Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 1556 1568

www.elsevier.com/locate/addr

The basics and underlying mechanisms of mucoadhesionB

John D. Smart *
School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Lewes Road, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
Received 30 July 2004; accepted 12 July 2005

Abstract

Mucoadhesion is where two surfaces, one of which is a mucous membrane, adhere to each other. This has been of interest in
the pharmaceutical sciences in order to enhance localised drug delivery, or to deliver ddifficultT molecules (proteins and
oligonucleotides) into the systemic circulation. Mucoadhesive materials are hydrophilic macromolecules containing numerous
hydrogen bond forming groups, the carbomers and chitosans being two well-known examples. The mechanism by which
mucoadhesion takes place has been said to have two stages, the contact (wetting) stage followed by the consolidation stage (the
establishment of the adhesive interactions). The relative importance of each stage will depend on the individual application. For
example, adsorption is a key stage if the dosage form cannot be applied directly to the mucosa of interest, while consolidation is
important if the formulation is exposed to significant dislodging stresses. Adhesive joint failure will inevitably occur as a result
of overhydration of a dosage form, or as a result of epithelia or mucus turnover. New mucoadhesive materials with optimal
adhesive properties are now being developed, and these should enhance the potential applications of this technology.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Mucoadhesion; Mucoadhesives; Bioadhesion; Bioadhesives; Mucosal delivery; Carbomers

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557
2. Mucous membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557
3. Mucoadhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557
3.1. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557
3.2. Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1558
4. The mucoadhesive/mucosa interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
4.1. Chemical bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
4.2. Theories of adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559

B
This review is part of the Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews theme issue on Mucoadhesive Polymers: Strategies, Achievements and Future
Challenges, Vol. 57/11, 2005.
* Tel./fax: +44 1273 642091.
E-mail address: john.smart@brighton.ac.uk.

0169-409X/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.addr.2005.07.001
 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568 1557

4.3. Mucoadhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560

4.3.1. The contact stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560
4.3.2. The consolidation stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562
5. Removal mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1564
6. Some factors affecting mucoadhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1564
7. Liquid and semisolid adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
7.1. Water soluble polymer adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
7.2. Retention of liquids and gels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
8. New materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
9. Conclusions and future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1566
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1566

1. Introduction consist of a connective tissue layer (the lamina

Bioadhesion may be defined as the state in which
two materials, at least one of which is biological in
nature, are held together for extended periods of time
by interfacial forces. In the pharmaceutical sciences,
when the adhesive attachment is to mucus or a
mucous membrane, the phenomenon is referred to as
mucoadhesion [1].
Over the last two decades mucoadhesion has
become of interest for its potential to optimise loca-
lised drug delivery, by retaining a dosage form at the
site of action (e.g. within the gastrointestinal tract) or
systemic delivery, by retaining a formulation in inti-
mate contact with the absorption site (e.g. the nasal
cavity). The need to deliver dchallengingT molecules
such as biopharmaceuticals (proteins and oligonucleo-
tides) has increased interest in this area. Mucoadhe-
sives materials could also be used as therapeutic
agents in their own right, to coat and protect damaged
tissues (gastric ulcers or lesions of the oral mucosa) or
to act as lubricating agents (in the oral cavity, eye and
vagina).
This review will consider the basic mechanisms by
which mucoadhesives can adhere to a mucous mem-
brane in terms of the nature of the adhering surfaces
and the forces that may be generated to secure them
together.
propria) above which is an epithelial layer, the sur-
face of which is made moist usually by the pre-
sence of a mucus layer. The epithelia may be either
single layered (e.g. the stomach, small and large
intestine and bronchi) or multilayered/stratified
(e.g. in the oesophagus, vagina and cornea). The
former contain goblet cells which secrete mucus
directly onto the epithelial surfaces, the latter con-
tain, or are adjacent to tissues containing, specia-
lised glands such as salivary glands that secrete
mucus onto the epithelial surface. Mucus is present
as either a gel layer adherent to the mucosal surface
or as a luminal soluble or suspended form. The
major components of all mucus gels are mucin
glycoproteins, lipids, inorganic salts and water, the
latter accounting for more than 95% of its weight,
making it a highly hydrated system [2]. The mucin
glycoproteins are the most important structure-form-
ing component of the mucus gel, resulting in its
characteristic gel-like, cohesive and adhesive proper-
ties. The thickness of this mucus layer varies on
different mucosal surfaces, from 50 to 450 Am in
the stomach [3,4], to less than 1 Am in the oral
cavity [5]. The major functions of mucus are that of
protection and lubrication (they could be said to act
as anti-adherents).

