ANALYSIS OF PRECAST SEGMENTAL

CONCRETE BRIDGES

1. INTRODUCTION

Precast segmental construction can be defined as a method of construction in which

primary load carrying members are composed of individual segments post-tensioned
together. The first segmental concrete bridge, built in 1950, was cast-in-place across the
Lahn River in Germany and the first precast segmental concrete bridge, was built in
1962, across the Seine River in France (Podolny 1979). Advantages of this type of
structures are fast and versatile construction, no disruption at ground level, high
controlled quality and savings in cost. Precast segments can be incorporated to variety
of bridge types such as cable stay, arches, rigid frames and girder type bridges. Fig.1.1
below shows a typical example of precast segmental bridge construction.

Fig.1.1 Precast segmental bridge construction (Martin 2015)

Precast segmental construction technology have extended the practical and competitive
economic span range of concrete bridges and are adaptable to almost any conceivable
site conditions as well. They are also chosen for their aesthetic appeal. Analysis of this
type of bridges is a complex phenomenon, particularly at the segment to segment joints.
Joints can be either dry or epoxy coated. Epoxy coated joints are preferable over dry
joints in segment construction (Xiangming et al.2005). Segment joints are the locations
of potential weakness for the entire bridge deck and thus requires special attention.
Although precast segmental bridge construction is common in many countries, its
application is limited in India.

-1-
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature survey for the topic has been carried out. Technical papers, magazine
articles, previous year thesis and books related to topic were studied and their reviews
are presented below.

2.1.1 Overview

Podolny (1979) discusses the evolution and advantages of precast segmental bridge
construction. It was observed that the first kind of precast segmental bridge was built on
1948 by the French scientist Eugene Freyysinet in Paris. Later on by 1950s the same
appeared in other parts of Europe and United States. The advantages and disadvantages
of the precast segmental bridge construction is mentioned. Paper also discuss how
precast segments can be incorporated to variety of bridge types such as cable stay,
arches, rigid frames and girder type bridges. Examples of many of these construction
procedures and equipment and bridge types have been described.

Lucko (1999) focusses about the construction process of segmental bridges. There are
mainly 4 methods of erection of segmental bridges namely, Balanced cantilever
construction, Span by span method, Progressive placing and Incremental launching.
Balanced Cantilever method is the most common method used world-wide. Detail
discussion of each of these erection methods, their construction sequence, applications,
advantages and disadvantages has been done. Author explains about the most important
issue of construction loads by distinguishing the various types of construction loads and
showing their relation to the erection method used for a specific project. Construction
loads are by nature of relatively short duration in comparison with the overall planned
service life of a structure. It was observed that the stresses induced by construction loads
may be higher than those from service loads as the incomplete structural system is
mostly different and weaker than finished structures, concrete has not gained full
strength, and the boundary conditions may be different from the service state. In other
words, the great importance of construction stages lies in the criticality that results from
the still low structural and material resistance, while loads may be actually more adverse
and boundary conditions different. Author has also included case study of two bridges
in which construction loads have caused damaged to the bridge.

-2-
Sauvageot (2000) explains every aspect of segmental concrete bridges. Detailed
discussion on types of segmental construction namely balanced cantilever method, span
by span method, progressive placing and incremental launching, their construction
sequence, method of erection, advantages and disadvantages has been done.
Explanations about types of segmental bridges like segmental cable stayed bridge,
segmental arch bridge, segmental rigid frame bridge, segmental truss bridges has also
been provided. Author also explains about the basic design and seismic considerations
of segmental bridges. In the basic design considerations, cross section dimensions, span
arrangement, temperature gradient, deflection and post tensioning layout have been
covered.

2.1.2 Analysis

Xanthakos (1994) explains in detail about segmental concrete bridges. Different

methods of construction of segmental bridges such as balanced cantilever, span by span
method, incremental launching and progressive placement have been dealt in detail.
Author then focusses about the detail segment dimensioning and detailing and also in
span arrangement and details of segmental bridges. Transverse and longitudinal analysis
of segmental bridges has also been dealt in detail. Author then explains about the various
design considerations such as creep and shrinkage, permissible stresses, prestress loss,
flexural strength, shear and torsion, load combinations, fatigue considerations and
general and local anchorage zones.

Tassin et al. (1996) explains how to calculate the ultimate flexural capacity of a Precast
Segmental Box Girder Bridge. Author setup a test specimen designed in accordance with
the 1983 AASHTO Standard Specifications and the 1989 AASHTO Guide
Specifications for Segmental Bridges. The deck consists of 14 segments and several
instruments was used to monitor the behaviour of the specimen during loading. The
strain in the tendons, deflection at various levels, joint opening, and strain in concrete
were found out. Then ultimate capacity of precast segmental bridges with external post-
tensioning has been calculated using the AASHTO Standard Specifications, assuming
unbonded tendons. A computer analysis was also performed which gives similar results
as those of model test. The AASHTO unbonded formula resulted in a capacity 10.3%
lower than the actual capacity. The capacity of the unbonded computer model was less
than 1% higher than the actual test span capacity. Thus it was found out that, for

-3-
externally post-tensioned bridges, the behaviour of a post tensioning tendon is a function
of the tendon's horizontal and vertical profile, the location of the deviation points, and
the bonding condition at the deviators.

Rombach (2002) presents design and construction of a precast segmental box girder
bridges with external prestressing. Author gives an insight into the various structural
elements of the segmental bridges which are pier segment, deviator segment, standard
segment and shear keys. Author then explains about making of this segments and how
this segments are assembled together in an actual segmental bridge. Longitudinal design
and design of joints were also discussed. Design of joints is as per A. Specker et al.
(2002). In the longitudinal design of segmental bridge, general requirements for the
design, critical sections and finite element modelling of a box girder bridge segment
considering dry joint has been dealt. Stresses and strains obtained from finite element
modelling is verified with actual experimental results.

Finite element mesh of a segment

Francis et al. (2011) conducted a full range analysis of multi span prestressed concrete
segmental bridges. Most of the existing techniques are only capable of analysing the
behaviour of continuous prestressed concrete beams up to the peak load-carrying
capacity, but the technique presented in this paper can extend well into the post peak
range, which is crucial to the investigation of ductility or deformability. The bridge was
modelled as a series of beam elements each of which is governed by the corresponding
moment-curvature relationship of a representative section within it. Then various
iterations are performed to obtain the admissible nodal forces and displacements for each
imposed load or displacement increment. The technique was then verified by comparing
the calculated load-deflection response of various prestressed concrete beams against
those obtained experimentally by previous researchers.

