Title

Tensile testing of metals.

Objective
To determine the tensile strength of metals.

Introduction
Materials composition, nature of bonding, crystal structure, and defects have a profound
influence on the strength and ductility of metallic materials. So because of that the properties
of materials must be understood. In this case tensile strength is one of a major property which
should be consider. Tensile test is one of an important tests in stream engineering which has an
ancient history.

This tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. The
particular load is applied in an opposite orientation which is perpendicular to the cross sectional
area of the specimen. By doing so the specimen undergo the elastic and the plastic deformation.
So the length of the particular object will increase gradually and decrease its cross sectional
area. In a one point the object will break into two pieces where then the load is removed. The
specimen is normally fixed horizontally to the machine and the load is applied in a constant
value per second.

Figure 1: Metallic specimen used for the tensile test

A- Length of reduced section

D- Diameter
G- Gage length
R- Radius of fillet
Theory
Tensile test measures the resistance of a material to astatic and slowly applied force. Which
implies that the strain rates are typically small. During the test the specimen will increase its
size. A strain gauge is used to measure the amount that the specimen stretches between the
gage marks when the force is applied. So the change of the length is measured with respect to
the original length. Then the stress and the strain is calculate using the following equations:-
Stress = Force / Cross sectional area
Strain = Change of length / Original length

By measuring the stress-strain value and by plotting the values on a chart, it seems familiar to
the below diagram,

Figure 1 : Stress-Strain behavior of the specimen

First the particular specimen will participate the region of elastic where the elastic deformation
occurs. Then after a certain point the slope of the graph will decrease. That is named as the
yield strength where to start the permanent deformation start its action. But the slope is
decreasing gradually. This matter occur because the planes of the object slips each other and
deform quick. Next the object comes to the point where the maximum stress value. It is named
as the Tensile Strength or Ultimate Tensile Strength. Afterwards because of the cross sectional
area of the specimen decreases rocketry the increased stress value will become decreasing. It
is named as the necking. Finally after sort of strain the specimen will form into two pieces by
occurring a fracture.
 Figure 2: Specimen

By obtaining the slope of the graph in the elastic region, we could find the Youngs Modulus,
Youngs Modulus = Stress / Strain

This modulus is closely related to the binding energies of atoms. In metallic materials, the
modulus of elasticity is considered a microstructure insensitive property since the value is
dominated by the stiffness of atomic bonds. And also grain size or other microstructural
features do not have a very large effect on the Youngs modulus. But the orientation of the
crystal structure will affect the youngs modulus.

Finally the ductility is also an important measurement .There are two ways to measure the
ductility.
Percentage Elongation = Length increase / Starting length 100%
Percentage Reduction of area = Area increase / Starting area 100%
Materials and apparatus
Tensometer
Metallic specimen
Tinsley strain measurement indicator
Area reduction gauge
Elongation gauge
Vernire caliper

Figure 3:Tensometer

Figure 4: Area Reduction Gauge

Figure 5:Metallic specimen used for the tensile test

 Figure 7: Venire Caliper

Figure 5: Elongation Gauge

Procedure

For test the Tensometer, the metallic specimen, a Tinsley Strain Measurement indicator,
Ultimate Area Reduction Gauge, Ultimate Elongation Gauge and venire caliper were taken.
The specimen was taken and measured the gauge length and the diameter of it using the
venire-caliper. Next the specimen was placed in to the Universal percentage elongation
gauge, and adjusted it with the particular size. After the specimen was taken to the holders
Tensile-Testing Machine. Then after machines moveable crossheads were untied and the
specimen was placed on the grips which is located between heads. Next the electronic
device of the machine was switched on to measure the forces acting on the specimen.
Afterwards a uniaxial tensile force was driven to the object with a testing speed of about
20mm/min. The uniaxial tensile force was continued on the specimen until it break in to
two pieces.

Next the specimen was removed from the machine. Then after that the graph
which was given by the machine on the practical was visualized. Finally both of the broken
specimen was taken and measured the percentage of elongation and also the percentage of
the area reduction of the specimen directly using the Universal percentage elongation
gauge. The graph is used to determine the Young modulus, Upper and lower yield stress
and the Ultimate tensile stress (UTS).
Results
Calculations

Initial length = 16.4 mm

Initial diameter = 4.2 mm
Initial cross sectional area = r2
= 22/7 (2.1)2
= 13.86 mm2
Final length = 22.25 mm
Final diameter=3.1 mm
Final cross sectional area = r2
= 22/7 (1.55)2
=7.551 mm2

% Elongation = 22.25-16.4 100%

16.4

= 35.67%

Using the graph,

Ultimate Tensile Stress = 578.9 Nmm-2

%Area reduction = 7.551-13.86 100%

13.86
= 45.52%

Upper Yield Point = Nmm2

Lower Yield Point = Nmm2

Young's Modulus = Gradient of the linear section of the graph - Stress/strain

=( - )/( - )
= Nmm2
= GPa
Conclusion
Tensile testing is one of an important test in engineering stream. It gives an
idea of how a ductile material we have to use behave in any particular subject. This test is done
using a machine called Tensile tester. The specimen which we prepare from a piece of metal is
placed horizontally in the machine and a tension load is applied until it break into two pieces.
The machine is designed to draw the graph to obtain the regions of elastic and plastic both in a
computer screen. The graph is used to determine the ultimate tensile stress, the young modulus
as well as upper and lower yield stress points of mild steel. The broken specimes are also used
for calculations.

Calculations showed that the specimen had a tensile stress of 578.9 Newton per
square millimeter. The percentage elongation is 35.67%. The percentage area reduction of
45.52% .These results indicate that mild steel has relatively high tensile strength and ductility.
References

Czichos, Horst (2006). Springer Handbook of Materials Measurement Methods. Berlin:

Springer. pp. 303304.

Ashby, M. (2006).Engineering Materials 1: An Introduction to Properties, Applications and

Design. 3rded. Butterworth-Heinemann.

Everbach, Carr. Tensile Testing and Numerical Integration. Swarthmore College, 2008.

Hibbeler, R.C. (2004).Statics and Mechanics of Materials. Prentice Hall.

Tarr, M. (no date).Stress and its effect on Materials[online]. Available

fromhttp://www.ami.ac.uk/courses/topics/0124_seom/index.html. [Accessed 26/04/09].