Political and Cultural Awareness

The Harlen1 Renaissance of the 1920s offered African

An1erican artists the patronage of foundations controlled by interested
whites. The Depression of the 1930s continued a measure of support
to artists through the establish1nent of federal programs, which were
also controlled by whites.
Following World War II there developed an intense struggle by
African An1ericans for equal rights in all aspects of An1erican life. In
the course of this struggle for equal cconmnic, political, and social
opportunity, African An1erican arijsts cinbraccd the concept of sclf-
deternlination through self-expression, which involved the dc1nand
that they forn1ulatc their own aesthetic principles. As this dc1nand
becan1e a don1inant then1c of the: 196os, artists, writers, tnusicians,
and dancers joined together, as they had during the Harlen1 Renais-
sance, to formulate new ideological directions. Barriers caused by
differences in age, econmnic standing, and sociopolitical conviction
gave way to a new group feeling. With this new unity and dedication,
the role of African American art was transfonned: fron1 fulfilling the
needs of the traditional African connnunity to fulfilling the needs of
the contcn1porary African Atnericart connnunity.
In the n1idst of the aggressive sdcial activity of the past three dec-
ades, tnany young individuals have been attracted to art as a profession
that offers then1 experiences capal~lc of counterbalancing the chaos
and uncertainty of African A1nerican life in the United States. The
combination of a new outspoken expressiveness and a new knowledge
of historical deeds has produced a clitnate in which the African Anler-
ican artist can work with a new sense of dignity and pride. 143
 Contemporary African American artists do not hesitate to use di-
verse ideas and techniques in the production of art forms that speak to
their people. Their techniques are derived from a variety of civiliza-
tions and are expressed in Social Realism, Surrealism, Abstract Ex-
pressionisn1, Conceptual Art, or any of the other popular styles. Sub-
ject matter and philosophical orientations are also diverse, though for
tnany African American artists, Africa serves as the principal source of
creative inspiration. The result of this new consciousness is an art in
the process of realization, a process in which the single most impor-
tant aesthetic principle to emerge is that differences are valid.

PAINTING

ADEMOLA 0LUCEBEI'OLA (b. 1941) reflects the spirit of those artists

who hold strong visual and spiritual ties to Africa. Born in St.
Thomas, the Virgin Islands, he migrated to New York City with his
fatnily when he was four years old.
Olugebefolas dynan1ic sense of movetnent in form and color has
been enriched by his professional experience in n1usic and drama. A
double-bass player, he developed a desire to create visual sounds, and
while working in New York City as director of the Jazz Art Develop-
n1ent, executed paintings for the Blues for Nat Turner Jazz Suite. This
experiment in the fusing of poetry, music, and art recalled the cere-
monial traditions of African celebrations in which the visual, au-
ditory, and literary arts are integrated.
Olugebefola believes that he is not creating art as an individual but
rather reflecting organic parts of an evolution. His primary aim is to
reach beyond pictorial surfaces by spiritually expressing space, shape,
and color. He views his art as visual equations created to awaken
individuals to a higher potential and to bring out the Africanisms
in them.
In 1964 Olugebefola responded to the call for unity and positive
direction in the arts of ethnic minorities by joining a group called the
Twentieth-Century Creators. This group brought him into full par-
ticipation in the development of its philosophy: African American Art
-for African American People.
Expressing contemporary manifestations of traditional lore and art
forms, Olugebefola believes that the role of the African American
visual artist is to provide the proper guideposts for African American
people. He notes that the struggle is not so much a war of guns but a
war of minds. His concept of racial power is reflected in images such
as Shango [Ill us. 120], in which the god of thunder and lightning
expresses the "regality of our blood." Olugebefolas rendition of
144 Shango is a mystical construction in which the color blue is used
 120 Adcmola Olugcbcfola, Slrango. Construction with shells.

spiritually as an expanse of space. A double-headed ax bears leaves

that arc nourished and strengthened by a line of shells suggesting a
continuous inner Aow of life from roots that arc firm ly planted. This
combination of forms expresses both stab ility and energy, while visu-
ally depicting the sensitivity and productivity of the Yoruba, god of
lightning, thunder and justice. 145
 HERMAN (" KoFI") BAILEY (1931-1981 ) also exemplifies the new di-
mensions of African American art. With Pan-Africanism as his phi-
losophy, he gained inspiration and motivation from a direct involve-
ment in the social and political life of the international African
community. His associations with W. E. B. Du Bois, Kwamc
Nkrumah, and Martin Luther King, Jr., placed him at the heart of
some of the century$ most potent social and political movements. His
participation in public matters did not keep Bailey from becoming a
highly productive and expressive artist, however. The numerous works
he created employ both geometric and figurative clements and , while
incl ud ing aspects of character common to all mankind, usually speak
directly to Pan-African people.
Like numerous other African Americans, Bailey establ ished a cul-
tural base in Africa; and his works were nurtured by the po'vvcrs and
sensitivities he absorbed from "his mother continent," especially from
Chana. Baileys strong figurative style speaks of birth, life experience,
and death. Combining both geometric and figural clements, he often
used mass ive shapes to surround the sens itively rendered figures that
serve as foca l points in most of his compositions. The geometric
elements arc usually utilized as background forms that subtly emerge
from space.
Baileys I Iausa Boy {Illus. 121 ] is a tender rendition of a ch ild who,
in a meditative stance, is peering into the distance. The figure is not
static but seems to be intently concentrating on something that will
affect his immediate course of action. The lone figure needs little
background to define his situation, and what is required the artist
leaves to the creativity of the viewer. The subtle, econom ical handling
of light and shade expresses a completeness of form and benefits from
the arti sts strong foundation in draftsmanship and his understanding
of human sensibiliti es and emotions. An effective cha rcoal-and-wash
drawing, I Ia usa Boy is a finished composition, not a sketch for a more
detailed work.
The majority of his compositions are clone in charcoai or conte
crayon (made of graphite and clay), but Bailey also worked in oil,
acryl ic, and several other media. Ind eed, his technique relied heavily
121 IIerman (" Kofi") B<1ilcy, on a combination of substances; he sometimes used three or four in a
1/ausa Boy. single composition. And because Bailey employed primarily earth
Charcoal and wash, tones, color is always a secondary factor in his work; the graphic
30" x zo". qualities of his compositions supply the visual impact.
Birth {lllus. 122}, through its effective combination of symbolism
and rea lism, shows another characteristic of Baileys style. The back-
ground and foreground arc interrupted geometrically, sometimes sub-
tly with wash and at other times dratnatically with lines. Th is treat-
ment effectively combines both subjective and objective use of form.
146 The circle in the background and the corresponding implied circle in
the foreground crea te a figure eight that relates the two areas. A
dramatic composition that demonstrates Baileys compassion, the work
is a rare example of strength and sensitivity.
Un ity [lllus. 12 3), a mixed-media pai nting by Bailey, has notable
political and social implications. A single figure is juxtaposed against
subtle forms emerging from the swirling lin es of the background. T he
heroic presence reaching for the star and crescent, symbols of unity,
creates a strong visual movement toward these goals. The "all-seeing
eye," the eye of African American unity, overl ooks all.

122 II erman ("Kofi") Bailey, Birth. 123 IIerman ("Kofi") Bailey, Unil}', 196 1. ~ l ixed
Mixed media, 40" x 30". media , 40" x 30". Collection of Samella Lewis.

RAYl\ IOND SAUNDt:RS (b. 193-1-) is an artist whose works reAect a

vigorous marriage of figurative, geometric, and calligraphic styles.
Margery Aronson, formerl y associated with the Museum of Modern
Art, has said of Saunders and his works: 147
 1 like Saunders because nothing about him is artificial. 1 like his art
beca use it is a personal and exuberant visual diary which takes me
beyond the confines of my experience and opens my eyes to the work,
labor and effort required for the creative process. These are living
works- real - not sta tic. The works and their creator make me aware
and glad to be alive. ["Artists' Biographical and Publicity Informa -
tion ." 'Jerry Dintenfass Gallery, New York, October 1972 .)

In his African Seri es, Saunders uses colored pencils and a highl y
Auicl sense of line to delineate aspects of life viewed during the several
months he spent in Africa in 1970 . In one sketch his live ly approach to
design rcsul ts in geometric African "fabric patterns," wh ich, rcpca ti ng
the movements of figures in the lower portion of the composition,
form the headdress for a massive human head {lllus. 12-J] . Upon
ca reful exa mination it is apparent that th e large human presence is
also a combi nation of two profiles; the rea listic figures of an Africa n
mother and chi ld appear in the center of the work in front of a
billhoarcllikc environm ent. While smaller in scale, the figure of the
woman repeats the overlapping triangular forms evident throughout
the compositi on.

124 Raymond Sa undcr~.

Page from an African Notebook, 1970 .
Colored pencil , 8Y2'' x 6Y.!".
Courtesy of the artist.

148

,,
 Saunders' enthusiastic style is equall y evident in his handling of
portraiture. His Jack Johnson {Illus. 125] combines painting, dr<ming,
and collage techniques to present an image of the Black champion,
with such items as tickets and adhesive tape documenting his role in
the world of pri zefighting.

Raymond Saunders, Jack Johnson, 1<)7 1. Oil on canvas, 81Y;" x 63Y~".

12. 5
Pennsylva nia Academ y of the Fine Arts (purchased through the aid of funds
from the National Endowment for the Arts, the Pcnmylvania t\cadcmy
Womcns Committcc, and an Anonymous Donor, 1974).

149
 LUCII.LI: MAI.f.:IA Ro BERTS (b. 1927) has traveled extensively in Af-
rica, Canada , Europe, Mexico, and the J<'a r East, but it is clear that
Afri ca has had the strongest impact on her work. Though her painting
style is indebted to several sources, she generall y fi nds her subj ect
matter in Africa n culture. J lcr travels in Africa have also affected her
palette: "Now I find myself painting in the rich lum inous colors of the
landscape of the people." Roberts also manages to capture the spiri t of

126 Lucille ~vl a lki a Roberts,

Na tural Woma n , 197 2. Acrylic,
so" X 36". Courtesy of the artist.

the African people and their environment. In N atural Woman

{lllus. 126] Roberts combines an awareness of negative space - a
traditi onal Far Eastern concern - with an expressive usc of co lor; she
also dynamica lly blends the spirits of Afri can, Asian , and African
150 America n imagery.
D Avm DRI SKELL (b. 1931) is an arti culate spokesman for Afri can
American art. In 1969 and 1970 Driskell served as a visiting professor
at the Institute of African Studi es of the Uni versity of lfe, lie lfe,
igeri a. His experiences there differed from those of most other
Ameri can artists visiting Africa in thCJt his acCJdcmic position provided
unusual opportuniti es to exchange id eas and positions with some of
AfricCJ s best-known CJ rtists.
Driskell:c; \\orks show the influence of his African experience, and
such titles as Nok llonoring Walter (197 2) and Shango Cone {11/us.
12 7) arc obvious remembrances of Nigcria . With geom etric prin ciples
underl ying the basic structure of Shango C one, its pictorial space is
organi zed through conform ity to rectilinear patterns. The frontal ap-
proach of the figure suggests DriskeiiS interest in African sculpture. A
simplifi ed statement, Shango Cone exhibits a lighter pal eHc than do
most of Driskell $ other works. Somber in tone, the architectoni c
quality of thi s pa inting is expressed primaril y through lin e and shape
rather than through color.

12 7 1);1\id Dri~ kd I,
Slwngo Cone, HJ72 . Egg lclllpcra .
24" x t8". Courtesy of the artist.

151
 In Gabriel {lllus. 128}, an earlier work, Driskell adhered to a similar
geometric plan. Its semiabstract forms arc enriched with ex-
pressionistic effects that resemble modern graffiti. Gabriel is related to
Shango Cone in structure, spirit, and design; and its suggestion of a
double-headed ax, a tool and symbol clearly depicted in Shango
Cone, gives the two compositions a th ematic resemblance as well.
Driskell has described his art in the following manner:

Art is the fulfillm ent of my human desire to be at peace with myself,

my fellow man and my environment. If the world of experience does
not provide the model for this fulfillment , then my art seldom imi-
tates literal life, but it does imitate the ways of life. [Quoted in
"David C. Driskell: Watercolors and Prints." Catalog of an exhibi-
tion , 6-17 March 1972, at Scarrit College for Christian Workers,
Nashville. 1(mn. }

128 David Driskell , Gabriel,

1965. Oil on ca nvas, 48" x 36".

152
FLOYD COLEMAN (b. 1937). The works of art created by Floyd
Coleman prior to 1970 are devoid of representational elements. His
early painting Yellow Square {Illus. 129] achieves its complex rela-
tionships through a combination of li vely color and call igraphic mark-
ings. In more recent works, Colemans style has become less painterly
and increasingly more graphic. The exuberance of his early work is
replaced by an evocative lyrical expression in which each shape is
carefully and simply defined. His style incorporates patterns created by
the interaction of advancing and receding planes. Using color only as
an undertone, Coleman emphasizes cross-hatched lines and highly
textured surfaces as prin cipa l structural elements in his compos itions.
Colemans visit to Africa in 1971 resulted in extensive changes in
both the subject matter and style of his work. Africa Series [Illus. 130]
is a composition which effectively illustrates these changes. Clearly
defin ed outlined shapes are assembled in quilt-like fashion to replace
the gestural, expressionistic markings that typify the artists former
style. Less colorful than his ea rlier works, this and Colcmans other
recent compositions balance their loss of intense color with an in-
crease in textural complexity. 129 Floyd Coleman,
Yellow Square, 1967.
Mixed acrylics, -l8" x 36".
Courtesy of the artist.
130 Floyd Coleman, Africa Series, 197 1, Mixed media, 16" x 20"-

__ ,,:a

153
 PAUL KEENE (b. 1920) is the product of a strong traditional education;
he attended the Phi ladelphia Museum School of Art, the Tyler School
of Arts, the Academie Julien, and Temple Un iversity. A master color-
ist with a fine sense of design, Keene has for many yea rs concentrated
on themes of African American life. Some of his works arc The
Cabinet of Doctor Buzzard (1968), Death Calls on the Root Man
(1969)- both from Root Man Series #2, which features subject matter
related to voodoo - and Carden ofShango {lllus. 131), inspired by the
ancient Yoruba deity. In Carden ofShango one experiences a variation
on geometric shapes in which design plays an essential role. The
dynam ism inherent in traditional African sculpture is felt in the
pulsating motion created by the arrangements ofshape and color. The
life-giving force generated by the circular symbol penetrates every area
of the composition, thereby creating a strong sense of energy. Keenes
use of color and shape in this work produces a dynamic, spiritual
environment suitable for Shango, the god of thunder.

