Basicprinciples

of controlvalves
andactuators

3.1 Objectives
This chapterservesto review the basic types and principle of operationof processcontrol
valves and their associatedactuatorand positioner systems.
As a result of studying this chapter,the studentshould be able to:
o List the cornmon types of process control valves, and briefly describe their
design and basic construction
. Explain the meaningsof valve characteristics,rangeability and sizing
o Describe the types of actuatorscommonly found in process control systems,
and list their applications.

3.2 An overviewof eight of the most basic types of control

valves
In most processcontrol systemsthe final controlelement,driven by the outputof the
processcontroller,is usuallysomeform of valve.This chapterservesto introducethe
studentto eightof the mostcommontypesof controlvalves,flow throttlingdevicesand
thebasicrangeof actuators usedto controlthem.
Sections3.2.1throughto 3.2.8describethevarioustypesof valvesin question,startingwith
an overview and generaldescription,the tlpes and varianceswithin their manufactued
ranges,sizes,designpressuresandtemperanue rangesandtheirrangeability.
Any specialattributesor usesa valvemayhavearealsodescribed.
Section3.2.9introducesthe readerto someof the moreunusualtypesof valves,their
designandusages.

3.2.1 Ball valves

Overview
The rotary ball valve, which used to be consideredas an on-off shut-off valve is now
used quite extensively as a flow control device. Some of the advantagesinclude lower
cost and weight, high flow capacity, tighr shut-off and fire-safe designs.The ball valve
 Basicprinciplesof controlvalvesand actuators Sg
containsa sphericalplug that controls the flow of fluid through the valve body. Ball and
cage valves are close to linear in terms of percentof flow or cv to percentof stem or ball
rotation. The threebasic tlpes of ball valve are listed below.

Types of ball valves

. Conventionali 1/4 tum pierced ball type (Figure 3.1)
o Characterized: V and U notchedalong with a parabolicball type (Figure 3.2)
. Cdge: Positioning a ball by means of a cage in relation to a seat ring and
dischargeport is usedfor control.

Open Throttling

Figure 3.1
Cross-sectionalviet|s of conventionaland characterizedball talves

Size and design pressure

o 0.5421n. (12.5mrn-1.06m) in ANSI class150to 12in. (300mm) in ANSI
class2500
. Segmented ball - l-24 in. (50-600mm) in ANSI class150_16in. (400mm) in
ANSI class300
o Pressure
up to 2500psig (17Mpa).

Design temperature
o Varieswith designandmarerialbut typically-160 to +310.C
o Specialdesignsextendthisrangefrom - 180to > +1000.C.

Rangeability
Generallyclaimedto be about50:1.Referto Section3.3.3.
 PracticalProcessControlfor Engineersand Technicians

(J
o60

tr- Characterized
I ;R 40 ballvalves
Parabolic-
nolch

I 40 60
I % Rotation

Figure 3,2
The charucterized ball 1)alve r1)ith a parabolic-notch is nearb equal percentage, while the ball and cage
characteristics are closet to lineor, when used on a water serlice. On gas services 4t critical velocities, the
charucterized ball valre lines mo\)e cLoser to linear

3.2.2 Butterfly valves

Overview
This is oneof the oldesttypesof valvesstill in use,datingbackfrom the 1920s.It actsas
a damperor as a throttle valve in a pipe and consistsof a disk tuming on a diametralaxis-
Like the ball valve its actuationrotation from fully closedto fully openis 90o.Due to the
fact that the disk can act like an airfoil in the main streamflow it is controlling, caremust
be exercisedto ensurethat any resultantincreasein torquecanbe absorbedby the control
actuatorbeingused(Figure3.3).

_--l- :
----./-,a '- -
tl -,..- /'t//
/q
flII -
"- //
/ _,---'

Closed Throttling Open

(Damper (Damper
perpendicular parallel
to flow) to tlow)

Figure 3.3
Vanepositionsof butterfly valve

Types of butterfly valves

General purpose, aligned shaft, where the vane, disk, louver or flapper is
rotatedvia the shaftto which it is attached.
High-performancebutterfly valve (HPBV), offset (eccentric)shaft,This design
combines tight shut-off, reduced operating torque, and good throttling
capabilitiesof the swing-through specialdisk shapes.
 Basicprinciplesof controlvalvesand actuators Ss
Size and design pressure
o To 48 in. (51 mm-1.22m) aretypical
. Unitshavebeenmadefrom 0.75to 200in. (19 mm_5m).