3. Mucoadhesives
2. Mucous membranes
3.1. Materials
Mucous membranes (mucosae) are the moist sur-
faces lining the walls of various body cavities such The most widely investigated group of mucoad-
as the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. They hesives are hydrophilic macromolecules containing
1558 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
numerous hydrogen bond forming groups [610], the
so-called dfirst generationT mucoadhesives. Their
initial use as mucoadhesives were in denture fixative
powders or pastes [7]. The presence of hydroxyl,
carboxyl or amine groups on the molecules favours
adhesion. They are called dwetT adhesives in that
they are activated by moistening and will adhere
non-specifically to many surfaces [12]. Once acti-
vated, they will show stronger adhesion to dry inert
surfaces than those covered with mucus. Unless
water uptake is restricted, they may overhydrate to
form a slippery mucilage. Like typical hydrocolloid
glues, if the formed adhesive joint is allowed to dry
then, they can form very strong adhesive bonds.
Typical examples are carbomers, chitosan, sodium
alginate and the cellulose derivatives (Fig. 1).
These were used initially largely as they were avail-
able doff-the-shelfT with regulatory approval, but in
the last few years, new enhanced materials have been
developed.
n
n R5,R6=OCH3
Fig. 1. The structure of some common dfirst generationT mucoadhesive polymers.
3.2. Formulations
First generation mucoadhesive polymers present
significant formulation challenges, being hydrophilic,
with limited solubility in other solvents while forming
high viscosity, often pH sensitive, aqueous solutions
at low concentrations. Dry polymers also become
adhesive on exposure to moisture, and so readily
cohere, or adhere to manufacturing equipment or
delivery devices. Mucoadhesives have been formu-
lated into tablets, patches, or microparticles, typically
with the adhesive polymer forming the matrix into
which the drug is dispersed, or the barrier through
which the drug must diffuse [10,12]. Mucoadhesive
ointments and pastes consist of powdered bioadhesive
polymers incorporated into a hydrophobic base. Solu-
tions tend to be viscous due to the nature of the
mucoadhesive materials. Other proposed mucoadhe-
sive formulations include gels, vaginal rods, pessaries
and suppositories [12].
a) Poly(acrylic acid), R = allyl
sucrose or allyl pentaerythritol
(Carbopols); or divinyl glycol
(polycarbophil)
b) Chitosan
c) Sodium alginate
n
d) Cellulose derivatives e.g.
Sodium carboxylmethylcellulose
R1, R4 = CH2OH; R2, R3, R5 = OH;
- +
R6=OCH2CO2 Na
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose
R1=CH2OCH3; R2=OH,
R3=OCH2CHOHCH3; R4=CH2OH;
 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
4. The mucoadhesive/mucosa interaction
4.1. Chemical bonds
For adhesion to occur, molecules must bond across
the interface. These bonds can arise in the following
way [13].
(1) Ionic bondswhere two oppositely charged
ions attract each other via electrostatic interac-
tions to form a strong bond (e.g. in a salt
crystal).
(2) Covalent bondswhere electrons are shared, in
pairs, between the bonded atoms in order to
dfillT the orbitals in both. These are also strong
bonds.
(3) Hydrogen bondshere a hydrogen atom, when
covalently bonded to electronegative atoms
such as oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen, carries a
slight positively charge and is therefore is
attracted to other electronegative atoms. The
hydrogen can therefore be thought of as being
shared, and the bond formed is generally weaker
than ionic or covalent bonds.
(4) Van-der-Waals bondsthese are some of the
