presence of water, where H,S forms an acidic so-
be adopted to control hydrate formation, application of
lution that causes pitting and/or a continuous metal loss,
heat is the method used. The reasons for this are: initial
(2) blisters and pitting resulting from hydrogen diffusion
investment is not excessive, fuel is conveniently avail-
into the metal, and (3) stress corrosion cracking.
able, and the heaters operate with a minimum of atten-
The first corrosion type is extremely difficult to define
tion. Where it is desirable to handle the gas by means
and predict. Without CO, and/or oxygen also being
of temporarily holding the temperature above the ground
present, H,S will not necessarily be corrosive. H,S reacts
temperature, heaters seem to offer the best solution. For
with steel to form a film that tends to stop corrosion. If
long-distance transmission, the gas will eventually reach
CO2 is present, it combines with water to form carbonic
the groundtemperature and, for such gas movement, water
acid. This reacts with steel and causes a continuous
will ultimately have to be removed.
washing away of the metal. It also washes away the pro-
Most natural gas is produced at relatively high flow-
tective H,S film, and the H,S corrosion rate is acceler-
line pressures, ranging from 1500 to 10,000 psig, and
ated considerably.
then transferred to pipelines operating at 1200 psig and
Hydrogen diffusion occurs when the atomic hydrogen
lower. Heat must almost always be used to compensate
(H) from the reacting surface of steel diffuses into the
for the natural refrigeration of the gas, which is caused
crystal structure, concentrating in voids, inclusions, and
by this pressure reduction. An indirect heater is the most
minor laminations. The atomic hydrogen changes to non-
widely used heater for natural-gas well streams because
diffusable molecular hydrogen, building up high local-
it is simple, economical, and if properly sized, is usually
ized pressures that lead to blistering and corrosion pit-
trouble-free. Field treating of natural gas is described in
ting.
more detail in Chapter 10.
Stress corrosion cracking, sometimes called sulfide
stress cracking, also results from embrittlement of the
steel by the atomic hydrogen diffusion into the crystal
SOUR GAS PRODUCTION
structure. The exact failure mechanism is uncertain, but
Many natural gas reservoirs contain hydrogen sulfide the failure is normally spontaneous. Three factors must
(H,S) and carbon dioxide (CO,) along with the hydro- be present before this phenomenon will occur: (1) ma-
carbon gases. These two gases are called acid gases be- terials must be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking;
cause they form acids or acidic solutions in the presence this would include any carbon, alloy, or stainless steels
of water. A gas is called sour if it contains H,S in amounts with a hardness over 22 on the Rockwell C scale; (2)
above the acceptable industry limits, usually about four H,S and water (in the liquid phase) must be present; and
paris per million. (3) the metal must be under dynamic or static stresses.
Since the early 1970's, many deep, high-pressure sour The general H,S corrosion reaction can be stated as:
gas reservoirs have been discovered in France, Ger-
many, Canada, and the United States. Producing these
H2S + F, + H20 ...." F,S + H2
gases involves several problems not encountered in nor- When CO, dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid,
Field Operation Problems 2lJ
decreases the pH of the water, and increases its corro- allowed to travel to bottom. Radiotracer investigations
sivity. have shown that the liquid mix bridges over at the top
CO2 + H,o -> H 2CO, of the hole and fllls the tubing bore. Then a film of liquid
falls down the tubing walls proceeding from the bottom
F, + H,CO, -> F,C02 + H2 of the filled column as a bubble of gas rises through the
In a gas-condensate well with few dissolved minerals center of the liquid column. To get proper distribution
and at relatively high temperatures, pressure is the con- of inhibitor from top to bottom of the string requires about
trolling factor influencing CO2 corrosivity. The partial one drum of inhibitor mixed in 7 to 10 barrels of diluent
pressure of CO2 can be used as a criterion for predicting for each 10,000 feet of depth. If significant evaporation
corrosivity of gas wells producing CO2 , The partial pres- of diluent occurs in the hole, then even larger treatment
sure of CO2 can be calculated from: volumes are required to get even distribution of inhibitor
from top to bottom. Of course, if corrosion occurs only
Peo, = p,o",.(mole fraction CO,). high in the hole, proper distribution all the way to bot-
tom and consequent large volumes are not required. Even
Using the partial pressure, the following relationships
have been found: so, in especially hot wells, there is a tendency for flash
evaporation of diluent to form tiny bubbles and a sta-
I. Peo, above 30 psig usually indicates corrosion; bilized foam at the bottom edge of the liquid column of
2. Pco, between 3 psig and 30 psig may indicate cor- the inhibitor mix. Many times these foams prevent proper
rosion; and fall of the mix because they are too viscous to run down
3. Pea, less than 3 psig generally is not considered cor- the tubing walls. Sometimes the addition of a surfactant
rosive. helps.
The combination of possible evaporation and of not
The combination of H,S and CO, is even more ag- falling to bottom makes it difficult to achieve good cor-
gressive than H,S alone. Also, even minute quantities of rosion control by this method when applied to deep, hot
oxygen can accelerate corrosivity tremendously. wells where corrosion occurs deep in the hole. Possibly
with appropriate use of water or of a special solvent with
a very high boiling point, the method would be more
CORROSION CONTROL WITH INHIBITORS
feasible. Since gases always contain water vapor, when
The types of applications that have been used for gas water is used as solvent/carrier, fewer moles are re-
wells cover a wide range including batch and continuous quired to achieve complete saturation than if diesel or
methods such as: (I) low volume, pump, and fall; (2) some other solvent is used that is not contained in the
tubing displacement; (3) inhibitor carried or pushed with gas. Furthermore, one barrel of water contains 19.6 moles
nitrogen; (4) continuous injection; and (5) formation of water; whereas one barrel of diesel contains 1.5 moles
squeeze. In the types of wells encountered in the past, of hydrocarbon. Thus, it is ten times easier to increase
there was a continuously available liquid phase in the the mole fraction of carrier in the hole by injection of a
tubing bore that carried the inhibitor and distributed it to few barrels of water than by injection of diesel. Water
all of the surfaces that needed protection. In deep, hot is also cheaper than diesel or other solvents and less haz-
wells, the tubing bore, and especially the formation, ex- ardous to pump. However, truly water soluble corrosion
periences an essentially dry condition with very little liq- inhibitors are sometimes less effective than oil soluble
uid to carry and distribute the inhibitor. Thus, special compounds. Thus, frequently oil soluble/water dispers-
phase behavior requirements are placed on the inhibitor ible compounds are chosen for use with water as a car-
and on the solvent/carrier used in the application. Be- rier.
cause of these latter considerations, two of the more pop- For wells in the mid to upper range of the deep, hot
ular modern treatment media are water and nitrogen used category, it is desirable to put in enough diluent to dis-
either as pusher or as carrier for the inhibitor mixture. place from 1/4 to 1/2 of the tubing volume (for a 20,000
foot well, the range is from 20 barrels for 1/4-full 2-3/
8-in. tubing to 120 barrels for 1/2-full 4-in. tubing). After
The Short Batch Method of Application
the mix is pumped, the well is shut-in for four to eight
Traditionally, the short batch method has used 5 to 50 hours for each 10,000 feet of tubing. This recommended
barrels of inhibitor solution containing one-half to five volume provides for guaranteed treatment of the top
drums of inhibitor carried in water (as a dispersion of 1/4 to 1/2 of the tubing surface as well as allowing for
oil soluble inhibitor or perhaps as a solution of a water approximately half the diluent to evaporate as the solu-
soluble compound), or diesel, or sometimes condensate. tion falls, leaving enough liquid to distribute evenly. Of
The inhibitor mix is pumped into the shut-in well and course, the gas that is displaced from the tubing back
-
212 Gas Production Operations
into the formation does not have to be saturated, and this order for the treatment to be effective for a long time,
lowers the evaporation volume requirement. When full the same volatility principles apply to the active ingre-
coverage is achieved, the indicated corrosion rate will dient (that is, nonsolvent components) of tubing dis-
be reduced to at least as low as 25% of the uninhibited placement compounds as for limited batch compounds.
value. The immiscible push mode produces the best retention
The life of a treatment will depend on how much total of inhibitor in the hole but runs the risk of poor distri-
inhibitor is left in the hole. Many times, analyses of in- bution so that not all the corrodible areas are covered.
hibitor returns immediately after the treatment show that
80% or more of what went into the hole is produced back
Methods of Inhibitor Application Using Nitrogen Gas
out almost immediately. This leaves only 20% to pro-
vide protection in the hole. This condition is especially Nitrogen gas is frequently used to push a slug of in-
true when not much of the inhibitor mix falls below the hibitor mix to bottom. The principles of this mode are
injection depth. As the inhibitor mix falls to bottom, a the same as for the other tubing displacement methods.
thin liquid film is formed-approximately 0.030 in. thick. The other mode of nitrogen application is to displace the
When the well returns to production, some of this liquid gas in the hole with nigrogen gas containing a mist of
is swept off by the gas flow, but much of it is evaporated inhibitor solution. One to four drums of inhibitor con-
into the undersaturated formation gas, leaving solvent- tained in a 2% to 50% solution are used. Nitrogen is
free inhibitor behind so that with a successful applica- taken to the well site in liquid form and expanded into
tion, only 20% or so of the inhibitor is brought back out gaseous form at a pressure slightly greater than that in
of the hole immediately. the well. Displacement is calculated from the gas law
modified to account for deviations of nitrogen from an
ideal gas. The inhibitor mix is aspirated into the flowing
The Tubing Displacement Method
gas as droplets and carried with it to bottom. Rapid dis-
By this method of treatment, a tubing full of fluids is placement helps ensure that the mist droplets penetrate
pumped into the well with the objective of displacing all the way to bottom. After the weIl is shut-in for a few
inhibitor completely top to bottom to ensure contact with hours, the inhibitor mist settles onto the tubing walls. It
the tubing surface. The most common mode of treatment is desirable to resume flow in the well at a relatively
is to use inhibitor-free solvent to push to bottom 2 to 20 slow rate and then build up to full flow rate. In this way,
barrels of a concentrated inhibitor solution (5 to 20%; solvent evaporation fixes the active inhibitor ingredient
sometimes 100% inhibitor is used). Diesel or condensate on the tubing walls with only a minimum amount swept
are the most frequently chosen solvents for the inhibitor back out of the well. Thus, this method offers the best
mix, although sometimes special aromatic or higher possible utilization of inhibitor. Evaporation and other
boiling point solvents are chosen. Water, nitrogen, or removal processes operating after a nitrogen treatment
natural gas are frequently used to push the mix to bot- are identical to those operating after a short batch or tub-
tom. Diesel and condensate are also used. ing displacement treatment.
Although it is fairly certain that all of the surface is
contacted with inhibitor when this method is used, it is
Method of Continuous Treatment with Inhibitors
not certain how much film is left behind. If the volume
of inhibitor mix is too small and is pushed with a non- The most effective and reliable method of corrosion
miscible solvent, then there may be a lack of adequate control is to continuously add inhibitor to the bottom of
distribution of inhibitor to all the necessary areas of the the producing string in an adequate amount to cover the
tubing surface because of spiralling flow down the hole surface and with an amount of liquid carrier adequate to
or other factors. These factors are especially likely to produce a liquid phase condition in the hole. When these
occur when neat, oil soluble inhibitor is pushed with water conditions are met, the periodic corrosion rate highs and
or gas. lows found in the batch methods are avoided. Thereby
The inhibitor mix chosen for these treatments should overall metal loss is significantly less over the life of the
be relatively nonvolatile in the hole so that as little as downhole equipment, and thus the chance for premature
possible evaporates and as much of the liquid volume as failure is greatly reduced.
possible is available to form a film on the tubing surface. The two methods most widely used for conducting the
When a liquid displacement is made, the gas volume in inhibitor to the bottom of the well are the use of a tubing
the hole decreases to a small volume so that there is no kill string and injection down the annulus through a bot-
problem achieving saturation on the down trip. How- tom-hole chemical injector valve. In some cases, a par-
ever, as gas flows out, displacing the push fluid, redis- allel string of tubing is run and used for chemical injec-
tribution of inhibitor is aided by a nonvolatile mix. In tion. Figure 9-l6A shows the installation of a kill string.
