Comprehensive Turbine & Generator Assessment

COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
SI MISSION STATEMENT

Structural Integrity Associates, Inc. will be recognized as the most trusted independent
provider of innovative, best in value,fully integrated engineered solutions
to the Energy industry.

ABOUT STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

Structural Integrity Associates, Inc., is a leading engineering and consulting firm dedicated to the analysis, control, and
prevention of structural failures. Founded in 1983 in San Jose, CA, we have since opened branch offices throughout the United
States and Canada, and established overseas affiliates.

We pride ourselves on innovation marked by a creative multi-disciplined approach to component evaluation and repairs.
Our services are supported through the development of increasingly sophisticated tools reflecting a unique blend of technical
expertise with the latest computer and expert system technologies.

Over the years, Structural Integrity has established itself as an innovative and responsive resource for answering virtually
any challenge in the analysis, control, and prevention of failures in critical equipment. Our experience ranges from R&D
to engineering, metallurgy, and fabrication, and from petrochemical applications to nuclear and fossil-fueled power plant
support. With several offices and experts throughout the U.S., we can quickly and effectively help your engineering needs.

TURBINE & GENERATOR SERVICES INCLUDE:

About SI Turbine & Generator Services ...............................................3
SI Turbine & Generator Contacts ........................................................4
Rotor Bore Machining & Surface Conditioning ....................................5

Rotor Bore Inspection........................................................................6

Inspection of Solid Rotors (No Bore) ...................................................7

Generator Shaft Keyway Cracking .....................................................8

Steam Turbine Rotors Blade Attachment Inspection ...............................9

Inspection of Westinghouse HP Turbine

Inlet Sleeves & Nozzle Chambers ....................................................10

Turbine & Valve Casing Crack Sizing ...............................................11

Steam Turbine Rotors Disk Keyway / Bore Inspection .........................12

Economical Rotor Dovetail Inspection Alternative for TIL 1292 ..........13

Generator Rotor Retaining Ring Inspection ........................................14

Steam Turbine / Generator Rotor Forging Life Assessment ...................15

LPRimLIFE for Windows ...................................................................16

CORPORATE SNAPSHOT
Generator Dovetail Analysis ............................................................17

Generator Retaining Ring Life Assessment Using EPRI RRing-Life ...........18

Employee-owned company
Turbine & Generator Engineering Consulting .....................................19
founded in 1983 in San
Jose, CA Turbine Steam Chest Life Assessment ................................................20

Rotor Material Characterization Through Miniture Samples .................21

Material Science ............................................................................22

Branch offices through-
out the United States and Vibration Monitoring, Testing & Analysis ...........................................23

Canada, as well as over-

seas affiliates

250+ employees; consistent

innovation and service since
1983

2
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
ABOUT STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
TURBINE & GENERATOR SERVICES
As with other services provided by
Structural Integrity Associates, we also
provide comprehensive, fully integrated
solutions for turbine and generators not
just parts of solutions. SI has developed
a full complement of state-of-the-art
nondestructive evaluation systems and
procedures with which to inspect all
major turbine and generator components
requiring periodic assessment. Many
of these utilize phased array ultrasonic
approaches that provide significant
enhancements over conventional UT.
Where machining support is necessary
to prepare for the inspections, for
example bore plug removal and bore
honing to support rotor bore inspection,
SI maintains full capabilities such that
the entire process required to complete
the inspection is controlled for timely
and cost-effective implementation.
We have coupled our advanced
inspection capabilities with advanced
computer modeling and analysis
programs with which to perform stress
and fracture analyses. Several of
these programs were developed by
ABOUT SI TURBINE & GENERATOR
SERVICES
the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) through collaborative efforts
involving numerous industry experts
and subjected to rigorous EPRI QA
evaluations, and so carry an industry
endorsement accordingly. These
are custom programs, specific to
the component for which each was
developed, and providing not only
deterministic assessment capabilities
but also probabilistic evaluation
options. Many of these programs were
either developed or upgraded for EPRI
by SI engineers and scientists, so we
are fully aware of all analysis features
and their optimum utilization.
For many of the components undergoing
assessment, specific material properties
information is not typically available;
consequently, the evaluations are
performed using public database
properties. For situations in which
database properties vary too widely to
enable suitably accurate solutions, i.e.,
to minimize the uncertainty associated
with a solution, SI can also determine
the material properties more accurately.
Miniature samples can be removed
from the various components without
adversely impacting local stress, and
these samples can be used to study
the metallurgical characteristics of
the material at our Materials Science
Center and to perform miniature
sample punch testing to better define
the material properties.
Structural Integrity also provides:
mechanical vibration testing and
monitoring services
on-line monitoring using our Creep-
FatiguePro monitoring system
design reviews
repair consulting and analysis
failure and root cause analyses
procurement specifications
special application NDE
development
This brochure provides additional
information on these services. Once
you have reviewed this information, we
are confident that you will agree that
the breadth and depth of our services
are unmatched in the industry.
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 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
SI TURBINE & GENERATOR CONTACTS

PAUL ZAYICEK WENDY WEISS

Manager, Turbine Generator Material Characterization
705-977-1314 512-533-9191
pzayicek@structint.com wweiss@structint.com

CLIFF LANGE BUD AUVIL

Analytical Services Director, Business Development &
408-978-8200 Strategic Product Planning
clange@structint.com 704-597-5554
bauvil@structint.com

HEATHER JACKSON FRED DeGROOTH

Analytical Services Business Development Manager
408-833-7201 Fossil Plant Services
hjackson@structint.com 860-536-3982
fdegrooth@structint.com