weakest forms of interaction that arise from
dipoledipole and dipole-induced dipole attrac-
tions in polar molecules, and dispersion forces
with non-polar substances.
5) Hydrophobic bondsmore accurately described
as the hydrophobic effect, these are indirect
bonds (such groups only appear to be attracted
to each other) that occur when non-polar groups
are present in an aqueous solution. Water mole-
cules adjacent to non-polar groups form hydro-
gen bonded structures, which lowers the system
entropy. There is therefore an increase in the
tendency of non-polar groups to associate with
each other to minimise this effect.
4.2. Theories of adhesion
There are six general theories of adhesion, which
have been adapted for the investigation of mucoadhe-
sion [11,14,15].
The electronic theory suggests that electron trans-
fer occurs upon contact of adhering surfaces due to
differences in their electronic structure. This is pro-
1559
posed to result in the formation of an electrical double
layer at the interface, with subsequent adhesion due to
attractive forces.
The wetting theory is primarily applied to liquid
systems and considers surface and interfacial ener-
gies. It involves the ability of a liquid to spread
spontaneously onto a surface as a prerequisite for
the development of adhesion. The affinity of a liquid
for a surface can be found using techniques such as
contact angle goniometry to measure the contact
angle of the liquid on the surface, with the general
rule being that the lower the contact angle, the
greater the affinity of the liquid to the solid. The
spreading coefficient (S AB) can be calculated from
the surface energies of the solid and liquids using
the equation:
SAB c B  cA  cAB
where c A is the surface tension (energy) of the
liquid A, c A is the surface energy of the solid B
and c AB is the interfacial energy between the solid
and liquid. S AB should be positive for the liquid to
spread spontaneously over the solid.
The work of adhesion (WA) represents the energy
required to separate the two phases, and is given by:
WA cA c B  cAB :
The greater the individual surface energies of the
solid and liquid relative to the interfacial energy, the
greater the work of adhesion.
The adsorption theory describes the attachment
of adhesives on the basis of hydrogen bonding
and van der Waals forces. It has been proposed
that these forces are the main contributors to the
adhesive interaction. A subsection of this, the che-
misorption theory, assumes an interaction across
the interface occurs as a result of strong covalent
bonding.
The diffusion theory describes interdiffusion of
polymers chains across an adhesive interface. This
process is driven by concentration gradients and is
affected by the available molecular chain lengths and
their mobilities. The depth of interpenetration depends
on the diffusion coefficient and the time of contact.
Sufficient depth of penetration creates a semi-perma-
nent adhesive bond.
The mechanical theory assumes that adhesion
arises from an interlocking of a liquid adhesive (on
1560 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
setting) into irregularities on a rough surface. How-
ever, rough surfaces also provide an increased sur-
face area available for interaction along with an
enhanced viscoelastic and plastic dissipation of
energy during joint failure, which are thought to be
more important in the adhesion process than a
mechanical effect [15].
The fracture theory differs a little from the other
five in that it relates the adhesive strength to the forces
required for the detachment of the two involved sur-
faces after adhesion. This assumes that the failure of