131 Paul Keene, Ca rden o{Shango, 1969, Oil, 40" x 6o"

154
ARTHUR CARRAWAY (1927-<)4). While many African American artists
have been attracted to West Africa, the region of m any of their ances-
tors, Arthur Carraway, an experienced merchant seaman, spent con-
siderable time in several regions of the continent. H e maintained that
his travels in Africa had great impact on his art:

I was in Africa for two years under the auspices of the United
Nations . Though I traveled through the west, north, and south of
Africa, I spent one year in east Africa - Dar es Salaam, Tanzania ,
and Mombasa, Kenya. It was there that I became acquainted with
Makonde sculpture by touring the museums and art shops. The work
was most impressive. Through exposure to Makonde sculpture, dif-
ferent form s and ideas began to take shape in my mind. These ideas
were to lead me to a new and positive approach to painting closely
related to my own cultural di rection and development. This direc-
tion is not yet clearly defined. [Personal communication with the
author.)

In his Fetish Form Series II [Ill us. 132] Carraway presents a figure
from which vibrations appear to flow. The m onochromatic ground
and shifting effects of light and shadow give an impression of changing
space and continuous m otion.

132 Arthur Carraway,

Fetish Form Series II,
1968. Oil, 49Vz" x 30".
Collection of
The Oakland Museum
(gift of the Art Cuild,
Oakland Museum Association).

155

133 Mikcllc Fletcher, Gua rdian ,
1971. Acrylic, 48" x 36".
Courtesy of the artist.
156
MIKELL!': FLETCIII-:R (b. 1945) derives her visual expressions from both
Africa and the Americas. The symbols in her Guardian {lllus. 133},
for example, suggest that the cooperation of these two areas is neces-
sa ry for the protection of the race. The most important symbol pro-
tecting the paintings Madonna and chi ld is the aunkh, an African
emblem of life and prosperity. Also among the guardians arc a jackal,
the African American liberation flag, and a small outl ine of the Af-
rican continent. Encircl ed by these protectors, the figures of the
mother and child arc depicted in a style that seems to combine fantasy
and reality. The interplay of these clearly defined shapes suggests
movement, and the rhythmic quality is increased through the usc of
irregular shapes in contrasting colors, which extract a maximum deco-
rative effect from each object or space.
Viewing the work of Mikclle Fletcher provides a powerful emo-
tion;;tl experience. Because they refl ect concepts and attitudes relevant
to several cu ltures, her paintings can be regarded as visual expressions
of Pan-Africanism. This is in keeping with Fletcher$ belief that art
must be functional:
One picture is worth one thousand words!! That's an old cliche. Our
role as African American artists is to provide that direction needed
by our people through art, through "pictures." We cannot afford to
relegate ourselves to art for art's sake. Throughout our history, from
Egypt, the great empires of Benin, Ife, and Nok, to traditional
African art, our art has been functional and created by our people
for a purpose: for ceremonies, for celebration of birth, to moum
death . ...
In our struggle for liberation, African American artists play a very
crucial role. Because of our ability to express, in a picture, a thou-
sand words, those words should be in some way functional , words
relevant to educating our people to the need for liberation. Our art
can begin to educate, to teach the three R's, but the three R's that are
relevant to us now: Redefine, Reeducate, Redirect. (Personal com-
munication with the author.]
VARNEITJo: HONEYWOOD (b. 1950) is a Los Angeles artist whose expe-
riences in the South, as a student at Spelman College in Atlanta,
reinforced her feeling for life and inspired her portrayals of African
Americans. An impressive genre painter whose works arc reminiscent
of the early Archibald Motley portrayals of life in the 1920s,
Honeywood approaches her subjects with empathy that stems from
 +

134 Varncttc lloncywood,

Gossip in the Sanctuary,
1974 Acrylic on canva~.
24 " X )0".

deep-seated spiritual convictions and also manages to capture both the

serious and humorous aspects of a situation. In Gossip in the Sanctu-
ary [Illus. 134) she finds far-reaching social implications in the con-
cept of gossip:

Gossip in the Sanctuary is one in a series of paintings in which I try

to illustrate the strong, reassuring, and free expressions of proud
African American people. The expressions of self-esteem, power, and
self-determination were instilled in many of our leaders through the
Church. Man y experienced their first feelings of dignity and worth
which fostered desires to keep the "faith torch" lighted as the)' led the
way to the outside world so full of prevailing forces . In church, they
felt free to drea m, to hope, and to show all the human instincts ...
even to gossip. [Personal communication with the author. J

PllOEBE BEASLEY (b. 1943) is distinguished for her oi l and tissue-paper

collages. She incorporates paint, tissue paper, cloth, and a variety of
found objects to create compositions that express experiences in the
lives of her special peopl e, people of ordinary means whose daily
acti vities often go unnoticed. Beasley wrote about her special interest: 157
 Most of my themes are what I know, based on my point of reference,
iust like any other artist. And certa inly they are from my culture.
But, there is a universality in my work of what it's like living alone,
being poor and getting old.

Important Papers [Illus. 135) is a composthon in which Beasley

demonstrates her astute handling of figure-field relationships. In this
work, her organ izational structure is based on basic geometric planes
with decorative components that accent and strengthen the whole.
In her recent experimentation, Phoebe Beasley began creating what
she calls "relief collages." These works involve an increased number of
found objects and give added dimension to the compositions. An
excellent example of the use of this technique is seen in Zora and
Langston [Illus. 136).
Another direction that Beasley is currently experimenting with is
the use of clear acrylic as the foundation for the application of differ-
ent materials which may be applied to both the front and back of the
composition. With the aid of backlighting, a luminous stained glass
quality is achieved. 105 Count Down # 1 [Illus. 137) is a fine example
of this technique.

1 35 Phoebe Beasley,
Im portant Papers, 1985 ,
Mixed media collage, 30" x z8".

158
136 Phoebe Beasley,
Zora and Langston, 1988,
Mixed media collage, 36" x 36".

13 7 Phoebe Beasley,
105 Count Down #1, 1989,
Mixed media collage on
clear acrylic, 30" x 40".

159
 BENNY ANDREWS (b. 1930) produces art that is uniquely his own, for
it evolves from his deep concern for the people he considers frequent
victims of society. His primary commitment is to the reshaping of
society through the creation of art that will call attention to social evils
and raise issues the viewer will, it is hoped, be encouraged to resolve.
Andrews has a representational style that avoids the modeling of
form. He relies instead on drawing, creating bulk by suggestion
through the proper combinations of lines and voids. An example of
this technique is provided by Put Up [Ill us. 138], in which the artists
economy of line forces the viewer to concentrate on the subjects
battered visage. Through his gestures, the scarred fighter seems to cry
out for sympathy. Andrews also demonstrates his sensitive handling of
line in Untitled [Ill us. 139], in which the engaging posture of a female
serves to represent a collective reflection of African American wom-
anhood.
In its use of the oil technique, Black [Illus. 140] represents still
another dimension of Andrews' creative ability. Committed to social-
protest art, Andrews is a former director of the Visual Arts Program, a
division of The National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C.

138 Benny Andrews,

Put Up, 1971.
Ink drawing, 20" x 16".

139 Benny Andrews,

Untitled, 1970.
Ink drawing, 20" x 16".
160
qo Benny Andrews, Black, 19 71. O il , 3..( x 2 ..( . Courtesy of the artist.
 R~>:C J NA LD GAMMON (b. 192 1), possessor of an intense interest in the
African American past, often chooses as artistic subjects individuals
who have figured dramatically in the making of African American
history. One dynamic commen tary by Gammon deals with the much
publicized Scottsboro case, in which a group of African American
men were charged with rape. His gothic Scottsboro Mothers {1 /lus.
l..J.l) depicts gri ef-laden figures in poses that convey strength and aris-
tocratic stamina. Highly formal in style, these geometric fi gures are
echoed in the door and other background shapes. T he composition
suggests that unity brings strength , even to those who arc seemingly
helpless.
In Freedom Now {lllus. 142) Gammon is also concerned with unity,
but his style is different. Freedom Now takes its spirit from the 196os,
in which the oppressed sought to become aggressive seekers of free-
dom. T he express ion istic technique used by the artist suggests the
vitali ty and inspiration of the C ivil Rights movement.

1.p Reginald Gammon, Scottsboro Mothers, 1..p Reginald Cammon, Freedom Now,
1970. Acrylic on canvas, 30" x 22". 1965. Acrylic on boa rd, 40" x 30".
Courtesy of the artist. Courtesy of the artist.

162
 Like Scottsboro Mothers and Freedom Now, The Young Jack Johnson
{Illus. 143}, one of Gammons hero portraits, has a highly emotional
impact. Standing proud , Johnson is portrayed as a robust and chal-
lenging figure, velvet skin effectively displaying the muscular forms of
his body. Radiant bands of color surrounding the fighter add to the
impression that he is a powerful machine capable of standing against
all challengers.

143 Reginald Cammon,

The Young Jack Johnson, 1967.
Acrylic on canvas, 32" x 2 ..{.
Courtesy of the artist.

FAITH RINGGOLD (b. 1934) is an artist interested in capturing "the

conceptual visions of images inherent in the sculptures and masks of
African art." In her projection of faces and bodies, she struggles to free
herself from what she considers the "yoke" of light and shadow. Since
1967 she has been using a unique style she terms "black-light paint-
ing," which abandons the traditional approach to lights and darks-
the value scale - in favor of contrast based on the intensity scale.
Along with this color style and in order to liberate her works from the
traditional up-and-down visual pattern, Ringgold employs "poly-
rhythmic space based on ancient African design, " which, she hopes, 163
 144 Faith Ringgold. Die, 1967. Oil on ca nvas, 6' X 12'. Courtesy of the artist.

will stimulate the viewer to look at her work from a multitude of

directions and levels.
Admitting that "black" painting is not new, Ringgold maintains that
she first became aware of it through the works of Abstract Expressionist
Ad Reinhardt (1913-1967). She adds, however. that her concept of
black light differs from Reinhardt$ in that she "uses black as a symbol
for huma nity rather than as an abstraction of color vision or design."
In such works as Die {11/us. 14-J.] she expresses the emotional tension
of ethnic struggle and violence. Though the composition is sub jec-
tively expressed, the shapes comprising it project abstract qualities.
Sub ject-matter areas that arc emotionally explosive arc held in context
through the artists keen sense of design.
Ringgold has long been involved in the struggle for equality for
women, and she feels that her most profound artistic contribution has
been in '\vomcns art": "My art is for everyone but it is about me (my
sisters)." In Aunts Edith and Bessie {lllus. 145), from her Family of
Women series, Ringgold shapes soft, pliable materials into lifcsized
human figures. The open mouths of these two subjects arc meant to
145 Faith Rin ggold ,
symbol ize the need for women to speak out for themselves. Ringgold$
Aunts Edith and Bessie, 1974. interest in womcns rights has not lessened her concern about the
Mixed media, life size. continuing racia l oppression in the Un ited States: "As long as sixty
Courtesy of th e artist. percent [the female sector] of the African American population con-
tinues under [its] double oppression, people of color will not be free."
 THE FLAG: A SYMBOL OF REPRESSION

During the late 196os, th ere arose in the United States a reaction on
the part of man y African American artists aga inst what they viewed as
institutional racism. In an effort to focus publ ic attention on this
evil , a great number of these artists bega n to usc the nati onal Aag as a
visual symbol of their disappointment over the country$ lack of social
justice.

(b. 1927), who believes that "the power of art belongs to

C LIFF ] OSEPII
the people," makes racism, war, and sexism his principal pictori al
concerns:

My art is a confrontation. Among the many realities of art ex-

pression, this remains the most constant purpose of my aesthetic. It
is, of course, a social art, based on my "gut" perceptions of ou r
worldly conditions; but it draws upon each viewer to confront him-
self in consideration of his role in affecting those conditions. As
long as these conditions remain, I must continue to move between
analysis, militan t pride, and revolutionary suggestion in my search
and struggle for true humanity. {Personal communication with the
author. }

146 Cliff Joseph,

My Country 1\ight or Wrong, 1968.
Oil on masonite, 32" x 48".
Courtesy of the artist. (Photograph
by Eric Pollitzcr,
Carden C ity, cw York.)