Field Operation Problems 213
J ~&iJf-H'--
Surface casing
1-1.25-in. tubing
Intermediate casing
J
.
r Surtacs casing
.~--Casing
! t - - - 2% in. tUbing
0 12,000 ft
.
. / - - - - Production casing
"",,---11.5-in. tubing
,
:><Iiill---- Back pressure valve
I I
I I ~I"---Dual packer
~ It..
I I
I
I
t
A I
.oJ B l
Fig. 9-16. (a) Typical high-pressure gas well concentric string completion; (b) typical parallel string high-pressure gas well
completion.
The primary purpose of the kill string is to provide a concept is preferable to the use of downhole injection
means to fiIl the weIl with a high density fluid that kills valves. Solids can plug injection valves, and the bottom-
the weIl so that it may be entered safely for workover hole pressure may exceed the desired working pressure
operations. It also provides a means for continuous or of the casing annulus. Another advantage of the paraIlel
batch application of inhibitor. If the kill string does not tubing string concept is that the inhibitor mixture or the
extend to the bottom of the tubing, a baked-on plastic neat inhibitor is not exposed for such long periods to
coating is usuaIly used for tubing protection below the elevated temperatures and pressures. The inhibitor reaches
kill string. the bottom of the weIl in a much shorter period, and
Figure 9-16B also illustrates a parallel kill string that thermal degradation of the inhibitor is minimized.
aIlows inhibitor to be pumped to the bottom of the hole. High aIloy, high strength capillary tubing is available
While this type of completion costs more initiaIly, it for use in gas weIls by coupling it to the tubing at bot-
eliminates the need to interrupt production to inhibit the tom-hole and running it into the hole with the tubing
well. This would be necessary if both the kill string and string. A high pressure liquid pump is used at the surface
the tubing-kill string annulus were normally used to con- to inject neat chemical at bottom-hole by pumping through
duct fluids to the surface. Positive injection below the the capillary tubing. Because of friction losses, as much
packer can be accomplished by placing a check valve in as 20,000 psi injection pressure is required to overcome
the kill string and loading the string with inhibitor. downhole pressure and to put up to 20 gaIlons per day
The completion shown in Figure 9-17 utilizes a packer of chemical into the wellbore. To maintain adequate flow
and a bottom-hole chemical injection valve. The tubing- rate, the viscosity of the chemical must remain low while
casing annulus is filled with inhibitor. Pressure applied contained in the capillary tubing, and it must be free of
at the surface forces the injection valve to open. solids. For this latter reason, very fine pore size filters
From a technical standpoint, the parallel tubing string are incorporated into the system to prevent plug-ups.
2Q
\
Inhibitor
Mixture
4. Design of the capillary system minimizes possibility
of communication between tubing and casing annu-
lus.
5. Capillary can be used for batching of combination
Reservoir treatments, i.e., corrosion and scale inhibitors, foam-
ing agents, cleaning agents, and methanol.
Annulus filled 6. Capillary can be used for continuous recording of
with inhibitor mixture bottom-hole pressures.
Formallon Squeeze
~~11
(10 to 20% inhibitor). The mixture is displaced down
Packer -----.... the tubing and into the formation. The amount of dis-
placing fluid is normally 25 to 75 drums plus the tubing
volume. When a well is returned to production after a
squeeze, the initial concentration of chemical in the re-
~-:----::-- - ------ turned fluids is high, with a relatively fast decrease in
: =: : B=3=::=: =:=: : B= ~::==-
:=---------- =:------
:=: =3=::=: i concentration with production. A protective film is thus
Formation :-=-:-:-=~-:-=- ~:-:::-=-:-:-::::-::::-:::-
* - --------_-:..----- ----------_-:..---- -
-:-:-:-:-:-:
---:...-------:
formed on the metal surfaces during the squeeze oper-
ation and during the short time that the chemical con-
centration in the returned fluid is high. The continuous
return of chemical at a lower concentration maintains the
Fig. 9-17. Schematic of a wei! compietion with a bottom- initially formed protective film. When the returning in-
hoie chemicai injector. hibitor can no longer repair the protective film as rapidly
as it is removed, the effectiveness of the treatment de-
clines.
Up to now, these applications have been used for cooler, Practically all types of formation materials will adsorb
low pressure wells. However, because of the evidence the various squeeze inhibitors to some degree. The ad-
reported above, where some compounds appear to have sorptive capacities of clays are several hundred-fold greater
a low enough vapor pressure, it now appears possible to than the capacity of sand or limestone. Adsorption in
use the method for some deep, hot wells in the lower sand or limestone is reversible. Much of the inhibitor
end of the range. It must be recognized that low vola- adsorbed by clays is bound so tightly that it is irrevers-
tility, good thermal stability, and low solids require- ibly adsorbed and unavailable for desorption. However,
ments are extremely stringent for this application. clays adsorb such a large amount of inhibitor that the
This system of inhibitor injection has been used suc- fraction that desorbs can still provide substantial corro-
cessfully in the Gulf Coast area of the U.S. Some of the sion protection. During desorption, the inhibitor concen-
advantages claimed for the small tubing system are: tration in the produced fluid falls rapidly to a few hundred
Field Operation Problems 215
ppm, and then the inhibitor continues to be desorbed at deposition in production equipment and gathering lines,
low concentrations for several hundred pore volumes of or the sulfur may be removed by continuously or pe-
hydrocarbon production. Because of irreversible adsorp- riodically injecting appropriate solvents into the tubing
tion, only a portion of the originally adsorbed inhibitor or gathering lines. Solid sulfur that is contained in the
is desorbed. Obviously, more inhibitor should be used inlet well stream normally is carried away, and disposed
on the initial squeeze (2 to 4 drums). of, with liquid oil or condensate products.
Significant permeability reduction seldom occurs from In the event that a high hydrogen sulfide content lean
the action of corrosion inhibitors on formations; how- gas stream is processed, it may be necessary to squeeze
ever, clays present in many sandstones are often sensi- the formation or to wash wells periodically with solvent.
tive to inhibitors and may swell or disperse upon contact Such squeezing or washing also removes some of the
with the inhibitor. The resulting permeability changes deposited sulfur from the gathering lines.
vary widely, although most are negligible. In areas where
formation damage has been known to occur or in which
SAFETY
sensitive clays are known or suspected to exist, core
samples from the formation should be tested and an in- High pressure sour gas can be produced safely, but
hibitor selected that does not cause damage. because of the serious consequences that can arise if this
gas is released near a populated area, special attention
must be given to safety and contingency planning.
SULFUR DEPOSITION
Contingency planning is complex and must be
Sulfur deposition problems can arise in the production thoughtfully detailed for the locale of each sour gas op-
of deep sour natural gas reservoirs if a source of ele- eration. Among other things, the plans should be based
mental sulfur exists and fluid composition and pressure/ on population density, local terrain (including roads),
temperature changes have appropriate characteristics. housing and medical facilities, and local weather pat-
There is a greater potential for sulfur deposition if: terns.
Facilities should be provided to shut-in a well auto-
I. H2S content is high, matically in case of leaks. A typical facility for accom-
2. condensate (C,+) content is low, plishing this is shown schematically in Figure 9-18.
3. aromatic components are not present in the fluid, Some of the safety procedures to be observed when
4. bottom-hole pressure and temperature are high, and working around sour gas facilities are listed below.
5. pressure and temperature changes from formation to I. In low concentrations, H2S has a characteristic odor
wellhead are high. of rotten eggs and a sweet taste. In higher concentra-
tions, the sense of smell is quickly paralyzed. The sense
The sulfur-carrying capacity of the produced fluid is of smell, therefore, can never be relied upon to indicate
principally due to hydrogen polysulfide formation and/ the amount of H2S present.
or physical dissolution of the sulfur in the dense fluid. 2. Hydrogen sulfide may be present in natural gas
The relative importance of these two mechanisms at very produced alone or in combination with crude oil. Con-
high pressures may well determine whether sulfur de- centrations may be from the faintest odor to a percentage
position will be a serious problem in ultra-deep sour gas that will result in sudden death. Accordingly, whenever
wells. H2S is present, respiratory protection is of extreme im-
Some control of sulfur deposition is possible by lim- portance.
iting pressure/temperature changes through production 3. Hydrogen sulfide is heavier than air, having a spe-
rate, and a variety of physical and chemical solvents are cific gravity of 1.19 with respect to air, so heavier con-
available for well injection to remove sulfur as it is de- centrations will be found at ground or lower levels, such
posited. Physical solvents are adequate for low or mod- as well cellars, open ditches, and natural topographical
erate sulfur deposition. Solvents that function by chem- low spots.
ical incorporation of the sulfur into the molecular structure 4. Hydrogen sulfide is highly flammable and has an
of the solvent have much higher sulfur carrying capacity explosive range of 4.3% to 45.5% concentration by vol-
and may be required in cases where sulfur deposition is ume in air.
heavy. 5. When H2S is known to be present in natural gas or
It should be recognized that if elemental sulfur is de- crude oil, all products are handled in systems designed
posited in formations, tubing, gathering lines, or inlet to confine and, when necessary, dispose of the gas in a
separators, such depositions may be minimized by heat- safe manner.
ing and maintaining high pressures that discourage sulfur 6. When, through accident, leakage or necessary
216 Gas Production Operations
Alcohollank ---..
Meier station
Flare pit
Wellhead
Annulus "pump in" line
opening of a closed system, H,S becomes present in the results in loss of sense of smell; exposure for 8 to 48
atmosphere, prescribed respiratory protection should be hours may be fatal.v
worn. -0.020 to 0.050% (200 to 500 ppm) for I to 4 hours
7. Whenever hydrogen sulfide is present or thought will be fatal.
to be present, the H,S content must be determined, or -0.050 to 0.060 (500 to 600 ppm) for 30 to 60 minutes
an air supplied breathing apparatus must be used. is fatal.
8. If eyes become irritated or a halo is noticed around -0.060 to 0.150% (600 to 1500 ppm) for 2 to 15 min-
an electric light while working in a plant or area that has utes is fatal.
been determined to be "safe" from H,S, take the follow-
ing precautions:
10. Since the result of exposure to H,S is paralysis of
a. Leave the location at once.
the nerves controlling respiration, persons stop breathing
b. Wash eyes thoroughly with water. and lose consciousness quickly. If the victim is promptly
c. Wear air supplied respiratory equipment with removed to a clear area and artificial respiration is started
full face protection, if necessary, to return to immediately, the chances of complete recovery are good.
the location. Any delay in the start of artificial respiration appre-
9. Permissible limit of concentrations of H,S for con- ciably reduces chances of recovery. Even though chances
tinuous exposure during an 8-hour period is 0.001 %, or of recovery may seem slim, artificial respiration should
10 parts per million by volume in air. Exposure to higher be continued until normal breathing is resumed or, if a
concentrations of H,S will have the following effect: physician is not available, it should be continued for a
minimum of two hours.
