Heriot-Watt University

Chemical & Petroleum Engineering

Multiphase Thermodynamics

Laboratory report 1

Name Parvin Salamzada

Group number KM3
Experiment title Nozzle pressure distribution
Date of Experiment 9.02.2017
Demonstrator Amir Reza Vakhshouri
Synopsis
In this particular experiment, we are asked to experimentally prove that air is
compressible and it possesses special characteristics of compressibility. The purpose of
this report is to give more detailed information about the experiment fulfilled in order to
see how mass flow rate of the air flow reacts as upstream or downstream pressure
changed and at different tapping points, velocity of air flow in mathematical point of
view.
As we conduct the experiment, three main objectives provided below will be clarified:
1. Mass flow rate of air through the nozzle as the function of outlet/inlet pressure
ratio.
2. Velocity of air flow through the nozzle as the dependence of distance (points).
3. Critical pressure ratios for nozzles for estimation of maximum mass flow rate.
Before moving on to explanations of the purposes more clearly, it would be better to
deliver the information about the experiment itself. There are three nozzles will be used
indicated as Nozzle A, B and C. About the size, and dimensions, all these nozzles have
the same cross sectional area of nozzle throat. The conditions are identical for all of
them as well. But the differences are their type: whether it is converging diverging or
converging. Nozzle A and B are both converging-diverging and Nozzle C is converging
type. For each nozzle, we have 4 sets in experiment. For two sets, we stabilize the inlet
pressure and change outlet pressure and for other two sets, unlike previous sets, outlet
pressure is kept constant and inlet pressures changes. After carrying out the
experiment, we obtained the practical mass flow rates, tapping point pressures through
the nozzle for each set, with the help of them, it will be reachable to characterize the
compressibility of air flow. There is another important specification which is called
choked flow. Choked flow is obtained when the mass flow rate reaches its maximum
value. As we decrease the downward pressure while keeping inlet pressure constant,
mass flow of air flow will become to increase but this rise will continue up to some point
which is not related to the values of pressure ratios. Further lessening of pressure ratio
will never lead to change in mass flow rate. Then choked flow will begin (straight line for
mass flow against pressure ratio). We observe the same situation for the reverse
process: Keeping outlet pressure constant and increasing inlet pressure.
It is also very important to consider the assumptions before any mathematical
operations. First of all, we consider the air as an ideal gas. It is because we are not
provided the special formulas or theory that they can be used for air. At lower
pressures, the theory from engineering books let us to consider air as ideal gases but
here will be some exceptions bout the value of pressures. So that at some sets,
pressure will be 3-4 times greater than atmospheric pressure. And it is essential to save
in mind that the process is considered as adiabatic although it is neither isothermal nor
adiabatic. The process is more close to the adiabatic compression that is why it is
selected.

In the following sections, the information about the steps to conduct the
experiment, theoretical formulas, procedure and the system and equipment that it is
composed of, the comparison of theoretical values and experimental values are clearly
provided.
Introduction
Nozzle used in this experiment as convergent and divergent parts .The graphical representation
of flow velocity in the nozzle is the best way of showing wide range of velocities such as
subsonic, supersonic and shock wave. The full view of the nozzle is shown in the Figure 1.With
help of the lab unit, we get familiar with phenomenal choking effect. After critical pressure ratio
it is impossible to rise the mass flow rate .The pressure in the inlet and outlet of the pipe is
adjustable .In order to study the behavior of compressible flow, three different kind of nozzles is
used .Converging-Diverging Nozzles are widely used in engineering. These nozzles has
applications from civil and mechanical engineering up to aerospace engineering. These nozzles
are designed in such a way that increase flow velocity by converging the flow area. In fact, most
rockets use help of these nozzles to reach effective propulsion force in order to get recruited
speed. From the first look, their operation is simple. However, depending on reacquired speed of
the gas at outlet, subsonic and supersonic flows are reached .In this operation, some properties of
the flow such as density and temperature changes which makes their operation and working
principles more complicated. The performance of these nozzles mainly dependent on pressure
ratio between the inlet pressure 0 and outlet (back pressure) . As this ratio decreases,
the mass flow rate of the gas will goes up until maximum velocity is achieved .Actually, the
maximum velocity is reached when Mach number in the throat is equal to 1 . (sonic flow).This
flow is called choked flow . If this ratio reduced further supersonic flow is obtained. After
reaching this ratio equal 0.53 and after more complicated flow is obtained.