-4-
 Load Displacement Graph

Algorafi et al. (2011) presents an experimental investigation of the structural behaviour

of EPS Bridge under combined bending, shear, normal, and torsion stresses. The aim of
this paper was to improve the existing AASHTO equation to include the effect of torsion
in estimating the failure load of EPS Bridge. A parametric study was carried out by the
authors to investigate the effect of different external tendon layouts and different levels
of torsion. The existing equations in design codes was limited to estimate the failure load
of externally prestressed segmented beam under combined bending moment and shear
force only. The ultimate load depends on safety factors as specified by the code
requirements. In this paper, the existing equation to predict the failure load was modified
by including the effect of torsion. This proposed equation is applicable to predict the
failure of the EPS Bridge when the shear failure is governed. The proposed equation
predicted the ultimate shear capacity for EPS beam with error up to 4% compared to
experimental value. The predicted ultimate shear capacity from the modified equation
was more conservative than the predicted ultimate shear capacity from existing equation
up to 16%.

Salunkhe (2017) studies the various alternatives for an existing prestressed segmental
box girder bridges. The bridge considered for the study was at Sarai Kale Khan area of
New Delhi. As part of the study, the existing segmental bridge was thoroughly studied
and analysed. Different segment details, bearing details, construction methodology,
cable profile was studied. The bridge was modelled in MIDAS Civil software and was
analysed for dead load, superimposed dead load, prestressing force and various class of
vehicle loading. Bending moment and shear force at various locations of bridges and at
various stages of construction and in service is obtained from the software. Bridge was
then checked for permissible stresses and deflection.

-5-
2.1.3 Design
Miller and Juarez (1978) gives an insight into the preliminary design of segmental
precast box girder bridges using optimisation. Decisions about cross-sectional
dimensions made during preliminary design can have a substantial influence on the final
cost of the bridge. To help the designer obtain an economical starting point for a final
design, a program was written to determine section dimensions and mid span and pier
prestressing steel areas to give minimum cost. The optimization algorithm used was the
generalized reduced gradient technique. Since a preliminary design is obtained, the
analysis techniques and design criteria have been simplified to reduce computation.
Because of simplifications made in the analysis and design, the resulting design is
intended to be used as a starting point from which detailed design can be carried out.
The program produces designs that appear realistic compared to those used in practice,
although the results appear to indicate that somewhat shallower bridges than are
currently used would be optimum. For the only problem for which an actual design was
compared, the program produced a design about 5%, less costly than the design that was
built. The design produced by the program will satisfy AASHTO specification
requirements and the recommendations of the PCI Bridge Committee.

Smith (2012) discuss about the Precast Segmental Double-T Girder Systems for Multi-
span Highway Overpass Bridges. Designs for multi-span bridges are presented using
simply supported spans connected by thin flexible linking slabs made of ultra-high-
performance fibre-reinforced concrete and using sections made fully continuous over
intermediate supports. A simplified method of geometry control is presented to facilitate
the proper alignment of precast segments without the use of match casting. The precast
segmental double-T with external, unbonded tendons is intrinsically more durable than
conventional systems. This is due to the fact that its deck slab (normally the component
of a bridge most attacked by deicing chemicals) is precast and transversely post-
tensioned. Precast concrete is generally more durable than cast-in-place concrete
because of the controlled environment in which it is cast. Also, transverse post-
tensioning reduces cracking in the deck slab, making it less penetrable.

2.1.4 Joints between segments

-6-
Moreton (1981) gives an idea of use of epoxy glue joints in segmental construction.
Several tests were conducted on the same and the object was to investigate the structural
properties of glued joints and to examine the curing characteristics of the glue under
normal site conditions, particularly during cold weather. A beam was made up of five
150mm concrete cubes which is glued together and is tested in bending for rupture, creep
and deflection. Curing characteristics were examined in conjunction with the field
application of the glue by testing tell-tale metal strips bonded with glue sampled from
joints and cured alongside the bridge. Thermocouples were placed in some joints of the
bridge to check on the effectiveness of space heating provided to assist curing in severe
winter conditions. It was observed that the precast segments jointed with epoxy glue are
structurally as effective as monolithic concrete provided that the proper precautions are
taken in preparing the mating surfaces and that the glue achieves full cure. Curing at low
temperatures may be prolonged indefinitely and this should be considered in design,
preferably in order to allow construction to proceed as far as possible in cold conditions
without the need for fully cured glue. Space heating can be useful in assisting the curing.
There are some evidence that creep may be greater in glued members but its influence
depends on scale. Within structures the size of segmental bridges, this increased creep
effect is considered to be negligible in this paper.

Buyukozturk et al. (1990) conducted a series of tests to study the shear behaviour and
strength of joints in precast concrete segmental bridges. Tests included models of flat
and keyed joints without epoxy (dry joints) and with epoxy. Experimental models of
keyed joints included a single key, representing one of a series of multiple keys used in
precast segmental bridges joints. These tests provide quantitative data and fundamental
behavioural understanding on deformation, cracking, and fracture of the precast concrete
bridge joints. The results of the tests were analysed using a linear regression method,
and formulas were proposed for evaluating the ultimate shear strength of the joints in
terms of the normal (confining) stress, epoxy thickness, and concrete strength. These
formulas provide a rational estimate of the load level at which shear-off of the shear
keys, in either dry or epoxied joints, would occur.

-7-
 Comparison of AASHTO and proposed equations for PCSB dry joints

Hewson (1992) gives an insight into the construction and design details of bridge decks
using dry joints. Erection procedure is simplified without the use of epoxy and is made
quicker. Paper also discusses about the advantages and disadvantages of using dry joints
in bridge decks. Regarding to the design of dry joints, ultimate moment design, ultimate
shear design and serviceability design was proposed. It was observed that with dry-
jointed beams under high deflection, rotations concentrate at individual joints in contrast
to the monolithic or epoxy-jointed beams where tensile cracks are spread out more
evenly. These higher concentrations of rotation tend to cause a dry-jointed beam to fail
before the equivalent monolithic or epoxied beam, and thus confirmed the use of lower
flexural strength reduction factors in the 1989 AASHTO guide specification. It was also
observed that shear strength of dry joints is approximately 40% lesser than the shear
strength of epoxy joints.