-0.001 to 0.010% (10 to 100 ppm) for 30 to 60 minutes Any person overcome by hydrogen sulfide should be
results in eye and respiratory tract irritation. treated for shock-that is, kept warm while artificial res-
-0.010 to 0.020% (100 to 200 ppm) for 2 to 15 minutes piration is being applied and kept quiet until he can be
Field Operation Problems 217
checked and released by a physician. flared gas to escape to the atmosphere, especially in pop-
11. Hydrogen sulfide reacts with iron and steel to form ulated areas.
iron sulfide. Iron sulfide reacts with air to form iron ox- If possible, extensive testing should be delayed until
ide. The conversion of iron sulfide to iron oxide creates the gas can be sent to a pipeline or gas plant. All gas
heat sufficient to ignite flammable vapors. produced during preliminary tests should be flared.
Testing equipment such as separators, pressure gages,
and meters should be thoroughly tested before beginning
WELL TESTING
a sour gas well test, especially if the equipment has pre-
Due to the extreme safety hazards involved in testing viously been used in sour gas service.
sour gas wells, care must be taken to not allow any un-
Gas Processing
10
P
ETROLEUM as produced from a reservoir is a but in some cases, the gas goes to a plant facility for
complex mixture of hundreds of different com- further processing. The discussion in this section is di-
pounds of hydrogen and carbon, all with dif- vided into two categories, field treatment and plant op-
ferent densities, vapor pressures, and other erations.
physical characteristics. A typical well stream is a high-
velocity, turbulent, constantly expanding mixture of gases
FIELD TREATMENT OF NATURAL GAS
and hydrocarbon liquids, intimately mixed with water
vapor, free water, solids, and other contaminants. As it Separation of well-stream gas from free liquids is by
flows from the hot, high-pressure petroleum reservoir, far the most common of all field-processing operations
the well stream undergoes continuous pressure and tem- and, at the same time, one of the most critical. A prop-
perature reduction. Gases evolve from the liquids, water erly designed separator will provide a clean separation
vapor condenses, and some of the well stream changes of free gases from the free hydrocarbon liquids. A well-
in character from liquid to bubbles, mist, and free gas. stream separator must perform the following:
The high-velocity gas is carrying liquid droplets, and the
liquid is carrying gas bubbles. 1. Cause a primary-phase separation of the mostly liq-
Stated simply, field processing is required to remove uid hydrocarbons from those that are mostly gas;
undesirable components and to separate the well stream 2. Refine the primary separation by removing most of
into salable gas and petroleum liquids, recovering the the entrained liquid mist from the gas;
maximum amounts of each at the lowest possible overall 3. Further refine the separation by removing the en-
cost. Field processing of natural gas actually consists of trained gas from the liquid; and
four basic processes: 4. Discharge the separated gas and liquid from the ves-
I. Separation of the gas from free liquids such as crude sel and ensure that no re-entrainment of one into the
oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water, and entrained other occurs.
solids. If these functions are to be accomplished, the basic
2. Processing the gas to remove condensable and re- separator design must:
coverable hydrocarbon vapors. I. Control and dissipate the energy of the well stream
3. Processing the gas to remove condensable water va- as it enters the separator;
por, which under certain conditions might cause hy-
2. Ensure that the gas and liquid velocities are low
drate formation. enough so that gravity segregation and vapor-liquid
4. Processing the gas to remove other undesirable com- equilibrium can occur;
ponents, such as hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide. 3. Minimize turbulence in the gas section of the sep-
Some of these processes are accomplished in the field, arator and reduce velocity;
219
-
220 Gas Production Operations
4. Control the accumulation of froths and foams in the
vessel;
5. Eliminate re-entrainment of the separated gas and
MIST
liquid; EXTRACTION
6. Provide an outlet for gases, with suitable controls SECTION
I ~.{JI GAS OUTLET
to maintain preset operating pressure;
7. Provide outlets for liquids, with suitable liquid-level SECONDARY
controls; SEPARATION
SECTION
8. If necessary, provide cleanout ports at points where
solids may accumulate;
PRIMARY
9. Provide relief for excessive pressures in case the gas SEPARATION
SECTION
or liquid outlets should be plugged; and
10. Provide equipment (pressure gages, thermometers,
and liquid-level gage-glass assemblies) to check vi- LIQUID
ACCUMULATION
sually for proper operation. SECTION wITH
DISCHARGE
The process equipment and conditions downstream of ACCESSORIES
Types of Separators
Three basic types of separators are widely used for
gas-liquid separation: (I) vertical (Fig. 10-1), (2) hori-
DR.,N
zontal (Fig. 10-2), and (3) horizontal double-barrel (Fig. wUST"'"
10-3). Each has specific advantages, and selection is INLET
Gas Processing 221
section. The upper section is filled with baffles, and gas
s(CONO.~l "'ST [>TRAClOl!
flow is straight through and at higher velocities.
au oenr r A horizontal three-phase separator (Fig. 10-4) is de-
fLU!!) INUT (
signed to separate oil, water, and gas and has two liquid
outlets. Three-phase separators are used commonly for
well testing and in instances where free water readily
separates from the oil or condensate. They are identical
to two-phase vessels except for the water compartment,
an extra level control, and dump valve.
Filter separators (Fig. 10-5) are designed to remove
small liquid and! or solid particles from gas streams. These
units were designed specifically to handle those appli-
Fig. 10-3. Douote-tuae horizontal oil and gas separator. cations where, due to the extremely small particle size,
Courtesy the American Petroieum Institute.'
conventional separation techniques employing gravita-
tional or centrifugal force are ineffective. Contaminants
time imparts a centrifugal motion to the fluids. This pro- of this small size can be removed most effectively by
vides the desired momentum reduction and allows the passing the gas through a fine, high-quality filtering me-
gas to escape from the thin oil film. The gas rises to the dium. Several configurations of filter separators are used,
top of the vessel, and the liquids fall to the bottom. Some depending upon the required efficiency and on whether
small liquid particles will be swept upward with the ris- liquids or solids, or both, are to be removed. Some filter
ing gas stream, and these particles are separated by a elements have collection efficiencies of 98% of the 1-
centrifugal baffle arrangement below the gas-outlet con- micron particles and 100% of the 5-micron particles when
nection. operated at rated capacity and recommended filter-change
The horizontal separator may be the most economical. intervals. A typical filter separator for removing both
It may be less expensive than the vertical separator of liquid and solid contaminants is shown in Figure 10-5.
equal capacity. The horizontal separator has a much
greater gas-liquid interface area consisting of a large, long,
Separator Controls
baffled gas-separation section. Horizontal separators are
almost always used for high gas-oil ratio well streams, Liquid level within the separator must be maintained
for foaming well streams, or for liquid-from-liquid sep- within reasonable limits to prevent discharging liquid out
arators. A horizontal separator is easier to install, ser- of the gas line or gas out of the liquid line and to assure
vice, and transport. Several separators can be stacked proper functioning and flow through the separator inter-
easily into stage-separation assemblies minimizing space nals. Pressure within the separator is usually maintained
requirements. In a horizontal separator, gas flows hori- within a specific pressure range by a gas back-pressure
zontally and, at the same time, falls toward the liquid regulating valve. Temperature within most separators is
surface. Some separators have closely spaced horizontal usually not controlled although there are exceptions, such
baffle plates that extend lengthwise down the vessel upon as low-temperature separation systems. Safety and pro-
which baffle plates are evenly spaced at a 45 angle to tection against overpressure is provided by a pressure-
the horizontal. The gas flows in the baffle surfaces and relief valve set at the design pressure of the separator.
forms a liquid film that is drained away to the liquid
section of the separator. The baffles need only be longer
Stage Separation
than the distance of liquid trajectory travel at the design
gas velocity. Stage separation is a process in which gaseous and
Some separators use knitted wire-mesh pads, 4 to 8 liquid hydrocarbons are separated into vapor and liquid
in. thick, across the gas section of the separator or across phases by two or more equilibrium flashes at consecu-
the gas-outlet nozzle. Wire mesh can provide good gas- tively lower pressures. As shown in Figure 10-6, two-
liquid separation but may be plugged by paraffin or sol- stage separation involves one separator and a storage tank.
ids in the gas stream. Wire-mesh pads should not be used Three-stage separation requires two separators and a
unless the well stream is so clean that no danger of plug- storage tank. Four-stage separation would require three
ging exists. separators and a storage tank. The tank is always counted
A double-barrel horizontal separator has all the ad- as the final stage of vapor-liquid separation because the
vantages of a normal horizontal separator plus a much final equilibrium flash occurs in the tank.
higher liquid capacity. Incoming free liquid is immedi- The purpose of stage separation is to reduce the pres-
ately drained away from the upper section into the lower sure on the reservoir liquids gradually, in steps or stages,
Water
Section B- B .I
Well stream
Gas
Water
I I I I Oil
u U~
Fig. 10-4. Three-phase portabie separator. Permission to pubiish by McGraw-HiiI Book Company.
Hinged quick-opening
closure
Liquid.level control
Fig. 10-5. Fiiter separator for removing iiquid and soiid contaminates. From Field Handiing of Natural Gas, 3rd ed. 1972,
Copyright, Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin (PETEX).
Gas Processing 223
2
Two-stage separat'lon
Fluids
from weH
Three-stage separation
2 3
Four-stage separation
2 3 4
so that a more stable stock-tank liquid will result. Pe- position, pressure, temperature, and other factors. For
troleum liquids at high pressures usually contain large example, if a volatile condensate at 1500 psig was dis-
quantities of liquefied propanes, butanes, and pentanes, charged directly into an atmospheric storage tank, most
which will vaporize or flash as the pressure is reduced. of it would immediately vaporize, leaving very little liq-
This flashing can cause a substantial reduction in stock- uid in the tank.
tank liquid recovery, depending upon well-stream com- The ideal method of separation, to attain maximum
-=
that existing in the reservoir to that existing in the stor- AP P1NtTIAL PF1NAL
functions: 'b 500 1000 1500 2OCX) 2500 3CXXl 3500 4000 4500
INITIAL PRESSURE-PSJG
00 5500 6000
..
Gas Processing 225
hydrate inhibitors upstream of the separator. In some INLET LIOUID GAS TO GAS
SEPARATOR........ HEAT EXCHANGER
cases, a line heater is required upstream of the separator -FROM ~
for the first method (Fig. 10-9).
A schematic diagram of the second method, using gly-
0"'4--
WATER
GAS TO SALES
col injection, is shown in Figure 10-10. LEAN GLYCOL-
f I
_ CQNOENSATE
Condensate Stabilization
'STEAM
One of the problems in using low temperature sepa- GENERATOR
I
ration units of both the mechanical and glycol-injection <>'
TC
types is high stock-tank vapor loss. These losses are the
result of vaporizing appreciable quantities of liquid pro- - RICH GLYCOL
pane and butane with dissolved methane and ethane, which
are liberated when the pressure on the liquid is reduced
Fig. 10-10. Schematic ffow diagram of a giycol injection LTS
from the low temperature separator to storage pressure.
system with tow-temoersture stabilization. Permission to pub-
When these light ends vaporize in a stock tank, they carry lish by the McGraw-Hili Book Company.
some of the heavier hydrocarbons with them to be burned
or lost in the atmosphere. Stabilization is a means of
removing these lighter hydrocarbons from the liquid stabilizer. Some of the light hydrocarbons are vaporized
present in the bottom of the low temperature separator and pass from the top ofthis vessel to the gas-sales, fuel,
with a minimum loss of heavier hydrocarbons. Stabili- or vent line. The liquid hydrocarbons flow through the
zation results in a larger volume of stock-tank liquids packing or down the trays, absorbing some of the heavi-
available for sale. er gaseous hydrocarbons, which have been vaporized at
The stabilization system consists of a vertical vessel, the bottom of the vessel. At the bottom of the vessel,
which may be packed with ceramic rings or fitted with the heat added from the heater or reboiler vaporizes most
trays spaced from 12 to 24 in. apart inside the vessel. of the lighter hydrocarbons. After being cooled, the sta-
The liquid in the lower section of the tower is heated by bilized liquid flows to storage and the lighter ends flow
an indirect heater or steam coils. The cold condensate upward to be reabsorbed or to leave the top of the vessel
from the bottom of the low-temperature separator flows (Fig. 10-11). The amount of additional condensate that
directly to the top of the stabilizer or may flow to a flash can be recovered by stabilization is dependent upon the
tank prior to entering the stabilizer. From the flash tank, pressure and temperature at which the low temperature
the gas is routed to become fuel or to be disposed of by separator is operated and the composition of the gas being
other means, and the liquid is taken to the top of the processed.