the adhesive bond occurs at the interface. However,
failure normally occurs at the weakest component,
which is typically a cohesive failure within one of
the adhering surfaces.
4.3. Mucoadhesion
Due its relative complexity, it is likely that the
process of mucoadhesion cannot be described by
just one of these theories. In considering the mechan-
ism of mucoadhesion, a whole range dscenariosT for
in-vivo mucoadhesive bond formation are possible
(Fig. 2). These include:
(1) Dry or partially hydrated dosage forms contact-
ing surfaces with substantial mucus layers (typi-
cally particulates administered into the nasal
cavity).
(2) Fully hydrated dosage forms contacting surfaces
with substantial mucus layers (typically particu-
lates of many dFirst GenerationT mucoadhesives
that have hydrated in the luminal contents on
delivery to the lower gastrointestinal tract).
(3) Dry or partially hydrated dosage forms contact-
ing surfaces with thin/discontinuous mucus
layers (typically tablets or patches in the oral
cavity or vagina).
(4) Fully hydrated dosage forms contacting surfaces
with thin/discontinuous mucus layers (typically
aqueous semisolids or liquids administered into
the oesophagus or eye).
It is unlikely that the mucoadhesive process will be
the same in each case.
In the study of adhesion generally, two steps in the
adhesive process have been identified [16], which
have been adapted to describe the interaction between
mucoadhesive materials and a mucous membrane
(e.g. [1,17]) (Fig. 3).
Step 1 Contact stage: An intimate contact (wetting)
occurs between the mucoadhesive and mucous
membrane.
Step 2 Consolidation stage: Various physicochemi-
cal interactions occur to consolidate and
strengthen the adhesive joint, leading to pro-
longed adhesion.
4.3.1. The contact stage
The mucoadhesive and the mucous membrane
have initially come together to form an intimate
contact. In some cases these two surfaces can be
mechanically brought together, e.g. placing and
holding a delivery system within the oral cavity,
eye or vagina. In others the deposition of a particle
is encouraged via the aerodynamics of the organ.
For example within the nasal cavity or bronchi of
the respiratory tract deposition onto the dstickyT
mucus coat is encouraged by processes such as
inertial impaction, in order to dfilter outT particles
from the airstream [18]. The gastrointestinal tract is
an example of an inaccessible mucosal surface
where the adhesive material cannot be placed
directly onto the target mucosal surface, or delivered
to the surface by organ design. In general, adhesion
and possible blockage of the gastrointestinal tract
would be potentially catastrophic. For larger parti-
cles, peristalsis and other gastrointestinal movement
would help to force the dosage form into contact
with the mucosa. However little evidence of suc-
cessful adhesion of larger dosage forms has yet
been reported in the literature, other than the poten-
tially dangerous case of oesophageal adhesion [19].
For smaller particles in suspension, adsorption onto
the gastrointestinal mucosa would be an essential
prerequisite for the adhesion process. Other exam-
ples where an adsorption step would be required
would be the administration of nanoparticle suspen-
sions to the precorneal region, or mouthwashes
containing microparticles.
The principles of the DLVO theory (described in
the 1940s by Derjaguin and Landau, and separately
by Verwey and Overbeek to explain the stability of
colloids [18]) have been used to describe the phy-
sicochemical processes involved in the adsorption of
 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568 1561