-8-
Specker et al. (2002) presents a new realistic model of design of joints of segmental
hollow box girder bridge. Author was on the opinion that there is a big discrepancies
between the various design models. The known models are either too conservative or
too uneconomic (German Specification) or not valid for high compressive stresses
(AASHTO). Examinations of the behaviour of a segmental bridge and the forces in the
joints, finite element calculations had been conducted taking into account the non-linear
behaviour due to the opening of the dry joints under tension. Several load combinations
corresponding to bending, shear and torsion are examined to determine the stresses
response at a joint. According to the author, the shear capacity of a keyed joint is a
combination of the friction between the plain surfaces and the shear capacity of the keys.
The latter one is neglected in the German regulations. Therefore author developed a new
model for the design of segmental joints considering both friction and shear capacity.
To compare the results of both models, the shear stress is calculated for a standard
segment of the segmental bridge in Bangkok and results are plotted on a graph between
load bearing capacity of a keyed joint verses shear stress.

Comparison between different design models

Turmo et al. (2005) inspected the joints between segments in many precast concrete
bridges constructed by balanced cantilever method during construction and in service.
The spans are all precast box girders of constant or varying cross-section. Site
investigations of 5 major bridges during construction and in service over the past 15
years showed that the joints between segments perform adequately if proper construction
procedures are followed. Unfortunately, the joints often represent the weakness zones of

-9-
the structure. It was observed that the common sources of trouble are excessive width or
inequality of joint thickness, not adequate strength and deformability of joint filling
material, not completely filled joints leading to local creep and concentration of stresses.
According to the authors, the main parameters of joints affecting performance of
segmental structures would be joint material properties (strength, deformability, density,
and adhesion), joint width, and probably the number of joints in the structure.
Traditionally the segment joints are designed only to shear capacity. The effects of
strength and long-term deformability of joint filling material in compression and tension
are not considered. Authors put forward a possibility of future investigations on
analytical and experimental studies to determine the behaviour of segmental structures
with possible effects of bonded joints.

Xiangming et al. (2005) gives an insight into the shear strength of the joints in precast
segmental bridges. A series of full-scale joints, flat and keyed, dry and epoxied, single
keyed and multiple-keyed, have been tested under different confining stress levels and
epoxy thicknesses. The shear behaviour, shear capacity, and shear transfer mechanisms
of these different kinds of joints have been studied. It was observed that the shear
capacity of joints increased as confining pressure increased, and epoxied joints had
consistently higher shear strength than dry joints; however, the failure was more brittle
than dry joints. The average shear strength for a key in multiple-keyed dry joints was
found to be less than those in single-keyed dry joints due to imperfections in fitting of
keys. The shear strength of keys in multiple-keyed epoxied joints, however, was similar
to those in single-keyed joints, indicating epoxy mitigated the fixing imperfections and
permitted the shear load to be uniformly distributed. The experimental results obtained
in these tests were compared with the AASHTO and other design criterion. It was
observed that these relationships tended to under estimate the shear strength of single-
keyed joints and multiple-keyed epoxied joints by a value up to 40%, but they always
greatly overestimated the shear capacity of dry multiple-keyed joints. Hence, the results
indicate that some strength reduction factors should be introduced to the design
relationships when applied to multiple keyed dry joints.

Mohsen and Abdalla (2007) conducted experiments on structural behaviour of single

key joints precast segmental bridge construction. A group of five full-depth malefemale
shear key specimens were match cast and tested to examine the shear capacity of epoxy-

- 10 -
jointed single keys. Another group of four specimens were match cast using full-scale
dimensions of a segmental construction bridge deck system for testing the fatigue and
water tightness at a segment joint. Both cold-weather and hot-weather epoxy types were
used to join the specimens. In addition to the experimental testing, finite-element
analysis was also used to model the static response of the joint specimens. The observed
failure mode of all shear-key specimens was fracture of concrete along the joint with
shearing of the key. Good agreement was observed between the experimental test results
and the finite-element analysis in terms of the failure mode of unreinforced specimen
and the load of crack initiation of the specimens. Fatigue loading had a minor effect on
the behaviour of the posttensioning bars. The contribution of either the cold-weather or
hot-weather epoxies to the joint shear strength was significant knowing that for similar
concrete properties, the hot-weather epoxy specimens showed an increase of about 28%
in the shear capacity, in comparison to the cold-weather epoxy specimens. The excellent
performance of the epoxy-jointed shear keys was verified by field application on a
prototype model simulating a portion of the Wacker Drive Bridge system. It was
concluded that implementing AASHTO procedures result in conservative estimates of
the shear strength of the single keyed joint since it neglects the contribution of the epoxy
and underestimates the strength of the key itself.

Kim et al. (2007) presents a numerical procedure for analysing the joints between
precast post-tensioned segments. A computer program for the analysis of reinforced
concrete structures was run for this problem. Models of material nonlinearity considered
in this study include tensile, compressive and shear models for cracked concrete and a
model for reinforcing steel with smeared crack. An unbonded tendon element based on
the finite element method, that can describe the interaction between the tendon and
concrete of prestressed concrete member, was experimentally investigated. A joint
element is newly developed to predict the inelastic behaviour of the joints between
segmental members. The proposed numerical method for the joints between precast
post-tensioned segments was verified by comparison of its results with reliable
experimental results. This study also evaluated the shear strength of joints as influenced
by the applied normal stress, the size of the contact area, and the conditions of two
surfaces. The failure mechanism for all tests conducted in this study was a shear friction
failure. Analyses of the results of tests on the frictional behaviour of joints revealed that
the design criteria seems to be rather conservative. The data also manifested that the

- 11 -
surface preparation and the size of the contact area did not seem to influence the shear
strength of such a joint.

Kamaitis (2008) inspected the joints between segments in many precast concrete
bridges constructed by balanced cantilever method during construction and in service.
Site investigations of 5 major bridges during construction and in service over the past 15
years showed that the joints between segments perform adequately if proper construction
procedures are followed. The spans are all precast box girders of constant or varying
cross-section. Unfortunately, the joints often represent the weakness zones of the
structure. It was observed that the common sources of trouble are excessive width or
inequality of joint thickness, not adequate strength and deformability of joint filling
material, not completely filled joints leading to local creep and concentration of stresses.
Local concrete cracks and spalls around the segment joints and leakage of joints to
moisture and chlorides can appear. Quality control and retrofitting of deficient joints is
frequently difficult. All these deficiencies should inevitable have the influence on the
durability of the segment structures.