Seamless steel
Fill hatch or
cast-iron coils
Fig. 10-9. Cutaway view of an indirect heater. From Field Handling of Natural Gas, 3rd ed. 1972, Copyright, Petroleum
Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin (PETEX).
-
226 Gas Production Operations
timated by assuming that stock-tank liquid recovery will
be increased about 0.5 bbl per MMscf for each 10F de-
crease in separator temperature. For example, if sepa-
ration at 80F produces 10 bbl/MMscf, then separation
at 20F would produce an additional 3 bbl/MMscf. An
additional increase in recovery of about 10% might be
expected if the low temperature liquid was then stabi-
1020 bubb4ecaptrays lized. For richer gas streams, on the order of 50 bbl/
Or 1015' packed sachem
MMscf, the increased liquid recovery would be about
0.75 bbl/MMscf for each 10F decrease in separator
temperature. These figures are merely rules of thumb and
are only an approximation of the actual increased recov-
ery. Figure 10-12 illustrates the effect of separation tem-
perature on liquid recovery.
1O~
I
Ga.-oil rallo Mcllbbl stock-tank liqUid
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I I I I I I .. ----l.....-... -- 1 1 ____ I I ,
Bbls stock-tank IIquld/MMcf
200 100 50 25 20 15 10
110
I
100
II-
90
1/
/ 1/ / V 1/ / / / / /
II
II
" / II 'I V / / / / / V/
.
E
"-
80
70
II / 1/ ,/ V / / / / / 1//
E
s
~ 60 -- / V / / / / / / / // /
~ I I '/ / / / / // //
. 50
..e.
"- 40
I
/ /
/ '/
1/ /
/ /
1/ J / / / / / /
/ / '// / /
." 30
/ 1/ / / V / / ///
~ 20
"-
.c 10
I I / / V / / / / / V/
.2' I I / 1/ / / / / /V
~ '/V
:I:
0
/ I / II V/ / / --- --
-10
20 II/ J / / V II y/ ~/V I
SUlfur
r-- Sulfur plant
Residue gas
~ Natural gasoline
Condensate
- Stabilization
GlyCOl /0 Regeneration
.First stage Second stage Third stage Third stage Third stage
discharge discharge discharge gas exchanger chiller
cooler cooler cooler Residue gas
Second
stage
Compressor
Gas Processing 229
end use of such gas usually requires it to be at a final absorber. In this type of plant, the lean oil is not pumped
pressure of 500-900 psig, and accordingly, it will or- directly to the absorber proper, but to a presaturator chiller
dinarily be compressed through three stages of compres- where the gas from the top of the absorber is mixed with
sion. Gas compressor equipment is discussed in detail in the stripped lean oil. The effluent from the presaturator
Chapter 5. The compressed gas is cooled between com- chiller enters a separator tank from which the separated
pressor stages to conserve horsepower and to keep the gas flows to the gas-gas exchanger. The liquid from the
compressor discharge temperatures within reasonable presaturator separator is then pumped to the top tray of
limits. Either forced air coolers or heat exchangers using the absorber. The lean oil is thus saturated with methane
water as the cooling medium may be used. Liquids may and ethane at the chiller temperature before entering the
be condensed between stages depending upon the rich- absorber. This minimizes the temperature rise from dis-
ness of the gas, its temperature, and pressure. solving gas in the absorber and permits higher absorption
In a plant such as shown in Figure 10-14, water vapor of propane.
in the gas condenses as the pressure is increased and the The rich oil from the bottom of the absorber flows to
gas cooled. If liquid is formed in any of the coolers, the rich oil flash tank where some of the undesirable
either water or hydrocarbon, then the gas leaving is at materials picked up in the absorber, particularly meth-
its dew point with respect to either water or hydrocar- ane, are flashed off at a lower pressure. Because of the
bon, or both. Gas hydrates may cause trouble under these adiabatic expansion, fluids in the rich oil flash tank will
conditions even though dew points are far above freez- usually be considerably colder than the absorber bot-
ing. The liquid product from a compression gas pro- toms. The vapors from the rich oil flash tank are recy-
cessing plant will have a very high vapor pressure and cled back to the plant inlet after compression and cool-
will therefore be difficult and expensive to store without ing. The cold liquid from the flash enters the lean oil/
stabilizing the liquid product or taking substantial vapor rich oil exchanger, which conserves refrigeration by fur-
losses. ther cooling the lean oil from the air-cooledlean oil cooler.
Some flashing of the rich oil occurs as the temperature
Absorption Processing. If economics warrant increas- is increased in the exchanger. The mixture is fed to the
ing the recovery of the marketable products, or if gas center section of the rich oil de-ethanizer.
sales dew point specifications require removal of more The rich oil de-ethanizer column usually has a larger
of the heavier hydrocarbons, the more complex and ex- diameter lower (stripping) section and a smaller diameter
pensive absorption process is used in the gas processing top absorption section, the two diameters reflecting the
plant. Absorption involves contacting the compressed raw column loadings. Heat enters the column through the re-
gas with a liquid hydrocarbon called lean oil or absorp- boiler and the side heater. The top (reabsorber) section
tion oil in an absorber where components in the gas dis- serves as an absorber where desirable components are
solve in the lean oil. The heavier components dissolve dissolved in the lean oil and are washed downward. The
more easily, and the oil will hold more of them than the reabsorber section is supplied with cold lean oil from the
lighter components, but some of the lighter components lean oil-rich oil exchanger. The lean oil flow and the
are absorbed also. The bulk of the gas, called residue bottom temperature determine the amount of propane re-
gas, leaves the top of the absorber while the absorbed tained and limit the ethane in the propane as required to
components leave with the rich oil from the bottom of meet propane specifications. This same type of column
the absorber. is called a rich oil demethanizer if ethane is being re-
The absorption oil process can be carried out at am- covered. The overhead product from such columns is
bient temperatures or process temperatures may be low- gaseous and usually serves as a source of plant fuel gas
ered by refrigeration. Although ambient temperature plants with any excess going to the recycle recompressor.
are now generally considered obsolete, the design of these The hot rich oil leaves the bottom of the de-ethanizer
older casinghead processing plants usually does not lend and moves to the lean oil still where absorbed products
itself to economic modification to the modern, more ef- are separated from the lean oil. Again, as in the case of
ficient types. However, this operation can be optimized the rich oil de-ethanizer, a two-diameter column is used
by adjusting process variables. because of the difference in loads between the top and
A flowsheet of a refrigerated light oil absorption gas bottom of the column. To supply the necessary stripping
process is shown in Figure 10-15. The feed gas enters vapors in the still, the major part of the still bottoms is
the gas-gas exchanger that serves to recover refrigeration pumped to the furnace reboiler. The net lean oil bottom
from the plant residue gas stream. The gas then passes required by the absorption process is withdrawn and re-
through the gas chiller, which is often cooled by vapor- turns through the heat exchangers connected to the rich
izing liquid propane from a mechanical refrigeration sys- oil de-ethanizer, from which it flows to the lean oil cooler.
tem. The cooled gas from the chiller then passes to the The products stripped from the lean oil are taken over-
c
r----<~ To rcer
=po
SliII
Recycle Recycle condenser
cooler compressor
Reflux pump
High pressure
leanoilpump
R'w
g"
"
Gas-gas
exchanger
Presalurator
pump
Presaturator
separator
Deelhanizer
I j
Res'idue gas Hot oil
pump
Leanoil
rich all
exchanger ~;;;-~,...-e==:J-I-~
~ Leanoil cooler
head from the still and condensed. Reflux is pumped back temperature at about -; 150F. The exhaust is a liquid-
to the column. The liquid products from this type plant vapor mixture at these conditions and enters as feed at
are quite often sold as a mixed stream or can be frac- the top of the unrefluxed demethanizer. The turbine ex-
tionated in a separate plant. pander, a very high-speed device rotating at speeds up
to 25,000 RPM, is directly connected to the centrifugal
Cryogenic Processing. In the previous discussion, it compressor. Plants such as this normally recover 30-
has been shown that relatively high ethane recovery can 60% of the ethane entering in the plant feed stream.
be achieved by the combination of low temperature and
appropriate lean oil circulation in an absorption plant. Adsorption Processing. Hydrocarbon recovery by ad-
Under certain circumstances, it has become economic to sorption is another method that becomes economic under
process gas for high ethane recovery using only ex- certain conditions. This process depends upon the ability
tremey low temperatures. at moderate pressure. Such of certain solid materials to adsorb gases or liquids. Ma-
plants are in the cryogenic category and have become terials that have the necessary properties for adsorption
practical and economic in the natural gas processing in- due to their large surface area of minute pores are ac-
dustry with the development of the turbine type expan- tivated carbon, bauxite, activated alumina, silica gel, and
der-compressor. This type of process is most appropriate synthetic zeolites called molecular sieves. Hydrocarbon
where high pressure gas is available and the end use of recovery units using these materials also remove water
the gas is at a low pressure and relatively close to the vapor from the gas stream.
processing point. Solid bed adsorption is a cyclic batch type operation
A flowsheet of the process is shown in Figure 10-16. that operates continuously by the use of two (or more)
The dehydrated plant feed enters the gas-gas exchanger adsorption towers as shown in Figure 10-17. While one
where, by exchange with the plant residue, the feed tem- tower is on a drying cycle, the other tower is being re-
perature is lowered to 80F. Even with a relatively dry generated by heating the desiccant with hot gas that va-
gas, some liquid hydrocarbons will condense at these porizes the adsorbed hydrocarbons and water. The hot
conditions. The liquid is separated and fed to the de- regeneration gas containing the hydrocarbons and water
methanizer. The vapor proceeds to the turbine exhaust vapor is cooled, condensing out most of the water and
Gas Processing 231
1
195 psig
Je,.
600 psig
~ Dellydralion
.> (I c-
Inlet
exchanger Primary
~
separator .......-.:
::::--::-
I
o.m"h,"~
rebcner
f--
"T Depropanizer
LJeboiler
Steam
"-- L---.l
Pump rsobutane plus
Demethanlzer Depropanizer product
Turbo-expander Ethane-propane
mix crocuct
11 285 psig
residue gas
Compressor
- x x -~f(
wet gas
.
Steam
X'-'
~
---
.. water
.:::::..