Designtemperature
o Tlpically -260 to +540.C
o Special
designs extendthisrangeupto > +1200oC.

Rangeability
Generally
claimed
to beabour50:1(Figure3.4).Referto Section
3.3.4.

100 24 in. (0.61m)

High-performance

o^^ Typical
b ou generalpurpose
3
c 40
2 in.(50mm)
High-performance

o tor. 1oo
"ll",,""u,l,no.lo
Figure 3.4
Theflow
.characteristicsof butterJryvarves_arc
afrectedby theposition of the shaJrktrigned or eccentric)and
the relathtesizeof,theshaf comparedto the valie size.ior thtottling
lirpiit in" r"lr" * usuafiyrimited lo
rotatefTom O"to 60" positions

Digitalvalves
Overview
liSrjf-ya!9s comprisea group of valve elements,or ports, assembledinto a
common
manifold(Figure3.5). Eachelemenrhas a binaryrelarionshipwith its neighbor
which
meansthat stadingwith the smallestpon, the nextpon is twice the sizeof-theprevious
one' The main advantagesof thisty?e of valveare-their high speed,high precision
and
practically unlimited rangeability.Their biggestdisadvantagJistheir
high cost.

Size
'lo-10 in. (19-250mm) in bothline andanglepattems.

Design temperature
Cryogenicto +670"C.

Designpressurelimits
Up to 10000psig (690barg.
56 PracticatProcessControlfor Engineersand Technicians

Figure 3.5
In a digital \)alve,eachvalveelementis t\n)icethe sizeof its smallet neiShbor

Fangeability

No. of 'bits' 810 12 t4 16

Resolution 255:1 1023:1 4095:1 1 6 ,3 8 3 : 1 6 5 , 5 3 5 : 1

Applications
Where high speed(25-100ms), accuracy,large rangeabilityand tight shut-off is
needed.

3.2.4 Globe valves

Overview
Twenty or so years ago the majority of throttling control valves were of the globe tlpe'
characterized by linear plug movements and actuated by spring/diaphragm operators. The
main advantages of the globe valve include the simplicity of the spring/diaphragm
actuator, a widl range of characteristics, low cavitation and noise, a wide range of designs
for corrosive, abrasive, high temperature and high pressure applications, a linear
relationship between the control signal and vaive stem movements and relative small
amountsof deadband and hysteresisvalues(Figure 3.6).

Types of globe valves

. Single ported with characterized plug
. Single ported,cage guided
o Single ported, sPlit bodY
. Double ported, top-bottom or skirt-guided plug
. Eccentric disk, rotary globe
. Angle
. Three way or Y tlpe.
 Basicprinciplesof controlvalvesand actuators 57

Figure 3.6
Crosssectiofiof a singlepotledglobevalve

Flow characteristics
Thesecharacteristicsare determinedby the valve plug profile:
. Equal percentage
. Linear
o Quick opening.

Size and design pressure

. Generally'/.-14 in. (20 mm-356m)
o Maximumsizefor typeC is 6 in. (152mm)
o Maximumsizefor typeE is 12 in. (305mm)
o Maximumsizefor typeD is 16in. (406mm)
. TypeF (theangletype)hasbeenmadein sizesup to 42 in. (1.05m).
Typically all pressureratingsare availableup to ANSI class1500,with fypesB and
availablethroughANSI class2500andTypesC andE arelimitedto ANSI class600.

Design temperature
o Generallyfrom -200 to +540'C
of +400.C
. TypeB is limitedto a maximumtemperature
. TypeC canoperatedownto -260 'C.

Rangeability
If it is defined as the region within which the valve gan remains within 257o of the
theoretical,it seldomexceeds20:1 (Figure 3.7).
Manufacturersusing other definitions claim 35:1. Refer to Section3.3.3.
58 PracticalProcessControlfor Engineersand Technicians

I I l a\z
l--+-;.ell

I
tr
s40
f""#
% Lift

Figur 3,7
The theoreticalvalyecharacteristicsshirt as a fancti.onof installation. Thedottedlines reflect sucha shirt in
omos y friction processwhere 100Vo flow, 20 pressuredtop wasassignedto the conftol volve

3.2.5 Pinch valves

Overview
Thesetype of valves are called either pinch or clamp valves (Figure 3.8) depending
the con.figurationof the flexible tube and the meansusedfor tube compression.They
also manufacturedfrom a large range of materialssuch as teflon, PVC, neoprene,
polyurethane,eachtype of elastomeror plastic havingits own particularapplicationuse.