Maria et al. (2010) evaluated shear strength of dry keyed joints according to various
design codes and compared the results. A finite element model of four different types of
joints, with a number of keys varying between one and seven was developed by the
authors. The brittle cracking model was used for the material. The material model has
been calibrated and validated using the P- curve from single edge notched beams
subjected to three-point-bending test. The model has been tested comparing the
predicted response with the experimental results for one and three keys. Then, the
behaviour of joints and their dependence on the number of keys were analysed. The
results have been compared with the formulation of different codes and authors. The
results show that the average shear stress transferred across the dry keyed joints
decreases with the number of keys but this effect is less appreciated as the compression
stress acting on the joint increases. Comparing with the formulas of design codes, the
STAP formula underestimates the shear capacity of the joints, and AASHTO formula
overestimates it in the case of multiple keys and low prestressing force.

- 12 -
Ibrahim et al. (2014) presents the experimental results on the strength of shear key
connection in precast concrete construction. The use of shear key is to connect two
separate precast components to increase the shear resistivity of the joint surfaces.
Triangular, composite rectangular, semi-circle and trapezoidal shear key shapes were
studied by the authors. In addition, the trapezoidal shape is made up with 3 different
keys angles. All specimens are tested using the push-off method to obtain the ultimate
shear capacity of which is due to the failure of the connection. From the analysis,
stiffness, elastic and plastic behaviour, and the mode of failure is discussed in the paper
to determine the most effective shape of the shear key. Authors observed that the semi-
circle shear key produced the highest shear capacity at 62.9 kN compared to that of the
other shapes. Meanwhile, the trapezoidal shape at an angle of 450 produced the highest
shear capacity at 44.1 kN. Together in the aspect of stiffness, the 450 trapezoidal shapes
produced the highest resistance towards slip. Failure mode are mostly due to shear,
sliding and diagonal tension crack. The study suggested that trapezoidal with angle of
300 and 450, and also the composite rectangular shear key have better mode of failure
even though the average ultimate shear capacity is less than the semicircle.

Rabee et al. (2016) conducted a Numerical Analysis of Shear-Off Failure of Keyed

Epoxied Joints in Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges. A finite-element analysis was
conducted to simulate the shear behaviour of unreinforced epoxied joints, which are
single keyed and three keyed to represent multi keyed epoxied joints. The concrete
damaged plasticity model along with the pseudo damping scheme was incorporated to
analyse the key assembly for micro cracks in the concrete material and to stabilize the
solution, respectively. The epoxy was modelled as linear elastic material because the
tensile and shear strength of the epoxy were much higher than those of the concrete. The
numerical model was calibrated by full-scale experimental results. Moreover, it was
found that the numerical results of the joints, such as ultimate shear load and crack
initiation and propagation, agreed well with experimental results. Therefore, the
numerical model associated with relevant parameters developed in this paper was
validated. The numerical model was then used for a parametric study on factors affecting
shear behaviour of keyed epoxied joints, which are concrete tensile strength, elastic
modulus of epoxy, and confining pressure. It was found that the tensile strength of
concrete has a significant effect on the shear capacity of the joint and the displacement

- 13 -
at the ultimate load. A linear relationship between the confining pressure and the shear
strength of single-keyed epoxied joints was observed. Moreover, the variation in the
elastic modulus of epoxy does not affect the ultimate shear strength of the epoxied joints
when it is greater than 25% of the elastic modulus of concrete. On the last part of the
paper, an empirical formula published elsewhere for assessing the shear strength of
single-keyed epoxied joints was modified, based on the findings of their research, to be
an explicit function of the tensile strength of concrete.

Rabee et al. (2016) conducted a Finite-Element Analysis for Shear-Off Failure of Keyed
Dry Joints in Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges. A numerical analysis model was
established based on finite-element code to investigate structural behaviour of keyed dry
joints under direct shear. The concrete damage plasticity model along with the pseudo
damping scheme were incorporated to analyse the system for micro cracks and to
stabilize the solution, respectively. The numerical model was calibrated by full-scale
experimental results as described in the literature. Authors found out that the predicted
ultimate load, cracking evolution history, and final crack pattern agreed reasonably well
with experimental results. The validated numerical model was then used for parametric
study on factors affecting shear behaviour of keyed dry joints, in this case confining
pressure. The authors found that shear capacity predicted by the AASHTO code equation
diverges from that predicted by numerical analysis at high confining pressure, because
the contribution of friction in the total shear capacity decreased with an increase in
confining pressure. Hence, the authors recommend reducing the friction coefficient used
in the AASHTO code equation when high confining pressure is applied. The numerical
model established in this paper is only for simulating behaviour of keyed dry joints under
direct static shear caused by vertical load. In precast concrete segmental bridges, keyed
dry joints may be subject to static load and/or dynamic transverse load, for which further
studies are needed.

2.1.5 Deflection

Tadros et al. (1979) discusses about the long term deflections of segmental bridges. To
determine the deflection and distribution of stress due to shrinkage and creep of concrete

- 14 -
and relaxation of prestressed steel a computer method was developed. The computer
program takes care for the presence of the non-prestressed steel, concrete segments of
different ages, the different stages in which the external loads and prestressing are
applied, and the changes in support condition and geometry as construction progresses.
Deflection of a particular node with and without considering creep, shrinkage and
relaxation was evaluated. Graphs are plotted for the vertical deflection of bridge at
various construction stages considering the effects of long term deflections

2.1.6 Thermal Gradient

Kenneth (1998) gives an insight to the design of segmental bridges for thermal gradient.
The evolution of the design positive and negative thermal gradient in North America
over the past 2 decades is described. A comparison of the positive and negative thermal
gradient in various AASHTO documents has been made. A prestressed concrete
segmental bridge (North Halawa Valley Viaduct) has been instrumented and large
amounts of thermocouple data have been efficiently reduced graphically to determine
the critical positive and negative thermal gradient. Author observes that the results
validate the use of the positive and negative thermal gradient in the 1998 AASHTO
Segmental Guide Specifications as well as the 1994 AASHTO Bridge Design
Specifications. A numerical example for the analysis of a segmental bridge for thermal
gradient has been included in the paper by the author. A simple hand calculation is used
to determine axial force and eccentricity at one section. This allows the primary and
secondary effects to be determined at all sections. The numerical example includes a
comparison of forces and stresses due to thermal gradient and live load. This allows a
comparison of the prestressing requirements. It was observed that an additional
prestressing is required at the bottom near mid span for the case of live load plus 50
percent positive thermal gradient and same is also required at the top near mid span to
accommodate the negative thermal gradient.