165
 Joseph is an artist who is highly conscious of th e social and political
problems of the modern world. His My Country Right or Wrong
{Illus. q 6) portrays Americans who, bl inded by an inverted Rag, stand
oblivious to the skeletons of those fa ll en around them. T his eerie,
surrealistic comment on the destruction committed in the name of
patriotism is meant to arouse feelings of indignation and to have a
macabre effect on all who view it.

D AVID BRADFORD (b. 1937), in Yes, LeRoi {Illus. 147) , provides a

penetrating example of the use of the flag as a symbol of social and
political repression . The dramatic horizontal stripes of the banner
become symbols of environmental conflict when Bradford makes
them a backdrop for his composition's humble figure. Josephs M y
Country Right or Wrong depicts the Rag as a source of blindness. Yes,
LeRoi associates it with a penal environment.

J..t7 David Bradford ,

Yes, Leroi, 1968.
Oi l, 36" X 30".

166
BERTRAND PHILLIPS (b . 1938), a C hicago painter and graphic artist, is
another whose work projects anger over the broken promises of the
flag. In his Stars, Bars and Bones [Illus. 148) jagged, brittle lines
heighten the compositions emotional energy and express an intense
reaction to death and destruction perpetrated under the guise of pa-
triotism. An extraordinarily dynamic artist, Phillips has explained his
work by saying:

My objective as an artist is to portray in my work symbols and forms

related to the history, experience, and aspirations of working people,
African American people, and other suppressed people. It is impor-
tant that the manner in which these portrayals are done be contem-
porary, but a favorable reaction from the viewer needn't follow. My
art is done for the people. It is not void of figurative subjects or social
and political concepts. It is dedicated to the freedom and liberation
of humanity.

As an artist and a sensitive human being whose historic roots bea r

witness to America's genocidal atrocities, I will not fa ll victim to the
myth that art should not concern itself with social and political
problems facing America and the world. [Personal communication
with the author. )

148 Bertra nd Philli ps,

Stars, Bars and Bones, 1970.
Oil on canvas, 4' x 4' .
Courtesy of the artist.

167
 MANUEL HuCIIES (b. 1938) provides another example of an artists use
of the flag. His painting The Chitlin Eater {Illus. 149) shows a flag
bearer - a self-portrait of Hughes - who seems to question the awk-
ward position in which he finds himself. The partiall y unfurled flag
appears to be a burden to him, and his eyes stare in frustration and
dismay. While motion is suggested, it is left to the imagination
of the viewer to determine whether the figure is moving forward or
hesitating.

149 Manuel Hughes,

The Chit/in Eater, 1970.
Oil, 3' X 3'
Courtesy of t he artist.

PIIILLIP LI NDSAY MASON (b. 1939) has a distinctly personal painting

style based principally on a unique use of color. His content ranges
168 from themes of tender love and fertility to biting social and political
 15 0 Phillip Lindsay Mason , T he Deathmakers, 1968. Acrylic on can vas,
493!.;" x 5oW'. Cou rtesy of the artist.

commentaries like that of The Deathmakers {Ill us. 150], which recalls
the assassination of Malcolm X. In this painting Mason points an
accusing finger at the Establishment whi le it, represented by skeletal
policemen , points an accusing fi nger at the fallen Malcolm. Promi-
nent among the bright, primary colors that make up this tense scene is
the chrome yellow of the fi eld, a pictorial frame that alternately ad-
vances and retreats, depending on the colors that touch it. Figures are
realized through abrupt value changes in shape rather than through
the use of light and shadow. The dramatic bars of the American Aag
serve as a bullS-eye backdrop that further intensifies the death scene.
Masons Woman as Body Spirit ofCosmic Woman {Illus. 151] is a
predominantly cool composition that imparts a mood of serenity and
meditation . The central sun disk radiates warmth and provides a con-
trast to the large, Aat, light blue area of the frame and the bright blue
of the background. The cosmic body serves as a backdrop for a rose 169
 151 Phillip Lindsay Mason,
Woman as Body Spirit of Cosmic Woman .
6o" x 37". Courtesy of the artist.

floating in space. Contrasting colors and textures and a surrealistic

treatment of space all contribute to this tribute to African American
womanhood.

D ANA 0 IANDL ER (b. 19 41 ) sees his rol e in art as that of a political

reporter and a cultural histori an for African America n people. I lis
4(oo) More Years [Illus. 152) shows people trapped behind bars formed
by the American Aag, to him a symbol of repression and "Euro-
American genocidal practices":

I deeply believe that for our four hundred years of suppression of

mind and body we are owed any monies necessary to pursue our
chosen profession , without having to worry about our bills or mea-
suring up to white aesthetic values. We should be able to do our
thing for our people or for all people if that is our need. African
152 O;~n a Chandler, American artists, as you can see, generally produce functional art:
.J(oo) More Years, 1973 . art with a message. I guess it's a part of our African heritage. 1
Acrylic, 75" x 35". believe that art should reflect the needs of the community and be an
Courtesy of the artist. integral part of the da y-to-day existence of our people, relating to life
in the wa y our African heritage in art does. [Personal communica-
170 tion with the author. )
 153 Dana Chandler,
1-Iousehold Weapons: Turpentine,
Bullets, Salt, Pepper, 1975 .
Acrylic, 72" x 40".
Courtesy of the artist.

Chandler admits that his art is propaganda created to reshape the

attitude and values of African Americans toward the development of
Pan-Africanism. Because, in his opinion , Africans in America are
being killed mentally, physically, and economically, he attempts to
create works that suggest methods of defense. In his Revolutiona ry
Still Life series, departing from th e conventional approach to still life,
Chandler offers imaginative works that "become function al, as they
depict the necessary tools for our surviva l in a land determined to
exterminate us" {Ill us. 153].

MALAIKA FAVORITE (b. 1949) continues to confront problems that

African Americans born generations before her encounted. She is not
satisfi ed with merely coping with adverse experiences as a source of
learning and moti vation . She believes that being Africa n American
and female provides her with a deeper understanding of the suffering
that many people undergo in everyday life. T his knowledge, Favorite
insists, contributes to her strength as a person and to her growth as
an artist.
During the difficult, lean yea rs of being a fulltimc artist, Malaika
Favorite, out of necessity, began to use any materials that were avail-
able to her. Unable to afford the traditional artist materials, she looked 171
 elsewhere for other sources. "I learned to do without what I didn't
have and to usc what was there. This forced me to work with wash-
boards, wa rped stretchers, old frames, and other objects." The Flag
Needs A Washing [Illus. 154} is a work in which Favorite invented new
images based on materials available. In addition to expressing strong
social and politi cal concerns, this work allowed Favorite to express
herself as a painter and as a sculptor. Fragments of canvas were
stitched together, manipulated over a washboard and painted - a
process which Favorite refers to as "canvas manipulation."
In addition to continuing her interest in expanding her knowledge
of Africa n American history and culture, Malaika Favorite has a
strong interest in using women and their activities as subjects for her
art. Wh en asked why she does not paint more men and deal with male
themes, her repl y is: '/\fter all, enough men have talked about them-
selves to fill all the libraries in every city. Women need to discuss who
they arc and where they wish to go in life."

154 Malaika Favori te,

The Flag Needs A Wa shing.
Paint on Washboard and
Stitched ca nvas, 24" x 24".

REALITY AND THE DREAM

Artists arc communicators who, through various media, express

thoughts and feelings about their inner world and their perceptions of
the outer world. Works of art are thus individualized expressions of the
"real" world or the "unreal" world . They not only express the real as in
"everydayness" but also the play or fantasy side of human nature,
which is so often ignored in todays technologica l societies.

Bo n 'I'IIOMPSON (1937-66), who died in Rome at age twenty-n ine, was

an artist concern ed with expressing his inner feelings rather than
depicting ob jective form. Because of the intensity of his involvement,
he transform ed ordinary experiences into pictoria l works of extraord i-
nary vitality. Painting for Thompson was a necessity. From 1961 to
1963 he traveled through Europe studying Western pa inters of the
classica l tradition, and later reshaped their themes into a record of his
own fantasies and nightmares. Although derived from Coya, Titian,
Poussin , and others, his art was very personal. Flat color areas, distor-
tions, and spatial relationships all became personal symbols for his
allegorical statements.
172
 Thompson was preoccupied with the dualism of good and evil. He
saw beasts as ferocious and meek at the same time and demons and
lechers as both monstrous and gentle. He saw in mountains and trees
the sa me sensuality that he saw in the bodies of women. To him, birds
symbolized power and freedom; and the functi ons of the devil a nd the
satyr excited him. T he devil in his Maidens {Illus. 155] is portrayed in
the midst of three maidens who are vibrantly painted in Aat tones with
no con cern for light and shadow. The devil, the female figures, and
the trees appea r to be engaged in a common dialog.
An unusual painter whose short life produced an amazing number
of works, Thompson relied heavily on his one intense drive and re-
sourceful imagination to catch glimpses of li fes meaning:

I had a dream once where the birds sort of went like that and swept
up everything, including me, you know, and took me away. The
wind was so strong and powerful and yet they were so free and
soaring. (Quoted in "Bob Thompson: Importan t Works in New York
Collections." Catalog of an exhibition, 3-30 March 1968, at the
Martha Jackson Gallery, New York.]

155 Bob Thompson, Maidens, 1961.

O il on canvas, 26" x 21".
Collecti on of Dr. and M rs. Leon 0. Banks,
Los Angeles.

173
 EMILIO C Ruz (b. 1938), li ke Bob T hompson, orchestrates an art of
imagination and fantasy, for his style is rich in challenging shapes,
colors, and movement. The dazzling interplay of figure and fi eld in
Cruzs Composition 6 [lllus. 156] is typical of his artistic style. In this
highly decorati ve, almost startling work, Cruz recalls sculptural
human figures of the ancient past and places them in individualized
settings. The figures arc viewed from many perspectives simul-
taneously, and Cruz combines vibrant colors and complex spatial
relationships to produce a surreal yet perceptible world.
In 19 57, during a visit to Provincetown, Em ilio C ruz met Bob
Thompson. This meeting took place while T hompson was at the
Massachusetts art colony studying painting with Song Moy and John
Frank, his teacher from the University of Louisville. Before returning
to Kentucky, Thompson in vited Cruz to go back to Louisvil le with
him and to share his studio. Cruz accepted the invitation and during
this period each artist embarked on a style of painting which com-
bined a distinctive blend of figurative and abstract fo rms.
During much of his career, Emilio Cruzs painting style has fluctu-
ated between abstract and figurative tendencies. In his later work,
such as Straited Voodoo [Illus. 157] Cruz returns to combini ng these
two tendencies and achi eves results that arc uni que in design and
strong in cultural awareness.

156 Emilio Cruz,

Fig ure Composition 6, 1964 .
Oil on canvas, 32" x 40".
Collection of
Mr. and Mrs. llcrbcrt S. Falk,
Crccnsboro, N.C. (Photograph
by John D. Schiff.)

174
 157 Emilio Cruz,
Straited Voodoo, 1987.
Pastel on paper, 27Vz" x 30".
Courtesy, Alitash Kebede Fine Arts.

LESLIE PRICE (b. 1945). Surrealism is perltaps the most important

influence on the art of Leslie Price, for it has guided his unique
synthesis of abstract form and romantic content. In his dreaml ike
portrayals, the spiritualization of matter seems a primary goal. Prices
uncomplicated illusions arc expressed through design concepts that
combine geometric shapes with a world of natural growth. His works
are symbols of nature in which lyrical , spatial configurations are en-
closed in highly technical, hard-edged mathema tica l shapes.
In his highly personal , mandala like work Purusa {I ll us. 158], Price
uses nature as a silhouetted textural pattern. The paintings controlled
forms suggest a spatia l ambivalence that is emphasized by the rad iat-
ing circular area in the center of the work. T he bold, dramatic li nes
and torch shapes superimposed over the natura l environment create a
strange, unreal atmosphere that decisively combines the concepts of
abstraction and surrealism.

158 Leslie Price, Purusa, 1971.

Oil, 4Y2' x 6Vz'. Courtesy of the artist.

175
 159 Irene Clark,
Rolling Calf Oil.
Courtesy of the artist.

IRENE CLARK (b. 1927) uses traditional Caribbean folklore as subjects.

In her Rolling Calf {Illus. 159] , she expresses a Jamacian folktale in
which a restless spirit reveals itself as an animal which has broken its
tether. In this composition , the normal relationships of the size of the
images arc abandoned . The artist has given the following explanation
of her work:

Why folklore? As a child I was always fascinated by good stories.

Having a vivid imagination, I made up many fantasies of my own.
After reading many stories, I had to try to paint the substance
of what I had read. {Personal communication with the author.]

AL HoLLINGSWORTH (1928-2ooo), in addition to painting, involved

himself in creating mixed-media works that involve their viewers in a
total sensory experience. Such assorted materials as wire hangers, fish-
bones, clotheslines, teeth, wood, cloth, and glass found their way into
his collages. One of these, Memorable Wall {Illus. 16o], also involves
graffiti, a phenomenon common to Hollingsworth's expression:

Imagine walking down the street and suddenly you see a wall or a
fence that has writing on it - you wonder who wrote the words, who
carved the names. A thousand questions rush through your mind. It
is so intriguing that you must see what's on the other side - however,
you can't because you may have to leap over the wall or take ten
176 minutes to walk around it.
 160 AI Hollingsworth,
Jv lemorable Wall , 1963-64.
O il , acr~~lic, collage,
assemblage, 6' X -+'.
Courtesy of the artist.