RON OHARA
Inspection Services
301-445-8200
rohara@structint.com

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 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
Rotor inspection typically involves
implementation of a number of protocols,
each directed at specific locations and
involving specific damage mechanisms.
One inspection concentrates on the
shaft center where high speed rotation
imposes tangential stresses that are
highest at the rotor axis or, if the rotor
has a central bore, at the bore surface.
This stress is relatively constant during
operation, so stress cycles occur only as
a result of start/stop operation, which
for typical turbine/generator sets is
relatively infrequent. Consequently, the
predominant damage mechanism is
a high stress, low cycle fatigue, most
likely causing initiation from pre-existing
forging flaws or from link-up of forging
flaws located in close proximity.
For bored rotors, the bore itself
provides a convenient, uniform surface
from which to perform the inspection.
The OD surfaces, on the other hand,
typically involve numerous geometric
features that limit inspection of the near-
bore material; consequently, inspection
from the bore surface, i.e., boresonic
inspection, has evolved as the preferred
method for testing the near-bore
material for radial-axial oriented flaws
that can grow under the predominantly
tangential rotational stress.
Boresonic inspection support involves
three activities: removal of the bore plug
(shrink-fit assembled) to access the bore;
bore honing to provide appropriate
surface conditions for the inspections
to follow; and replacement of the plug
upon completion of the inspection and
proper post-inspection cleaning of the
bore. SI provides comprehensive bore
preparation surface, typically packaged
with our bore inspection services
but also available as independent
services. Precise bore dimensional
measurements are made to facilitate
manufacture of the replacement plug
such that it is available for assembly
upon completion of the inspection.
ROTOR BORE MACHINING &
SURFACE CONDITIONING
The equipment we utilize for these
services are large, heavy duty systems
built to accomplish the desired result
quickly. A typical honing operation
requires removal of 0.020-inch or
greater of material on the diameter,
and preparation of the surface to a 60
or better -inch finish. Bore preparation
times vary depending on the diameter
and length of the bore and on the bore
configuration. A typical bore that is of
uniform diameter not exceeding five
inches or so can typically be completed
in two shifts. This includes the time for
plug removal, honing as defined, and
allowance for the time at the conclusion
of the inspection for plug installation.
Extremely long and/or large diameter
bores and configurations that include
steps, transitions, and bottle bores can
extend this time somewhat, but with the
same resulting material removal and
surface finish.
Hand hones and light-weight, portable
systems offered elsewhere simply
cannot remove more than a couple
thousandths of material in the same time;
consequently, many rotors honed with
this light weight equipment are either
inspected without having achieved the
requisite surface conditions, or they
must subsequently be honed using
heavier duty equipment, with gretly
increased time and expense involved.
In addition to these bore surface
preparation services, we also offer
field bore machining services. This
involves even more robust machining
equipment that is used to enlarge the
diameter either locally (bottle bore) or
over its full length (overbore).
Additionally, we offer miniature sample
removal services to support material
characterization efforts. We operate a
miniature sample device that is deployed
down the bore and then removes a
shallow disk of material from the bore
surface. The sample removal leaves
a smooth, shallow dimple in the bore
surface that does not negatively impact
stress or surface condition and so can
be left as-is following sample removal.
Miniature samples can be used to study
microstructure and chemistry and to
determine more precisely the fracture
toughness and fracture appearance
transition appearance (FATT) of the
material.
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ROTOR BORE INSPECTION
OVERVIEW
Turbines and generators are primary
components in the power production
industry and as such, considerable
research and development work has
been expended to develop inspection
and analysis tools that reduce outage
and analysis times. Failures at the rotor
bore surface result from cracking due
to fatigue or creep, where in-service
stresses are highest, or beneath the
bore surface due to link-up of inherent
discontinuities.
Image of a Bore Axial Crack in
a HP Turbine Rotor
INPECTION APPROACH
Structural Integritys approach to
rotor bore NDE is to thoroughly
inspect the bore surface and near
bore region for incipient cracking
and other forging flaws by using an
advanced digital acquisition and
signal processing system for acquiring
and recording data. Utilizing a
multi-channel ultrasonic and eddy
current imaging technique operating
concurrently, Structural Integrity can
directly compare surface and near
surface flaws. In fact, the inspection
system has been evaluated on the EPRI
performance demonstration blocks and
achieved 100% detection for all flaws
from the near and far surface blocks
(reference EPRI Report 1001435).
Using the advanced NDE system,
combined with its existing condition
assessment offering and materials
6
COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
Ultrasonic Display of Calibration Block Reflectors
expertise, Structural Integrity can inspections. The whole process for
provide its clients with all the necessary data reduction is more immune to
inspection, materials characterization, false detections due to noise than
and analysis technologies for assuring the traditional amplitude gate based
turbine and generator rotor integrity. detection schemes.
SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The raw wave forms from the ultrasonic
channels and the eddy current channel
are recorded as the search units
rotate inside the bore cavity. The
system performs a two step process
on the recorded data to determine
the relevance, location, and size of
reflectors. The first is a flaw automatic
target detection algorithm (ATD). The
ATD algorithm uses primarily two
signal characteristics, target motion
Concurrent Ultrasonic and Eddy
and signal to noise ratio, to identify
Current Inspection
targets of interest. Flaw centroids are
of Nuclear HP Rotor
linked by a flaw proximity analysis
routine which considers the axial,
radial, and circumferential position of
adjoining centroids. The algorithm
organizes targets into groups and
assigns dimensions, resulting in flaw
descriptions, as opposed to time
and amplitude reflection information
provided in conventional ultrasonic
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
Most turbine and generator rotors
have central bore holes running the
full length or most of the length of the
shaft, a practice that was initiated as a
means of removing ingot and forging
flaws that tend to consolidate near
the center of the forging. Given the
typically complex geometries of the
outer surfaces of turbine and generator
rotors, the central bore hole provides
a convenient surface from which to
perform inspections of the rotors.
Consequently, bore surface inspections
and volumetric ultrasonic inspections
from the bore have become standard
practice throughout the industry.
BACKGROUND OF UN-BORED
ROTORS
For older rotors, the primary reason
for elimination of the bore was the
unavailability of the boring equipment,
for example during times of war when
the boring equipment was otherwise
occupied making weapons. More
recently, as superclean steel forgings
have become available, the need
for removing the central material to
remove flaw conditions has been
eliminated. This trend owes to two
contributing factors that reduce the
criticality of any specific flaw in solid
rotors compared to bored rotors. First,
the stress in an un-bored rotor is lower
because the stress concentrating effect
of the bore is eliminated. In addition,
INSPECTION OF SOLID ROTORS
(NO BORE)
WHAT STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OFFERS
the stress intensity of a subsurface flaw Structural Integrity has adapted a
is less than the stress intensity of the linear phased array approach for this
same flaw at a free surface, such as the application. By electronically sweeping
bore. By definition, the absence of a the beam sequentially through a series
bore means that all shaft-central flaws of angles as the transducer scans
are subsurface, therefore having lower around the rotor OD surface, the entire
stress intensity, compound by the lower rotor central volume can be inspected.
stress in the absence of a bore. In addition, the inspection includes
many, many more different angles, for
INSPECTION DIFFICULTIES example -45 through +45 in 1/2
How does one inspect the rotor material increment refer to Figure 2. This
when the shaft does not have a bore? provides much greater assurance that
Clearly, the only option is to inspect from flaws will not be missed.
the OD, using appropriate surfaces that
are available. To address the growing
need for appropriate inspection
techniques for aging rotors and new
un-bored rotors as well, EPRI conducted
a study to define applicable inspection
techniques and limitations imposed by
existing OD geometric conditions. The
central theme of the ultrasonic inspection
approach was to utilize inherent rotor
shaft geometric reflectors for calibration
according to the ASTM Standard
A-418, with appropriate modifications Discontinuity
to address off axis discontinuities. This
standard addresses only reflectors that
are very near the shaft center, while a
primary concern is the radial-axial flaw
that is offset radially from the shaft center.
In the EPRI protocol, this is addressed by Figure 1.
using multiple beam angles performed
in multiple scans around the shaft, Figure
1. This method is very time consuming
because of the multiple scans required
and still only provides some limited
number of inspection angles.
Discontinuity
Figure 2.
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GENERATOR SHAFT KEYWAY CRACKING
BACKGROUND
Significant cracking of generator shafts
was found during a Fall 2004 outage
at a U.S. nuclear plant. Inspections
by site personnel were conducted in
response to elevated vibration levels
at the LP turbine-to-generator shaft
coupling. The main generator rotors of
both units at the plant were fabricated
by GE of NiMoV alloy steel forgings
in the mid-1960s, and have been in
service since the early 1970s. The
cracking is associated with one of the
two keyways at the location where the
coupling is shrink-fitted onto the shaft.
Figure 1 shows a macro of the cracking
at one of the keyways.
Figure 1. View of Crack in
Generator Shaft at Keyway
under Coupling Shrink Fit
Structural Integrity Associates, Inc.
was retained by the utility to perform
a comprehensive root-cause analysis
of the failure. The metallurgical
investigation confirmed the cracking
to be the result of high-cycle fatigue,
with initiation at the key-way side
wall - a region of fretting damage.
The cracking was oriented at a 45
degree angle relative to the axis of the
shaft, consistent with fatigue cracking
caused by cyclic torsional loading.
Inspection, evaluation and monitoring
tools developed by Structural Integrity
to address this type of shaft cracking
are summarized below.
ADVANCED ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION
Structural Integrity has developed
an advanced ultrasonic inspection
8
Figure 2. FE Stress Analysis
technique to detect cracking of this type
from the outside surface of the generator
shaft without coupling disassembly.
The Structural Integrity approach uses a
phased array ultrasonic transducer with
a compound-angle wedge along with
the beam-sweeping feature to reach
the crack location. The geometrical
features of this approach have been
evaluated analytically, tested with a
full-size mockup and demonstrated in
the field for several nuclear generator
coupling inspections performed since
Spring 2006. Field inspections can
now be performed during scheduled
outages and during unscheduled/
forced outages on short notice, even
when a unit is off-line for a brief
period.
STRESS & FRACTURE MECHANICS
EVALUATION
Stress (Figure 2) and Fracture
mechanics analyses are performed
to determine critical crack size and
crack propagation as a function of
torsional excursion events that may be
encountered during future operation.
These calculations are also used to
develop allowable amplitudes of
torsional vibration that would not
result in future fatigue crack initiation
COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
Crack Initiation
Site
or propagation of small cracks. These
allowables can then be used to set
warning and alarm levels if torsional
vibration monitoring is desired.
TORSIONAL VIBRATION
MONITORING
A Transient Torsional Vibration
Monitoring System (TTVMS) developed
by Structural Integrity was installed
as part of the root-cause failure
investigation to monitor the potential for
future torsional fatigue damage on the
repaired generator shafts. Structural
Integritys TTVMS can measure and
record transient torsional events
based on data from speed probes by
demodulating the speed signal that
is modulated by torsional vibration.
The system provides frequency and
amplitude information of torsional
vibration modes that can impact shaft
torsional fatigue life. The system can
be set up to automatically compare
readings to predetermined allowables
to provide warnings and alarms when
harmful torsional events are detected.
Long term trending results may be used
to assess remaining fatigue life and
help optimize operating conditions to
avoid torsional cracking.
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
STEAM TURBINE ROTORS
BLADE ATTACHMENT INSPECTION
OVERVIEW
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in the
blade attachment region of nuclear and
fossil low-pressure (LP) turbine rotors
has challenged the utility industry to
develop effective programs to monitor
crack growth, assess remaining life,
and implement appropriate remedial
measures to ensure the safe operation
of the large number of rotors afflicted
with this problem. This has lead to
the emergence of new technologies
and methodologies for improved
detection and characterization of
incipient damage in order to reduce
the conservatism in life assessment
calculations. The advent of computer
based data acquisition and analysis
systems and the use of linear phased
array technology has been responsible
for the reduction of uncertainty in flaw
detection and sizing. Linear Phased Array Inspection of Fossil LP Rotor
pits can be monitored for growth. By a linear array of multiple independent
Inspection Approach trending crack growth and performing a ultrasonic transducer elements, each
Since failures are not limited to specific fracture mechanics analysis, customers supported by its own pulser/receiver.
attachment geometry, Structural will have the necessary information
Integrity Associates has been offering to successfully manage the run/ While different array configurations
inspection services for both tangential repair/ replacement decision process are possible, the array chosen for
and axial entry blades. Using a concerning these rotors. this application contains 32 elements.
specially designed scanner, the blade Each array element is sequentially
attachments can be inspected with the System Overview pulsed at very precise intervals, or
rotor in or out of the turbine casing. If The linear phase array approach phased, so that the propagating
the customer elects to have the rotor provides for enhanced detection and wave from each element arrives
pulled from the casing, no special sizing of cracks in blade attachments. It simultaneously and in-phase at a
platform is required for the inspection. is not necessary to know the attachment given point in the blade attachment.
With the use of advanced digital geometry prior to performing the The phasing delays are altered
acquisition and signal processing inspection and it is possible to scan all electronically to sequentially sweep the
equipment for acquiring and recording the hooks on one side of the attachment beam through a series of incremental
data, shallow cracks propagating from at one time. The search unit contains angles, in this case sweeping the
entire geometry on the opposite side
of the blade. Additionally, the beam
is focused at the appropriate depths
Upper Hook Crack corresponding to the crack locations,
resulting in improved resolution and
sizing accuracy relative to convention
Middle Hook Crack inspection approaches. Structural
Integrity is process has been validated
at the EPRI NDE Center (reference EPRI
Lower Hook Crack Report 1009666) by acquiring and
analyzing data generated from the
blade attachments of retired disks as
well as in-service rotors where flaws
were confirmed with surface NDE.