-
:::r II'::;;::"
"-
water out
Dehydrated gas
'~f'~
1--- :.:::
....
f----
Contacting
Itn ;:
~
Reboiler
II
--- trays
---
---
Wet gas
Waterrich
(I I' V" v"V1\V1\V"\ I "J I )
glycol I Surge tank I
Filter
f---
J:j
Absorber
Lean glycol
,
Pump
Gas Processing 233
the column. In some units, stripping gas is introduced a glycol dehydration unit. However, in this unit, regen-
into the column to effect a more complete removal of eration of the glycol is usually limited to about an 85%
water. The amount of water removed and the dew point solution and the flow is adjusted so that the water ab-
depression achieved 'are governed by the concentration sorbed dilutes it to about a 75% solution.
of regenerated glycol, the glycol flow rate, the number
of contact trays in the absorber column, and the tem-
Gas Sweetening
perature of the incoming gas. Dew point depressions of
100Fare common and, with careful design, depressions Many natural gases available for processing or for sale
of 150F can be achieved. Liquid desiccant dehydrators are termed "sour" because they contain hydrogen sul-
are used extensively with the low temperature absorption fide, which is an extremely poisonous gas. Gas sales
type gas processing plants and for field locations since contracts usually limit the amount of this compound to
they normally require little attention. about 0.25 grains per hundred cubic feet (about four parts
Dehydration by chilling the gas is accomplished in many per million). If hydrogen sulfide is present in large
plants in which hydrocarbon recovery is achieved by either amounts, it is removed by a sweetening unit of the type
condensation or low temperature absorption. Removal of shown schematically in Figure 10-19. The chemicals used
water vapor by this method requires that the formation to remove hydrogen sulfide in this unit also remove car-
of hydrates and ice be prevented during the condensation bon dioxide. Both gases are identified by the general term
and removal of the water from the system. This is achieved of acid gas.
by injecting a solution of ethylene glycol into the gas One of the most commonly used materials for the re-
stream being chilled. The resultant mixture of cold gas, moval of the acid gases is a water solution of monoetha-
water-glycol solution, and condensed hydrocarbons, if nolamine (MEA). Other common chemicals used to re-
any, then pass to a tank where the glycol solution that move acid gases are diethanolamine (DEA) and Sulfinol,
includes the condensed water settles out in the lower layer which is a mixture of sulfolane, di-isopropanola-
and is drained from the tank. The water-rich glycol so- mine, and water. The first two chemicals remove acid
lution is regenerated in equipment similar to that used in gases by chemical reaction, while Sulfinol works on the
Sweet gas
Lean solution
Reflux
condenser
y
G-i----_--1- J
Retlux
accumulator
Sour gas
Regenerator
reboiler
Ocntactor Regenerator
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
FOR 5000 psia CONVERGENCE
PRESSURE
,
Appendix 237
PRESSURE, PSIA-
30 ,,100 300 500 7. 1,000 3,000 4
,-? :,s~, _
. '
.' .;.:'j-
I 4~ ~!: '~. :
10 30 4 50 100 300 1,000 3,000 4 '10,000
'.
.01- I
,
I
.01
.001.
10
10111
,,
.000".
10
s
Appendix 245
3,000 1 ,000
Plolted from 19047 lobulations of G, 0
G, Brown, University of Michigon, E>l.
Iropoloted Qnd drown by The Fr~r
Corp. Ltd. for the Noturol Gasoline 1
Association of Americo in 1957
3,000 10.000
Plotted from 19-47 tobulations of G. ~O
G. Brown, Univlt,siry of Michigon, Ex. l.t
tropoloted ond drown by The Fluor h
Corp. Lid. for the Natural Gasoline
Ass.ociolion of America in 1957
.0
.00011
10
3,000 ,10.000
10
Plotted from 1947 lobulation. of G.
G. Brown, University of Michigan. Ex-
Iropololed and drawn by The Fluor ,
Corp. Ltd. for Ihe Natural G,noline
Association 01 Americo in 1957
,00011
10
3.000
Plotted from 1947 tobulations 01 G.
'fr8"O
G. Brown, University of Michigan. E:<-
C~:la(~~. ~~~ t~~aWNot~~o?~~II~~; ,
Associafion 0/ Americe. in 1957
.0001
10
MATTHEWS-BRONS-HAZEBROOK
CURVES FOR VARIOUS RESERVOIR
SHAPES
7
Appendix 251
2.30)(P*2 -'P:)
o001
Fig. 8-1
2.303(,*2 _P~)
~.Ol
Fig. 8-2
4
2.303(P*2_P~)
.,
Fig. 83
2.30)(P*2 _P~)
011
-,
-,
0,01
Fig. 84
Appendix 253
Fig. 8-5
2.30)(p1l2 _P~)
.,
-a
Fig. 8-6
...
Appendix C
MOLLIER DIAGRAMS
FOR NATURAL GAS
....
Appendix 257
Fig. C-1
Fig. C-2
258 Gas Production Operations
Fig. C-3
Fig. C4
Appendix 0
COMPUTER SUBROUTINES
....
Nomenclature
261
q
C
C CALCULATE MOODY DIAGRAM FRICTION FACTOR.
REYN=1488.*DENNS*VM*DIA/VISNS
FF=I./11.14-2.*ALoGI0IED+21.25/REYN**.9**2
IF IIREG.LE.2) GO TO 13
C
C CALCULATE ruo PHASE FRICTION FACTOR.
Y=HLNS/IHL**2)
X=ALOGIY)
S=X/(-.0523+3.182*X-.8725*X**2+.01853*X**4)
IF IY.GT.l .. AND.Y.LT.l.2) S=ALoGI2.2*Y-l.2)
FF=FF*EXPIS)
C
C CALCULATE FRICTION, ELEVATION, ACCELERATION AND TOTAL PRESSURE
C GRADIENTS.
13 FRGR=FF*DENNS*VM**2/12.*32.2*DIA*144.)
ELGR=DENS*SINIA)/144.
IFCIDH.EQ.O)Go TO 16
IFIA.GT.O.)GO TO 16
ELGR=DENG*SINIA)/144.
16 CONTINUE
EKK=DENS*VM*VSG/C32.2*P*144.)
IF CEn~. GT.. 95) GO TO 14
DPDL=-CFRGR+ELGR)/ll.-EKK)
ACCGR=-EI<:K*DF'DL
C
RETURN
14 vlRITE 1108,15)
15 FORMAT 11 X, ' APPROACH ING CRI Tl CAL FLOW. STOP CALCULATIONS' )
STOP
END
Appendix 265
HL=1.-.5*(!.+VM/VS-SQRT1.+VM/VS>**2.-4.*VSG/VS
IF IHL.LT.HLNSI HL-HLNS
DENS-DENL*HL+DENG*ll.HL
REYNB-14BB.*DENL*IVSL/HLl*DIA/VISL
FF-l./ll.14-2.*ALOGlOIED+21.25/REYNB**.9**2
C
C CALCULATE ELEVATION AND FRICTION GRADIENTS AND ACCELERATION TERM
C FOR BUBBLE FLOW.
ELGR-DENS*SINIA) 1144.
FRGR-FF*DENL*IVSL/HL)**2/12.*32.2*DIA*144.)
E':':-O.
GO TO 7
C
C PREPARE HOLDUP CORRELATION ARRAYS FOR INTERPOLATIDr'.
3 DO 4 V-l,lO
XCNLLIV)-ALOGIXCNLIV
4 YCNLLIV)-ALOGIYCNLIV
D051<=1~12
5 XHLLIV)-ALOGll.E-05*XHLIV
IREG-4
C
C CALCULATE LIQUID HOLDUP.
XX-ALOGIXNU
CNL-EXPIFLAGRIXCNLL,YCNLL,XX,2,lO
XX-ALOGIXNLV*CNL/IXNGV**.575*XND)*IP/14.7)**.1)
HL-FLAGRIXHLL,YHL.XX,2,12)
XX-XNGV*XNL**O.3B/XND**2.14
PSI-FLAGRIXPSI,YPSI,XX,2,121
IF IPSI.LT.l.) F'SI-1.
HL-HL*F'SI
IF IHL.LT.O.) HL-O.
IF IHL.GT.l.) HL-l.
IF (HL.GT.HLNS) GO TO 6
IF WHL. EQ. 0) HL-HLNS
C
C CALCULATE NO-SLIP AND SLIP MIXTURE DENSITIES.
6 DENNS-DENL*HLNS+DENG*ll.-HLNS)
DENS-DENL*HL+DENG*ll.-HL)
C
E CALCULATE FRICTION FACTOR.
VISS-VISL**HL*GVIS**ll.-HL)
REYN-14BB.*DENNS*VM*DIA/VISS
FF-l./ll.14-2.*ALOGlOIED+2l.25/REYN**.9)1**2
C
C CALCULATE ELEVATION,- FRICTION, ACCELERATION, AND TOTAL PRESSURE
C GRADIENTS.
ELGR-DENS*SINIAl/144.
FRGR-FF*DENNS**2*VM**2/12.*32.2*DIA*DENS*144. )
VSG-VM*ll.-HLNS)
En:-DENS*VM*VSG/ (32. 2*P* 144. )
IF IEKV.GT .. 95) GO TO B
7 DPDL--IELGR+FRGRI/ll.-EKKI
ACCGR--DPDL*EK,:
C
RETURN
8 .IRITE I ro, 91
9 FORMAT 11X,'APPROACHING CRITICAL FLOW. STOP CALCULATIONS' I
STOP
END
Appendix 267
Z
SUBROUTINE ZFACHY (T,P,SGFG,Z)
C
C CALCULATE GAS COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR USING THE HALL AND
C YARBOROUGH CORRELATION FOR CURVE FITTING THE STANDING-'
C KATZ REDUCED PRESSURE-REDUCED TEMPERATURE Z-FACTOR
C CHART. (OIL AND GAS JOURNAL, JUNE 18, 1973, PG. 82, AND FEBRUARY
C 18, 1974, PG. 86)
C
C CALCULATE CRITICAL AND REDUCED TEMPERATURE AND PRESSU~E.
TC=169.0+314.0*SGFG
PC=708.75-57.5*SGFG
TR= <T+460. 0) /TC
F'R=F' /F'C
C
C IF REDUCED TEMPERATURE. IS LESS THAN 1.01. CALCULATE A Z-FACTOR
C FOR A REDUCED TEMPERATURE VALUE IJF 1.0.
IF <TR. GT. 1. Oil GO TO I
RT=l. (I
GO TO 2
I RT=I.O/TR
C
C CALCULATE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT TERMS.
2 A=O.06125*RT*EXPC-l.2*(1.-RT>**2)
B=RT*(14.76-9.76*RT+4.58*RT*RT)
C=RT* (90. 7-242. 2*RT+42. 4*RT*RTl
D=2.18+2.82*RT
C
C CALCULATE REDUCED DENSITY, Y, USING THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD.
Y=.OOI
DO 4 J=1,25
IF (Y.GT.I.) Y=.6
F=-A*PR+(Y+Y*Y+Y**3-Y**4)/(I.-Y)**3-B*Y*Y+C*Y**D
IF (ABS(F).LE.I.E-4) GO TO 5
c
C IF CONVERGENCE IS NOT OBTAINED IN 25 ITERATIONS. SET Z=I.O AND
C RETURN.
IF (J.LT.25) GO TO 3
Z=1.0
RETURN
C
3 DFDY=(I.+4.*Y+4.*Y*Y-4.*Y**3+Y**4)/(I.-Y)**4
1-2.*B*Y+D*C*Y**(D-I.)
Y=Y-F/DFDY
4 CONTINUE
c
C CALCULATE Z-FACTOR.