The painting Memorable Wall solves the problem. It is a painting

based on typical neighborhood scenes of a decade ago but could very
well be today It interprets the feel of a "ru mble"- a teenage fight - a
"bop." I utilized some statements as design matter, such as "walk
cool" - "no bopping." The wall is small enough to walk around (four
feet wide) and see the other side- it is too tall to leap over (eight feet
tall). [Personal communication with the author. ) 177
 Starting in the early 1970s, Hollingsworth focused exclusively on
one subject - the female. He chose to combine spiritual, physical,
and subliminal interpretations of women as subject matter. In his
painting Mixed Dream [Illus. 161] from the "Subconscious Series,"
Hollingsworth combined all three of these properties to achieve a
work of considerable contrast and drama.

161 Alvin Hollingsworth, Mixed Dream, 1984. Mixed media collage,

11 11
45 X 55

WILLIAM PAJAUD (b. 1925) creates dynamic forms that have their
source in his ea rly life as a native of the South and his later experi-
ences as a resident of the urban West. His Solid as a Rock [Ill us. 162],
an expression of African American life on the bayou, reflects the
mixture of sensitivity and physical strength that is the essence of
endurance. Pajauds expressionistic handling of the subject is achieved
through surface texture and application of paint rather than through
choice of colors or the action of the figure.
178
 162 William Pajaud,
Solid as a Rock, 1970.
11 11
O il, 30 X 24

Courtesy of Contemporary
Crafts, Los Angeles.

As a member of the National Watercolor Society, Will iam Pajaud

holds a place of prestige as a practitioner of this challenging medium.
Among his most noted watercolors arc his 1\<Venty-third Psalm , 198 1
and Destruction by the Assyrian [Ill us. 163}.

163 William Pajaud ,

Des/ rue/ ion b)' /he Ass)ria n,
198 1. W<Jtereolor, q " x 20".
Cou rtes~ of
Alitash Kebede Fine Arb.

179
 RICHARD MAYHEW (b. 1924) bases his painting method on unmixed
color complements applied in juxtapositions that intensify the bright-
ness of his compositions. He is principally a landscape painter, and, as
in Meadow {Illus. 164], is often concerned with the effects oflight as it
falls on land and vegetation. His handling of changing light is un-
usually sensitive and lyrical. Mayhew aims for subtle surface effects,
and though his landscapes are somewhat mysterious and always imply
the dominance of nature, they are also calm and peaceful. He sums
up, rather than represents, nature, changing it as necessary for
richness of color and linear grace.

164 Richard Mayhew,

Meadow, 1982.
Oil, 48" X 50".
Courtesy
Alitash Kebede Fine Arts.

BERNIE CASEY (b. 1939), a colorist with a strong sense of design,

frequently uses geometric shapes in combination with subtle color
changes; an example is provided by his Orbital Moonscape (Illus.
165]. His works arc quiet but penetrating, and some are adorned with
words of social significance. The locales they depict could be almost
any place in the world , but their poetic statements generally deal with
the social pl ight of African Americans in the United States. Since
Casey is also a poet, this combination of forms and words is not
unnatural.
Born in West Virginia and educated in Ohio, Casey feels that life
experiences become part of the memory bank that contributes to ones
180 creativity:
 165 Bernie Casey,
Orbital Moonscape, 1970.
Acrylic on canvas, 28" x 22".
Collection of Samella Lewis.

Sometimes ideas are given to you that you collect, keep, and hold
dear for a very long time. During your lifetime these things come out
(they come back). You reach into your storehouse of experience and
you find an idea lying there waiting to be expressed. You may try to
express this idea again and again only to have it defeat you. You
know that you are doing it all wrong. But you know that you will try
and try again . Then perhaps one long, long rainy afternoon you will
try once more and the gods will smile upon you. Every brushstroke
will be golden and you are "doing your own thing" and loving it.
You have waited so long and you cherish that moment - that mo-
ment of crea tivity. [From the sound track of the film Bern ie Casey:
Black Artist, copyright 1971 by Samella Lewis.)

Though it demonstrates an awareness of contemporary social prob-

lems, Cascys work generally refl ects enduring un iversal values as wel l.
Thus when asked to name the colors of his palette, Casey responded:

I don't really know. What is the color of kindness? What is the color
of communications? W hat is the color of compassion? What is the
color of understanding? These, I hope, are my colors. [Personal
communication with the author.} 181
 FLOY D NEWSUt-.1 (h. 1959) centers his art on the theme of women.
''I've always dea lt with placing women in unusual environments,
presenting them as free spirits." lie projects women as boundless
humans who arc capable of fl ying through air and convincingly defy-
ing all sense of gravity and the laws of nature. Certainly, Newsum
must intend that such beings serve as symbols for a larger embodim ent
of humani ty.
In his Gathering al Blue Waters [IIlus. 166], Newsum uses a com-
bination of images to express, in allegorica l terms, the liberation of a
spirit. A woma n Aics effortless against the night sky, from which three
ladders hang. She leaves the domestic chores and ea rthly life behind
and seeks in its place- th e mountain top.

166 Floyd 1 cwsum, Ga thering at Blue Waters, 1989. l\ I ixcd media, B" x 55".
182
FRAN K WI LLIAMS (b. 1959) creates unusual worlds in both his land-
scape and figurati ve paintings. An artist of great emoti onal intensity,
he projects a kind of reality that transcends the visual and moves his
viewers beyond tangibl e objects to psychological, emotional, and in-
tellectual realities- thus avoiding academic concepts and traditional
relationships.

167 Fra nk Willi<J ms, J: n vironment. 1987. Pastel , 51W' x 6o". Courtesy,
Alitash Kebede Fine Arts.

In his landscape pamtmg, Environment [lllus. 167), Frank

Williams uses intense unnatural forms and colors to heighten the
feeling of drama in nature. He transforms tree branches and foliage
into undulating patterns that suggest creatures from another world .
183
 168 Frank Will iams, City Life, 1988. Oil , 6' x 10'. Courtesy, Alitash
Kebede Fine Arts.

Frank Wi lliams uses color arbitrarily in both his landscape and

figurative compositions. In C ity Life [Illus. 168), he expresses the
insecurities that arc often experienced in urban communities. In addi-
tion , he effectively combines two disparate tendencies, external and
internal , to create a work of compell ing psychological dimensions.

LOLJIS D ELSARTE (b. 1944) creates pictorial compositions that are

illusionistic and seductive . Using an exquisitely individualistic style,
Delsarte recalls subjects from both his African America n past and
from contemporary urban life as he experiences it.
Midnight Dance [Illus. 169) recalls the gaiety of the time when
Harlem was the cultural "Mecca" of the African America n world. The
political parades, musicians, and dancers all grouped together, seem
to transcend time, place, and space as is customary in Delsartes
provocative narrative works.
Like many contemporary artists, Louis Dclsa rtc uses his creative
ideas as a way of responding to the va ried experiences of daily life. The
"dreams" that he weaves reflect both rapture and rage. In the Febru-
ary, 1989 issue of Colorline Magazine, Delsarte states, "I am con-
stantly going through rage and rapture. My mood swings are a result of
feelings accepted or rejected. Issues, such as jealousy, fear, guilt, ca use
184 a war in my mind and a war on my nerves."
 169 Louis Dclsartc,
Midnight Dance, 1986.
Graph ite/colored pencil ,
20 " X 24" .

Illusions o(Vanity [Illus. 170) is a complex work in which the artist

exhibits enormous organizational skills and esthetic facility for em-
bracing both sensuous and dramatic tendencies. ln addition to his
highly praised reputation as a painter, Louis Delsarte is known as an
expert draftsman whose knowledge in this field has contributed greatly
to his complex and unique pa inting style.

170 Lou is Dclsarte, lllusions of Vanity , 1987. Watercolor/pastel, 22" x 30".

185
 171 William Henderson, Non Violent, 1968. Oi l, 6' x w'. Courtesy of
Contem porary Crafts, Los Angeles.

WILLIAM HENDERSON (b. 1943) has recently changed his artistic

17 2 WiII ia m l lcnderson,
Home, 1971.
Courtesy of the artist.
focus. In such early works as Non Violent [Illus. 171] he was con-
cerned with emotional subjects of a predominantly social and political
nature. Home [lllus. 172) and Henderson $ other recent compositions
arc, in contrast, highly personal expressions. The loose, amorphous,
geometric forms used in Home and its austere dark green and white
colors suggest an otherworldly existence. But although they arc differ-
ent in sub ject matter and content, there is a conceptual relationship
between Henderson$ early and late styles. Both represent extremes in
the world of reality.

SYMBOLISM
Geometric, Organic, and Figurative

The 1950s and 196os gave rise to a mu ltiplicity of art movements,

among them I lard-edge, Color-field, and Minima l art. Little known
or recognized in the Western world before the twentieth century, these
tendencies, common in trad iti onal arts in Africa, Asia, and the major-
ity of cultures in the Americas arc based on geometric symbols of
shapes and colors that express the essence of ideas. These non-objec-
tive and abstract styles form th e basis for an art which departs from
representational or recognizable ob jects.
186
 Many contemporary artists have drawn inspiration from ancient
reli cs in which form s expressed "passages of life." Some have expressed
themselves through paintings, others through sculptures and still oth-
ers through performance art. In many respects, these symbolic works
represent a look "back to the future" with emphasis on a "new way of
seeing" which integrates the past with the present in broadly conceived
universal terms.

D A lEI. L AR UE ]0 11 'SON (b. 1938), in his Big Red {lllus. 173), exhib-
its a symbolic geometric arrangement of white, yellow, and reel rec-
tili near form s. They cnfram e a central black square that is a collage of
cliscardccl items. T he matte treatment given the black field puts it at
va riance with the other surfaces. T he large, vibrant red area contains a
discreet chromatic modulation that appears as a rhythmic and gently
pulsating line. Big Red represents a transitional stage between John -
sons "black constructions" of the ea rly 196os and his recent brill iantl y
painted sculptures.

173 Da niel Johnson, Big Red, 1963.

Oil on canvas, 63" x 62".
Collection of
Dr. and Mrs. Leon 0. Banks,
Los Angeles.

187
 JOE OvERSTREET (b. 193 3) in the 1970s began experimenting with
suspended painted can vases. After threading cords through eyelets
placed along the edge of his paintings, he connected the cords to
walls, ceilings, and floors within the display area, making these en-
vironments components of his compositions.
Suggesting both painting and sculpture, the angular outline of
Gemini IV [Illus. 1741 creates a dramatic relationship between shape
and space. Bold geometric motifs are combined with fluid , soft, and
thinly applied figure images, which subdue the dramatic impact cre-
ated by the diverse angles of the canvas. Through the usc of many-
sided canvases, Overstreet avoids the conventional rectangular format.
His compositi ons suggest brightly colored shields covered with cul-
tural and religious symbols. The thrust of Overstreets la rge-sca le com-
positions can be traced to his increased awareness of his cultural
he ritage; and his earlie r success as an expressionist painter combined
with a recent interest in traditional African imagery allows him to
express with authority an art that is profound and dramatic.
In his recent work, Overstreet has returned to traditional bound-
a ries, using stre tch er-bars for his ca nvas and oil as his medium . This
174 Joe Overstreet, method of application , however, is far from traditional in that he uses
Gem ini IV, 1971. various unconventional methods and tools (sometimes applying paint
Shaped canvas, acrylic, and rope, with paper and a palette knife) to create the tactile surfaces of his
82" x 39". Courtesy of pa intings.
Ankrum Callery, Los Angeles.
Resembling surfaces of ancient encaustic compositions that have
retained the beauty of their color and have been endowed with age,
Overstreets For Buddy Bolden [Illus. 1751 from his "Storyville Series"
is based on life in o ld New O rleans. The series explores life during the
days when the citys reputation as a place of magic, music, and m ys-
tery, came into being.

17 5 Joe Overstreet,
1-'or Buddy Bolden, 1988.
Oil, 78" X 64"

188
ADRIENNE W. I loARD (b. 1949) lives in a world of brilliant colors and
myriad abstract form s and shapes. Dreams, designs of Pueblo Indians,
and the visual experiences of her travels to North Africa, Spain and
Korea have been among the principal influences on her artistic ex-
pressions. It is from these sou rces and experiences that she has drawn
the shapes and vivid color patterns that characterize her unique, evoc-
ative style of pa inting.
Although Hoards ea rl y interest in art was in portrait painting, she
progress ively moved from figurative to a more abstract style whil e a
grad uate student at the University of Michiga n. Adrienne Hoard soon
discovered that non-objccti,c art or abstract art allowed for greater
expression of emotions. She further decided that this tendency offered
opportu nities more compatible with her temperament and her need to
express fee lings in a very personal way.
In her work of a later period, Hoard began an in vestigation of
boundaries- phys ical as in multiple horizons; metaphys ica l, referring
to more than one level of awareness; and personal, in terms of limits,
edges and interaction.
Added to her strong interest in color and abstractions, Hoard de-
veloped an abidi ng respect and appreciation for nature. Her year
as a ftu lbright-Haycs lecturer to Seoul , Korea (1980-1981) and her
Ford-Foundation Gra nt (1985-1986) provided th e fl exibility fo r a
breakthrough and for her current way of seeing which is CYiclcnt in
such compositions as Le Phoenix {lllus. 176} .