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 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
INSPECTION OF WESTINGHOUSE HP TURBINE
INLET SLEEVES & NOZZLE CHAMBERS

Westinghouse HP turbine inlet sleeves
on building block type 22/222, 41, 43,
44 and 46 have been recommended
by the OEM via Operation and
Maintenance Memo 13 (OMM-13) for
inspection to identify fatigue cracking
caused from flow excited vibration of
the sleeves in the trepan radius (refer to
diagram). Due to the complex geometry
and limited accessibility at the crack
locations, the examination in the trepan
radius has traditionally been performed
with a magnetic rubber examination
method. In this inspection method,
a dam is built in the annulus and a
liquid rubber compound is used as the
magnetic particle suspension medium.
A coil is assembled in the annulus to
generate the magnetic field. Following
application of the magnetizing field
and removal of the coil, the medium is
pumped into the annulus until it is filled
into the trepan radius, using the residual
magnetic field to attract the magnetic
particles to discontinuities. The rubber
then sets up and is extracted intact, and
the surface is observed for magnetic
particle indications.
is applicable only for the upper halt
sleeves, as the liquid suspension pools
in the lower shell sleeves, but together
the two complementary techniques
provide comprehensive inspection of
all inlet sleeves.
We also developed a complementary
ultrasonic inspection (UT) approach for
this application to provide inspection
redundancy and enable crack depth
sizing. The UT inspection involves the
use of a linear phased array ultrasonic
inspection technique. The linear array
enables electronic beam angulations
over a large range of angles, which is
important for this particular application
because the exact origin and orientation
of any crack originating in the trepan
radius can vary considerably. This
factor, in combination with the
relatively small radius, means that the
optimum beam angle for detection can
vary significantly. The linear array UT
system provides a distinct advantage
over conventional UT in that it can
simultaneously deliver a large number
of independent beam angles, for
example sweeping 30-60 degrees in
0.5-degree increments. This enhances
the probability of detecting cracks and
improves sizing accuracy as well.
The objective of the OMM-014
examination is to evaluate the region
around the weld (bell seal area)
joining the nozzle chamber to the inner
cylinder on Westinghouse HP and HP/
IP turbines. These areas are subjected
to alternating stresses, especially
during partial load operation. Cracks
have been observed at the root of the
weld in some units. Our developed
specialized UT methods to identify,
evaluate and size cracking in these
regions. The SIA approach to address
OMM-14 also utilizes a linear phased
array system. LPA scans are performed
from both the outer nozzle mating area
and the side of the nozzle chamber.