5 Z=A*PR/Y
C
RETURN
END
Q
F
FUNCTION FLAGR2 (V,H,F,NV,NH, IV, IH,VAf~G,HARG)
C
C FLAGR2 IS A FUNCTION SUBPROGRAM FOR PERFORMING DOUBLE INTER-
C F'OLATION. IT CALLS FLAGR (LISTED ON A FOLLOWING PAGE) FOR EACH
C INTERPOLATION.
C
C V IS THE ROW (VERTICAL) ARRAY.
C H I S THE COLUMN (HORI ZONTAU ARRAY.
C F IS THE FUNCTION VALUE MATRIX.
C NV AND NH ARE DIMENSIONS OF THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ARRAYS.
C IV AND IH ARE DEGREES OF INTERPOLATION IN THE V AND H ARRAYS.
C VARG AND HARG ARE ARGUMENTS FOR WHICH INTERPOLATED FUNCTION
C VALUES ARE DESIRED.
'C
DIMENSION V(2),H(2),F(2).X(SO),Y(SO)
C
DO 20 J=I,NH
DO 10 1=1,.JV
,;=1+ (J-l) *NV
lOX ( I ) =F (K)
20 Y(J)=FLAGR(V,X,VARG,IV,NV)
C
FLAGR2=FLAGR(H,Y,HARG,IH.NH)
C
RETURN
END
FUNCTI ON FLAGR (X, Y, XARG. I DEG, NPTS)
c
C INTERPOLATION ROUTINE SIMILAR TO FLAGR IN AFPLIED NUMERICAL
C METHODS BY CARNAHAN, LUTHER AND WILKES. JOHN WILEY AND SONS,
e PG. 31.
C
C FLAGR USES THE LAGRANGE FORMULA TO EVALUATE THE INTERPOLATING
C F'OLYNOMIAL OF DEGREE IDEG FOR ARGUMENT XARG USING THE DATA
C VALUES X(MIN) ..... X(MAX) AND Y(MIN) ..... Y(MAX) WHERE MIN =
C MAX-IDEG. THE X(I) VALUES ARE NOT NECESSARILY EVENLY SPACED
C AND CAN BE IN EITHER INCREASING OR DECREASING ORDER.
C
C X IS THE ARRAY OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DATA POINTS.
C Y IS THE ARRAY OF DEPENDENT VARIABLE DATA POINTS,
C XARG IS THE ARGUMENT FOR WHICH AN INTERPOLATED VALUE IS DESIRED.
C IDEG IS THE DEGREE OF INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL ( l IS LINEAR,
C 2 IS QUADRATIC, ETC).
C NPTS IS THE NUMBER OF DATA POINTS IN X AND Y.
C
DIMENSION X(l),Y(l)
C
N=IABS (NF'TS)
Nl=IDEG+l
L=l
IF (X(2).GT.X(I GO TO 1
L=2
C
C CHECK TO BE SURE THAT XARG IS WITHIN RANGE OF X(I) VALUES
C FOR INTERPOLATION PURPOSES. IF IT IS NOT, SET FLAGR EQUAL
o TO THE APPROPRIATE TERMINAL VALUE (Y(I) OR Y(N AND RETURN.
C NOTE THAT THIS PRECLUDES EXTRAPOLATION OF DATA.
270 Gas Production Operations
GO TO (2~:::,).L
~' IF (XARG.U:.X(l)) GD HI 4
IF ',XARG.GE. X(N) ) GO TO :3
GO TD 6
:, IF (XARG.GE.X(J)) GO TO 4
IF (XARG.LE.X(N)) GO TO 5
GO TO 6
4 FLAGR=Y( 11
RETURN
5 FLAGR=Y<N)
RETURN
c
C DETERMINE VALUE OF MAX.
6 GO TO (10~20).L
C
C DATA ARE IN ORDER OF INCREASING VALUES OF X.
10 DO 11 MAX=Nl,N
IF (XARG.LT.X(MAX)) GO TO 12
11 CONTINUE
C
C DATA ARE IN ORDER OF DECREASING VALUES OF X.
20 DO 21 MAX==Nl.N
IF (XARG.GT.X(MAX)) GO TO 12
21 CONTI NUE
C
C CDMPUTE VALUE OF FACTDR.
12 MIN=MAX-IDEI3
FACTOR=!.
DO 7 I=MIN,MAX
IF (XARG.NE. X ( I ) ) GO TO 7
FLAGR=Y (I)
RETURN
7 FACTOR=FACTOR*(XARG-X(I))
C
C EVALUATE INTERPOLATING F'OL YNDM I AL.
YEST=O.
DO 9 I=MIN,MAX
TERM=Y(I)*FACTOR/(XARG-X(I))
DO 8 J=MIN,MAX
IF (I.NE.J) TERM=TERM/(X(I)-X(J))
. 8 CONTI NUE
9 YEST=YEST+TERM
FLAGR=YEST
C
RETURN
END
Appendix 271
This appendix contains listings of the following programs:
BHOLE -for conversion of wellhead pressures to bottom hole
pressures;
P-PSI -for conversion of pressures to pseudo-pressures;
and the following subroutines:
FFCFLO-for use with BHOLE to calculate friction factors;
VISCY -for use with BHOLE and P-PSI to calculate natural gas
viscosities;
XLGR4 -for use with VISCY to interpolate viscosity tables;
ZANOC -for use with BHOLE and P-PSI to calculate natural gas
compressibility factors. This subroutine also calculates
natural gas compressibilities.
The program and subroutines listings are self-explanatory.
Examples 0-1 to 0-8 given in this appendix illustrate the various options
of the program BHOLE.
Card no.
KODEA =
1 2 3 4 Descriplion Formal
1 1 1 1 Title 17A4. A2
2 2 2 2 KODEA, KODEB 215
3 - - - Specific gravity of the gas Fl0A
- 3 - - Specific gravity of the gas, mole 4Fl0A
fractions of hydrogen sulphide,
carbon-dioxide and nitrogen
- - 3 3 Complete gas composition 12F6.4
- - - 4 Pseudo-critical temperature, pseudo- 3Fl0,2
critical pressure and molecular
weight C7+
4 4 4 5 Tubing diameter, weil deplh, tUbing 4F10.4
length and absolute roughness of
lublng
5 5 5 6 Flow rate, weilhead temperature, 5Fl0A
bottom hole tempereture, weilhead
pressure, estimated bottom hole
pressure
................................................................
p~OGRAr NIIIE SHUlE. SIlTfOI! fjO~E P~~SSUhS IN GH 'I:lLS
PIJRI'IlSE - TH[S PROCUII ~O"VERT~ SUTIC IIlO FLU.1H
~~HH~~~s;~:ls\JRES T CORReSPONDING 801 til
IIfTHOO
~~}~88 ~~l~~rK1I~mE~ mT~A~i~~~l~O.~v HiE
I'lOOIFl~O 119b711~ 1100lFl~AT1Ui'j
81 I Ii
~~~~~ ~ch U1 ~~ G2~ T1og"\CHa~' l~~
5/111'50"'5 RULE
THE
mo ~~E~
LANGUCE ~'JRTRIOI rv
SUSRtU II NE> USED
'"
'"
r;:~;:~ :;:.;::.;;:::::;;;;;;::.; :~:::: ;::::.;;;::::;:; ~;;:: ...;
.......
PUSSU~E AND THE NOUCULAR wHlHT OF TilE NATURAl GAS
~WT
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................................................................
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L .................................................................
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"
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................................................................
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274 Gas Production Operations
...................................................................
.~ClGU~ "'4~E lAG~INGE llolTERPQlATIOtl
P~~POH TillS SUUOl,lTINE IS USEe 6Y suuouTl,..e YIStv
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PROGU~ N."E fRICTIOIl fACTOR IlHERIIINUION
I :~i~~& ~~g~~~ocf~~~~:~,0~~P~~~T~RmU:~ESSURE. e.LCUl.TE :
.................................................................
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: TIl~ vuf.h~ P~Z OR TilE flOWING /'RESSURE
: LAIlGUHE FOUUN IV ~ET EllMoR FUG. IfU. T9 0)
: CHLING SEQUENC! CUL ffCHO ITEII. PRS. przl : 8~Ei~El~~fro~~eCl~~~M -mlL3~,~rt ~UAIIETHS mClFIEc :
: P.""fTEAS
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:
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f
.................................................................
If .... T 10lH IS OUTSIOE THE H"'CE. SET IH~ L.O. lEO. C.O
.NO CHPG c.c AND REll)RN Til TilE HAINLINE.
PH - 1.U"ETfR IN TilE 80TTO~ HOU PRESSUAE 'I~RhE~pg?LT. 1.0' .lI'!' TeNFAO .OT. l'OC' GO T~ 100
.................................................................
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: FACTOR AHa CC~PRESSI8I11rv Of TilE 'UTURAL GAS
:
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PROCEDURE
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Appendix 275
EXA~PlE 0-1.
INPUT DAU:
WelL PIP E GAS flOW TEMPERATURE PRESSURE" PSU
DEPTH LENGTH INSIDE ABSOLUTE RATE DEGREES F BOTTOf4
FEET OIAHETE~ ROLGHNESS P'tMSCFO IIEL L 80TTOM WELL HOLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAD (ASSUMEDI
100\1 1. 10471. 2.Hl .0018 0.0 Ho. 242. 2685. zess,
GAS GRAVITY 0.9800
CALCULATeo GAS PROPERTIES:
pseUOO-CRITICAL PRESSURE# PSI' 652.06
pseuDO-CRITICAL TEHPERATURE_ CEGREES RANKINE 471.69
P'tOLECUlAR WEIGHT 28.36
STATIC 80TTOH HOLE PRESSURE 3961. NUMBER OF ITERATIONS ~
EXAP'\PLE 0-2.
IPiPUT DAU:
WELL PIP E GAS HOW TE,..PERATURE PRESSURE, PS IA
DEPTH LENGTH INSIDE ABSOLUTe RATE DEGREES F BOTTOM
FEET DIAMETER ROLGHNESS MI1$CFD WELl. BonDH WelL HOLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAO lAssu"e 01
lOHI. 10471. 2.'Hl .0018 11.716 H6. 2~2. 2685. 2885.
EUMPLE 0-3.
INPUT DAU:
Well PIPE GAS FLOw TeMPERATURE PRESSURE, PSIA
DEPTH LENGTH INSIDE
DrA~ETER
AB50LUte
ROlGHNE5S
RATE DEGREES F acr rnx
FEET I"II"ISCFO WelL aDno"" WEll "OLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAD (ASSuMec,
lOH 1. lO~11. 2.Hl .0018 0.0 1"'0. 242. 2685. 28a5.
EXAMPLE O-It.
INPUT DATA:
WEll PIP E GAS flOW TE ",PERATURE P'RESSURE. PS lA
DEPTH LENGTH INS IDE AS SOLUTE RATE DEGREES F 8CTTOf"l
FEET OIA"ETE~ ROlGHNE5S MMSCFO WELL 80TTO" WEn HOLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAD (ASSUMEDI
IOHI. 10411. 2.~H .0018 11.716 hb. 2~2. 2085. 2685.
N2S C02 H2
.1706 .0320 .0192
INPUT OATA:
Well PIPE GAS flOW TEMPERAlURE PRESSURE, PS!A
DEPTH LENGTH INSIDe A8S0lUT! RATE DEGREES F BOTTOM
FEET OIA"ETf~CH~~LGHNE s I'lf'tSCFO WEll SOTTOM WELL HOLE
HEAD HOLE HEAD {ASSLMECI
1v,Hl. Z.""1 .0018 0.0 14b. 2"2. 2b85. 2865.