. . . Internal!)', the change has occurred. I am into nuances; tin y color

changes, softness and motion and free-form. Now I am able to make
my thoughts and my expressions match. And I Love it ...

176 Adrienne W. ll oard, Le Phoenix, 1988. Oi l pastel/watercolor, 28" x 34".

189
 As a dedi cated teacher, Adrienne considers her work as a profes-
siona l artist to be an important clement in her role as a teacher. She
furth er believes that being in the classroom makes an equally signifi-
ca nt contribution to her own artwork. As a seri ous educator whose
research is primarily in the psychology of esthetics, Hoard believes:

.. . Art teachers are the bottom line. If they don't teach people that
there is an esthetic wea lth in the community and that they should go
and take advantage of the opportunities offered, a disservice is being
done. Th e quality of life and culture is diminished.

SAM GILI .IAM (b. 193 3) is a prime example of an artist who produces
works that bridge the gaps between painting, sculpture, and environ-
mental "happenings." I lis works during the mid196os mark Gi lIiams
rise to prominence. He used flexible foundations and unsupported
canvas to ac hieve spontaneous and emotionall y expressive works by
using the technique of controll ing th e Row of colors whi ch he applied
directly to raw, wet canvas so that they Row and mix, creating subtle
surface modulations. In addition , he experimented by folding the
can vas so that some of the paint could accumulate, thereby creating a

177 Sam Gilliam,

Seahorses, 1975. Oil on canvas,
center 30' x 6o' , outside pieces 20' x 6o',
on the Philadelphia Museum of Art.

190
soft linea rity. In his first outdoor pamtmg Seahorses {lllus. 177},
Gilliam created a work that measures thirty by ninety feet. The sca le
of this ambitious work of six ca nvas groupings is a notable example of
Gilliam $ mastery in combining painting and sculptura l techniques.
In Sam C illiams work, A Module for the Wind [lllus. 178), we
experience the freedom of the artist who combines Color-field , Ab-
stract Express ionism, and Hard-edge in a sculptura l format which
distinguishes him as an ind ividualist. G ill iam bel ieves:

Color is the most tantalizing element in {Jointing, but I'm very

much involved with structure and shape. 1 don 't feel that my inher-
ent approach to painting has changed very much at all; whether the
painting is on a structure or hanging free in space, or whether it is a
found object or a paper sculpture on a pedestal, it is still a statemen t
in terms of exact and inexact references ... [that is, it is a statement
ofl what can be controlled and what is spontaneous and open to
allow things to happen. Keeping that freedom and sustaining that
momentum is the dail y job of the artist.

178 Sam G illiam, A Module for the Wind, 1989. Acrylic and enamel on
al uminum, 72" x 8o" x 30".
191
 M AHLER RYDER ( 193 7- 1992) bel ieved that his experience as a
musician and his long time association with some of this na tion's best
jazz performers contributed to his commitment to the philosophy that
the arts have an inter-relationship and tha t there is a complementary
clement at every level. Ryders jazz-related art includes a series of
works entitled Homage to the Guitar. T hi s seri es incl udes mixed-
media collages that pay tribute to notables such as George Benson
{Illus. 179] and Sister Tharp [1/l us. 180] . Among the other works in
the series arc Blind Lemon Jefferson, Big Bill Broonzy, Leadbelly and
B. B. King.
Rydcrs collages are intricately designed two dimensional construc-
tions that arc organized to achieve the rhythmic juxtaposition and
expressive nature of jazz arrangements.

J.

179 Ma hler Ryder, George Benson. 180 l'vlahlcr Ryder. Sister Tharp.
Mixed media collage. Mixed media collage, 25" X 25".
Ouv1:R JACKSON (b. 1935) paints power-packed images composed of
shapes and spaces that express his energy and vision of a world perme-
ated by imagination. Having made his art a condu it for him to speak
to deep personal experiences, Jackson takes us to a world of added
dimension- a world devoid of cliches and on e without li mits.
Jacksons expressionistic, luminous colors, sometimes spilling into
one another, arc like moving forces that celebrate the coming together
of worlds that arc seen as diametricall y opposi te. Never in search of a
style, Jackson moves through his work, guided by hi s persona l vision
which allows him to go beyond th e visual to what is important for him
at a particu lar time and place.
During the 196os and 70s, Jackson worked in a group of multi-
disciplinary artists in St. Louis, Missouri. This experience of working
with writers, musicians, dancers, and other visual artists influenced
Jackson in formul ating the personal symbols that arc present in much
of his current work.
The world of jazz music has been of special interest to O liver
Jackson. As is true with creative jazz musicians, Jackson has lea rned
that creativity often ca lls for taking risks. In fact, he im pl ies that risk
taking can and should be natural and exciting.
An exampl e of Jacksons diametric view of th ~ world is seen in
Untitled [Illus. 181], d work in which he isolates two figures in an
embryoni c type form while surrounding them with another world
which is contrary to their existence.

181 Oli ver Jackson, Un titled, 1986.

Oil , 95%" x 108".
Courtesy, Anne Kohs and Associates.

193
EucENE COLES (b. 1945) creates complex abstractions using com-
binations of geometric shapes and planes to project symbols and meta-
phoric meaning. His particular style of abstraction investigates space,
color, and dimensions, all of which are inherent in the structure of his
work.
In his painting, The Theory of Pyramid [lllus . 182] , Coles uses
simple masses of color on a scale which enables him to express dif-
ferences in depth and perception by varying combinations of color,
texture, and value. Resulting combinations of these elements enable
the artist to evoke emotional sensations and encourage unexpected
conceptual add itions that often res ult from successful mergers.
Coles' current work is a departure from the surrea listic, high-energy
content that characterized his paintings of the 1970s. Whi le energy
and color remain important to his content, he now chooses to work
with broad color-fi eld shapes and prefers to reserve the more expres-
sionistic, spontaneous effects for accents and evocative counterpoints.

182 Euge ne Coles, The Theory of Pyramid, 1982. Oi l, -+ ' x 6' .

V11 CENT Sl\I ITII (b. 19 29), best known as a painter, has also chan-
neled his energy in to drawing and printmaking. 'No matter what me-
dium he uses, Smith has been able to mai ntain the high esthetic
standards that he set for himself decades ago.
Vincent Smith clcvclopcd hi s artistic skills in the 1950s, during the
time when African Americans ,,ere not ah,ays accepted as legitimate
arti sts- even in their own communities. Unable to exhibit in recog-
ni zed ga lleries and museums, Smith and his group of friends that con-
sisted of artists, \\Titers, and musicians, spent much of their time work-
ing together, sharing dai ly experiences and encouraging each other.
Undaunted by the nega ti ve attitudes of the "establishment", they saw
themseh-es as young pionee rs in search of new directions. "The
juices \\'ere Row ing. We \\'ere going to be th e movers and shakers."
Smiths numerous trips to Africa enabled him to establish a firm
cultu ra l b<l sc and to develop <ln understanding of ancient trad itions
that serve as th e primary resource for his creative expression. In his
Queen of the N ile {lllus. 183], Vincent Smith comm emorates the
passages of life and time as represented in the form of the "s<lcrccl
mother" who offers birth and rebirth to all life.
Among the different cultures that have been important to Vi ncent
Smiths dc,clopmcnt as an arti st, those of Afri ca continue to predomi-
nate. This Ones for Doc {Illus . 18-tl depicts a group of fi gures on a
playground whose faces resemble african masks. The broken wind -up
doll seems to symbolize the failure of the players to o,ercome and win
in the bleck environment that surrounds them.

184 Vi nce nt Smi th

This Ones for Doc.
Oi l coll<lgc, 72" x 36".

183 Vincent Smith , Queen of the Nile. O il and sand, .p" x ;.{.
195
CALVIN Jo 'J:s (b. 1934) uses bold designs and intensely vibran t colors
to address issues of identity and culture. His experi ences as a muralist,
an easel painter and as a commercial artist have enabled him to
develop a successfu l combination of forms that range from ob jecti ve
documentation to non-objective spontaneity. In his evoca tive paint-
ing, Maskamorphosis I [Illus. 1Bs], Jones combines two stylistic ex-
tremes and uses symbolic shapes to form dramatic masks of unusual
brilli ance. In this complex work, he employs intersecting planes and a
dynam ic usage of lines, dramatica lly contrasting them with patterns
that arc reminiscent of African textiles. Upon close exa mination, the
images seem to occupy an ambiguous middle ground between abstract
and figurati ve, a personal domain where Ca lvin Jones invites us to
fo ll ow the trajectory of his thoughts and his vision.
Jones' work resonates with cultural and traditional imagery. It can
assist viewers in transcending time and place and also all ow the past to
co-exist ,,ith the present. His symbols rcAcct aspects of the vital forces
that connect and make us one.

185 Ca lvin J on e~, Maskamorphosis I, 1987. Mixed media, 48"x 84".

P11EORIS WEST (b. 1950) produces art wh ich is closely allied to the
expressions of his ancestors. As an African American, he looks back
on the ph ysical and spiritual life of Africa ns and peoples of African
descent to capture their vibrations, feelings, and images in a unique
and personal way. In 1989, Willis Bing Davis, Chair of the Art Depart-
ment, Central State Un iversity, sa id of Pheoris Wests art, "His images
move confidently and poetically from one plane to another. Skill
alone would not support such mystica l work. He gives tangible form to
the ancient African concept of the co-existence of the physical and
spiritual world(s)."
1rue to his belief that Africa is the source of his understanding of
the visual language, West produces vibrant expressions that reflect
upon the spirit of Africa n trad itions. The basic structure of his work
features principles of design that are most apparent in mask-making
and sculpture-in-the-round . As a figurative artist, West chooses to
combine different stylistic tendencies in a single composition. In his
Two Sisters [Illus. 186], both the Africqn and the African American
presence are evident in this composition. One sisters attention seems
directed towards the American presence while the other looks back to
recall the spirit of the ancestors.
The sculpturesque forms of his figures and the variable dimensions
of the shifting planes that structure his compositions enable West to
offer his viewers visual episodes of a continuum of the African pres-
ence in the Americas.

186 Phcoris West,

'livo Sisters, 1986.
Oil, 2o" x 40".

197
 MIXEDMEDIA ASSEMBLAGES

Assemblage is the art of combining varied materials to form an

artistically interesting construction. When viewed individually, the
components of a successful assemblage are often aesthetically insig-
nificant. Much of the meaning and impact of an assemblage depends
on the artists ability to orchestrate such materials into a creative
whole. This challenge has become a popular one among Mrican
American artists, and "66 Signs of Neon," an exhibition of works
fashioned from the debris of the 1965 Watts rebellion, is considered
one of the most important shows to date by a group of "construc-
tivists." Made into a traveling show, this unusual exhibition had great
impact on artists and African American communities in many parts of
the United States.

NOAH PuRIFOY (b. 1917), one of the participants in "66 Signs of

Neon," gives the following account of the origins of the work he
contributed to the exhibition:

While the debris was still smoldering, we ventured into the rubble
like other junkers of the community, digging and searching, but
unlike others, obsessed without quite knowing why.

By September, working during lunchtime and after teaching hours,

we had collected three tons of charred wood and fire-molded debris.
Despite the involvement of running an art school, we gave much
thought to the oddity of our found things. Often the smell of the
debris, as our work brought us into the vicinity of the storage area,
turned our thoughts to what were and were not tragic times in
Watts, and to what to do with the junk we had collected. [Personal
communication with the author.]

Sir Watts [Illus. 187) illustrates Purifoys use of these found objects.
The sculptural form, although intended to be seen from all sides,
depends principally on a frontal view for its impact. The "knight,"
constructed of wood, metal, glass, an old purse, discarded drawers,
and a multiplicity of safety pins, commemorates the struggles of a
people in battle.
198
 187 Noah Puri foy, Sir Walls,
1966. Found objects (wood, metal ,
glass, etc. ), 2 ..{ x 20" x 6".
Courtesy of the artist.

188 Noah Purifoy,

untitled construction, 1970.
Copper, brass, sheet steel, and tin,
88" x 55". Courtesy of the artist.

Another work Purifoy fashioned from the debris of Watts is an

untitled combinati on of copper, brass, sheet steel, and tin affixed to a
base of wood [Illus. 188] . The work displays subtle textural and relief
qua lities produced by the overlapping of rectil inear metal shapes. A
large indented recta ngul ar area at the top of the form is fill ed with
bullet cartridges placed in a highly repetitive and emotional relief
pattern.
199
 EDWARD BEREAL (b. 1937) creates assemblages from an unusual as-
sortment of materials. His Stuka Ju 87 [Ill us. 189], for example, is a
combination of sheet metal, paint, valves, decals, and nails. The
presence of both organic and mechanical references in th e assemblage
gives the impression of opposite forces in competition with each other.
The stencils and cross at the base of the construction lead the viewer to
believe that this could be a mass-produced object of destruction.

189 Edward Berea!, Stuka fu 87.

Assemblage, 1.{ x 11 V!''.
Betty and Monte Factor Fam il y
Collection. (Photograph by
Richard Fish, Los Angeles).