This inspection method is most effective

for the inspection of the lower shell
sleeves, where the suspension medium
is readily contained in the annulus and
directly on the trepan radius. However,
the inspection is more difficult on the
upper half sleeves because of the
tendency for the suspension to drain
from the area of interest. As an option, OMM-014
We developed an alternative wet Nozzle Chamber / Inner
fluorescent magnetic particle technique Cylinder Assembly Weld
for the inspection of the upper sleeve
(overhead trepan). The magnetizing
current is applied to the area of interest
in the same manner as for the magnetic
rubber inspection, but instead of
installing a mold for the rubber
solution, water suspended particles are
sprayed into the radius. The trepan
radius is then observed with a video
borescope having a high intensity UV OMM-13
(fluorescent) light source. Areas where Trepan Radius to be
Inspected for Cracks
indications are detected are recorded
for video playback. This inspection

10
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
TURBINE & VALVE CASING
CRACK SIZING

Cracks in turbine and valve casings

typically initiate at free surfaces and are
routinely detected when the casings are
disassembled for maintenance using
various surface inspection methods:
typically visual (VT), liquid dye penetrant
(PT), or magnetic particle (MT) inspection
methods. Detection using these
methods is more than adequate, and
the inspections can be accomplished
relatively quickly and at relatively low
cost. However, once a crack is detected
the question that immediately follows is
How deep is it?

If UT can penetrate to the flaws of

interest, to the crack tip in the case of
cracking, and if a recognizable detection
occurs, then ultrasonic inspection (UT)
provides the most accurate and most
reliable opportunity for crack depth
measurement relative to other available
methods. UT tip diffraction techniques
rely on the detection of a diffracted
signal originating at the crack tip. So,
if the crack tip location can be defined,
by definition an accurate measurement
of depth can be made. However, the
turbine and valve casings are often
castings having coarse grain structure
and often other internal conditions such
as porosity and shrinkage cavities.
Additionally, the surface condition in
the as-found state is often not suitable
for UT, although this can generally be
improved by grinding if necessary.
And finally, the inspection is further
Ultrasonic Linear Array S-scan
Image of a Surface Crack
(Test Surface) in a Turbine Casing.
complicated by the fact that the casings
are relatively thick, thereby introducing
relatively long test distances, a factor
that magnifies the impact of surface
condition and beam attenuation.
These limitations notwithstanding,
carefully devised and implemented
UT can be applied successfully to
determine crack depth in many, if not
most, cases. The key is to focus the
beam on the crack and particularly
on the crack tip. The unfocused beam
naturally decreases in beam intensity
with increased propagation distance
owing merely to beam spread.
Attenuation over the long test distances
further reduces the intensity, and the
combined affect is a relatively inefficient
beam in terms of detecting the subtle
tip diffraction signals. By comparison,
a focused beam integrates the intensity
distribution over the full aperture of
the transducer at the focal spot. If the
beam can be controlled such that the
beam is focused at the crack tip, the
intensity of the tip diffraction is much,
much greater and therefore the chance
that it will be of some detectable
intensity after propagating back to the
transducer is much greater.
For years, Structural Integrity has utilized
large aperture annular phased arrays
(APAs) for this application, and with
considerable success. The APA uses a
focusing lens to control the nominal depth
of focus, and then electronically varies the
focal depth via precise, controlled time
delays applied as the various elements in
the array are pulsed. More recently, SI
has developed the use of linear phased
arrays (LPAs) for crack sizing in casings.
The APA varies the focal depth only on
the beam axis, so the transducer must
be scanned to bring the beam across
the crack to detect it. The LPA, on the
other hand, provides for beam steering
in addition to electronic focusing, so
less scanning is required and therefore
the surface condition is less of an issue.
We typically use dual 2-D arrays, one
as the transmitter and the second as the
receiver. The 2-D arrays provide for
2-D focusing, which puts greater beam
intensity on the crack, and the pitch-catch
approach reduces surface contact noise
and allows the use of the arrangement
for sizing cracks growing from the test
surface. However, sharper focus can be
achieved using the APA, so it is still relied
upon when the LPA is ineffective or the
result is questionable.