Carin et al. (2002) presents measurements of temperatures through the depth of a

segmental concrete box girder bridge that were recorded over a 2 1/2 year time period.
From these readings, the maximum positive (deck warmer than webs) and negative (deck

- 15 -
cooler than webs) temperature differentials for each day were determined. Also, ambient
weather condition data were obtained from the National Weather Service station located
10 km from the bridge site, and relationships between weather conditions and bridge
temperatures were studied. Bridge considered in the case study was San Antonio Bridge.
Authors found out that the typical positive gradient curve can be approximated with a
fifth-order parabola, with the point of zero temperature difference at 1,220 mm below
the deck and similarly the typical negative gradient can also be approximated with a
fifth-order parabola, with the point of zero temperature difference 610 mm below the
top of the deck. For the San Antonio area, the current positive thermal gradients
recommended in the AASHTO (1994a) are conservative for an untopped structure and
appropriate for the 50 mm asphalt topping condition. The AASHTO (1989a) segmental
positive gradient is 8C conservative for both conditions. Also, for the San Antonio area,
the current negative thermal gradients in the AASHTO are 12C conservative. The
AASHTO segmental negative gradients are conservative for 94% of the recorded days
with no topping and 96% of the days with a 50 mm asphalt topping.

2.1.7 Corrosion of tendon

Wouters et al. (1999) focusses on tendon corrosion of segmental bridges with an
emphasis on the role of grouting in the corrosion protection of posttensioning. An
analysis of existing structures in United States and United Kingdom was done. It was
observed that the corrosion problems with precast segmental and post tensioned bridges
in the United Kingdom principally were due to poor design choices and poor quality
construction, not a significant intrinsic susceptibility to corrosion. Their study found no
evidence of corrosion or other durability problems with precast segmental bridges in the
United States. The few reported problems with grouted post tensioned structures in the
United States were due to poor quality construction. Additionally, by laboratory research
authors found that properly designed and constructed precast segmental and
posttensioned structures are corrosion resistant. To ensure good future performance of
precast segmental bridges, high-quality design details and proper construction practices
must be continued, especially when using internal tendons. Authors suggests to adopt
more stringent grouting requirements and inspection procedures in the United States, to
ensure that the tendons are completely encapsulated in a high-quality grout.

- 16 -
 Galvanized steel duct showing severe corrosion

2.1.8 Strengthening of bridge

.

Moon et al. (2005) investigated the cracks that occurred in the bottom slab of a precast
segmental bridge through a construction sequence analysis, which revealed that the
cracks were caused by excessive deformation during temporary post-tensioning while
joining the segments. In addition, a parametric study was performed to evaluate the
effects of the prestressing sequence, bottom slab thickness, and position of the
prestressing anchors. The structural behaviour of the girder sections was greatly affected
by the thickness of the bottom slab and the position of prestressing anchors, but not by
the prestressing sequence. A FE analysis and Non Destructive Test results showed that
longitudinal cracks developed on the bottom slab of the segment box in a direction
parallel to the bridge. These were caused by excessive tensile stresses and the
deformation that occurred during temporary external prestressing for bonding the
adjacent segment box. The thickness of the bottom slab and the anchoring position of
the external prestressing bars were the dominant factors that affected the tensile stresses
in the bottom slab of the segment. Consequently, a proposal to move the anchoring
positions and thereby decrease the stress and deformation of the segment box during the
external prestressing sequence was verified using a FE analysis. This was found to be a
more effective technique than other proposals for preventing cracks during construction,
when the efficiency of the section and construction costs were considered.

2.1.9 Collapse
Woodward (2005) describes an investigation into the collapse of a single-span,
segmental post-tensioned concrete bridge. The structure consisted of precast units
stressed together both longitudinally and transversely. There had been no evidence of

- 17 -
distress before failure, and there was no traffic on the bridge when it collapsed. Author
had found out that the bridge had deteriorated because of corrosion of the tendons where
they passed through the segmental joints. Corrosion had occurred because the tendons
had been inadequately protected at the joints, and this had enabled chlorides to enter the
ducts, which eventually leads to the collapse of the bridge. The results cause concern
about the condition of other post-tensioned segmental concrete bridges world-wide.

2.1.10 Codes and Manuals

Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual (1979) is a complete design handbook
on Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridges. It deals about development of precast
segmental bridge construction including types of precast segmental construction,
advantages and its applications worldwide. It also gives an insight into various
considerations for segment design like principal dimensions of segments, pier and
abutment segments, post tensioning tendons, shear keys, epoxy joints etc. Analysis of
precast segmental bridge consist of longitudinal analysis, transverse analysis, and
correction to deformation. Longitudinal analysis include erection moments, creep
analysis, analysis for super imposed dead load and live load, analysis for effects of
temperature, shear lag effects and ultimate strength analysis. Transverse analysis include
evaluation of contributions of transverse bending, longitudinal bending and torsion to
resistance of anti-symmetrical loading. It also provide details of corrections for
deformation, rotation and super imposed curvature, guide lines for fabrication,
transportation and different methods of erection of segmental bridges.

Guide specifications for design and construction of segmental concrete bridges

(1999) published by AASHTO gives an insight into design specifications and
construction specifications of segmental concrete bridges. In the design specification it
covers all aspects like general requirements and materials, methods of analysis (strut tie
model, transverse analysis and longitudinal analysis), loads and load factors, seismic
design, allowable stresses, prestress loss, flexural, shear and torsional strength, stress
limits, detailing of various parts, specifications for joints, bearings, cover and spacing to
reinforcement. Details of cast in place segmental bridges, precast segmental bridges and
incremental launching technique is also covered in the design specification. In the

- 18 -
construction specifications it deals with various testing, quality control, placing of
concrete and steel, installation and stressing of tendons, epoxy and grouting operations.

IRC 18-2000 gives an insight into the design criteria of prestressed concrete road
bridges. It provides information about various stages of prestressing, loads and forces to
be considered in the design, details about different materials and section properties. It
gives details to take into account the loss of prestress during construction and in service,
to calculate ultimate strength, shear and torsion. IRC 18 also provide guide lines about
minimum reinforcement, cover and spacing of reinforcing steel, thickness of webs of
girders, end blocks, anchorages of cables and stressing, prestressing and grouting
operation and about storage and handling of prestressing material.