BI:TYI: SAAR (b. 1926) grew up in Watts ncar the famous Watts (or
Simon Rodia) 'lowers, whose construction she had watched from a
distance. Although she first saw their majestic quality close-up after
she reached adulthood, the impact of the towers upon her work is
eviden t, and she feels that her memory of their construction contrib-
uted measurably to her artistic expression. The towering spirals, cre-
ated from such castoff items as broken glass and bottle tops, in addi-
tion to steel and cement, apparently made a lasting impression on
Saars artistic imagery. The occult, astrology, and social and political
200 concerns have been among the other contributors to her mature style.
 Saa rs artistic production exhibits gradual changes in subject matter
and execution. From prints on the occult she has moved to works
expressive of her Afri can ancestry, and her compositions have become
more three dimensional. With Eshu {Illus. 190} , for example, Saar
reaches back into African tradition for roots buried in centuries of
separation. Constructed of leather, wood, straw, shells, cloth, and
feathers, the composition refl ects the earth tones preva lent in tradi -
tional Africa n sculpture.
Saars N ine Mojo Secrets {Illus. 191} , which includes references to
astrology and religion, is said by the artist to be a result of her concern
with the mysteries of life embodied in "the secrets of Africa, Oceania;
the limbo of before birth and after dea th." The works astrological
symbols- moons and stars- combined with the mystic eye and other
symbols of the cosmos form a rhythmic pattern enframed by the edges
of the windowpanes. The central secti on of the work reveals a photo-
graphic depiction of Africans in ceremony. Below the window frame is
a "skirt" made of fibers, seeds, and beads. The solid form of the
window and the fibrous skirt create a combination that resembles a
ceremon ial mask.
190 I3etye Saa r,
Eshu (The Trickster) (detail), 19 7 1.
Leather, straw, shells, cloth,
wood, and feathers, 42" x 27".
Collection of Alvin P. Johnson,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

19 1 Betyc Saar, Nine Mojo Secrets,

197 1. Fiber, seeds, and beads,
49%" X 2 3Yz" X I v~". Collection of
Olga James Adderley, Los Angeles.

201
 In the late 196os Saa r began to collect and use as art materials
certain derogatory commercial images of African Americans. Hoping
to expose the racism they conveyed, she incorporated into her work
the emblems of such products as Darkie toothpaste , Black Crow lic-
orice, and Old Black Joe butter beans. In her Liberation of Aunt
Jemima [Illus. 192} the well-known symbol for a line of food products
is transformed into a gun-ca rrying warrior. A coll age of pancakc-A01r
labels acts as a background for the imposing figure. Although the
lower portion of the dollS body ca rries a sign of her former role, the
viewer senses that the rea l Aunt Jemima will soon be free.
Saar dissolves distinctions between painti ng and sculpture and com-
pels us to experience her multidimensional works from an unusual
perspective. In such attacks on traditional Western attitudes and im-
ages, she uses her mo jo consciousness to aid in the liberation of all
Aunt Jcmimas and Uncle Toms.

192 Betye Sa<1r,

The Liberation of Aunt Jemima,
1972 . Mixed media, 11 "V-1" x 8" x 2 '!.!".
Un iversity of California Art Museum, Berkeley
(purchased wi th the aid of funds
from the National Endowment
for the Arts; selected by the
Com mittee for the Acquisition
of Afro-American Art).
(Photograph by Colin McRae. )

202
RoN CRWFIN (b. 1938) devises both two- and thrcc-climcnsional con-
structions. His Bound Figure {IIlus. 193] is a combination of shaped
canvas and sculpture; the canvas, open in the center, revea ls a human
form imprisoned in an irregularl y constructed compartment. The
figure is covered with a transparent black plastic film and a web of
wh ite string. T he usc of the wrappings imparts a fee ling of terror and
gives anonymity to the figure.

193 Ron Griffin , Bound Figure, 197 1.

rvt ixccl mccl ia, 76" x 48" x 16".

203
 j OIIN OlJ'ITERBRI DCE (b. 1933) is an enthusiastic exponent of junk
art:
A lot of times I go to junkyards because junkyards are groovy places.
funk yards illustrate to me much of what the society that we live in
really is all about- discarded materials. Materials that ha ve related
to human experience in a very profound way. You go into a junkyard
and you ca n pull these things out. You try and give them life aga in .
This is realness, this is truthfulness to me from a people point of view,
from a folksy point of view. I see much of my own existence as
isolation, as sort of on the outside of the real perimeter of life,
within the society we know. This is why my work in volves so many
materials and maybe many moods. [Personal communica tion with
the author. )
Outtcrbridgcs Shoeshine Box [Illus. 194) is a personal icon of his
"past remem brances." This sculptural assemblage directly involves the
viewer on an intimate level through the usc of a highly polished
reflective surface. Taki ng adva ntage of th e stains often found on re-
cycled surf<Jccs, the piece exhibits interesting chromatic and textural
qualities; and the subtle relief of its etched and engraved end panel
provides a contrast to the smooth , polished meta l. Contrasting with
the meta lli c cas ing arc an organic-fiber "shocshinc brush" and the
interior wood support of the sculpture.

194 john O utterbridgc,

Shoeshine Box, 1968.
Chrome, ~t ed , and fiber,
,w X,. X tW.

204
MARII: ]OII NSON (b. 1920) makes painted constructions that arc strik-
ing in their form , color, and texture. Her cut-out figures arc often
portraits of people she has known . Two-dimensiona l in appeara nce,
they consist of a variety of materials but rely most heavily on old wood
and clothing. Papa, The Reverend fiLius. 195], for example , is com-
posed of a weathered wood that contributes to the representation of
age and endurance. The detailed features of the figure arc handled in
relief, which increases the lifelike quality of the characterization.

IBIBIO l'UNDI (b. 1929) builds provocative constructions using wooden

blocks and industrial form s. In viewing Fund i's Wooden Sketch for a
Possible Non-Functioning Machine fiLius. 196], one recognizes bits of
familiar objects- a chair and table legs, wooden disks, and laminated
shapes. The interplay of thick and thin , curvilinear and angular, open
and congested spaces gives heightened interest to the piece. Com-
posed of many dissimilar shapes, the construction ach ieves its unity
through basic color application.
195 Marie Johnson,
Papa , the Reverend, 1968.
]OliN STEVENS (b. 193 5), like Ibibio Fundi, creates wood construc- Mixed media, 36" x 2.{.
tions; but his arc somewhat different in subject matter and style.
Stevens' Silver Saddle flllus. 197] is an add itive scu lpture that com-
bines massive wooden components with metal, tar, and enamel. T he
basic structural simplicity of Silver Saddle suggests that it has much in
common with Minimal, or Primary, sculpture, despite its expres-
sionistic handling of paint and surface texture.

196 Ibibio Fundi , Wooden Sketch for a Possible Non-Functioning Machine,

1968. Wooden construction and paint, 2.( high. (Photograph hy Jonathan
Eubanks. )
197 John Stevens, Silver Saddle,
1963. 'HH, wood, metal, and enamel ,
36" x 48". Courtesy of the artist.
 SCULPTURE

ADDITIV~~ OR DIRECT SCU LPTURE

One of th e most frequently seen examples of add iti ve or direct

sculpture is the construction. Constructions (or assemblages) can be
made of one or more of a variety of materials, some of the most
popu lar being wood, metal, fiber, and glass. The United States, a
highly industrialized country, provides an abundance of discarded
objects for the constructivist; and African American artists, because
they generall y ca nnot afford the trad itional materials of sculpture,
have been particu larl y apt to work with these less expensive, more
readily available resources. Direct metal sculpture, a branch of as-
semblage, has become of particular importance to these artists. Metal
has long been used as a medium by sculptors in C hana, Nigeria,
Dahomey, and other areas of West Africa; and , like their African
ancestors, many modern African America n artists have found metals
to be expressive and aestheti cally pleas ing materials.

j UAN L oCAN (b. 1946) explores linear space in sculpture. His Woman
Reaching Out {Illus. 198] suggests a three-dimensional drawing in
whi ch contours serve to defin e vo ids, transforming them into mea n-
ingfu l shapes. A dramatic sweeping curve, the principal suggestion of
movement in this composition, is supported by a strong vertical whose
triangular tip advances the concept of motion. The movements of the

19S Juan Logan,

Woman Reaching Out , 197 1.
Welded Steel , .p" high.
Collc<.:tion of Samella Lewis.

199 Juan Loga n,

Growth Process, 1973.
Pain ted ga Iva n iz<.:d steel ,
53" X 8.( .
11
)3 X
Court e~y of the artist.
206
lines of the sculpture are swift and direct. The effective combination
of a never-ending c ircular motion and a secondary vertical one stimu-
lates contrasting energy forces, all of which are stabilized by the voids
and series of triangular shapes located at the base of the sculpture. In
Growth Process {Illus. 199] Logan uses repetitive curvilinear steel
forms to explore aspects of growth. His series of homologous organic
shapes transforms the hard steel into an assemblage of lyrical arrange-
ments that interplay like a living organism operating a heavily vibrat-
ing machine. Logan's art gives tangible qualities to abstract ideas and is
based on a non-figurative style in which the major concerns are the
formal organization of plane and the expression of volume by means
of modern industrial material.

JoHN RIDDLE (1933-2002), a student of plant forms, produced metallic

art that conveys a feeling of life and growth; in so doing, he extracted
humanistic values from materials designed to serve a mechanized
world. Although many of his geometrically structured sculptures were
inspired by social problems and thus often carry social messages,
Riddle kept the viewer of his sculptures conscious of their organiza-
tion and complementary forms. Construction {Illus. 2 00], a reflection
of Riddle's interest in African art, demonstrates his capacity to create a
work in which form subtly takes precedence over subject matter.

200 John Riddle,

Construction, 1972.
Welded steel, 21'' high.
Collection of Samella Lewis.

207
 RICIIARD HuNT (b. 1935), one of Americas leading direct-metal
sculptors, acknowledges the strong influence exerted on his work by
Julio Gonzalez (1879-1942), the Spanish artist who, working in Paris
20 1 Richard Hunt, in the 1930s, was among the first to devise welded-i ron sculptures.
untitled construction, 1964. Hunts own ability with the welding torch allows him to transform
Steel, 32" x n" x 8". Collection metal into clear, detailed, and highly plastic constructions which,
of Dr. and Mrs. Leon 0. Banks, though primaril y abstract, often include human , animal, and
Los Angeles. (Photograph plantlike shapes. The organic element in Ilunts sculptures is demon-
by Adam Avila .)
strated by Illustration 201, in which sinuously twisted branches and
tendrils combine to add a sense of continuity. Hunt has also been
involved in the casting of large figures. Castings of Why? [lllus.
202], his first large-scale bronze sculpture, arc on display
at the University of Chicago and at the University of Ca liforn ia, Los
Angeles.
Richard Hunt is one of the most sought after sculptors in the United
States. Generally known for his public works, since 1967 he has
installed over fifty outdoor sculptures, thirty-four in his hom e state of
Illinois.
Hunt uses the fabrication process of cutting, shaping, and welding
sheets of stainl ess steel together for most of his public pieces. "When I
enlarge works, however, I consider myself to be re-creating the piece
in full scale rather than simply copying a small model." Hunt bel ieves

20 2 Richard Hunt, Wh y?, 1974. Bronze, 7Vz' high.

208
that thi s process of re-creating the sculpture in this manner gives the
full-scale work a spontaneity and keeps the process open and alive. It
further offe rs the sculptor the opportunity to re-experie nce the ideas
that gave rise to the initia l subject.
Hunt sees the different meta ls that he uses as a palette. His cool
colors are provided by the aluminum and stainless steel that he uses,
while his warm tones by bronze and Cor-ten steel. Additional colors
are created by the heat and patina often applied by the a rtist.

One of the central themes in my work is the reconciliation of the

organic and the industrial. I see my work as forming a kind of bridge
between what we experience in nature and what we experience from
the urban, industrial, technology-driven society we live in. I like to
think that within the work that I approach most successfully there is
a resolution of the tension between the sense of freedom one has in
contemplating nature and the sometimes restrictive, closed feeling
engendered by the rigors of the city, the rigors of the industrial
environment. The theme of much of my work can be characterized as
a fu sion or harmonization of the vital tensions existing between
dualities, such as the organic and the geometric, the organic and the
abstract, or the past and the present, the traditional and the con-
temporary.

The installation of Active Hybrid at Century C ity Plaza, Los An-

geles, California [Illus. 203] gives a clear demonstration of Hunts
philosophy of art.

203 Richard Hunt, Active Hybrid I, 1982 . Welded Cor-ten steel. Te mporary
installati on, Centu ry Ci ty Plaza , Los Angeles, Californ ia.
 MEL EDWARDS (b. 1937), a graduate of the University of Southern
California, uses straight-edged triangular and rectilinear forms in his
fabricated sculptures. In A Necessary Angle {Ill us. 204], for example,
there is a contrast between the geometric structures of the lower por-
tion of the sculpture and the organic shapes of the upper section of the
composition. These contrasting areas create a feeling of tension that is
further emphasized by the sharp points of the hook that hangs from
the centra l section of the triangular void.
T he studio pieces of Mel Edwa rds arc primari ly political. These
works contain a high degree of symbolism which at times may seem
ambiguous, but according to Edwards is deliberate. C hains, ropes,
and oth er items used to symbolize ideas, often carry double and
sometimes triple mea nings.
Edwards' approach to creating large pieces is quite the same as
when he develops smaller works ... both are rea lized creati vely. When
he develops an idea which seems appropriate for a particular site, he
incorporates it in a model that serves as a point of reference for a larger
sca le work.
Mel Edwards' interest in public art started in high school when he
20 -J. Mel Edwards, took a class in architecture and drafting. Since that time, he has
A Necessa ry Angle, 196 5.
wa nted to make large pieces which, in most cases, called for public
Stc.:cl, 53" x 19".
areas.
Collection of
Dr. and Mrs. Leon 0. Banks,
Los Angeles, (Photograph 2 05 Mel Edwards, Gate o{Ogun , 1983 . Stainless steel , 8' x 8' x 2' .
by Adam Avila. )

210
 Aware of his role as an African American artist, Mel Edwards
believes his experiences during numerous trips to Africa arc vital to his
understanding of African American culture:

One of the things I started to do about seventeen years ago was to

visit Africa. Because of those visits, I have been internally satisfied
with the notion of who we are ... I go to Africa every chance I get. I've
probably been there more times since 1970 than I've been to my home
state ofTexas.