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STEAM TURBINE ROTORS
DISK KEYWAY / BORE INSPECTION
Linear Phased Array Inspection of Nuclear LP Rotor
OVERVIEW
The keyway and wheel bore of shrunk-on
disks are susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) due to high stresses
generated by the shrink fit and poor
steam cycle chemistry. Catastrophic
failure of a disk could occur if bore/
keyway cracks propagate to a critical
size. For nuclear units, in particular,
this is a critical application because
missile fragments from a burst turbine
disk could strike the reactor building
and compromise the operation of the
unit. The advent of computer based
data acquisition and analysis systems
and the use of linear phased array
technology have resulted in improved
flaw detection and sizing.
INSPECTION APPROACH
Since failures are not limited to a
specific turbine manufacturer, Structural
Integrity Associates offers inspection
services for various keyway designs.
Using a specially designed scanner,
no special platform is required for the
disk inspection. Through accurate
crack sizing and performing a fracture
mechanics analysis, customers will
12
have the necessary information to
successfully manage the decision
process concerning these rotors.
Turbine Disk Burst
SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The linear phase array approach
provides for enhanced detection
and sizing of cracks in disk bore/
keyways. The search unit contains a
linear array of multiple independent
ultrasonic transducer elements, each
supported by its own pulser/receiver.
While different array configurations
are possible, the array chosen for this
COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
application contains 32 elements. Each
array element is sequentially pulsed at
very precise intervals, or phased, so
that the propagating wave from each
element arrives simultaneously and
in-phase at a given point in the disk.
By electronically varying the phasing,
the beam can be swept through the
inspection region, as shown above.
The beam is simultaneously focused at
the appropriate depth for optimized
sensitivity and resolution of bore and
keyway cracks. Data analysis is
significantly enhanced through the use
of the sectorial imaging capabilities of
the linear phased array system.
Linear Phased Array Image of
Cracked Keyway
Structural Integritys linear phased
array approach provides for superior
detection and characterization
versus the use of multiple fixed-angle
inspections as traditionally practiced.
The inspection process has been
demonstrated at the EPRI NDE Center
by acquiring and analyzing data
generated from the keyways of retired
disks with various embedded flaws.
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
Since TIL-1292 was issued in 2000,
many utilities operating GE turbine-
generators have grappled with the
costs and downtime associated with
the rotor disassembly required for eddy
current inspection of their generator
rotor wedge slot dovetails. The
technical basis and, thus, the benefit
gained from this costly inspection
evolution has also been a concern.
Since 2003, Structural Integrity
Associates Inc. has been engaged
in the development of alternative
inspection technology to economically
perform generator rotor dovetail
inspections. Specifically Structural
Integrity, in partnership with EPRI, has
developed UT examination equipment
and has qualified procedures that
permit inspection of the dovetails
without rotor disassembly. The
inspection process utilizes state-of-
the-art Linear Phased Array (LPA) UT
technology, which provides reliable
detection and accurate sizing
even under the limited test surface
conditions that prevail because of the
machined land/groove configuration
on the typical rotor OD.
In parallel with inspection technology
advances, we have also completed
the risk assessment and engineering
analysis necessary to package
a cost-effective, comprehensive
ECONOMICAL ROTOR DOVETAIL
INSPECTION ALTERNATIVE FOR TIL 1292
rotor assessment offering for utility
operators. The package integrates
causal and fracture mechanics
analyses into an inspection protocol
that addresses real risks and, thus,
provides real benefits. A number
of inspections have now been
successfully performed each at
a fraction of the cost and schedule
associated with the OEM-offered
inspection. The list that follows
provides a summary of the features
of the condition assessment package
offered by Structural Integrity.
SI-TAILORED GENERATOR ROTOR
DOVETAIL INSPECTION ADVANTAGES
Diverse damage mechanisms
addressed Including fretting and
damage from electrical imbalance
events (arcing damage)
Comprehensive, risk-informed
scope Inspection of all dovetails
in the vicinity of the ends of the
slot wedges
Rotor OD inspection No rotor
disassembly or special prepara-
tions required
Appropriate flaw detection thresh-
olds Flaw detected in the range
of 0.005-0.010 inches (i.e., much
smaller size than critical flaw
size for fretting cracks)
4-pole and 2-pole inspections
Including various geometries
of lands, grooves and crushing
surface angles
Lower cost/shorter schedule
And, thus, improved cost-benefit
related to extending rotor life
We have also developed and have
available an array eddy current
inspection capability for use when the
rotor has been disassembled. We also
offer analytic life assessment services for
this application.
877-474-7693
13

GENERATOR ROTOR
RETAINING RING INSPECTION
From an owners viewpoint, generator
rotor retaining ring inspections are ideally
conducted with the rings assembled to the
rotors in order to avoid ring removal and
reassembly costs. From a flaw detection
standpoint, it is also advantageous to
perform the inspections with the rings
assembled to the rotor. Retaining rings
are assembled with a shrink-fit that
introduces a tensile hoop stress. This
holds cracks open and makes them
more readily detectable, regardless
the inspection method being applied.
But with the rings assembled, the only
feasible means of inspecting the inner
surface, where corrosion damage more
typically occurs, is via well conceived
and qualified ultrasonic inspection
which, as a result, is the preferred means
of inspecting inaccessible surfaces.
Research conducted by the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI)
has clearly demonstrated that the
reliability of retaining ring inspection
is appreciably enhanced through the
application of multiple inspection
methods and modes. Structural
Integrity experience is in total
agreement with the EPRI conclusion
that no single inspection technique is
effective for all flaws; consequently our
approach includes multiple techniques
to enhance detection reliability. Basic
detection scans are performed using
a conventional, contact shear wave
(S-wave) technique, implemented via
14
a fully automated scanning and data
acquisition system. This inspection
provides four channels of pulse-echo
S-wave interrogations (CW, CCW,
axial fore, and axial aft) plus a
0-degree (radial) longitudinal wave
inspection. While the pulse-echo tests
are effective for detection of cracks
at the inner surface, many geometric
reflectors are also detected in the
shrink-fit region, and it can be difficult
to positively discriminate between the
two, depending upon proximity of the
flaw to geometric reflectors.
Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD)
UT is a dual transducer ultrasonic
technique that is used as a supplement
to the pulse-echo tests. Experiments
conducted by EPRI and others have
shown that TOFD does not always
detect stress corrosion cracks because
of the branched nature of the cracks
and therefore the lack of a single,
coherent crack tip. However, when
cracks are detected, TOFD enables
positive discrimination between
geometric reflectors and real flaws.
Consequently, TOFD is implemented
as the second standard technique
to improve detection reliability and
enhance sizing accuracy, but not as a
stand-alone inspection technique. We
also implement other techniques, as
needed, to aid in flaw discrimination
and proper classification. These include
a mode-converted L-wave (MCLW) UT
COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
inspection technique, an inner surface
creeping wave inspection, and both
linear and annular phased arrays
(LPAs and APAs).
For ring off inspections, UT and even
liquid dye penetrant (PT) inspections have
been shown to suffer severely from the
crack closure effects associated with the
removal of the tensile shrink-fit stresses.
A free standing ring has significant
compressive residual stress, and the shift
from highly tensile when on the rotor to
highly compressive when removed closes
cracks sufficiently to impact detectability
severely. EPRI research has also shown
that eddy current (ET) inspection does
not suffer appreciable loss of sensitivity
due to crack closure and is therefore the
preferred inspection for the inspection of
the OD and, for free-standing rings, the ID
surface as well. Eddy current arrays are
now available, and being implemented
by Structural Integrity, for rapid surface
inspection on retaining rings.
Collectively, these inspection
approaches provide extremely high
reliability for detecting even very
small damage forms and extremely
accurate flaw classification and sizing,
a capability that is unmatched in
the industry. The combination of an
effective moisture mitigation program,
probabilistic condition assessment using
EPRIs RRing-Life analysis program,
and the described inspection program
constitutes an effective maintenance
strategy that provides an effective means
of avoiding costly ring replacement
while maintaining high reliability for
continued safe ring operation.
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
STEAM TURBINE/GENERATOR
ROTOR FORGING LIFE ASSESSMENT

Turbines and generators are primary

components in the power production
industry and as such, considerable
research and development work has
been expended to develop inspection
and analysis tools that reduce outage
and analysis times. As a result of
the complex loading and geometry,
sophisticated analysis methods are
necessary to determine the spatial and
time variation of operating stresses and
temperatures. Engineers at Structural
Integrity Associates employ the EPRI
SAFER-PC code to provide its clients
with timely and complete evaluations.