Openposition

Throttlingposltlon

Closedposltion

Figure 3.E
Pinch valvewith 'accurateclorure'

This type of control valve, if carefully selected,hasmany advantageslike high abrasion

and corrosion resistance,packless construction,reasonableflow control rangeability,
 Basicpinciplesof controlvalves
andactuators Sg
smoothflow, low replacement costsand a longerlife than metalvalveswhereabrasion
andcorrosionarepresent.
As in all things,thoughthis valve has limitationssuch as pressureand temperature
restaints due to the nature of the material used for the sleives, and the number of
operations,or flexing, that a particular type of liner can cope with, althougha life span
of>50 000 openingandclosingcyclesshouldbe considered^as themrmmum.
Size
c 1-24 in. (25-610mm)
. Specialunitsfrom 0.1 to 72 in. (2.5mm_l.g m).

Designpressure
Generally
upto ANSIclass150withspecial
unitsupto class300
Designtemperature
buttypically-30 to +200.C.
Varieswithdesignandmaterial

Rangeability
Generally
claimed
to bebetween
5:1and10:1.Referto Section
3.3.3(Figure3.9).

o60
6
3

5oo
Jfl
",ffi)
Teflontube clamp

Reducedport sleeve

40 60
o/oTravel

Figure3.9
redy:i,g the pon size or bt makihg the sleeve'cone' shaped,the characteristicsare madehore
2 rinear.
Theaddition of a variable orifice v,lithinthe sreeveprovides
fliw throttring in the upperharf of rhe stroke

Plug valves
Overview
Plug valves are probably the oldest type of valve in existence, being used in water
distribution systems in ancient Rome and they probably pre-date the buttJ{ry valve.
consisting of a taperedvertical cylinder with a horizontal opening or flow-way inserted
.
into the car/ity ofthe valve body and due to the taper and lubricating systemthey use they
are virtually leak proof to both gasesand liquids (see Figure 3. 10.y.

---''3
60 Practical Process Contrclfor Engineers and Technicians

Figure 3.10
TJpical sectionalviev)of a plug valve

A very common use for this type of valve is in the tapping of beer barels. They
quick openingand closingactionwith tight leakproofclosuresunderworking
from vacuumto ashighas l0 000psig(70MPa).Theycanbe usedfor liquids.gases
non-abrasiveslurries, and eccentric and can be styled with lift plugs for use with
fluids. Again, like the butterfly and ball valves, they operatethrough an actuator
aneularmotion of 90'.

Size
1/2-36in.(12.5-960
mm).

Types
V-ported: This style is usedfor both On--off and throttling control, utilizing
V-shapedplug and a V-shapednotchedbody. This is ideal for fibrous
viscousmaterials
Three,four andfive way or multi-porteddesignsareavailable
Fire-sealed.

Designpressure
Typically from ANSI class125 to ANSI class300 ratingsand up to 720psig (5 MPa)
pressure,
with specialunitsavailablefor ANSI class2500.

Designtemperature
. Twically-70 to +200'C
. Special
unitsareavailable
-160 to +315"C.

Rangeability
Generally
claimedto bebetween 3.3.3(Figure3.11).
20:1.Referto Section
 Basic principles of conttolvalves and actuators 61

to o
B
s'7/-'"/
E+o
7,""%{
{Y /o\" t
, Q.6" I

40 60
% Rotation

Figure 3.11
Plug vabe characteristicsare a i.nction of the shapeof the throttling plate or V-Port

Saundersdiaphragmvalves
Overview
The Saunders or diaphragm valve is sometimes also referred to as a weir valve
(Figure 3.12). This valve operatesby moving a flexible diaphragmtoward or away from a
weir. This valve can be consideredas a half pinch valve as only one diaphragm is used,
moving relative to a fixed weir; becauseof this however their florv characteristicsare
similar. The normal Saundersvalve has a body with side section in the form of an
inverted U shape,with the diaphragm closing the orifice at the top. A full-bore type is
also available that has, when fully open, a fully rounded bore which is an important
featurefor ball-brush cleaning as required in applicationslike the food industry. It should
be noted that mechanical damage can occur when opening this type of valve against a
Drocessvacuum.