Bridge Design Manual (2003) The Connecticut Department of Transportation Bridge

Design Manual gives an insight into the standard design practices and procedures of
bridges. It includes general design requirements, design submissions, contract
documents and loads to be considered in the design. Manual also gives details about
concrete structures, steel structures, abutments, piers, walls, deck systems, bearings,
deck joints, drainage, supports, bridge repair & rehabilitation and post design
responsibilities.

IRC SP 65-2005 provides guidelines for design and construction of segmental bridges
in India. It deals with dry jointed and epoxy bonded precast segmental construction. It
gives an insight into the various construction requirements, precasting, shear keys,
details and specifications of epoxies, bearings, and prestressing. Various design aspects
like allowable stresses in concrete, design for ultimate flexure and shear, corrections for
centre of gravity of tendons, effects of axial tension and local effects of blisters have
also been provided.

IRC 112-2011 is the recent code of practise for concrete road bridges which is based on
Limit state design philosophy. It is in line with Euro code having specifications for both
RCC and Prestressed Concrete bridges. It explains the basis of limit state design and
analysis of concrete bridges and provides information about the Ultimate Limit State of
linear elements for bending and axial forces, Ultimate Limit State of two and three

- 19 -
dimensional elements for out of plane and in plane loading effects, Ultimate Limit State
of shear, punching shear, torsion and Ultimate Limit State of induced deformation.

2.2 SCOPE OF WORK

Analysis of precast segmental bridges are complicated and is a challenging task. Despite
of having many advantages, precast segmental bridges are less in India. It is mainly due
to its complexity of analysis and design. Even the IS codes for segmental bridges are
very brief and they only provide general guidelines of analysis and design. Joints
between segments to segments are area of potential weakness in the structure and no
special guide lines have been given in the IS code to calculate the strength of same. So,
the work is aimed to provide a complete analysis of precast segmental concrete bridges
including the strength of segment to segment joints and thus to make the designers work
in this field easier.

2.3 OBJECTIVES
For meeting the above mentioned scope, the objective of the project is summarised as
given below.

i. Comparative study between segmental bridges and other types of bridges.

ii. Comparative study between Indian Standard Codes and other foreign codes
of segmental bridge construction.
iii. Transverse and longitudinal analysis of segmental bridges.
iv. Modelling and analysis of segment to segment joints.
v. Analysis of bridge decks subjected to various vehicular loadings.
vi. Analysis of segmental bridges considering the effects of prestressing,
temperature, creep and shrinkage.

- 20 -
 3. ANALYSIS OF HOLLOW BRIDGE PIER

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Bridge Piers are that part of bridge substructure which provides a vertical support to
horizontal spans from foundations. They are provided to perform mainly two functions:
to resist the lateral forces on the bridge and to transfer the superstructure vertical loads
to foundations. The main difference between a column and a pier is in its structural
action. Column resists the lateral forces by flexural action whereas piers resist the lateral
forces by shear mechanism. Piers can be classified according to their structural
connectivity to the superstructure and according to their sectional shapes. Here we have
considered a tapered hollow bridge pier for the analysis.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

Hollow Bridge Pier is analysed for three different cases:

i. Bridge Pier without diaphragm

ii. Bridge Pier with uniform diaphragm
iii. Bridge pier with cut diaphragm

Diaphragms are generally provided to reduce the displacements and to increase the
lateral stability of the pier. In order to validate the results of tapered section, two uniform
hollow bridge piers one with maximum diameter and other with minimum diameter as
that of tapered section is modelled and the results are compared in all the three cases.

Three sets of analysis is being performed for all the three different cases, which are:

Free Vibration Analysis Section is modelled in SAP 2000 and frequency is found out
for the first 12 modes. Natural frequency is also calculated analytically which then is
compared with the SAP results.

Stiffness of a structure (K) is given by,

= --- 3.1

Where,

P Horizontal load applied on the structure

- 21 -
 Deflection due to the applied load

Natural frequency (f) of the structure is given by,

= 3.2
2

and = 3.3

Where,

Angular frequency of the structure

m Mass of the structure

Lateral load analysis A horizontal load P is applied at the free end of the bridge pier
and its deflection is found out from SAP 2000. Similarly deflection is also calculated
manually considering cantilever action with fixed support at the end.

Deflection of a cantilever with a load at the free end,

3
= . 3.4
3

Where,

L Length of the structure

E Modulus of Elasticity of concrete
I Moment of inertia of the hollow section

Torsion analysis A bridge pier is subjected to torsion in its various stages of

construction and service, which makes torsion analysis essential. Deflection is found out
after applying torsion at the free end of the bridge pier.

- 22 -
3.3 MODELLING IN SAP 2000

The tapered hollow bridge pier was modelled in SAP 2000. Height of the pier was taken
as 25m with bottom diameter 5m and top diameter 3m. The thickness of the pier was
0.5m. Thick shell element was used throughout as the type of element for the analysis.
Mesh size taken was 0.25m x 0.25m. Bridge pier was assumed to be fixed at the base
and free at the top which makes a cantilever action for resisting the loads. A 3m diameter
and a 5m diameter hollow bridge pier was also modelled and analysed, and results are
then compared with that of the tapered section and is validated. Fig. 3.1 below shows
the model of tapered hollow bridge pier for the three different cases considered.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.1 Tapered Hollow Bridge Pier (a) without diaphragm; (b) with diaphragm;
(c) with cut diaphragm

- 23 -
3.4 FREE VIBRATION ANALYSIS
After the modelling of section, modal analysis is run and frequency of the section and
modal participation factors are obtained for first 12 modes and is shown in Table 1 and
Table 2 respectively.

Table 1 Frequency of bridge piers (SAP 2000 Result)

Frequency (Hz)
Case Mode
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Without Diaphragm 2.983 3.109 16.699 17.251 21.291 32.774 40.968 41.978 63.819 69.563 70.751 83.934
3 m dia With Full Diaphragm 2.698 2.698 15.242 15.242 21.369 29.317 37.630 37.630 63.964 64.165 64.165 86.414
With Cut Diaphragm 2.749 2.749 15.514 15.514 21.506 29.811 38.286 38.286 64.369 65.279 65.279 88.598
Without Diaphragm 4.811 4.811 21.713 23.477 23.477 31.851 31.851 32.187 34.676 34.676 43.544 43.544
5 m dia With Full Diaphragm 3.927 3.927 19.459 19.459 19.728 26.413 43.693 43.693 58.904 60.823 65.490 66.833
With Cut Diaphragm 3.967 3.967 19.657 19.657 19.832 26.738 44.156 44.156 59.199 64.660 69.284 69.284
Without Diaphragm 5.315 5.315 22.710 22.710 29.456 36.209 47.284 47.284 49.525 49.525 59.225 59.225
Tapered With Full Diaphragm 4.646 4.646 19.717 19.717 27.810 31.789 42.995 42.995 65.380 69.014 69.014 73.315
With Cut Diaphragm 4.762 4.762 20.124 20.124 28.015 32.632 43.999 43.999 65.272 69.829 69.829 77.845

Table 2 Modal participating ratios

Mass Mode
Case
ratio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
UX 0.019 0.601 0.006 0.197 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.068 0.000 0.001 0.033 0.000
Without
UY 0.601 0.019 0.196 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.068 0.002 0.000 0.034 0.001 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.814 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
UX 0.613 0.002 0.192 0.008 0.000 0.000 0.057 0.013 0.000 0.028 0.007 0.000
3 m dia

With Full
UY 0.002 0.613 0.008 0.192 0.000 0.000 0.013 0.057 0.000 0.007 0.028 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.807 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.088
UX 0.003 0.619 0.003 0.199 0.000 0.000 0.067 0.003 0.000 0.003 0.032 0.000
With Cut
UY 0.619 0.003 0.199 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.067 0.000 0.032 0.003 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.818 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.090
UX 0.002 0.623 0.000 0.003 0.212 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Without
UY 0.623 0.002 0.000 0.212 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.813 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
UX 0.004 0.630 0.041 0.175 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.065 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
5 m dia

With Full
UY 0.630 0.004 0.175 0.041 0.000 0.000 0.065 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.816 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.047 0.007 0.005
UX 0.210 0.423 0.036 0.180 0.000 0.000 0.023 0.045 0.000 0.000 0.023 0.007
With Cut
UY 0.423 0.210 0.180 0.036 0.000 0.000 0.045 0.023 0.000 0.000 0.007 0.023
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.817 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.052 0.000 0.000
UX 0.552 0.004 0.103 0.125 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.089 0.001 0.000 0.000
Without
UY 0.004 0.552 0.125 0.103 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.089 0.000 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.771 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
UX 0.544 0.009 0.151 0.083 0.000 0.000 0.026 0.068 0.000 0.038 0.007 0.000
Tapered

With Full
UY 0.009 0.544 0.083 0.151 0.000 0.000 0.068 0.026 0.000 0.007 0.038 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.778 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.047
UX 0.545 0.000 0.237 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.073 0.022 0.000 0.038 0.007 0.000
With Cut
UY 0.000 0.545 0.004 0.237 0.000 0.000 0.022 0.073 0.000 0.007 0.038 0.000
Diaphragm
UZ 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.774 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.070

- 24 -
Frequency was also calculated analytically and is shown in the Table 3.
Table 3 Frequency of bridge piers (Analytical Result)
Frequency(Hz)
Case
(mode 1)
3 m dia without diaphragm 2.26
5 m dia without diaphragm 4.01

Observations
i. Analytical results and SAP model results are comparable.

ii. Frequency of 3m diameter bridge pier is higher than that of 5m diameter and
hence 3m diameter bridge pier is more flexible than 5m dia. bridge pier.

iii. Frequency of the tapered bridge pier lies between the 3m and 5m diameter bridge
pier which validate the results.

iv. Frequency of vibration is more dominant in X and Y direction for most of the
modes. Torsional vibration is dominant in mode 6.

3.5 LATERAL LOAD ANALYSIS

Fig. 3.2 Tapered section with horizontal load at the free end

A horizontal load of 100kN was applied at the free end as shown in Fig 3.2 and analysis
is performed and deflection at the free end is obtained and is shown in the Table 4.

- 25 -
 Table 4 Displacement of Bridge Piers under Concentrated Load (SAP 2000 Result)

Case Displacement (mm)

Without Diaphragm 3.635
3 m dia With Full Diaphragm 3.618
With Cut Diaphragm 3.618
Without Diaphragm 1.096
5 m dia With Full Diaphragm 0.925
With Cut Diaphragm 0.924
Without Diaphragm 1.158
Tapered With Full Diaphragm 1.15
With Cut Diaphragm 1.15

Deflection at the free end is calculated analytically by considering the bridge pier as a
cantilever with a load of 100kN at the free end and is shown in the Table 5.

Table 5 Displacement of Bridge Piers under Concentrated Load (Analytical Result)

Case Displacement (mm)

3 m dia without diaphragm 5.96

5 m dia without diaphragm 1.05

Observation
i. Displacement of tapered section lies in between the displacement of 3m and 5m
diameter uniform sections, which validate the result.

3.6 TORSION ANALYSIS

Torsion is applied at the free end as shown in the Fig 3.3 below and the analysis is
performed.

- 26 -
 Fig. 3.3 Tapered section with torsion

Results from analysis is as shown in the Table 6.

Table 6 Displacement of Bridge Piers under Torsion

Case Displacement (mm)

Without Diaphragm 0.165
3 m dia With Full Diaphragm 0.161
With Cut Diaphragm 0.159
Without Diaphragm 0.102
5 m dia With Full Diaphragm 0.1
With Cut Diaphragm 0.099
Without Diaphragm 0.08
Tapered With Full Diaphragm 0.079
With Cut Diaphragm 0.076

Observation
i. The displacement of tapered section under torsion is less than that of the 3m dia.
and 5m dia. bridge piers in all the three cases.

3.7 CONCLUSION
Analysis of tapered hollow bridge pier has been performed. It was observed that the
addition of diaphragms increase the lateral stability and decreases the deflection of the

- 27 -
structure. 3m diameter hollow bridge pier was found to be more flexible than the 5m
diameter hollow bridge pier as it can be understood from their dimensions. Displacement
of tapered section in torsion was very less compared to the uniform piers for all the three
different cases. Hence it was observed that tapered section with diaphragm is more
preferable than the uniform sections with or without diaphragms.