Figure 1. Full view of the nozzle.

The main purpose of this report is investigation of this flow by giving this pressure ratio and its
effect on mass flow rate of air through the system and determination distribution of pressure in
the taping points and respective flow velocities . There are two kind of flows according to their
density change. If the density of the flow changes as the pressure changes, then it is compressible
flow. Generally, all the fluids are compressible to some extent, however compressibility of
gasses is high enough to affect flow pattern. Generally, if pressure change of the gas does not
change by more than 20 per cent that fluid could be treated as incompressible and the density
could be taken equal to density at mean pressure. Actually equations for compressible flow is
much more complicated than equations for incompressible flow. For simplicity, sometimes ideal
gas law is used to show behavior of incompressible fluid. It is obvious from the course Process
Industries C that of the fluid density is dependent on temperature and pressure. Actually, in real
cases, if we change one of these parameters, the other one will change as well. The heat transfer
to the flow should be taken into account as the fluid flows through the pipe. There are two
types of these condition for nozzle .Firstly ,isothermal conditions could be achieved if heat
transfer between the system and surroundings is very well and if the equipment is small enough
and has low flow rate .Of the condition is opposite , such as if there is no exchange of heat
between environment and the system and moreover , the fluid flows with high flowrate , then
the condition is adiabatic. The main purpose of this experiment are studying the effects inlet and
outlet pressures on the mass flowrate of air through various nozzles. In addition the pressure distribution
along the nozzles for varying outlet pressures is also investigated. One of the outlet and inlet pressures is
kept constant for the given run and other one is changed. So some properties of the flow will change.
Dependence of mass flow rate from critical critical pressure and dependence of the flow
velocity from the distance is investigated. Three type of nozzle is used in this experiment. For
each type of the nozzle, for first two run , we set Pin and change Pout. For the second two run,
we set Pin and changed Pout .

Basic Theory
Laval nozzle is used in this experiment . The working principle of Laval nozzle based on the
diverse behavior of gases flowing at subsonic and supersonic speeds. Actually, Bernoulli principle
and continuity of flow is the main background principles for Laval nozzle. It is known from continuity
equation that ,if the pipe converges, the speed of the flow will increase ,because the mass flow rate
should be constant . In a subsonic flow the gas is compressible, and sound will propagate through it.
At the throat , where the flow area of the pipe is minimum the gas speed will be sonic (Mach number
= 1.0).This situation is choked flow. The Bernoulli's principle could be taken as beckground
principle for this experiment. It is obvious from the Bernoulli's principle that an incompressible
fluid pass through varying cross section, then the pressure is irreversible proportional to velocity.
We know from the continuity equation that high velocity is appropriate to wide area of the pipe
and low pressure is suitable for narrow cross sectional area of the pipe . For the incompressible
flow , if the friction between the fluid and the pipe is zero then , total pressure (Energy) of the
fluid remains constant . Generally , the motion of the fluids could be represented by help of
Bernoulli's Principle, Newtonian lows and continuity equation. This famous equation is derived
under same assumptions such fluid must be incompressible and no frictional pressure loss.
Moreover ,the flow must be in steady state . Nozzle is a tube of varying flow area used in order
to deterimene flow pressure in varying area. The nozzle used in this experiment is steadly
decreasing nozzle which gives acceleration to the fluid and a corresponding pressure drop. This
convergent entrance is followed by a throat and a divergent outlet. Divergent outlet allows the
fluid to nearly recover its previous pressure. The fluid gradually slows down in divergent outlet,
kinetic energy is converted into Pressure Energy. This phenomenon can be described by
Bernoulli's low. The flow area is minimum at the throat. So, here the kinetic energy of fluid is
high and pressure energy is low. Pressure energy is determined by pressure so it means that static
pressure is low at narrow area or vice versa. Therefore, the equation given below is used.

Figure 2.
Figure 3.

Figure 4.