Hydrated
layer
Particle Particle

Mucus layer Mucus layer

a) Dry or partially hydrated dosage forms b) Fully hydrated dosage forms contacting
contacting surfaces with substantial mucus surfaces with substantial mucus layers (e.g.
layers (e.g. aerosolised particles deposited particle suspensions in the gastrointestinal
in the nasal cavity). tract).

Tablet Gel

c) Dry or partially hydrated dosage forms d) Fully hydrated dosage forms contacting
contacting surfaces with thin/ surfaces with thin/discontinuous mucus
discontinuous mucus layers (e.g. a tablet layers (e.g. aqueous microparticles
placed onto the oral mucosa). administered into the vagina).

Fig. 2. Some scenarios where mucoadhesion can occur.

bacteria onto surfaces [20,21]. The theory may from osmotic pressure effects as a result of the
therefore also be used in the consideration of the interpenetration of the electrical double layers, steric
adsorption process for small particles. Within the effects and also electrostatic interactions when the
body a particle will move due to Brownian motion, surface and particle carry the same charge. Attrac-
the flow of liquids within a body cavity and body tive forces arise form van der Waals interactions,
movements such as peristalsis. If a particle surface energy effects and electrostatic interactions if
approaches a surface it will experience both repul- the surface and particles carry opposite charges. The
sive and attractive forces. Repulsive forces arise relative strength of these opposing forces will vary
depending on the nature of the particle, the aqueous
Contact Consolidation environment, and the distance between the particle
stage stage and surface. For example, the smaller the particle,
the greater the surface-area-to-volume ratio and
Dosage Interaction therefore the greater the attractive forces. Particles
form area
can be weakly held at a secondary minimum (circa
Mucosa 10 nm separation), a region where the attractive
with
mucus forces are balanced by the repulsive forces allowing
the particles to be easily dislodged. For stronger
adsorption to occur, particles have to overcome a
Fig. 3. The two stages in mucoadhesion. repulsive barrier (the potential energy barrier) to get
1562 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
closer to the surface (circa 1 nm). If this barrier is
sufficiently small, or if the particle has sufficient
energy, then adsorption into the primary minimum
can occur. This type of adsorption would be
required to allow a strong adhesive bond to form.
This situation is made more complex by the fact
that the surface in question is usually a mucus gel
rather than a solid, and the particles in-vivo may
become hydrated and/or coated with biomolecules,
significantly altering their physicochemical properties
[2224]. The adhesive interaction necessary to retain
a dosage form may only need to be weak if the
forces promoting displacement are also small. A
consideration of many physicochemical models of
liquids at solid interfaces suggests that the liquid
adjacent to the interface is stationary, with the rate
of flow increasing with distance from the surface
[25]. Many texts also refer to the presence of an
unstirred water layer at the surface of the gastroin-
testinal mucosae [26]. Mucous membranes typically
have a highly irregular topography on both the
macroscopic and microscopic level so it is possible
for small particulates to become lodged in these
surface folds and crevasses. Small particles may
therefore be subjected only to minor dislodging
stresses so only small adhesive interactions would
be required to keep them in place. This might
explain how apparently inert materials have been
reported to be mucoadhesive (e.g. [2729]).
4.3.2. The consolidation stage
It has been proposed that if strong or prolonged
adhesion is required, for example with larger for-
mulations exposed to stresses such as blinking or
mouth movements, then a second dconsolidationT
stage is required. Mucoadhesive materials adhere
most strongly to solid dry surfaces [30] as long as
they are activated by the presence of moisture.
Moisture will effectively plasticize the system allow-
ing mucoadhesive molecules to become free, con-
form to the shape of the surface, and bond
predominantly by weaker van der Waal and hydro-
gen bonding. In the case of cationic materials such
as chitosan, electrostatic interactions with the nega-
tively charged groups (such as carboxyl or sulphate)
on the mucin or cell surfaces are also possible. The
mucoadhesive bond is by nature very heterogenous
making it extremely difficult to use spectroscopic
techniques to identify the type of bonds and groups
involved although hydrogen bonds have been iden-