SAFER-PC The SAFER code combines transient Reduce uncertainty in continued

STRESS
AND
FRACTURE
EVALUATION of
ROTORS
PRODUCT OF THE
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
SAFER CODE OVERVIEW
The SAFER code was developed
specifically for steam turbine/generator
rotor evaluations and has been used
extensively by US power producers for
near-bore remaining life evaluations of
system rotors. We played a primary
role in the development of SAFER
and SAFER-PC and have extensive
experience in its application.
thermal-elastic finite element stress
analysis, fracture mechanics, material
property data, and evaluation of
boresonic NDE data to perform
remaining life assessments of turbine/
generator rotors. Evaluations can
be performed deterministically or
probabilistically as warranted by
available unit data.
ANALYSIS BENEFITS
The benefits of performing such
evaluations are:
Provide remaining life assessments
of critical rotating equipment, po-
tentially saving millions of dollars
in rotor replacement costs.
operation of older rotors.
With increased cycling of units,
SAFER can be used to study the
effects operational changes on
damage accumulation, enabling
more accurate cost/benefit evalu-
ations.
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITYS
PROJECT TEAM
Structural Integritys demonstrated analysis
expertise coupled with our state of the art
inspection capabilities can provide you
with an expert rotor assessment team and
comprehensive program to meet not only
your immediate outage needs but also
assist in long-term planning.

Rotor Analysis
Process using
SAFER.

877-474-7693
15
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
LPRimLife FOR WINDOWS

A SOFTWARE CODE FOR LIFE ASSESSMENT OF STEAM TURBINE ROTORS

WITH BLADE-ATTACHMENT CRACKING
BACKGROUND
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in the
blade attachment region of low-pressure
(LP) turbine rotors has emerged as one of
the most significant problems affecting both
nuclear and fossil steam turbines today.
LPRimLife (Figure 1), a software code
developed for EPRI by Structural Integrity
Associates, combines the necessary
stress analysis and fracture mechanics
algorithms with applicable material
degradation data to provide utilities with
a comprehensive life-assessment tool to
estimate the remaining life of rotors with
blade-attachment cracking.

Figure 1. LPRimLife Software Figure 4. Pin-Finger Attachment FE Model

SOFTWARE CAPABILITIES
LPRimLife currently incorporates the FEATURES BUILT-IN TO THE PC-BASED CODE INCLUDE:
Easy-to-use Windows graphical user interface
methodology for evaluating blade-
Comprehensive on-line help
attachment cracking for all affected
Built-in library of stress solutions
rotor designs. These include:
Fracture mechanics stress intensity factor calculator
Tangential-entry dovetails (Figure 2)
Fracture toughness verses FATT data for common
Axial-entry steeples (Figure 3)

Pin-Finger attachments (Figure 4)

rotor steels
Algorithm for redistribution of load between

top, middle and bottom hooks with

cracking
Limit load check for overload failure

SCC threshold effects to simulate

crack arrest
Deterministic and probabilistic

calculation options
Graphics and plotting capability

for presentation of results

With advance planning, any indications

detected during outage inspections
can be rapidly dispositioned using the
software.

Figure 3.
LP Rotor L-3 Dovetail FE Model

Figure 2. Tangential-Entry U nit 1 L -2 S teep le 3D FE M o del

Dovetail FE Model Axial-Entry Steeple FE Model

16
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
General Electric Companys Technical
Information Letter, TIL 1292, identifies
a large population of 2 and 4-pole
conventional and direct cooled
generator rotors manufactured from
the early 60s through the late 1970s
as having a susceptibility to radial-
circumferential cracking in the rotor
wedge teeth. The cracking is caused
by mechanical fretting between the
wedge-ends and slot dovetail, and may
be exacerbated by negative sequence
arcing. Further slots adjacent to the
poles and/or slots containing steel
wedges have been identified as most
susceptible.
Stress Intensity vs Cack Depth
Stress Intensity (ksi sqrt-inch)
Crack Geometry #1
Bending Only
Crack Geometry #1
Bending & Vibration
Crack Depth (in.)
Stress Intensity versus Crack Depth
CURRENT STATUS
The latest revision of the TIL, 1292-2R2
(May 2005) recommends inspection of
the wedge/tooth contact surface (of all
slots) using eddy current or from the OD
using ultrasonic testing. Regardless of the
inspection method used the TIL indicates
that in lieu of performing contact surface
modifications, periodic inspections will
be required through-out the service life
of the generator.
ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
The characteristics of the susceptible
generator slot/wedge designs in
combination with the high-cycle loading
(5.1 million per day at 3600 rpm) lead
to the conclusion that fretting of the
GENERATOR DOVETAIL ANALYSIS
2-Pole Generator
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITYS
PROJECT TEAM
Structural Integritys demonstrated
analysis expertise coupled with our state
of the art inspection capabilities can
provide you with an expert assessment
team and comprehensive program to
meet not only your immediate outage
needs but also assist in long-term
planning.
wedge/slot contact surface will occur,
its only a matter of when it will occur
and the potential after fretting damage is
present for continued crack growth.
Structural Integrity has the capabilities
and expertise to provide a multi-
disciplinary approach for generator
dovetail evaluations including inspection
Axial Stress Contour from
(eddy current and linear phased array
Bending
techniques) for detection and sizing,
plus stress and fracture mechanics
analysis to determine the threshold crack
size required for growth from high-cycle
fatigue. This allows utilities to avoid
the implementation of costly machining
operations and extends the operating
interval between inspections.
877-474-7693
17

GENERATOR RETAINING RING LIFE
ASSESSMENT USING EPRI RRing-life
Condition assessment for any
component is a two part process. The
first requisite component is an effective
and accurate nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) inspection to define and
characterize the physical characteristics
of potentially detrimental flaws. The
second necessary component is a
methodology with which to characterize
the impact of detected conditions on
remaining life of the rings. The RRing-
Life program provides this capability.
The RRing-Life computer code was
developed by Structural Integrity under
contract to EPRI for probabilistic life
assessment of nonmagnetic generator
retaining rings, concentrating on the
18 Manganese, 5 Chromium alloy
(generically 18-5) used extensively
for years in the US and abroad. A
probabilistic approach was elected
as the only means possible to bring
some rationality to the otherwise
ultra-conservative approach of ring
25
Initiation
20 Failure
Cummulative Probability (%)
15
10
5
Cummulative Probability (%)
0
5 10
18
replacement adopted by the generator
manufacturers. Failure history for
the 18-5 alloy, both before and since
the development by EPRI of effective
inspection technologies and the RRing-
Life approach to condition assessment,
has been extraordinarily free of
failures and simply does not support a
wholesale ring replacement strategy.
RRing-Life generates estimates of
the probabilities of crack initiation,
crack propagation, and failure of
rings based on plant-specific design
and operational considerations. The
computer program has built-in material
property database and finite element
stress analysis capability. Ring-
specific geometry measurements are
acquired ultrasonically and by using
conventional measurement tools during
the inspection (or from drawings when
available). These provide the basis for
the finite element stress calculations.
Material properties can be derived from
.
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (hours x 1000)
COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
the built-in database based on the size
of the ring or based on an estimated or
measured hardness of the ring.
Based on the prevailing operation and
maintenance parameters, RRing-Life
calculates probable moisture exposure
duration during operation, while the
generator is shut down or on turning
gear, and during maintenance periods
in which the generator is open and/or
the rotor removed from the generator.
These moisture exposure probabilities
are computed from plant-specific data
such as plant location, type of facility
(i.e., indoor or outdoor), and the care
exercised by the owner to protect the
rings.
1
ELEMENTS
TYPE NUM
X
Z Y
UNIT 4 RETAINING RING 40" DIA X 29.5" LONG
Typical retaining ring FE model
The analysis comprises geometry
determination, the stress analysis,
an evaluation of the operation and
maintenance historical data for the
subject retaining rings and utilization
of the historical data and NDE findings
in the RRing-Life assessment program.
A parametric sensitivity study can
be conducted to determine those
parameters in the operation of the rings
that most strongly impacts remaining life.
This provides the means to concentrate
maintenance funds and mitigation
procedures on those parameters that
will be most affective in extending the
safe operating lives of the rings. This
portion of an analysis can be performed
prior to the inspection, given that the
ring geometry is available. Following
completion of the inspections, NDE
findings are factored into the remaining
life assessment, and recommendations
on future operation of the unit are made
in line with the RRing-Life findings.
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
TURBINE & GENERATOR
ENGINEERING CONSULTING