As the gas flows through the nozzle its pressure decreases from the initial value .Let us denote its
initial pressure with P1 and the decreased pressure with Pi. In fact , initially the velocity
growths more significantly than specific volume so the area of the pipeline needed for the flow
reduces .Actually , this velocity of the air in the nozzle is depends on the pressure ratio . If this
pressure ratio is low it means the change in the specific volume is more considerable in
comparison to the velocity which means area needed for the flow is increasing . In order to
expand to flow below critical value ,the pipe should be diverge . Which means in the converging
nozzle , the velocity above the sonic velocity could never be achieved .However, if converging-
diverging nozzle is used supersonic velocities could be achieved in the diverging part. Three
cases could be seen in the converging-diverging nozzles. The first case is shown in the figure 1
and 2 . Back-pressure is high . The velocity and pressure profile for the case 1 is represented in
the figures and denoted by I .As shown in the curves , the pressure of the fluid gets its minimum
value at the throat and just after the throat , the pressure begins to increase .In the exit, the back
pressure is egual to the exit pressure .In this case , the nozzle performs like Venturi nozzle .The
losses pressure is recovered after the throat .The velocity of the fluid reaches its maximum value
at the throat , however its value is less than sonic velocity .Then , it begins to decrease just after
the throat .For the second case ,the backpressure is decreased .The pressure is reduced up to
critical value and sonic velocity is achieved in the throat. Just after the throat, the pressure begins
to increase .At the exit , the pressure is equal to back pressure . As mentioned before , sonic
velocity is achieved in the throat and decreses The velocity rises to the sonic value at the throat
and then decreases. And in the third case, the pressure decreases to the critical value at the
throat and continues to decrease in order to get stabilized with low exit pressure .The sonic
velocity is achieved in the throat, and as the pressure continues to decrease, the velocity
continues to increase as well. Supersonic velocity is obtained in the diverging part .So, to
conclude , if a converging-diverging nozzle is used and if the backpressure is lower than
pressure in the throat and sonic velocity is achieved in the throat , then supersonic velocity is
achieved in the diverging part .

Apparatus

Air which comes from lab compressor is enters to the filter and flows through the inlet pressure control
valve. The inlet pipeline is supplied with temperature sensor that provides inlet temperature of the gas
which is used in the calculations. Then, the gas enters to the nozzle which is a small metallic section. The
nozzle is supplied with taping points which is connected with gauges and allows determination of
pressure along the nozzle appropriately. In this experiment, three different kind of nozzles is used. There
are two larger gauges which is used to measure inlet and outlet pressures of the nozzle .As seen from
the figure above ,Pi is inlet pressure gauge and Po is outlet pressure gauge. There is an outlet pressure
control valve which locates after the nozzle and regulates the outlet pressure (the back pressure).In order
to measure the flowrate of the flowing gas, a rotameter is used.

Procedure
In order to carry out the experiment, the lab unit should be prepared for the operation.
First of all , all gauges should be calibrated against the gauge of inlet pressure of air flow. This
procedure is crucial , because each gauge has particular characteristics for the given temperature
.In the beginning all the gauges must show the same position . Then , the nozzles which will be
used in the experiment is prepared . After adjusting one of the nozzles to the pipeline, the
connections of the nozzles with the gauges should be checked. More precisely :
1: Chosen nozzles is settled.
2. Gauges are connected to the nozzle.
3. Inlet and exit valves are opened.
4. Compressor begins and gas begins to pass through the pipe.
6. Measurement of the gauges are noted.
7. The reading of the rotameter is noted.

Results

Table 1. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for first run of Nozzle A .

Table 2. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for second run of Nozzle A.
Table 3. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for third run of Nozzle A.

Table 4. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for fourth run of Nozzle A .

Table 5.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for first run of Nozzle A.

Table 6.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for second run of Nozzle A.
Table 7.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for third run of Nozzle A.

Table 8.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for fourth run of Nozzle A.

Plot 1.Velocity versus distance for first run of Nozzle A

Plot 2.Velocity versus distance for second run of Nozzle A.

Plot 3.Velocity versus distance for third run of Nozzle A

Plot 1.Velocity versus distance for fourth run of Nozzle A.

Plot 5.Mass flow rate versus critical pressure for all runs (four) of Nozzle A.
Table 9. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for first run of Nozzle B .