tified as being important [1,31]. Polymer/mucosae
interactions have been investigated by evaluating
surface energies [3234]. Although of interest,
these studies have met with varying degrees of
success, which is unsurprising considering the het-
erogeneous nature of mucosal surfaces and biopoly-
mer solutions relative to the normally pure solvents
and surfaces required in surface energy measure-
ments. Polymers and biopolymers in solution tend
to rapidly accumulate at interfaces producing a sig-
nificant reduction in the surface energy. It is also
noticeable when undertaking tensiometer studies
with these systems that the high affinity of materials
like carbomers for water almost appears to have a
dsuction-likeT effect, helping to hold to formulation
onto a solid surface [30]. For surfaces with only
limited amounts of mucus, a dry mucoadhesive
polymer will almost certainly collapse the mucus
layer by extracting the water component of the
gel, allowing the polymer molecules the freedom
to interact by hydrogen bonding with the epithelial
surface [17].
However, when a substantial mucus layer is
present then the anti-adherent properties of mucus
will need to be overcome if a strong adhesive joint
is to be formed. In this case the adhesive joint can
be considered to contain three regions (Fig. 4), the
mucoadhesive, the mucosa and an interfacial region,
consisting at least initially of mucus. To achieve
strong adhesion, a change in the physical properties
of the mucus layer will be required otherwise it
will readily fail on application of a dislodging
stress.
There are essentially two theories as to how gel
strengthening/consolidation occurs. One is based on
a macromolecular interpenetration effect, which has
been dealt with in a theoretical basis by Peppas and
Mucoadhesive dosage form
Mucus layer
The mucosa
Fig. 4. The three regions within a mucoadhesive joint.
 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
Fig. 5. The interpenetration theory; three stages in the inteaction
between a mucoadhesive polymer and mucin glycoprotein.
Sahlin [15]. In this theory, based largely on the
diffusion theory described by Voyutskii [35] for
compatible polymeric systems, the mucoadhesive
molecules interpenetrate and bond by secondary
interactions with mucus glycoproteins (Fig. 5). Evi-
dence for this is provided by an ATIR FTIR study
by Jabbari et al. [36]. In their study a thin cross-
linked film of poly(acrylic acid) was formed on an
ATR crystal. A mucin solution was placed into
contact with this film and ATR-FTIR spectra col-
lected over a period of time. Deconvolution of these
spectra revealed a peak after 6 min at 1550 cm 1
(which manifested itself as a small shoulder in the
original spectrum) which was attributed to mucin
dimeric carboxylic CMO stretching and it was pro-
posed that this indicated the presence of interpene-
trating mucin molecules within the poly(acrylic
acid) film. Another study [37] suggested that evi-
dence of substantial interpenetration was apparent
for poly(acrylic acid)s labeled with fluoresceina-
mine. This was size dependent but even the largest
Mucoadhesive dosage form
Hydrating region in dosage
form
Direction of water
movement
Dehydrated
Mucus layer
The mucosa
Fig. 6. The dehydration theory of mucoadhesion.
1563
polymer (polycarbophil) showed penetration to a
depth of 60 Am after 4 h. However, the model
mucus used was a commercial mucin which is
thought to be degraded and therefore of limited
value as a model of native mucus [38,39]. The
porcine intestinal mucosa also used in this study
had been frozen prior to experimentation, a proce-
dure likely to result in significant damage to the
mucus gel layer. Further indirect evidence for inter-
penetration is based on the rheological effects of
mixing mucus with mucoadhesive gels [40,41].
Rheological synergism, an increase in the resistance
to elastic deformation (i.e. mucus gel strengthening)
is evident, and this would undoubtedly help conso-
lidate the adhesive joint.
The second theory is the dehydration theory [17].
When a material capable of rapid gelation in an
aqueous environment is brought into contact with a
second gel water movement occurs between gels
until equilibrium is achieved. A polyelectrolyte gel,
such as a poly(acrylic acid) will have a strong affinity
for water, therefore a high dosmotic pressureT and a
large swelling force [42,43]. When brought into con-
tact with a mucus gel it will rapidly dehydrate that
gel and force intermixing and consolidation of the
mucus joint (Fig. 6) until equilibrium is reached. The
movement of water from mucus into a poly(acrylic
acid) film was observed by Jabbari et al. [36]. A
mucus gel, on dehydration, goes from having lubri-