Clearly, Edwards has been inspired and influenced by his visits to

Africa. Evidence of this can be seen in his Gate ofOgun [11/us. 205],
a stainless steel structure where forms arc assembled to express
strength and power, the inherent qualities attributed to the spiritual
Deity Ogun, the Yoruba god of metal.
Southern Sunrise {Illus. 206] is another of Mel Edwards' numerous
public works. In this piece, the artist combines diverse geometric
forms in an informal arrangement. The scoured surfaces of the metal
dramatically reflect the suns rays to create a si lvery glow that appears
to dissolve the solidity of the form and energize the su rrounding
environment.

206 Mel Edwards, Southern Sunrise, 1983 . Stainless steel, 12' x 12' x 16'.
 ALLIE ANDERSON (b. 1921), a constructivist who uses car bumpers as
his principal medium, organizes and welds these castoffs into com-
positions whose patterns of light and shadow suggest gentle move-
ment. Indeed, an Anderson construction often has a sensuous quality,
for a feeling of embrace is provided by the curving automotive parts
that form it, as in Illustration 2 07.

En LOVE (193~9) made sculptures of steel that strongly recall pow-

erful African deities. In Osiris {Illus. 208], from his Monster Series #3,
Love combined steel shapes and parts of manufactured automobiles to
create a figure that towers over the viewer and pro jects the strength
and power of the Egyptian deity who rules the dead. In speaking of his
guardians and "good" monsters, Love said:

It is my intention to be able to confirm: to work towards an iconogra-

phy that reflects the memories and prophecies of spirits, known and
unknown. And in so doing, cause that energy, ancient and precog-
nitive, to be released. This energy source, this repository of life forces,
is what I wish to conform. {Quoted in the catalog of an exhibition,
August 1973, at the Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C. ]

207 Allie Anderson,

Specter of River Rouge, 1969.
Welded steel, 76" X 2 s".
Courtesy of the artist.

208 Ed Love,
Osiris, 1972.
Steel, 12' high.
Courtesy of the artist.

212
P'LLA MILLS (1918-64) devised constructions that include welding rods
and, in some cases, sheet meta l, and that involve a distinctive bu ildup
of form. The metal in her compositions has been cut, forged, and
combined by use of an oxyacetylene torch, and the alternate heating
and cooling of the meta l is responsible fo r its rough texture or molded
effect. In Star of Bethlehem [Illus. 209) Mills exploits semiaccidental
effects to achieve a fascinating representation of Mary seated upon a
donkey. Rods are curved and joined to suggest the complexity of a
tun ic that drapes but fails to contain the human form. T he rough
surfaces suggesting the bulk of the animal are arranged with greater
simplicity. Its juxtaposition of linea r and bulky textured forms helps to
make the composition a visually rich and expressive statement.

2 09 P'lla Mills, Staro{Bethlehem,

1961, Welded meta l, 3 0 " x 12" x 20".
Coll ection of the Colden State
Mutual Life Insurance Co.

213
 1N DIR t:cr Scu I.PT u tn :

Sculptural compositions devised in a highly plastic medium , such

as clay or wax, and then cast in metal , arc cons idered indirect sculfJ-
ture. Bronze, aluminum , copper, and lead are among th ose metals
most often used in sculptural casting, a process that has existed for
many hundreds of years and one that has been used by dive rse peoples
in Africa , Asia, and Europe.
Though an expensive material, bronze is probably the most popular
of the metals; and those artists able to pay for it arc usually satisfied
with the wa rmth and character it gives the ir works. An alloy of copper
and other metals, bronze develops a patina as it ages, and its surface
texture can be changed th rough burnishing or through the usc of
chemicals.

Dcwu-: Fo REMAN (b. is one of the few African American artists

193 3)
who create almost exclusively in bronze. !lis Corner [Illus. 210], a
work with Africa n references, was translated from wax into the more
permanent material. And even in bronze the opposition of the high
and low relief designs decorating the surface form a complex and
uncommon relati onship.

2 10 Doyle Foreman,
Corner, 1968 . Bronze, -to" high.
Courtesy of the artist.

214
BARBARA CltASE-RIBOUD (b. 1936), like many African American art-
ists throughout history, is perhaps better known in Europe than in the
United States. Supported by an extensive academic background , she
makes skillful usc of a combination of materials and techniques.
Chasc-Ribouds sculptures demonstrate the traditional lost-wax tech-
nique and include braided-, knotted- , and wrapped-fiber areas that
recall weaving and the fabric arts. I lcr reasons for combin ing "hard"
and "soft" materials arc both technical and aesthetic. The br<1idcd and
knotted "skirts" on some of her works serve as a mask, or costume, that
covers the supporting member. The Aaccid, visccr<1l forms of the cords
provide a contrast to the obviously heavy and unyielding bronze.
These supporting cords also act as a transition between the sculpture
and the Aoor, al lowing the viewers eye to travel along "lin es" into the
complexities of the form.
Such long, \\"rapped cords emana te, for example, from the tri-
angula r form in She # 1 [llllls. 211 ] . The fabric clements tic the
tangled mass of twisted fiber on the Aoor to the mct<1 l form on the
sculpture stand . The sculpture is a beautiful example of contrasts- in
materials and in the projection of ideas.

211 Barbara C hasc- Riboud , She #1,

197 2. Polished bron :t.c with
silk cords, wW' x 17Y2'' x 7Yl'.
Courtesy of the artist.
(Photograph by Jonathan Eubanks,
Oakland, Ca lifornia. )

215
 ARTIS LANE (h. H) 27) has been winn ing awards for her painting since
she was fifteen yea rs old. Among her numerous prizes were the Do-
minion of Canada Award for portraiture, a four-year scholarship to
study at the Ontario Col lege of Art and the O'Keefe fellowship for
C reative Painting. In spite of her success as a pa inter, Lane decided to
return to the discipline of her greatest forte- sculpture.
Artis Lanes favorite theme for her sculpture is that of "women
emerging." Her subjects arc based on women in motion in search of
opportunities and self-determination . Titles such as New Woman ,
Emerging Woman , and Release [Jllus. 212) illustrate her efforts to
explore the potentials of human movement as she takes her viewers on
intimate encounters with her most profound beliefs regarding the
human condition.

21 2 Artis L111c,
1\elease, 1982.
Bronze, 26" high.

216
 !laving reta ined an introspective focus, which gives her sculpture
internal energies, Lanes forms grow almost as if they were natural
uncovcrings on her figures. Thus her works arc best experienced
cmpathctically.
Artis Land sculptures can be read as symboli c of modern woman 's
fragmented state of being. While her fi gures impl y the sensual aspects
of the material world, their spirits, confronted wi th the chall enge to
tran scend , struggle to be free.
Artis Lane achieves a fin e ba lance through the infusion of represen-
tational imagery with abstract cl ements. This range of expression
allows the artist to create multiple levels of meaning and as a conse-
quence dissolve the traditional conceptual barriers between objective
and nonobj ective content and imagery.

ScoT!' (b. ' 9-I.O) uses materials as divergent as cast bronze, thin
} O li N
brass strips of wire and bent hardwood to create sculptures. Although
his work affirms elements of African and Western traditions, the re-
sults arc a blending of two traditions that Scott has molded into a
unique style of his own. Regardless of the style or th e tradition, art for
John Scott is a means of communication.
Moon Song [Illus. 213) is from Scott's Ritual of Oppression Series. A
segment of a face, covered with what appears to be fragments of a
garment, held in place by metal nails, holds a symbolic figure in
bondage. The flanges jut ou t into space in an expressionisti c fashion
suggesting strain and struggle.

2 13 John Scott,
Moon Song
(from the Ritual of Oppression),
1978. Bronze.

217
 Si nce the 1970s, Scott:<; work has shifted from a figurative style to a
more abstract symbolic one. His recent work reflects ideas, tensions,
and historic relationships of the su nival and experiences of peoples
and places. Just Tivo {1/lus. 214] is an example of Scotts more recent
kinetic works that were first inspi red by the African clicldley bo"i an
instrument which was used by hunters to express remorse for taking
the life of an animal.

2 14 John Scott,
fu st 'Jivo (Street Dancers).
Courtesy of the artist.

218
 The carver, or subtractive sculptor, begins \\"ith a block of material
and cuts or grinds a\\"ay areas until the desired form is realized. The
properties of the material - its grain and density, for example - arc
significant in determining the nature of the forms that emerge. Along
with ca reful planning, the subtracti,e method of sculpture requires a
thorough kno\\"lcdgc of the ph ysical properties of sculptural materials.
Stone and wood arc the two media used most frequently in thi s
process.

WILLI AM ANDERSO (b. 193 2) A native of Selma, Alabama, uses

wood for hi s principal medium to create im pressive expressionisti c
sculptures. Primarily a figurative arti st, Anderson ga ined much of
his moti va tion to can-e \\'hen, as a child , he spent time combing th e
creek banks ncar his home in search of soapstones to sculpt.
Life in Selma, Alabama, moti vated Anderson to respond to more
than the phys ical aspects of his environment. The volatile social
and politica l climate of Selma during th e C ivil Ri ghts era made a !J) William Anderson.
lasting impression on Anderson and contributed to the emotional J\l inorily i\lan, 1963.
\Vood (lignu111 \itae). l.i fe size.
character of his art.
The disadvantaged of the urban and rural South arc often th e sub-
ject of Anderson's art. As a student at Alabama State University at
Montgomery he was encouraged by his mentor, Professor 1-Iayard
L. Oubre, to devote his attention to the visual arts. Following his
graduation from Alabama State 'vvith a bachelor's degree in art,
William Anderson moved on to work towa rds a Bachelor of Fine
Arts degree at the University of Wisconsin 's Layton School of Fine
Arts, and a Master of Fine Arts from the Institute Allende in Sa n
Miguel, Mexico. While attending these institutions Anderson con-
tinued to express his concerns for ordinary people and for the depri-
vation that con tinued to dominate their lives.
Regardl ess of the circumstan ces behind the expressions of hi s
sculptured figures, Anderson manages to imbue them with a pres-
ence of digni ty, pride and self-esteem.
In his sculpture Min ority Man , [Illus. 2 1 s) William Anderson,
as is true with all good sculptors, strives to maintai n th e character
and spec ial nature of the materials that he uses. The majestic fea- ::! 16 \Villiam Anderson,
tures of th e life-sized head of Minority Man. elevate the subj ect from Solace, 1986.
an ordinary person to one who is strong, benevolent, wise and Wild cherry, !91!2" h.
omnipotent. This positive image of African American life is one of
th e many icons that William Anderson has devoted his life to pro-
clueing in service of human dignity and American soc ial justice. 219
 MIXED-MEDIA SCULPTURE /CONSTRUCTION

MARTI N PuRYEAR (b. 19 ..p ) was th e jurys choice to receive the first
prize at the Sao Paulo Bicnal in 1989 . The lone offi cial representative
for the United States in Brazils 2oth annual international art exhibi-
tion , this award for best artist was decided by a fi ve-member jury of
international art professionals.
A sculptor of extraordinary sensitivity and discipl ine, Martin Pur-
yea r regards both the past and the present as essentia l to his work. He
is a hands-on artist who prefers to execute his own sculptural ideas
rather than assign the prefabrication of works to technicians. lie be-
lieves that the way in which a work is expressed is directly tied to the
conceptual process. Puryear acknowledges that while art can only
come from the indi,idual, it is sometimes difficult to find the self
because of group pressure.

21 7 i\ larti n Puryear,
Un titled, 1989.
Painted red cedar, 96" x 81" x B"
Collection of
Mr. and Mrs. I larry W. Anderson,
Atherton, California.
Photo: Douglas M. Parker.

220
 Martin Puryear$ Untitled, 1989 [lllus. 217] is a painted red cedar
scu lpture in which he utilizes num erous techniques learned from
experi ences and influences during his travels to Africa, Asia and Scan-
dinavia. Fundamental to Puryea r$ development was his two year stay
in Sierra Leone as a Peace Corps volunteer during the micl196os. His
manner of cutting, joining and assembling his materials is in much
the same manner that would be expected of a fin e boat builder or
craftsman who constructs fine furniture.
Maroon {Illus. 218] is a sculpture that visually is in opposition to
the elegant, graceful and flowing forms that arc com mon to Purycars
joined and laminated wood structures. Made of wi re, mesh, wood and
ta r, this textured enlarged kidney shape, with an attached circular
wooden shape, supports a square opening. The interior reveals a clark
pitch lined area which is neither menacing nor threatening but in-
stead evokes a power of mystery and timelessness.

218 Ma rtin Puryear, Ma roon, 1987-88. Steel wire mesh, wood, tar, 76" x
120" x 78". Courtesy Donald Young Gallery, C hi cago.