Structural Integrity Associates provides

a broad range of inspection and
remaining life assessment services
directed specifically toward a variety
of critical turbine and generator
components. Many of these, as
identified and described in other
sections of this brochure, are generically
classified as standard components of
an effective turbine and generator asset
management program. This includes
complementary offerings like rotor
bore inspection with SAFER remaining
life analysis, turbine disk rim dovetail
inspection with LPRimLife analysis, and
generator retaining ring inspection with
RRing-Life analysis.

However, this does not adequately cover our full depth and breadth of engineering
support capabilities. We also provide general engineering consulting services that
aid utilities in solving specific, non-generic issues. Examples of specific engineering
support weve recently provided include, in no specific order:

Generator replacement rotor design review;

Development of replacement LP rotor procurement specification;
Development of options, with associated specifications, for removal of

18 Manganese, 5 Chromium generator retaining rings from service

specifications for all options;
ANSYS modeling and finite element analysis of generator rotor tooth-top

dovetail ultrasonic indications;

Shop follow for OEM repairs;

QC oversight and witness point responsibility for replacement part

manufacture and for major rotor repair projects;

Failure and root cause analyses;

Consulting and monitoring of generator stator core vibration issues;

Engineering stress and fracture analysis for specific,

non-generic rotor components;

Fracture mechanics assessment in support of rotor failure analysis;

Material properties assessments;

Assessment of crack criticality in a variety of T/G components;

Design review and oversight for generator rotor repairs;

Design and implementation of hydro-generator rotor inspections;

Development of bespoke inspection approaches for a variety of T/G

components using state-of-the-art inspection technologies;

Development of generic guidelines for inspection of turbine and valve casing

inspection and life assessment (EPRI Guide);

Staff augmentation for outage management and T/G coordination; and,

Stress and fracture analysis of generator under-coupling cracking and

development of associated inspection protocol and procedure.

As can be readily seen, Structural Integrity maintains the facilities and support staff
to assist with a wide range of T/G engineering applications.

877-474-7693
19

TURBINE STEAM CHEST
LIFE ASSESSMENT
Structural Integrity Associates (SI)
typically takes a programmatic
approach to condition assessment,
regardless the component involved, and
steam chest condition assessment is no
exception. Steam chests typically vary
significantly one to the next in shape
and complexity; consequently, stress
distributions vary, and damage occurs
first and is most advanced at the high
stress regions, accordingly. Flaws can
manifest themselves at both macro and
micro levels. Consequently, inspection
typically includes surface inspection
using liquid dye penetrant and/or
magnetic particle inspection for macro
damage and metallographic replication
for micro damage, plus ultrasonic
inspection for subsurface flaws and
flaws at otherwise inaccessible
surfaces. One of the most significant
cost drivers in an overall program is
an ongoing implementation of NDE
that has little technical justification, i.e.,
implementing NDE as the means of
identifying the high stress locations via
flaw detection.
In our programmatic approach, the
first step is to perform finite element
analysis of the steam chest to determine
the appropriate areas requiring
examination and monitoring. Then,
only after identifying the critical areas
on the steam chest, attention turns to
20
Creep-Fatigue ProTM (CFPRO) Crack Growth Rate Example
defining the optimal techniques and
procedures to examine the areas
identified. By implementing an
inspection that concentrates on the
critical areas using the appropriate
NDE methods and techniques, as
opposed to a shotgun approach, the
scope, cost, and the frequency of the
inspection is significantly reduced.
The most appropriate inspection
method for a given situation is most
often dictated by access constraints and
limitations at the region of interest. In
recent years, we have made significant
strides in the use of advanced UT
techniques such as linear phased array
(LPA) and annular phased array (APA)
ultrasonic inspection for sizing cracks
COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
in some of the least accessible areas.
The model used for the finite element
stress analysis can additionally be used
by the NDE personnel in designing the
inspection approach to study different
ultrasonic approaches, evaluate
coverage completeness, and to define
inspection parameters. As opposed
to the wholesale inspection approach,
by first identifying those locations
requiring inspection and then selecting
the inspection approach based on local
conditions at the location of interest,
disassembly can often be avoided.
In many cases, once identified,
the damage can subsequently be
monitored periodically with only the
local removal of insulation.
Finally, once damage has been identified
and characterized, be it early form
cavitation through to defined cracks,
the model used initially to identify the
inspection locations is then used to assess
the damage in terms of growth rates
and failure potential. This information
is utilized for a complete Fitness for
Service Assessment of the unit. This
would include definition of reinspection
interval, monitoring requirements, and
to assess repair/replace options and
schedules. These assessments meet the
requirements of current Standards in
Fitness for Service Assessment.
This programmatic approach results in a
focused, optimized integrity assessment
program at minimized cost.
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
In the typical turbine or generator
condition and remaining life assessment,
the owner/operator has some objective
in mind when they commission the
assessment. They may desire to stretch
the interval between major turbine
maintenance outages from six years to
ten years, and to stretch the inspection
interval accordingly. They may wish
to run the unit for some specified time
to allow procurement of a replacement
rotor such that the replacement can be
accomplished without major impact on
unit availability. They may wish only to
run until the intended retirement date,
some defined number of years into
the future. And so on. The approach
promoted by EPRI and followed
by Structural Integrity involves the
application of the least rigor necessary
to produce the desired outcome. So,
we start with the least rigorous and
least costly deterministic analysis based
on conservative input parameters. This
is performed using worst case values
for the input parameters, including
worst case material properties typically
derived from public domain databases.
ROTOR MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
THROUGH MINIATURE SAMPLES
A significant source of uncertainty
centers on the material properties,
particularly for vintage rotors for which
data likely is not available. That
is, there is significant spread in the
various properties, as evidenced in the
available databases. Consequently,
the use of the worst case properties
introduces significant conservatism into
the analysis, albeit while requiring the
least rigor at the lowest cost.
If this does not produce the desired
result, we know that there is margin for
improvement, so the next step is to move
to a probabilistic analysis. Probabilistic
analysis introduces the concept that all
worst case variables are not likely to
coexist at the same time in the same
component. Probabilistic analysis
incorporates the variability of the input
parameters into the analysis. In a
probabilistic analysis, the variables are
expressed in terms of distributions where
the worst case occurs only occasionally,
as does the best case, and intermediate
values occur in most cases.
If a probabilistic analysis still does not
produce the desired outcome, the most
productive parameters to explore for
possible improvement are the material
properties. The most productive means
of better defining the material properties
uses samples extracted from the most
critical region of the component being
assessed. For a turbine rotor forging,
this most often means the near-bore
material. For a turbine disk, it could
mean the material near the rim for
blade attachment studies, and so on.
A miniature sample removal tool is
available through SI for extraction of
samples from the surface of a rotor
bore or the side of a turbine disk. This
specialized machining tool extracts a
small wafer, leaving a smooth dimple in
the surface. Analysis of this dimple has
shown that it produces no meaningful
increase in local stress, so the dimple
can remain with no further conditioning.
Miniature samples can be analyzed in
the lab to quantify material chemical
composition, measure hardness
(thereby estimating yield strength),
and define material microstructure.
Additionally, mechanical properties
can be defined using automated ball
indenture testing. Properties that can
be quantified using miniature samples
and the automated ball indenture test
include yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, fracture appearance transition
temperature, and fracture toughness.
This process has been used successfully
to allow continued operation of units that
would otherwise be recommended for
retirement using database properties,
even if assessed probabilistically.
877-474-7693
21
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
MATERIAL SCIENCE