cant to the opposite adhesive properties, as observed
in studies by Mortazavi and Smart [44,45].
The latter theory explains why mucoadhesion
arises very quickly, within a matter of seconds,
while the former requires two large macromolecules
to interpenetrate several Am within a short time.
The rheological synergy study suggests that as soon
1564 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
as mucus and mucoadhesive interpenetrate they are
likely to interact and form a surface gel layer that
will substantially inhibit any further interpenetra-
tion. In an electron microscopy study by Lehr et
al. [46] no evidence of interpenetration could be
seen in the micrometer range when fresh rat intest-
inal mucus was used. Clear evidence of rapid
mucus gel dehydration has been observed using
light microscopy [44]. However, the dehydration
theory is limited to explaining the adhesion arising
when a dry or partially hydrated formulation are
brought into contact with a substantial mucus gel,
and will not apply to the occasions where hydrated
gels are involved.
5. Removal mechanisms
Adhesive failure will normally occur at the weakest
component of the joint (Fig. 7). For weaker adhesives
this would be the mucoadhesivemucus interface, for
stronger adhesives this would initially be the mucus
layer, but later may be the hydrating mucoadhesive
material [47]. On application of a constant tensile
stress to compacts of mucoadhesive polymers, joint
failure was found by Mortazavi and Smart [48] to be a
cohesive failure of the swelling polymer for all but the
weakest adhesives. The strength and durability of the
adhesive joint will therefore depend on the cohesive
nature of the weakest region. The mucoadhesive poly-
mer in an aqueous environment can overhydrate to
form a slippery mucilage, which is readily removed
[7]. Controlling the rate and extent of hydration is
required to produce prolonged adhesion, and strate-
gies such as cross-linking [4951] and introducing
hydrophobic entities [52] has been tried to achieve
Fracture through the hydrated
gel layer
Fracture through the interface
Fracture through the
mucus gel layer
The epithelium
Fig. 7. The possible regions for mucoadhesive joint failure.
this. In all cases, eventually all formulations will be
displaced by mucus or cell turnover [5355].
6. Some factors affecting mucoadhesion
Several factors have been identified as affecting the
strength of the solid mucoadhesive joint [1,9,11].
Many studies have indicated an optimum molecular
weight for mucoadhesion, ranging from circa 104 Da
to circa 4  106 Da, although accurately characterising
the molecular weight of large hydrophilic polymers is
very difficult. Larger molecular weight polymers will
not hydrate readily to free the binding groups to
interact with a substrate, while lower molecular
weight polymers will form weak gels and readily
dissolve. The flexibility of polymer chains is believed
to be important for interpenetration and entanglement,
allowing binding groups to come together. As the
cross-linking of water-soluble polymers increases,
the mobility of the polymer chains decrease, although
this could also have a positive effect in restricting
overhydration. Studies have shown that the mucoad-
hesive properties of polymers containing ionisable
groups are affected by the pH of the surrounding
media [1]. For example, mucoadhesion of poly(acrylic
acid)s is favoured when the majority of the carbox-
ylate groups are in the unionised form, which occurs
at pHs below the pKa. However, in systems with a
high density of ionisable groups (e.g. carbomers or
chitosans), the local pH within or at the surface of a
formulation will differ significantly from that of the
surrounding environment [56].
The strength of adhesion has been found to
change with the initial dconsolidationT force applied
to the joint, or the length of contact time prior to
Mucoadhesive dosage form
 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
testing. The presence of metal ions, which can inter-
act with charged polymers, may also affect the adhe-
sion process.
7. Liquid and semisolid adhesion
7.1. Water soluble polymer adsorption
Mucoadhesive polymers (chitosan, polycarbophil
and Carbopol 934) in dilute solutions were shown to
bind to buccal cells in-vitro [57], and to bind and be
retained in vivo for over 2 h [58]. The mechanism by
which this occurs is that of polymer adsorption at an
interface, where polymers will naturally collect to
reduce the surface energy and can then bind by the
formation of many weak bonds, mimicking the natural
role of mucins in saliva. The scenario is complicated
by the presence of mucins on the mucosae, which
means that polymers are adsorbing onto a hydrated
gel. In the case of cationic polymers like chitosan, the
positive charge will favour binding to a negatively
charged surface although, in-vivo binding to soluble
luminal mucins may inhibit this effect [59].
7.2. Retention of liquids and gels
More concentrated mucoadhesive dispersions have
been shown to be retained on mucosal surfaces for
extended periods [60,61]. The process by which
polymeric dispersions spread and are retained on
mucosae will depend principally on the surface
energy of the solid and liquid (a positive spreading
coefficient), along with the rheology of the liquid.
The dispersion will need to be sufficiently mobile to
allow spreading and interaction while not being so
mobile as to be readily dislodged. Systems that allow
in-situ gelation will clearly favour retention in this
case [62,63]. The interaction of the liquid or semi-
solid with biological fluids in terms of the rate and
extend of mixing and dissolution, will also be key
factors influencing retention.
8. New materials
In order to overcome the limitations of first gen-
eration doff-the-shelfT mucoadhesive materials, new
1565
types of materials have been investigated that allow
specificity, or prolong and strengthen the mucoadhe-
sion process. In some cases, existing mucoadhesive
polymers have been modified, while in others, new
materials are developed.
One approach to produce improved mucoadhe-
sives has been to modify existing materials. For
example thiol groups (by coupling cysteine, thiogly-
colic acid, cysteamine) have been placed into a range
of mucoadhesive polymers such as the carbomers,
chitosans and alginates by Bernkop-Schnurch et al.
[6467]. The concept is that in-situ they will form
disulphide links not only between the polymers them-
selves thus inhibiting overhydration and formation of
the slippery mucilage, but also with the mucin layer/
mucosa itself, thus strengthening the adhesive joint
and leading to improved adhesive performance. This
interesting approach appears to be meeting with some
success.
The incorporation of ethyl hexyl acrylate into a
copolymer with acrylic acid in order to produce a
more hydrophobic and plasticized system was con-
sidered by Shojaei et al. [68]. This would reduce
hydration rate while allowing optimum interaction
with the mucosal surface, and the mucoadhesive
force was found to be greater with the copolymer
than with poly(acrylic acid) alone.
The grafting of polyethylene glycol (PEG) onto
poly(acrylic acid) polymers and copolymers has also
been investigated [6971]. These copolymers were
shown to have favourable adhesion relative to poly
(acrylic acid) alone, in that the polyethylene glycol
is proposed to promote interpenetration with the
mucus gel [72]. Poly(acrylic acid)/PEG complexes
have also been developed as mucoadhesive materi-
als [73].
Poloxomer gels have been investigated as they are
reported to show phase transitions from liquids to
mucoadhesive gels at body temperature and will
therefore allow in-situ gelation at the site of interest
[63]. Pluronics have also been chemically combined
with poly(acrylic acid)s to produce systems with
enhanced adhesion [74] and retention in the nasal
cavity [75].
Dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), an amino acid
found in mussel adhesive protein that is believed to
lend to the adhesive process, has also been combined
with pluronics to enhance their adhesion [76].
1566 J.D. Smart / Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 57 (2005) 15561568
Glyceryl monooleate/water liquid crystalline
phases have also been found to be mucoadhesive
using a range of mucosal surfaces, although the
mechanism will differ somewhat from that of other
mucoadhesives [77].
Lectins are proteins or glycoproteins that have
been considered second-generation bioadhesives,
and differ significantly from the polymeric systems
described above. There is a range of lectins avail-
able that interact with specific sugar residues via
relatively weak (secondary) interactions and have
been considered for use in targeted drug delivery
[78].
9. Conclusions and future prospects
The mechanism by which a mucoadhesive bond is
formed will depend on the nature of the mucous
membrane and mucoadhesive material, the type of
formulation, the attachment process and the subse-
quent environment of the bond. It is apparent that a
single mechanism for mucoadhesion proposed in
many texts is unlikely for all the different occasions
when adhesion occurs. However, an understanding of
the mechanism of mucoadhesion in each instance will
assist the development of the new, enhanced systems
required for the delivery of the products of the bio-
technology revolution.
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