Distance
Velocity 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
series1 v1 70.62 93.79 93.79 106.64 93.79
series2 v2 165.70 308.77 235.66 215.12 197.10
series2 v3 181.88 314.96 327.34 287.04 264.99
series4 v4 189.59 321.15 411.30 355.44 327.34
series5 v5 197.10 327.34 418.30 440.14 411.30
serise6 v6 204.42 333.54 418.30 440.14 472.01

Table 10. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for second run of Nozzle B .

Table 11. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for third run of Nozzle B .

Table 12. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for fourth run of Nozzle B .
Table 13.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for first run of Nozzle B.

Table 14.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for second run of Nozzle B.

Table 15.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for fourth run of Nozzle B.

Table 16.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for fourth run of Nozzle B.
Plot 6.Velocity versus distance for first run of Nozzle B.

Plot 7.Velocity versus distance for second run of Nozzle B.

Plot 8.Velocity versus distance for third run of Nozzle B.

Plot 9.Velocity versus distance for fourth run of Nozzle B.

Plot 10.Mass flow rate versus critical pressure for all runs (four) of Nozzle B.

Table 17. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for first run of Nozzle C.

Table 18. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for second run of Nozzle C .
Table 19. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for third run of Nozzle C .

Table 20. Velocity of the gas in the given distance for fourth run of Nozzle C.

Table 21.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for first run of Nozzle C.
Table 22.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for second run of Nozzle C.

Table 23.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for third run of Nozzle C.

Table 24.Critical pressures for the given mass flow rates for fourth run of Nozzle C.
Plot 11.Velocity versus distance for first run of Nozzle C.

Plot 12.Velocity versus distance for second run of Nozzle C.

Plot 13.Velocity versus distance for third run of Nozzle C.

Plot 14.Velocity versus distance for fourth run of Nozzle C.

Plot 15.Mass flow rate versus critical pressure for all runs (four) of Nozzle C.

Discussion
The main objective of the report is investigation of behavior of compressible fluid in the nozzle.
In order to carry out the experiment the nozzle is used. By help of this nozzle , behavior of the air
under different inlet and outlet pressure is studied. In order to demonstrate the flow condition for
the air three type of the nozzle is used . They are convergent, convergent-divergent, convergent-
divergent. For each nozzle, the one of the inlet and outlet pressure is kept constant and the other
one is changed . And the velocity and mass flow rate of the nozzle is calculated by using
equations given in the theory part . However, as all lab experiments , this experiments contains
some deviation and errors. In this part, the main deviation and the main reasons behind that
deiavtions will be investigated . Theoretical values of the mass flow rate is calculated by using
the given data and real mass flowrates is obtained from the rotameter .The maoxiumum flow
rate is taken from rotameter reading in order to compare with calculated maximum flowrate .In
fact , there are always inaccuracies associated with lap experiments which is impossible to avoid
In the nozzle as we increase the difference between the inlet and outlet pressure the mass flow
rate of the gas increase significantly up to a point . After that point , it is impossible to increase
the flow rate , which is called critical pressure. This flow case is called choked flow. The
above tables indicate the theoretical values for the maximum mass flow rate air in Nozzle A. The
Practical values for the same quantities are below: So, first of all, without using of the graphs, we
are able to compare the values for maximum mass flow rate: For instance , for run set 1 ,3.72 g/s
maximum mass flow rate is obtained theoretically. However, maximum mass flow rate obtained
by rotameter is 3.60 g/s. Actually deviation isnt significant .However, a considerable deviation
is seen in the Run Set 3. 3.72 g/s mass flow rate calculated theoretically , while 2.80 g/s is
rotameter reading. The reason of this noticeably difference lies on thermodynamics. As it is
known from the thermodynamics course as the pressure increase the temperature of the gas
increase .However, this fact isnt taken into account while calculations and the unit was supplied
with only one thermocouples in order to determine temperature of the gas in the inlet. Moreover,
the flow is turbulent and there should be some pressure losses which will result in increase in
the temperature. As the density of the gas decreases as the temperature increase , the value
shown in the rotameter isnt exact . The critical values could be determined from mass flow
rate versus / ratio plots . They are given in the table below:

Nozzle A Run1 Run2 Run3 Run4

3.72 2.98 1.49 2.98
Mass flow rate (g/S)