Crucial step in implementing

proper corrective actions
Scope can range from failure

mode determination to multi-disci-

plined root cause determinations

MATERIALS SELECTION
A complete system material review
prior to installation or before a major
process change reduces the likelihood
of surprises after the system is placed
into service and better predicts
component lifespan and consequences
of equipment failure.

MATERIALS EVALUATION IS ESSENTIAL FOR OPTIMIZING EQUIPMENT

LIFE-MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES.
Structural Integrity Associates, Inc. is
well established as an industry leader in
materials evaluation and failure analysis.
By utilizing the broad capabilities at
Structural Integritys Materials Science
Center in Austin, Texas, our metallurgical
experts are consistently well-equipped
to tackle the toughest industry problems LABORATORY CAPABILITIES
affecting material performance. Optical Metallography

Quantitative Microstructural

Understanding material behavior and Analyses

the reasons why materials fail is crucial Fractography

for maintaining safe and reliable To help optimize your resources, Scale and Deposit Analyses

operation. Having such information Structural Integrity rapidly responds Metal Chemical Analysis and Al-

readily available focuses your limited to your materials issues using loy Verification
resources on mitigating the true root a well balanced solution that Cyro-Cracking

cause of equipment failure, thus avoiding incorporates laboratory and on- Heat Treating

the downtime and costs associated with site failure investigations, material In-place Metallography and Rep-

recurring problems. evaluations, engineering analysis, and lication

nondestructive testing. Hardness Testing

Miniature Sampling

METALLURGICAL ASSESSMENTS Specialized Corrosion Testing

Characterize the existing condi-

tion of materials
Measure the effects of damage

mechanisms such as thermal deg-

radation, creep,oxidation, corro-
sion and embrittlement
Predict future safe and reliable

performance
Failure Analysis

Identify active damage mecha-

nisms and influencing factors

22
 COMPREHENSIVE
TURBINE GENERATOR ASSESSMENT
BACKGROUND
There are a number of situations where it
can be important to monitor the presence
of vibrations. One of these situations can
be found in industrial applications such
as power generation, where vibrations
can easily damage equipment. Such
damage may result in a significant
period of downtime and a dramatic
loss of revenue. Turbine vibration
monitoring can provide early indications
of emerging problems. Most power plant
main turbines have at least one vibration
sensor permanently installed per bearing,
which provides a continuous indication to
the control room about machinery health.
A single probe, however, may not be
suitable to detect all vibration issues as
it cannot, for example, detect vibration
perpendicular to its operating axis. For
diagnostics purposes it is recommended
to have two, pair wise perpendicular
shaft relative and two seismic sensors per
bearing, such that relative and absolute
shaft movements can be determined.
For smaller turbines, the probes can be
attached temporarily for the duration of
the test. Shaft relative measurements are
best measured using proximity probes
while seismic measurements can be made
with accelerometers or velocity coils.
TURBINE VIBRATION MONITORING
During normal operation it is generally
sufficient to trend and monitor overall
vibration level changes, of course
monitoring running speed harmonic
amplitudes and phase is even better.
During any type of event such as
startups and shutdowns or before and
after maintenance activities, such as
balancing and alignment, it is very
useful to analyze data in a greater
VIBRATION MONITORING,
TESTING & ANALYSIS
detail. The following types of plots
tend to be useful for turbine vibration
diagnostics:
Bode plots
Polar (Nyquist) plots
Shaft centerline plots
Orbit plots
Structural Integrity Associates, Inc.
(can help evaluate data already
collected and recommend additional
instrumentation and diagnostics if
deemed beneficial. If the turbine
does not already have an advanced
monitoring system installed that has
diagnostic capabilities, we can provide
multichannel analyzers that do.
TORSIONAL VIBRATION
MONITORING
The measurement of the torsional
vibration of main turbines is a much
more rarely performed measurement
than lateral vibration monitoring.
Generally it is performed under
two circumstances, (i) during the
commissioning of a new rotor to show
that there are no torsional natural
frequencies near 120 Hz or (ii) after a
failure where dynamic torsional loads
are suspected to be a contributor. A
Transient Torsional Vibration Monitoring
System (TTVMS) we developed can
be installed as part of the root-cause
failure investigation to monitor the
potential for torsional fatigue damage
on turbine generator shafts. Our
TTVMS uses pulse trains from proximity
probes or magnetic probes installed
around the speed pickup gear in the
front standard and the turning gear as
the main input. The incoming signal
is frequency demodulated to yield
a voltage that is proportional to the
instantaneous angular velocity of the
turbine, which allows the interpretation
of dynamic variations in rotor speed
as torsional vibration. Auxiliary inputs
from various electrical transmitters for
main generator three phase voltages,
currents and instantaneous power
output can also be recorded for
correlation with torsional events.
Our TTVMS can measure and record
transient torsional events that can impact
shaft torsional fatigue life. The system
can be set up to automatically compare
readings to predetermined allowables
to provide warnings and alarms when
potentially harmful torsional events are
detected. Long term trending results may
be used to assess remaining fatigue life
and help optimize operating conditions
to avoid torsional cracking. The data
recorded by TTVMS can also be used
to determine frequency and amplitude
information of those torsional vibration
modes that are excited, even if weakly,
during operation.
877-474-7693
23
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