H2S C02 NZ
.170b ,H20 .0192
Cl
.5903
CZ
.O7l7 .o~h IC'
.0079
'C,
CIH
le5
.0059
NC5
.0'62
ce
.0120
C1+
.0391
STATIC 80TTOH HOLE PRESSURE 3953. NUP'l8ER Of ITERATIONS ~
EXA"'PlE O-b.
INPUT DATA:
wELL P IPf GAS flOW TEI1PERATURE PRESSURE, PS IA
DEPTH LENGTH INS IDE ABSOLUTE RATE DEGREE S f BCTTO'"
FEET DIAMETER ROlGHNESS P'lMSCfD WelL 80nOM WELL HOLE
I NCHE$ HEAD HOLE HEAD IASSUMECI
IDoHl. 2.""'1 .\l018 lI.7l. lItb. HZ. 2685. Z885.
H2S C02 N2
.1706 .0320 .~192
FLOWING 80TTOM HOLE PRESSURE. 4'63. NUMBER Of ITERATIONS 3
a
EXAMPLE D-7.
INPUT DATA:
Well PIP E CA S FLOw TEMPERATURE PRESSURE, PS IA
DEPTH LENGTH INSIDE AB~OLUTE RATE DEGREES F BonOM
HET OIAI'IETER ROLGHNESS "''''SCFD Well BOTTOM wEll hOLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAD I ASSUf'1EG I
10411. IOHI. 2.441 .0018 G.O Hb. 242. 2085. 2885.
HZ' COZ HZ
.170b .0320 .0192
CI CZ C3 le4 "Cit le5 Ne5 C6 C7+
.5903 ,.on1 '.0291 .~Olq .CHit .0059 .0062 .0120 .0391
PRaPE~Tles OF C7+
EXAMPLE 0-8.
INPUT DATA:
WelL PIP E GAS FLOW TEMPERATURE PRESSURE, PSU
DEPTH LENGTH INSIOE ABSOLUTE UTE DEGREES F 80TTQte
FEET DIAMETER ROLGHNESS MI1SCFD wELL DOTTO" WEll HOLE
INCHES HUD HOLE HEAD I AS SliME C)
10it71. 100ft 11. z, oftoftl .0018 11.116 1~6. 2~2. 2685. 2885.
Nl.J1BER OF ITERATlCNS It
Appendix 279
EXAMPLE 0-9.
INPUT DATA:
WEll P JP E TEMPERATURE PRESSURE" PS IA
DEPTH LENGTH INSloe ABSOLUTE OEGREE S F sc tros
FeET DIAMETER ROLGHNESS WEl.L BOTTOM WelL HOLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAD USSlJHECI
100UO. luOOO. z, HI .0006 0.0 35. ZitS. 2SVV. 2100.
EXAMPLE O-lC.
INPUT DATA,:
well PIPE GAS FLOW TE I'lPER TURE PRESSURE, PS IA
DEPTH LENGTH INSIOE A850lUTE RUE DEGREES F BOTTOI'l
FEET CIAHETER RDL.GHNESS M/'ISCFO ~ELL BOTTOM wELL HOLE
INCHES HEAD HOLE HEAD USSUI'lEC)
10000. 10000. 2. 'tH .ocue 110. Z1t5. ZOOv. Z20v.
EXAI'lPLE 0-11.
~I~E~~~~~T~EMPER.TURE. DEGREES F
pseUOO-CRITICl TEMP., OEGREES R
PSEUDO-CRITICAL PRESSURE. PSIA
MOLE PERCENT - HYDROGEN SULPHIOE
MOLE PERCENT - CARBON DIOXIDe
"OLE PERCENt - NITROGEN
..
PRESSURE P SEUO (-PR ESSURE
(PS U I (PSU "UCPt
0.0 0.0
~
400.0 h16HbE Q8
800.0 .Sbjb3HE 898
.12 U .. SE
20 0 . 0
12000.0
bOO.O 0.2IlS370E 09
0.33C-.H1E Oq
9
Appendix E
PRESSURE TRAVERSE
CURVES
Appendix 283
Fig. E-1
-
284 Gas Production Operations
Fig. E-2
Appendix 285
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Appendix 289
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Appendix F
SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS
Appendix 297
Field to Metric Conversions
Summary of Equations
Reservoir
Stabilized (Pseudo Steady-State) Flow
qsc =
T p. Z [In(.472r,lr w) + S + Dq,,]
or
-, -
PR ,
Pw/ = A R Qsc +B '
R qsc
C, Til Z
Where AR = [In(.472r,lr) + S]
kh
~.:..::---.:.-
C, T P.
= --=-'--- 0
z
kh
C4
(3 =
C, "'Ig
0=
il h r w k".'
Drawdown Testing
pZ_ p'hr
S' = 1.151 [ i m'
Buildup Testing
C7 q", Tii Z
m = kh
C. kt
tDA =
c/>iicA
Perforations
Perforated Completions
ji~ - P~f = (A R + A,) q", + (BR + Bp ) q;,
Where A ,=
C, 'Yg Z T {3d'
B, =
, ,
r L' N'
k 1.2
dp
Appendix 299
Gravel-Packed Completions
C. T P. Z L
Where Ao = ---.:.._~--
ko N r~
C IO 'Y, Z T L {3o
N2 r p2
I3G =
Units
Variable Field SI
Flow in Wells
Where I=~
P
P
Where TZ
F' = C, f q~/d'
Gas Production Operations 301
Flow in Pipelines
'I., =
Critical Flow
q" = C, A P, Cd
(T 'Yg)O.,
Sub-Critical Flow
UNITS
Variable Field SI
Methane CH, 16,042 8,233 8.414 8.456 8,651 8,947 9,277 9,638 10,01
Ethyne
(Acetylene) C,H, 26,036 9,683 10,23 10,33 10,71 11,13 11,54 11,88 12,22
Ethene
(Ethylene) C,H, 28,052 9,324 10.02 10,16 10,72 11.40 12,08 12,75 13,14
Ethane C,H. 30,068 11.44 12,17 12,32 12,95 17,33 14,63 15.49 16,34
Propene
(Propylene) C,H. 42,078 13,63 14,69 14,90 15,57 16,80 17,85 18,87 19.89
Propane C,H. 44.094 15.64 16.88 17.13 18.17 19.52 20,89 22.25 23.56
t-Butene
(Butylene) C,H. 56.104 17.96 19.59 19.91 21.17 22.71 24.25 25.70 27,15
cis-2-Butene C,H. 56.104 16.54 18.04 18.34 19.54 21.04 22.53 24.00 25.47
trans-2-ButeneC,H. 56.104 18.84 20.02 20.50 21.61 22.99 24.37 25.72 27.06
iso-Butane C4H 10 58.120 20.40 22.15 22.50 23,95 25.77 27.59 29.39 31.11
n-Butane C,H' 0 58.120 20.80 22.38 22.71 24.07 25.81 27.54 29.23 30.90
lao-Pentane CSH 12 72.146 24.93 27,16 27.61 29.42 31.66 33.87 36.03 38.14
n-Pentane CSH 12 72.146 25.64 27.61 28.01 29.70 31.86 33.99 36,07 38.12
Benzene C.H. 78.108 16.41 18.38 18.75 20.46 22.46 24.46 27.08 29.71
n-Hexane C.H14 86.172 30.17 32.78 33.30 35.36 37.91 40.45 42.91 45.36
n-Heptane C,H16 100.198 34.96 37.00 38.61 41.01 43.47 46.93 49.77 52.60
Ammonia NH, 17.032 8.516 8.518 8.519 8.521 8.523 8.525 8.527 8.530
Air 28.966 6.944 6.951 6.952 6.960 6.973 6.990 7.009 7.033
Water H,O 18.016 7.983 8.006 8.010 8.033 8.Q75 8.116 8.171 8.226
Oxygen a, 32.000 6.970 6.997 7.002 7.030 7.075 7.120 7,176 7.232
Nitrogen N, 28.016 6.951 6.954 6.954 6.956 6.963 6.970 6.984 6.998
Hydrogen H, 2.016 6.782 6.856 6.871 6.905 6.929 ' 6.953 6.953 6.977
Hydrogen
sulfide H,S 34.076 8.00 8.091 8.109 8.18 8,27 8.36 8.455 8.55
Carbon
monoxide CO 28.010 6.952 6.957 6.958 6.963 6.975 6.986 7.007 7.028
Carbon
dioxide CO, 44.010 8.380 8.698 8.762 9.004 9.282 9.559 10.31 10.05
Gas Production Operations 303
Approximate heat-capacity ralios
of hydrocarbon gases
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
,\
65
j 60 \' \\ \ r ; r-50'F,
\'( ,\ /r- 100'F,
; 55
~
~
50
\\'~~ ~/ r: 150'F,
o
g 45 \\~ Xr- 200'F,
Index
Heptane, equilibrium constants, 245 Isochronal testing, 94 McLeod's guidelines for perforation, 86
Hextane, equilibrium constants, 244 Isochronal testing, 59, 62, 63, 64, 67, 87 Measurement devices, 91, 94
High permeability formations, 156 analyzing, 67 Mechanical,
Holdup-factor correlation, 113, 115 data, 63 efficiency, 139
Horizontal, modified test, 63, 65, 67, 87 energy balance, 98
flow patterns, 116, 117 Isothermal cycle, 138 friction losses, 139
pipe flow. 98 Mercury,
separator, 221 Jones, Blount and Glaze Method, 64 manometer, 169
Homer build-up plot, 81 Joule-Thompson coefficient, 128, 129 meters, 94
Horsepower. Mercury-type meters,167
baslc,I45 Meter run, 168, 170
k-values,44,45,137,146,147,198
calculating. 139 Meter tube, 172, 173
Kill string, 213
required, 154 Metering system, 167, 171, 172
Kinematic viscosity, 36
Hugoton-Panhandle gas areas, 207 design, 170
Kinetic energy, 97, 98,102,135,139,
Hydrate, 39, 92 Meters,
174
control, 210 Bellows, 169
of molecules, 39
forrnation,37,39,94,205,208,209, displacement, 92
210,219 gas,92
temperatures, 224 L-I 0 recorder, 169 Mercury, 94
plugging, 224 Laboratory simulation, 194 orifice, 91, 92
polnt,224 Laminar, positive displacement, 92
temperature, 37.39,208 flow, 64 Methane, equilibrium constants, 237
Hydraulic Radius concept, 108 coefficient, A 64, 84 Methanol injection, 210
Hydrocarbon. perforation component, 84 Metric conversions, 297
compositions of gas, 11 reservoir component, 84 Mixture density. 113
condensate, 219 single-phase flow, 99 Mobility ratio. 199
dewpoint.227 Law of corresponding states. 22, 24 Molar volume, 192
energy sources, t 89 Lean oil, 229 Mole composition, 189.190
gases, 11 Lee Method, 35 Mole fraction, 193, 196,211
liquid,224 Line heaters, 91, 93 Molecular.
pore space, 199 Linear temperature profile, 128 sieves, 192, 230, 232, 234
recovery units, 230, 232 Liquefied natural gas, 2 structures, 11
sulfide, 210, 216, 219, 227, 233, 234 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 195 weight, 16,18,192
Hydrostatic, Liquid, MoJ~s,16, 42,198,211
component, 102.109, 111 accumulation, t 22 Mollierdiagrams, 137, 139, 140, 141,
head,I22 desiccant dehydration, 232 146
pressure drop, 115 dieplecemenr.z lz for natural gas, 255, 257, 258
pressure gradient, 114 diverter, 127 Moody diagram, 113, 117
flow rate, 220 Multicomponent,
Ideal gas, 15,22.43, 173 hydrocarbon recovery, 227 fluids, 39
mixtures, 17 hydrocarbons, 199, 225 hydrocarbon,
state, 302 loading, 94, 126 gases 197
In situ velocity, 127 mole fraction, 197 liquids 197
Inflow and outflow expressions, 155 removal methods, 123, 126, 127 Multiphaseflow.128
Inflow performance, 64, 66, 68. 69. 70, to gas ratio, 115 Multipoint testing, 59
87,90,154,158,159,160 vaporizing volume for water, 47 Multistage unit. 132
curve. 64. 69,90. 158 LIT analysis, 66, 77, 88 Multiwell systems, 161, 162
factors affecting, 69 Location of various nodes, 151 analyzing, 161
methods,I52 Low-pressure differentials, 174
Inhibitor, 212, 214, 215 Low-temperature separation systems, 221 Natural gas,
continuous treatment, 212 Low-temperature separator, 224, 226 condensate systems, 198
injection, 214 Low-volume injectors, 210 liquids, 198
nllx,211,212,214 LPG,228 pipelines in the US, 8
solution. 21 1 reserves, 2. 3, 4,5,6.7
Injection wells, nodal analysis. 160 m(p) method, 77, 78, 80 Natural gasoline, 227, 228
Injectivity,191 Magnetic flowmerere. 188 Natural water drive, 199
Inlet scrubber, 227 Manometer, factor Pm, 167 Nitrogen gas, 212
Inlet well stream. 224 Marine sediments, 10 No-slip friction factor, f", 117
Intake pressure, 131,132 Mass flow rate, w, 145 Nodal analysis, 149. 160,161
Interfacial tension, 122 Material balance, 199 injection wells, 160. 161
Intermittent flow units, 131 calculation, 160 Node location. 151
Internal energy, 97 method, 80, 81 Node pressure, 158
Irregular flow, 94 Matthews, Brons, and Hazebrock (MBH), Non-Darcy,
Isentropic process,137 curves, 250 251 252 253 effects, 64, 77, 86, 87
Isobaric temperature change, 39 method, 74, 75 Nonane, equilibrium constants, 247
Index 309
traverse curves, t 22
Noncin:ular reservoirs, 57 PlIot tubes, 173, 174 volume-temperature (pVT), 189
Nonhydrocarbon impurities, 30, 34, 35 Pipe roughness, 122 Primary measuring elements, 172
Normal temperature separators, 224 Pipeline, Principle of superposition, 70
flow equation, 110, 152 Problems in gas-well testing, 92
Octane, equilibrium constants, 246
in series, 111 Procedure for predicting inflow perfor-
Offshore, performance, 115 mance, 88
Piping systems, 300 Processing plant, 227
gathering lines, 115
Plunger lift, 126, 127 Producibllity,I91
wells, 154
Polytropic, Producing,
Oil reservoir, 189.201
cycle 139 capacity, 159
Oil zone, 199
efficiency (np ) , 137, 138 rate for constant, Pwf, 90
One-phase reservoir, 192
head,I45 Production,
Open-hole completions, 84
process, 145 data, 202
Organic matter,
Pore volume, 82 rates,I58,I59
aquatic, 9, 10
Positive-displacement units, 131 abnormal decline, 202
rerresrdal.P, 10
Possible pressure losses, 13 system, 149
Orifice, 207, 208
Potential energy, 97, 102, 139 Productivity,I91
basic factor. 166
Powerrequirement,139,140, 141,153, ratio 85
coefficients, 174
154 Propane, equilibrium constants, 239
constants, 165
calculating, 139 Pseudo-pressure analysis, 69, 77, 80
discharge coefficients, 172
Pre-frac Homer type analysis, 90 Pseudo-steady state flow, 49, 51, 53, 54,
location, 168
Presaturator chiller, 229 55,57,60,66,70,71
meter, 165, 167, 169, 170
Pressure, Pseudocritical properties of natural
metering system, 172
atmospheric, 169,234 gases, 30
plate, 172, 173
base factor, FIb 166 Pseudoreduced temperature, 36
wen testers, 173
buildup testing, 73 Pumping units, 126
Original gas-in-place, 199
apparent skin factor, s' 73 p V diagram, 132, 134. 137
Outflow. 150
average reservoir pressure, PR, 73 pVT cell, 198
expressions, 152
Homer method, 74
performance, 160, 161
method, 74
Miller, Dyes, and Hutchinson, 74 RadiaJ vanes, 135
pfZ vs o, plots, 201, 202 Muskat method, 74 Raoult's Law, 41, 42, 43
Packer, 214 permeability, k, 73 Rate-time performance plots, 202, 203
Paraffin, change, 149 Ratio of compression, 143
deposition in wellhead choke, 94 convergence, 45 Ratio of differential pressure, 166
hydrocarbonconnpounds, 11,24 cumulative production plots, 201 Real gas, 17,22
ParaUel, decline, 201 mixtures, 22
kill string, 212 depletion, 191 pseudo-pressure analysis, 77
string high-pressure gas well comple- behavior, 197 pseudopressure, 78
tion, 213 tests, 191,192 Reboiler, 229
tubing string, 213 downstream, 109 Reciprocating,
Pattern efficiencies, 199 drawdown testing, 71, 72 compressors, 172
Pentane, equilibrium constants, 242, 243 energy, 135 units, 138
Perfect gas law. 17 functions, 56, 57 Recorder, 169
Perforated completions, 84, 298 gages, 21 Recycle recompresscr, 229
gravel-packed,87 gradient, Reflux, 230, 234
Perforations, 120, 156 acceleration, t t 7 Regenerator, 232, 234
density,86, 158 elevation change, t 17 Relating performance to time, 159
diameter, 86 friction, 117 Relative-permeability curves, 191
length,86 incrementing, 103 Reserve estimates, material balance
parameter guidelines, 87 loses, 150, 165 method,81
plugging, 203 measurement, 91 Reserve estimates, volumetric method, 80
Permeability, 66, 70. 71, 90, 157,215 measuring, 92 Reservoir, 152. 153, 156, 199,214
altered zone, 86 device, 91 abnormally pressures, 83
compacted zone, 86 relief,221 associated gas, 40
estimating gravel permeability, 87 shut-in, average pressure, pa, 70
ratio of vertical to horizontal, 86 surface, 202 average pressure, pa, 80
rock. 59 wellhead,202 characteristics, 20 I
to gas, k, 69 squared analysis, 80 constant-volume, 191
Permeable reservoirs, 11 temperature, cycling efficiency (Eg), 200
Permian Basin, 207 diagram, 190 data. 157
Phase behavior, 29, 41 drop,2OS depth limitation, 10, 11
Phase diagram, 39,190 chart. 224 differential entrapment, 10
Physical constants of hydrocarbons, 19, phase diagram, J 89 dry gas, 10,41,112
20.21 traverse, calculating, t 03 equations,
310 Gas Production Operations
Stabilized (pseudo steady-state) pressure, 152, 153,156, 191 liquids, 223, 225
flow, 297 effect, 153 recovery.223,226
Transient (unsteady-state flow), three-phase portable, 221 vapors, 193
298 vertical, 221 Storagetank,221
gss flow, 59 well system,219 Straightening vanes. 166
finite, 74 Sharp-edged orifice plates, 168 Stream line spacer. 136
flow capacity. 156 Short batch method, 211 Stresscorrosioncracking, 210
gss, Shut-in, Stripped lean oil, 229
fllled,9,10 surfacepressure, 202 Stripping vapors.229
gas flow, 49 wellheadpressure, 202 Sub-critical flow, 120, 121,301
equation, 156 Silica gel. 230, 232 Subsonicflow. 120
volume, 81 Single component fluid, 39 Substitute natural gas. 12
high-pressure sourgas, 210 Single-phase. Subsurface safety valve (SSSY), 149,
horizontal. 221 flow, 102 154,156
inflow, gas reservoirs, 190 size, 155
equation, 152, 156 wet gas, 189 Subsystemscurves. 149
performance curve, 150 Sizing driver, 139 Suctionpressure, 131
performance data, 150 Skin, correction, 144
initial gas volume, 199 damage, 156 Sulfur.
initialpressure. 80 effect, 64 carrying capacity, 215
llmittest, 71, 73 factor,S, 66, 70, 71 deposition,210, 215
lithology, 10 Slug flow. 94 plant, 228
natural gas, 210 Small tubing, 126, 127 Supercompressibility factor, 167
noncircular,57 Smooth-well pipe. 99 Superficialgas velocity andliquidload-
oil-f"tIIed,9,10 Soap injection, 126, 127 ing, 115 116
permeability. 201 Soave modification, 32 Superposition, 72
porevolume, 70 Solid, in space, 71
pressure, 158. 159.201 bed adsorption, 230 in time, 70, 71
pseudo-steady state shape factors, 58 contaminates. 222 Surface,
retrograde condensate, 12.41 desiccantdehydration, 231, 232 chokes, 120, 149, 156
temperature, 69 Solid sulfur, 215 equations, 154
types of gas reservoirs, 40 Solubility of natural gas, 37 flow controllers, 127
volumetric, 80, 81 Sonic flow, 120 flowline calculations. 128
Residue gas, 197,228,229 Sonic flcwmeters, 188 gas-oil ratio,I92
Restrictions to flow. 149 Sour gss, 227 pipingsystem. 13
Retrograde, production, 210 tension, 122. 125
behavior.199 well test, 217 Swfactant,211
condensate reservoirs, 189 wells, 215 Sweet gas, 208
condensation, 197 Specific gravity, 172, 173, 192,208,220 Sweet natural gases, 208
gas, correction, 143 Syntheticzeolites, 230
cap, 190 factor Fg 166 System analysis, 149.157, 160
condensate, 189 of mixtures. 46
fluid,195 Specific heat ratio, 144. 167 Temperature, 191,198
liquid volumes, I rn Squeezetreatment, 214 base factor. 166
Reynolds number, 99,100,101,102, Stabilization. 200, 225, 228 measurements. 94. 95
106, 107, 109 110, 111,113,117, pressure, 199 recorder, 94
121,166,177178179183184 systems,225 Terminal velocity, 122
185 Stabilized, Test design, 92
Rich oil de-ethanizer 229 flow, 60, 66, 67 Testing equipment. 90, 91
Rough-wall pipe, 99 IPR,88 Thermal degradation, 213
Roughness,157 well tests, 87 Thermal meters, 188
Stage separation, 221 Thermometer, 91, 94, 95
Safety,215 Standard calibration procedure, 169 Thermcwell, 93
Sampling procedures, 92 Staticpressure, 92, 166, 168, 170, 172, Three-phase portable separator, 221
Secondary migration, 10 174 Three-stage separation, 222
Separation, pens, 168 Tight gas well analysis, 87
conditions. psig and F, 94 Staticreservoir,161 Total field flow capacity, 160
facilities, 91 Steady-state, Total system, 149, 164
processes, 40 energybalance,97 performance, 149,164
Separator, 91,150,153,154,156,217, flow,49,52,53,56 Total tankoU-in-place,198
220 one-dimensional flow, 97 Toxicity, 210
double-barrel horizontal, 221 Steps in reciprocating compressor cycle, Transient
high-pressure, 93 133 flow, 54, 66,70,71,72
low-pressure, 92, 93 Stock-tank, gas well tests. 70
Index 311
For additional information write for OGel's training and publications catalog.
ISBN 0-930972-06-6