1.87 3.35
2.24 3.72
2.61 3.94
2.98
3.35
3.72
Practical value 3.6 2.9 2.8 3.8

6.00
Mass flow rake (kg?hr)

5.00

4.00 Run set 1

Run set 2
3.00
Run set 3
2.00
Run set 4
1.00

0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Pout/Pin

As seen from the graph, in the beginning the pressure ratio is equal to 1 .It is obvious that in the
beginning, the inlet pressure is equal to the outlet pressure. As seen from the graphs, for all pf the
runs the pressure ratio 1 is appropriate to the lowest flow rate . If we increase the inlet pressure,
it finds enough energy to overcome the backpressure. But as it seen from the graph after some
point, the pressure ratio has no effect on the mass flowrate . For the run 1 , this ratio is
approximately 0.77 . As seen from the graph ,after reaching the maximum mass flow rate , the
maxium flow rate is decreasing. This phenomenon is opposite to the working principle of the
nozzle and is result of inaccuracies associated with the experiment . For the run 2, the at the
pressure ratio approximately 0.82,the flow rate riches its maximum value and it stays constant .
 350

300

250
Velocity (m/s)

200 Series1

150 Series2
Series3
100
Series4
50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance (mm)

As seen from the graph, there is a significant rise i in velocity from point 1 to point 2 for all runs.
This is due to considerable decrease of the flow area from point 1 to point 2.However , as the
pipeline begins to diverge, the velocity begins to decrease. For the series 1 , the velocity of the
fluid is zero in the outlet of the nozzle. The reason for this is at that tapping pint the pressure at
that point becomes equal to the outlet pressure and there is no driving force.
Analysis of experimental error.
As discussed above, there are some inaccuracies and deviations associated with the lab experiment. This a great
deal of these deviations are endemic for the lab experiments and impossible to avoid. Let us discuss some of the
factors which could lead to these deviations. Actually , we have no information about the type of the compressor .
If positive displacement compressor is used in the system it doesnt give stable flowrate. Inload
and outload operation of the compressor results in fluctuation in the flowrate and associated
errors . Moreover , there may be some leaks in the rig . These leaks could cause significant deviation
. Actually , the fluid is air and it is impossible to determine these leaks by eye .
Moreover , the gauges could be the reasons of the deviation . The calibration of the gauges is
very important .However, there could be some inaccuracies in the calibration process . On the
other hand ,there could be meniscus errors made by students when reading rotameter

Conclusion
As mentioned in synopsis, the aim of this report was to practically prove the
compressibility of air flow. In order to reach our goal, we needed to obtain mass flow
rates of air flow at different inlet and outlet pressure values, and also velocity values at
different tapping points inside the nozzle. All the information required to professionally
fulfill experiment such as about experiment, air flow and its areas of use, the theoretical
data, equations, and hypothesis, procedure and instruments had been clearly indicated
in Introduction, Theory, Procedure and Equipment sections of this report. In Results
section, the evaluated values for needed quantities had been provided, all the tables
and graphs for mass flow rates and velocity of air flow for all sets given one by one. But
it is necessary to not forget the fact that, there were several assumptions accepted by
those who conduct the experiment such as Air condition outside, temperature of air
flow, and the size of nozzles did not change as any external changes done on nozzles.
In fact temperature cannot be constant as the pressure inside the nozzle change. But as
stated in the above sections, we assumed that air was ideal and the compression was
adiabatic: no heat gain or lose with surroundings and all the pressure increase was
used to compress the air not for heating of air. There were some deviations in results,
when we compared the theoretical and practical values, these undesirable differences
might be the reason of assumptions. All the reasons lead to errors had been provided
above. But to clarify the reasons leaded to errors, it can be said that Bernoullis principle
is followed to carry out the experiment: Conservation of pressures energies. As the
static pressure decreases, velocity of air flow should increase to the same extent
simultaneously. But keep in mind that, in real life, there are always environmental
energy losses. No doubt that, some of the pressure energy converted into the internal
energy of air. The errors are not too big, and they can be disregarded in engineering
applications. Indeed, it is not achievable to have the same values in experiment as
theoretical values. There will always be some deviations.

Referance
1. Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, (chapter on compressible flow page 155)

2. Douglas, Gasiorek, Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics. Chapter 2

3. http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/283628/de-laval-nozzle-geometry
4. http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/SPRING/fluids/Spring2008/LectureNotes/f20.pdf

5. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook