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UniversityofNewBrunswick
ED6902
Deborah Leal
April 2017
RESEARCHMAP 2
Abstract
Technology and its use within Adult Education is coming further into focus as a new
direction in learning. While universities, colleges, and industry believe that educational
technology is the next step in making education more efficient for all learners, the
in the field, existing research on factors such as infrastructure, barriers, and attitudes
of learners and teachers are assessed in relation to adult learning, and a determination
made on the gaps in this research which necessitate further research and analysis.
The broad area of focus for this research map is the use of technology in adult education.
This is a diverse field as there are several categories of technology that have been used for adult
learning purposes. These include simulation, online learning, blogging, digital gaming,
podcasting, etc. Research suggests that moving forward in education necessitates further
Technologies play an increasingly central role in all areas of our lives. At the same time, their
influence on the development of societies worldwide has also increased, and there is growing
need for new generations to master technologies in order to achieve social and academic
success (Government of Canada, 2012). The millennial generation has been digitally immersed
since childhood, and more so than any other demographic. As a result, learners often seek out
technology based education for many reasons, which may include ease of access, convenience,
technology for adult education, including the suitability of technology adoption for use in
Canadian adult education, as well as the barriers to its implementation on a National scale.
While there are many researchers who have done micro focused research on technology
in adult education which has typically focused on the various media through which learning
delivery can occur (eLearning, blogging, MOOCs, etc.), this research map focuses on scholars
whose research is on the macro scale; research on educational technology and its barriers,
David Boud
Professor Boud has been involved in research on adult, higher and professional education
in Australia for over 30 years, starting as Professor and becoming Dean with several Universities
(University of Technology, n.d.). Boud has explored new forms of curriculum design, learning
practices, and assessment using technology. Currently, Professor Boud is interested in the
challenges faced by formal education from new modes of knowledge production, writing
Among them, Bouds article, Appraising New Technologies for Learning: A Framework for
Development, aims to produce a framework for appraisal of the value and efficacy of new
Bradford Bell
Development at Cornell University. Dr. Bell's research interests include training and
development and team development and effectiveness (Cornell University, n.d.). Dr. Bell has
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published numerous chapters and articles on adult learning from the human resources perspective
examine three research issues; efficacy, features, and barriers to adoption (Bell, 2013).
Kathleen P. King
Dr. King is professor of Adult Education and coordinator of the MS in Adult Education
Fordham University. As a specialist in adult learning and integrating technology, she has earned
over $12 million in grants to research new models of teaching, program development and
technology innovations and is author of numerous articles and research papers (Fordham
University, n.d.), including Unleashing Technology in the Classroom: What adult basic
Marc Prensky
Marc Prensky is considered one of the worlds leading experts on the connection between
learning and technology. Marcs professional focus is on understanding education from the
students perspective, designing better curriculum and pedagogy for the digital generation,
figuring out how to best put human minds and digital tools together wisely in business, in school,
and in life (Prensky, 2013). In his work, Our Brains Extended, he examines technology as a
Tony Bates/UNESCO
Tony Bates has undertaken studies and written on many uses of technology in education,
education and training. As a recognized leader in technology for education in Canada, Tony
PEW Research
Pew Research Center conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, content
analysis and other data-driven social science research. It studies U.S. politics and policy; science
and technology; and U.S. social and demographic trends (Pew Research, 2016, p. 1). Pew
Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder (Pew Research,
2016, p. 1). Pews report Lifelong Learning and Technology reports survey data on the
The World Economic Forum engages political, business and other leaders of society to
shape global, regional and industry agendas and involves both the public and private sectors,
international organizations and academic institutions (World Economic Forum, n.d.). The World
Economic Forum has undertaken several studies on the use of technology for education world-
wide, and published New Vision for Education Unlocking the Potential of Technology.
What are the key research questions/issues scholars use to investigate this topic?
The research questions around the use of technology for adult learning that researchers
has used are numerous, however the key research questions in the area of educational technology
converge into categories centred around efficacy, adoption, and infrastructure. The breakdown of
Efficacy
How efficient are various forms of educational technology for adult learning? How
effective are various forms of educational technology on skills? How well does educational
technology help adults prepare for in demand employer skills? What are the best uses of various
Ease of adoption
adoption of educational technology? What are the attitudes of teachers regarding educational
technology? What barriers inhibit various forms of educational technology? What is the role of
Infrastructure
What physical infrastructures needs to be in place for students to access various forms of
educational technology? What are the barriers to various forms of educational technology? What
What follows is a review of the research of key scholars and how their research intersects
World Economic Forum data suggests that skills that workers need today are much
different those needed while todays education systems were in development. The shift in
technology skill demand has exposed a problem of skill supply with more than a third of
companies expressing issues filling open positions in 2014, owing to shortages of key skills
(World Economic Forum, 2015, p. 2). Only 6% of adults demonstrated the highest level of
proficiency in problem solving in technology rich environments (World Economic Forum, 2015,
p. 2). The World Economic Forum highlights macro level barriers that impede learning,
including archaic standards that govern education, teacher quality and training, education
budgets, technological infrastructure. To remedy this, the World Economic Forum focuses on the
potential of technology to close these gaps, examining the technology resources available and
PEW Research
technology fits into this realm. They state that 61% of Americans have little concept of distance
learning and that online courses are unknown to 81% of Americans (2016, p. 8). While adults are
concerned with staying up to date with skills, their access is limited by their bound conceptions
of how to access that knowledge (Pew Research, 2016, p. 17). Pews study reveals how attitudes
about learning shape adult learning activities, as well as how issues of socio-economic position
Marc Prensky
Marc Prensky highlights structural issues including education systems that are not built
for todays learners. In his article Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, within declining education
in the US, Prensky highlights the issue that learners have changed and the educational system is
not designed to teach them (2001, p. 2). He concludes that students today think and process
knowledge differently as a result of their immersion in technology, which has likely brought
about a physical change in learner brains (Prensky, 2001, p. 1). In conjunction, a secondary issue
that Prensky identified is teachers, who may have been trained minimally in technology, are not
immersed to the same level as learners. Prensky concludes that both methodology and content
Brains, Extended, Prensky acknowledges that technology is now foundational for education, not
just a tool (2013, p. 23), which necessitates a complete overhaul of curriculum to make it the
Kathleen King
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Kathleen King in Learning the New Technologies: Strategies for Success, demonstrates
that organizations know that technology is a required part of learning, but there is anxiety on
how to adopt it. She discusses the threat to competition on the worldwide economic stage as a
major issue in why technology must be adopted (King, 2003, p. 51). There is an urgent concern
for obsolescence of organizations that fail to adopt and upgrade swiftly. In her article
Unleashing Technology in the classroom: What adult basic education teachers and
organizations need to know, King studies teacher empowerment and how to encourage
professional development of teachers in their technology skills. She acknowledged the issue that
many teachers are fearful of trying new technologies, and that motivation and readiness are
Instruction, King examines capacity issues balancing timely and effective high quality academic
delivery while teachers are also trying to keep up with technology changes and their resultant
Bradford Bell
Bradford Bell identifies three key issues in the growing use of e-learning in
learning is as effective as other delivery methods (Bell, 2013). The debate about the effectiveness
of e-learning has been framed in terms of how it compares with other means of delivering
instruction, most often traditional instructor-led classroom instruction (Bell, 2013, p 165). The
second issue is identifying which features of e-learning influence effectiveness (Bell, 2013).
Addressing the third issue, the barriers to the adoption of e-learning, Bell discusses how concerns
about fraud and cheating, uncertainties about the cost of e-learning, and the unique challenges
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faced by low-income and disadvantaged students have the potential to undermine the adoption of
David Boud
Development, David Boud determines a framework for assessing technology for learning, from
a learner centric position. The issue of his research focus is that while technology enhances
learning, these assessments focus on the outcome of assessments and not the learning acceptance
and learner experience (Boud, 2002, p. 237). His work studies how willing learners are to accept
technologies for learning, including issues such as how learners perceive their readiness and how
they perceive the aims and objectives of technology based learning. Boud derives from these
questions a framework for assessing how well technologies enhance learner engagement,
Tony Bates, on behalf of UNESCO, writes National Strategies for eLearning in post-
secondary education and training. Within this article, Tony Bates highlights issues such as how
to assess the context in which e-Learning is currently being used, what is needed to support
learning technologies, required infrastructure, costs/benefits, funding, and policy issues. Another
challenge identified by Bates is resistance to adoption by instructors (2001. p. 73). Tony states
that making a rational decision not to adopt eLearning because the necessary institutional
rewards and support infrastructures are not in place, creates an unwillingness to change (2001.
p. 74). In addition, others have deep ideological or philosophical objections to the change, or
may see their status or position challenges by the change and are unlikely to ever embrace the
What approaches have they taken or are they taking to address the questions or issues in
the field. In other words, what methodology was used to gather data to formulate
conclusions?
The majority of research takes the form of qualitative research where the writers used
direct data collection to study multi case documents to gather the data. A case study, is an in-
depth analysis of one or more events, settings, programsor other bounded systems in their
natural context (McMillan, 2004). Works by Boud, Prensky, King, and Bell reviewed several
research documents of others and compiled data in order to make prescriptions about current
and other studies that, taken together, show that e-learning produces outcomes equivalent to
other delivery media when instructional conditions are held constant (2013, p. 175).
Qualitative - Phenomenology
In another of his works, Digital Natives, Prensky utilizes phenomenology to consider the
phenomenology, Prensky seeks to describe and interpret the experiences of participants in order
to understand the essence of the experience as perceived by the participants (McMillan, 2004).
After compiling statements of learners such as, I went to a highly ranked college where all the
professors came from MITBut all they did was read from their textbooks. I quit (Prensky,
2001, p. 3), Prensky concludes the issue is that educators make education less engaging than
The World Economic Forum and Tony Bates (UNESCO) used mixed methods within
their research articles. While the bulk of the information is based on case study research, the
findings are supplemented with quantitative data. Mixed method designs are useful when
researchers need to identify variables, key concepts, and themes through qualitative data
(McMillan, 2004). The World Economic Forum incorporates quantitative descriptive research
with case studies to link 21st century skill requirements to the data demonstrated skill gap, and
then discusses the potential for technology to close that gap. Similarly, Tony Bates uses
quantitative descriptive research and case studies to incorporate implementation cost data on
different modes of eLearning delivery, a curve showing the relationship between % of adopters
and their resistance to adoption, and a review of UBC online distance education course costs,
while discussing issues of adoption, infrastructure policy and funding for eLearning (2001. p.
73).
gather data on Lifelong Learning and Technology. Cross sectional surveys are an efficient means
of gathering data because information is collected from one or more samples at a time and
(McMIllan, 2004). Data is reported on areas such as participation in adult learning in the past
year, the outcomes of their learning, demographic indicators, and knowledge and use of various
learning technologies. Pews methodology is fully explained with the formulas used and a copy
of the survey included at the end of their report. Participants were interviewed over cellular and
landline telephone, with a response rate of 9% technologies (Pew Research, 2016, p. 41).
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What is the range of views about good or best practice in the field
The researchers examined generally concur on the directions that need to be taken to
Efficacy
On the issue of efficacy, Bell reflects, We do not find studies comparing the
effectiveness of different learning media terribly enlightening (2013, p. 169). While some data
suggests that efficiency depends on how well eLearning is designed, other more optimistic views
state eLearning can lead to better academic outcomes by creating instructional experiences
impossible to recreate in the physical classroom (Bell, 2013, p. 170). Bell finally concludes that
eLearning is at least as effective as classroom learning (2013, p. 174). Prensky believes that
educational technology will only be effective with a change in how curriculum is designed as a
result of hearing learner feedback like, You (older generations) think of technology as a tool,
that wide integration of evolving, powerful technology demands that we rethink our
curriculum (2013, p. 1). Similarly, the World Economic Forum (2015) states that educational
technology is most effective when applied within and integrated instructional system known as
the closed loop including: objectives, curriculum, instructional strategies, assessments, and
interventions based on student needs (p. 8). They also concede that more research on efficacy
must be undertaken to identify the most effective use of technology (World Economic Forum,
2015, p. 9).
Adoption
The findings on educational technology adoption appear to have the most similarities
among researchers. King highlights combating instructor resistance as one of the many best
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between faculty and their struggle to learn and embrace new technology while maintaining a
variety of other obligations that come with being an instructor (2010, p. 29). In Kings
assessment, Educational technology is less a choice by faculty and more and imperative from
administration where communicating, realigning, and negotiating formal patterns and policy take
precedence (2010, p. 30). Adding to this issue is little support for effective change and
planning without broad participation which guarantees strict resistance (King, 2010, p. 31).
King concludes that faculty must believe from experience that online instruction is valuable and
effective (2010, p. 32). In cooperation with ensuring teachers are supported through
technological change, King advises that educators of adults urgently need assistance in
integrating technology into their curricula (2003, p. 52). Coinciding with Kings work, Prensky
states the biggest challenge for education today is instructors, who speak an outdated language
(that of the pre-digital age) are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new
language (2001, p. 2). He speculates that for educational technology to be adopted, todays
teachers need to learn to communicate in the language and style of their students (Prensky,
2001, p. 4).
Infrastructure
Under the issue of infrastructure, Bates highlights promotion of adequate internet access
as a best practice needed for educational technology to thrive. He states, The major challenge
for university or college is to ensure all staff and professors have a computer linked to a local
area network (Bates, 2001, p. 36). Since many institutions have aging technology infrastructure,
creative solutions may need to be found such as wireless/cellular networks. Bates speculates that
some universities may need $4-5 million a year to develop and maintain the necessary campus
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technology infrastructure (2001, p. 37). Consequently, Bell states that cost issues may represent
a barrier in that the cost effectiveness of eLearning remains largely an open question (2013, p.
180). As well, King believes some basic programs may not be as equipped due to limited funding
Boud takes a more pragmatic view stating, there is an assumption that eLearning reduces costs
due to scalability, which is over optimistic. The variation among learners and how they
experience learners cannot justify the premise (2003, p. 244). King (learning the new tech)
surmises that educators need the tools required to integrate technology when she states,
planning tools are powerful means to promote technology learning; they help educators assess
their current status and needs for technology learning. Technology can provide some of the
means to support learning exchange (2003, p. 55). Pew Research concludes that access to
technology is a major barrier for adult technology in education (2016, p. 26). They caution to
avoid an overly optimistic assessment on the ability of the internet to automatically democratize
education and access to knowledge (Pew Research, 2016, p. 6). Pew also presents survey data
that suggests technology ownership is strongly tied to online learning for personal development
and that socio-economic standing affects ones ability to access technology for learning (2016, p.
31). Only 68% of Americans surveyed have either a smartphone or broadband connection in
their homes. As a result, their data suggests that one third(32%) of professional learners say all
or most of their learning takes place online, which reinforces the supplementary nature of the
internet within adult learning (Pew Research, 2016, p. 31). Pew data suggests a connection
between more tech access providing greater reliance on technology for learning. Similarly, the
World Economic Forum (2015) states that institutional resources help deliver effective
technology closed loop education by improving human capital systems and providing student
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information and learning management systems (p. 9). The World Economic Forum (2015) also
makes the case for adaptive learning platforms and simulation as areas needing greater
infrastructure development in order to make effective use of the technology (p. 11).
Where are there gaps or potential opportunities for new work and where and how do you
When searching Academic Search Premier for research on for the terms adult
education and technology and the geographic limiter of Canada, 28 results were found.
Upon changing adult education to post-secondary, 6 results were found. Clearly there is a
gap in reliable research on macro issues of educational technology for adult education in Canada.
technology strategies, with connections made to those technologies that continue to emerge.
While technology innovation is occurring rapidly the education system is struggling to keep up;
most likely due to the volume of red tape and consultation before any initiative is implemented.
One area where development initiatives rapidly keep pace with the need is private industry. More
research could be done around examining private initiatives that could be candidates for
integration into traditional high education, and how to strategically partner with industry in order
to fulfill upcoming skills and education needs by leveraging the strengths of both systems.
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References
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Bates, T. (n.d.). Tony Bates Biography. Retrieved April 06, 2017, from
http://www.tonybates.ca/tony-bates-associates/tony-bates-biography/
Children, 165-185.
Boud, D., & Prosser, M. (2002). Appraising New Technologies for Learning: A Framework
Cornell University. (n.d.). Bradford Bell. Retrieved April 02, 2017, from
https://www.ilr.cornell.edu/people/bradford-bell
Fordham University. (n.d.). Fordham Faculty Websites - Dr. Kathleen P. King, Professor.
Government of Canada, Industry Canada, Canada Research Chairs. (2012, November 29).
chaires.gc.ca/chairholders-titulaires/profile-eng.aspx?profileId=828
King, K. P. (1999). Unleashing Technology in the Classroom: What Adult Basic Education
Teachers and Organizations Need to Know. Adult Basic Education, 9(3), 162.
King, K. P. (2003). Learning the New Technologies: Strategies for Success. New Directions
Pearson/A and B.
http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/03/22/lifelong-learning-and-technology/
Prensky, Marc (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon (MCB University
Prensky, M. (2013, June 02). Meet Marc Prensky. Retrieved April 04, 2017, from
http://marcprensky.com/about-marc/
University of Technology (n.d.). Emeritus Professor David Boud. Retrieved April 02, 2017,
from https://www.uts.edu.au/staff/david.boud
World Economic Forum (2015). New Vision for Education Unlocking the Potential of
World Economic Forum. (n.d.). Our Mission. Retrieved April 03, 2017, from