4. WORK TO BE DONE
i. Comparative study between Indian Standard Codes and other foreign codes of
segmental bridge construction
ii. Modelling of segmental bridge in SAP 2000
iii. Analysis of bridge decks subjected to various vehicular loadings.
iv. Analysis of dry joints and epoxied joints
v. Transverse and longitudinal analysis of segmental bridges.
vi. Analysis of segmental bridges considering the effects of prestressing,
temperature, creep and shrinkage

5. REFERENCES

1. AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials)

(1999), Guide specifications for the design and construction of segmental
bridges, Washington DC
2. ACI (American Concrete Institute) (1989), Precast segmental box girder bridge
manual, ACI 318-89, Farmington Hills, Michigan.
3. Alcalde, M., Hector, C., Medina, F. (2010), Shear strength of dry keyed joints
and comparison with different formulations, VIII International Conference on
Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures, Sevilla, 107-114
4. Algorafi, M.A, Ali, A.A., Othman, I. (2011), Evaluation of structural behaviour
of externally prestressed segmented bridge with shear key under torsion,
Journal of Engineering, Project and Production Management, Vol. 1(1), 28-35
5. Buyukozturk, O., Bakhoum, M., Beattie, M. (1990), Shear behaviour of joints
in precast concrete segmental bridges, Journal of Structural Engineering,
(ASCE), Vol.116(12), 3380-3401

- 28 -
6. Department of Transportation (2003), Connecticut department of transportation
bridge design manual, State of Connecticut U S A
7. Francis, T. K., Leung, C. (2011), Full-range analysis of multi-span prestressed
concrete segmental bridges, The Twelfth East Asia-Pacific Conference on
Structural Engineering and Construction, Vol. 14, 14251432
8. Hewson, N. (1992), The use of dry joints between precast segments for bridge
decks, Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 92, 177-184
9. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) (2000), Design criteria for prestressed concrete
road bridges (post tensioned concrete), IRC 18, New Delhi
10. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) (2005), Guidelines For design and construction
of segmental bridges, IRC SP 65, New Delhi
11. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) (2011), Code of practise for concrete road
bridges, IRC 112:2011, New Delhi
12. Issa, M., Abdalla, H. (2007), Structural behaviour of single key joints in precast
concrete segmental bridges, Journal of Bridge Engineering,
10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2007)12:3(315), Vol. 12(3), 315-324
13. Kamaitis, Z. (2008), Field investigation of joints in precast post-tensioned
segmental concrete bridge, The Baltic journal of Road and Bridge Engineering,
Vol. 3(4), 198-205
14. Kenneth, W. S. (1998), Design of segmental bridges for thermal gradient, PCI
Journal, Vol.12(98), 120-137
15. Kim, T.K., Kim, Y.J., Jin, B.M. (2007), Numerical study on the joints between
precast post-tensioned segments, International Journal of Concrete Structures
and Materials, Vol.19(E), 3-9
16. Maher, K.T., Gali, A., Walter, H.D. (1979),Long term stresses and deformation
of -segmental bridges, PCI Journal, Vol. 7(79) , 67-87
17. Martin, G.(2015), Precast segmental bridge construction,
<http://sunengineering.cn/siteen/csgdjtsjzx/917.html> (April 13, 2017)
18. Miller, C., Accioly, J. (1978), Preliminary design of precast segmental box-
girder bridges using optimization, Canadian Journal for Civil Engineering,
Vol. 6, 73-81
19. Moon, D.Y., Sim, J., Hongseob, O. (2005), Practical crack control during the
construction of precast segmental box girder bridges, Computers and
Structures, Vol.83, 25842593

- 29 -
20. Moreton, A.J. (1981), Epoxy glue joints in precast segmental concrete
construction, Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Part 1, 163-
177
21. Podolney, W. (1979), An overview of precast prestressed segmental bridges,
PCI Journal, Vol.23(79), 56-87
22. Roberts, C., Breen, J.E., Cawrse, J. (2002), Measurements of thermal gradients
and their effects on segmental concrete bridge, Journal of Bridge Engineering,
10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2002)7:3(166), Vol. 7(3), 166-174
23. Rombach, G.(2002), Precast segmental box girder bridges with external
prestressing - design and construction, INSA Rennes, 1-15
24. Rombach, G., Specker, A. (2002), Design of joints in segmental hollow box
girder Bridges, 1st FIB Congress, Osaka, Japan, E-73, 1-6
25. Rostam, S. (2005), Design and construction of segmental concrete bridges for
service life of 100 to 150 years, American Segmental Bridge Institute
Convention, Washington D C, Paper No.63
26. Salunkhe, A.K. (2017), To study alternatives for existing prestress segmental
box girder, M.Tech Dissertation Report, VNIT, Nagpur, India, under the
guidance of Dr. M.M. Mahajan
27. Shamass, R., Xiangming, Z., Alfano, G. (2015), Finite-element analysis of
shear-off failure of keyed dry joints in precast concrete segmental bridges,
Journal of Bridge Engineering, 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592. 0000669, Vol.
20(6), 32-44
28. Shamass, R., Xiangming, Z., Zongyi, W. (2016), Numerical analysis of shear-
off failure of keyed epoxied joints in precast concrete segmental bridges,
Journal of Bridge Engineering, 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000971,
Vol.5(2), 129-132
29. Smith, J.S. (2012), Precast segmental double-t girder systems for multi-span
highway overpass bridges, M S Thesis, University of Toronto
30. Syahrizal, I., Hazman, K., Nabilah, N. (2014), Ultimate shear capacity and
failure of shear key connection in precast concrete construction, Malaysian
Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 26(3),414-430

- 30 -
31. Tassin, D., Dodson, B., Muller, J. (1996), Analysing the ultimate capacity of a
precast segmental box girder bridge, Structural Engineering International USA,
Vol: 4(96), 255-258
32. Trivedi, H. (2014), Segmental bridge design of prestressed box superstructure
for cantilever construction, International Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol.
2(2), 49-82
33. Turmo, J., Ramos, G., Aparicio, A.C. (2005), FEM study on the structural
behaviour of segmental concrete bridges with unbonded prestressing and dry
joints: Simply supported bridges, Engineering Structures, Vol.27,1652-1661
34. Turmo, J., Ramos, G., Aparicio, A.C. (2006), Shear strength of dry joints of
concrete panels with and without steel fibres: Application to precast segmental
bridges, Engineering Structures, Vol.28, 2333
35. Woodward, R.J. (2005), Collapse of a segmental post-tensioned concrete
bridge, Transport and Road Research Laboratory Record Berkshire, Vol.1211,
39-58
36. Wouters, J.P., Kesner, K., Poston, R.W. (1999), Tendon corrosion in precast
segmental bridges, Transportation Research Record 1654, Berkshire, Vol: 99,
128-132
37. Xanthakos, P.P. (1994), Theory and design of bridges, Wiley Interscience
Publication, New York
38. Xiangming, Z., Colin, N. (2005), Shear strength of joints in precast concrete
segmental bridges, Structural Journal, Vol. 102, 3-11

- 31 -
32