Streamlineflow Flowcontrolin Leaktightnessin

in openposition throttlingposition closedposition

Figure 3.12
Mainpositionsofweir-typeSamderscontrol
",alre
 PrccticalProcesControlfor Engineersand Technicians

Size
o ll2-12 in. (12.5-300mm)
. Specialunits manufacturedup to 20 in. (500 mm).

Types
o Weir
o Full bore
. Straight-through
. Dual range.

Designpressure
. Sizes<= 4 in. (100mm) 150psig (10.3bar)
. 6 in. (150mm) 125psig(8.6bar)
. 8 in. (200mm) 100psig (6.9bar)
o 10-12in. (250-300mm) 65 psig (4.5bar).

Design temperature
. With mostelastomerdiaphragms-I2 to +65 "C
o With PTFEdiaphragms -34 to +175'C.

Rangeability
Generallyclaimedto 10:1;referto Section3.3.3(Figure3.13).

350

*
*-
os'l-

o 25 50 75 100
7" Lift

Figure 3,13
The characteistics of conventionalSaundersyalvesare near to quick-opening,while the characteristicsof
the dual rangedesignis closerto linear

II
t
 Basicprinciplesof controlvalvesand actuators 63

Slidinggate valves
Overview
In this type of valve, the flow rate is controlledby sliding a plate with a hole in it past a
stationaryplate, usuallyplacedat 90' to the line of flow, with a conespondinghole in it.
Theseholes can be round, or shapedto profile the flow characteristicof the valve. This
valve is sometimesusedin automaticcontrol but is not really considereda control valve.
However,this type of valvecanoperatewith pressures up to 10000psig (70MPa).The
accuracy of these valves, particulady in proportional control, dependssolely on the
accuracyof thechosenactuator(Figure3.14).

.6\
Fullyopen
\iryThrottling Fullyclosed

Figure 3.14
Typicalslidinggatevalve\tith 'V' Inserl

Types
. Knife gate
. V-insert
o Plate and disk (multi-orifice)
r Positioneddisk.

Size
o on-offi, 2-120 in. (50 mm to 3.0 m)
. Throttlin|: t|tt24 in. (12-600mm)
o Thronling:Yr-o in. 1tz-t 50 mml
. Throttling:I in. and2 in. (25 mm and50 mm).

Designpressure
. TypesA andB: Up to ANSI class150
. TypeC: Up to ANSI class300
. TypeD: Up to 10 000psig (70MPa).

lrry.".
 PracticalProcessControlfot Engineersand Technicians
Designtemperature
o TypesA and B: Cryogenic to 260 "C
o T'vneC and D: - 30 to +600 'C.

Rangeability

'TYPesA: l0:l
' TYPeBi 20il
. TypeC: Up to 50:1is claimed.
Referto Section3.3.3(Figure3.15).

o60

3
5oo

40 60
% Liftor rotation

Figure 3.15
Characteristicsofvarious sliding gate tahe tJpes

3.2.9 Specialvalvedesigns
This section is included to expose the student to some of the more uncommon types
valves that are currently being used. The reasonfor this is that with the current
advancements and stringent requirements of accuracy, etc. that are now being made
process control systems,these valves are becoming more common. These valves
neitherlinear nor rotary in operation,but use other methodssuchas fluidics or
pressureof the processfluid in throttling the valve.

Dynamicallybalancedplug valves
This family of valves is used where there is no extemal power available to operate
valve. and therefore the static pressureof the processfluid is used to achieve
The upstream, or back, pressureis used to move a plug against the force of a
spring. Variances in supply pressure affect the position of the plug relative to the
tension.Control is achievedwith a pilot valve poppet assembly(Figure 3.16).
 Basic principles of controlvalves and actuators 65

Figure 3.16
Sectionalvie\| shorNing
theoperationofthe dynamicallybalati:edpluB|dh,es

Diaphragm-operated
cylinderin-linevalves
This valve is used for high pressure gas services due to its low level of vibration,
turbulence and noise. It consists of a low convolution diaphragm for positive sealing.
Inlet to outlet pressuresof 1400 and 600 MPa respectively are possible in the 2 in.
(50 mm) size(Figure3.17).

Externalconlrol

Spring Diaphragm

Figure3.17
Sectionalvieii ofa diaphragm-operatetl
c-t:linder
h-line ralre

Expandableelementin-linevalves
Streamlinedflow of gas occurs in a valve where a solid mbber cylinder is expandedor
contractedto changethe areaof an annular space.Control occurs via a hydraulic actuator

_----