Truly an artist who has closed the gap between the fine arts and
crafts, Martin Puryear$ works are abstract reminders of many forms in
nature. They embody a kind of "controlled naturalism" that grows out
of methods of expression that encourage the synthesis of creativity,
patience, passion and an abiding dedication to technique. 221
 THOMAS MILLER (1945-2000) believed that his twenty years of experi-
e nce as an e lementary school teach er in Baltimore, Maryland, con-
tributed signifi cantly to his ability to maintain the uncommonly high
level of creativity that pervaded his work. His uninhibited approach
and special way of seeing set his work apart from the usual and con-
ventional. Miller combined and alte red shapes a nd forms to an extent
where new identities were form ed.

Children use simplified shapes to talk about complicated things. You

sort of pick up on tha t and get their feeling for using symbols. Kids
aren't sca red to do a lot of things that adults are afraid to try.

An examination of Miller's art confirms that he was not afraid to try

experim ental approaches. In his Smiling Face {Illus. 219], a drop leaf
table is used as a foundation for this brightly colored, decorative work.
As an additi onal adornment, a bird with a clock in its mid-section
perches on the edge of a table leaf resembling a kind of symbol of
time.

219 Thomas Miller,

Smiling Face.
Oil enamel, 45" x 28" x 13".

222
 Following many yea rs as an easel painter, M iller was encouraged by
an artist friend to experiment by painting on used furniture. This
enabled him to achi eve three dimen sional compositions a nd to conse-
quently con vert obj ects into remarkabl y exciting painted scu lptures.
Boxer [Illus. 220] is a work in whic h th e artist pa inted a fi gure on a
cabinet and exte nd ed the top to include a h ead that resembles a wa r-
rior. The muscular figure is adorned with brightly colored shorts and
boots that suggest a kind of susta ined energy whe n seen against the
cool planes of the environment. The boxer figure looks as if h e were
ready for action. Mi lle r u sed his uncanny skill and knowledge as a
designer to assist us in viewing his compositions as a whole. He con-
sidered the juxtapos ition of black and bright colors as symboli c of
Africa and peoples of African descent.

220 Thomas Miller,

Boxer, 1987.
O il enamel, 54" x 36" x 18".

223
 AcRvu c/ RESIN ScuurruRE

Plastic, a product of modern technol ogy, is a medium Afri can

America n artists have not utili zed on a wide scale. Since its usc in art
has no historical precedent to serve as a guide, this medium offers the
artist an opportunity to express ideas and feel ings in inn ovative ways.
The many types of acrylic material now available make them suitable
for almost any artist, whether he or she works in the direct, indirect, or
subtractive method.

FRED EvERS I.EY (b. 1941) creates his sculptures largely from cast
res in , a medium that makes possible many different effects, ranging
from opacity to complete transparency. Evcrsley casts resin , a tech-
nically demanding material, into large cylinders; then, through cut-
ting and polishing, alters their form {lllus. 221). Care must be taken in
handling the sculpture, since the stresses crea ted by variations in its
thickness can result in the shattering of a work before it is annea led.
T he subtle, transparent colors Evcrsley uses in a work intensify as the
body of the piece thickens.
Trained as an engineer, Eversley docs not rely on chance to deter-
mine how his medium responds to light and color. Structually, be-
cause of his skill in handling his materi als, he is able to pre-determine
the "accidents" that unite form and give harmoni ous interplay and
sensual fluidity to his creations.

22 1 Fred Evcrslcy, Oblique Prism II , 1969.

Polyester, 6" X ~Y2" X sW'. Collection of
Dr. and Mrs. Leon 0. Banks, Los Angeles.

224
LARRY URBINA(b. 1943) employs the additive method in working with
Plexiglas, as in Pink Fluorescent {I flus. 222). The cubic form of this
work is a simple one, but its diagonal interior planes capture the
viewers interest. The color and spatial relationships between planes
vary with the viewing angle.

222 Larry Urbina,

Pink Fluorescent, H)68.
Plcxiglass, 4 %" x 6".
Courtesy of the artist.

223 Ben !Iaza rd, Modular Series II .

"Sweet Dreams," 1974.
Acrylic plastic form, 6' x 12' .
Courtesy of the artist.

BI:N HAZARD (b. 1940), like Urbina, works with sheet acrylic, but he
handles his forms in quite a different manner, assembling his vac-
uum-formed acrylic components in low relief. Hazards Modular Se-
ries II (Ill us. 22 3}, simple in form, is composed of several interlocking
shapes. T he highly refl ective surface is made rich and interesting
through the refraction of light and the reflection of surrounding
forms.
Hazards experiences as an art teacher, a sign painter and as an easel
painter, contributed to his knowledge of color and design. During the
ea rly 1970s, he decided to accept a position at the newly opened
Oakland Museum where he worked for approximately ten years as the
Director of Community Outreach - a program designed to involve the
museum in the ethnic and cultural affa irs of the city.
225
 ART/CRAFT

The artificial division between crafts and the so-called fine arts is a
relatively recent Western device. Today this division has become more
difficult to justify or explain because much of contemporary art is not
only aesthetic but utilitarian.
The craft items of the colonial period in America were generally
useful, handmade articles; some were also unique and beautiful. Most
artisans, however, exhibited a relative sameness in their work and,
with few exceptions, produced forms that carefully repeated traditional
European design principles. This repetition fostered a high degree of
technical skill but little innovative design.
The history of African American involvement in crafts is long and
varied. In seventeenth-century Africa the crafts of weaving and wood-
carving were usually practiced by males, whereas the making of pot-
tery was undertaken principally by females. This was the reverse of the
European pattern. Because they were forced to adhere to colonial
labor patterns, Africans brought to America had to abandon their
customary division of these labors: the men became potters, bringing
to the work their design experience in weaving and woodcarving, and
the women switched to weaving, bringing to it their knowledge of
ceramic design. Examples of the resultant influence of woodcarving
on pottery can be seen in the "n1onkey pots," or grotesque jugs,
produced by slave artisans for use by field hands (see Illus. 2).
In the nineteenth century the effects of the Industrial Revolution
forced many An1erican craftsmen to approach their craft as a pastime
rather than as a major source of incon1e. The weaving of cloth, for
exan1ple, once a "cottage industry" in the United States, became
prin1arily a factory-based operation after 1840 due to the introduction
of the power loom. Individual craftsn1en who had previously com-
peted with each other for trade now had an additional competitor in
the 1nachine, one that could reproduce a design a thousand ti1nes
without perceptible variations. Unable to compete successfully with
the more profitable and more productive machine, n1any craftsmen
were forced to take a greater interest in the creative application of their
skills rather than the "utilitarian." They began to produce creative,
one-of-a-kind items, for individual clients or for sale in shops whose
patrons den1anded something unique and displayed their possessions
as symbols of affluence. But with increased n1achine production,
n1any craft iten1s became comn1on, their possession indicating little
about class status. Technology had reduced their social and econmnic
significance by lowering production costs and making Inore of them
available at lower prices.
The machine was also partially responsible for the loss of the few
226 '1\frican me1nories" that existed in early An1erican crafts. Though
these Africanisms survived until the late nineteenth century in remote
areas of the New England states or among those Americans too poor to
afford the products of the industrial age, they gradually disappeared as
improved transportation routes created a large migrant population and
as a culture based on standardized material goods developed.

SARGENT Jo tt NSON, wel l-known as a sculptor (sec page 78), was also
accomplished in cerami cs and enamels, areas in which he was
strongl y inAucnced by the works of Mexican, pre-Colum bian, and
African artists. Johnson made numerous trips to Mexico between 19-l-5
and 1965 and was parti cularl y inspired by the archaeologica l find s at
Monte Alban and Mitla. A ceramic teapot by Johnson now in the
Oakland Museum collecti on {l llus. 224} shows the influ ence of fo lk
art on his work; the li the, felin e handle, for example, has affinities
wi th both Afri can and Mexica n motifs. Oval-shaped, the teapot is
made of a low-fire carthem,arc and is glazed brown. Its slow, gentle
cu rve, echoed by the jaguarl ikc handle, shows the artist's concern with
elongated form as a means of suggesting movement.
The enameled mctalworks created by Sa rgent Johnson demonstrate
a primarily industrial techn ique. Indeed, because his friendsh ip with
one of the firm s owners allowed Johnson to experiment in its work-
shop, most of these pieces were made on the premises of the Pa ine-
Mahoney Company, a manufacturer of industrial ceram ic products in
San Francisco. Thus provided with the space and equi pment neces-
sa ry for such work, Johnson produced, between the years 19-t7 and
1967, over one hundred enameled compositions.

224 Sargent C laude Johnson, 'lea Pot, 1941. Glazed earthenware, 4W' x 8"
x 3W'. Collection of The Oakland Museum (gift of Mrs. Dorothy Collins
Gomez). 227
 DoYLE LANE (b. 1925) is an outstand ing ceramist whose work ranges
from utilitarian earthenware and stoneware to "clay paintings" (clay
pieces in which the glazes have been appl ied like oils) and murals.
Usuall y classica l and simple, his pottery achieves a sense of intricacy
through its special glaze effects. The surface of Lanes pottery often
exhibits a visual quality that all but forces one to handle the work. I lis
glazes arc sometimes matte and low-key; and other times brilliant,
intense, and glowing with color.
T he clay pa in tings by Lane represent a va riety of shapes and styles
and frequently arc given rich textural treatments through unusual
glaze appl ications [Ill us. 22 5).
In addition to being a recognized master craftsman , Doyle Lane
continues his commitment to an aesthetic that is closely allied to
nature . In his Bud Vase [Illus. 226), he maintains a del icate balance
between clay and glaze. Although wheel thrown , this work conforms
essentiall y to the natu ral order of nature.
Residing in east Los Angeles, Lane continues to work in one of the
earliest and most uni\crsall y known art forms in existence. Discovered
th ousands of years ago, ceramics continues to be recognized as the
ma jor art fo rm of most Asian and indigenous American cultu res.

225 Doyle Lane, untitled construction, 1975 . 2.26 Doyle Lane, Bud Vase, 1975.
Clay, 2 1" x 2 1" . Courtesy of the artist. Clay, 3" high.
WILLIS (BING) DAVIS (b. 1937) views his art as a refl ection of commu-
nity- a community which spans the oceans to Africa and back to the
Americas. Since the early 1970s, following a study fellowship to
Nigeria, Davis has focused on the investigation and interpretation of
African history and culture. These studies resulted in an extensive
body of works that reflect an overriding dedication to the vision and
spirit that he attributes to his African roots.

227 Bing Davis, Ritual Box #2, 1987. Clay, 18" x 18" x 22".

A ceram ist, pa inter and graphi c artist, Bing Davis transfe rs his
knowledge of one medium to another. Much of his work in clay is
approached in much the sa me manner that he uses for m :~king col-
lages. He arranges pieces of clay as he goes along, preferring to usc the
slab method or the coil method of construction. I lis Ritual Box #2
{Illus. 227) is an excellent example of Da,is' expressive approach to
bu ilding his conta iners. li e adm its that his primary in terest is in
making his statement rather than in exhibit-technique. li e believes
that if he wants to say something badl y enough, he will lind the
necessary techniqu e to do it. 229
 CuRTIS TucKER (1939-1992) recalled his summers on his grand-
father's farn1 in Texas where he first learned to appreciate the physical
and spiritual wealth of the earth. Following behind his grandfather's
plow, Curtis began to develop a direct link to nature and to the earth
which he and many others believe gives us life. His knowledge and
appreciation for earth grew as he traveled to various places in the
United States, Africa, Europe, and the Caribbean and observed
how different cultures responded to their land.
A strongly spiritual person, Curtis Tucker believed that his work was
alive. An exan1ination of The Feather is Still Strong [Illus. 228} gives
us insight into the special symbols he used to express movement in
form and spirit - sytnbols that are the result of combinations of old
and new techniques, as well as an extensive knowledge of science
and art.

YvoNNI: TucKER (b. 1941) views her work in clay as her centering
point in life. The sensitive nature of her 1nediun1 encourages her to
project and express experiences of diverse dimensions. In her view,
"Clay is a n1edimn which becon1cs alive, as one senses the spiritual
dimensions of the n1illions of years of earthy and organic sludge,
thereby taking on a new forn1 and life of its own."
During her developing years in Chicago, Yvonne Tucker was ex-
posed to a life that was filled with a variety of activities that would later
serve to enrich her life as an artist. Experiences at the South Side
Community Art Center and classes at the Art Institute of Chicago
offered Tucker a full range of opportunities for participation in a
nulti-cultural, n1ulti-cthnic environn1ent. "These experiences and
the questions they stirred up in n1e, becan1e a part of n1y sense of
being."
As a graduate student, Yvonne 1licker began to focus prin1arily on
expressing her creativity as a cera1nist. She was particularly attracted to
the process of Japanese RaKu that has its roots in Zen Buddhisn1
which en1phasizes spontaneity and a reverence for nature. Working
along with her husband Curtis, she cxperin1ented with the process of
fusing elen1ents frmn Native An1erican, African, and African Anleri-
can heritages to develop what they have chosen to label AFRO-RAKU.
In her Spirit Vessel, Mississippi Mud [Ill us. 229], Yvonne 'lhcker
has created a work which has both functional and spiritual values.
While the body of this piece takes a traditional fonn and serves as an
anchor, the lid consists of flanges that project into space recalling the
process of rebirth which is in keeping with Tuckers philosophy of
230 1naking the past a part of the present.
 228 Curtis 'Iucker,
The Feather is Still Strong, 1989.
Raku, 21" x 19" x 19".

229 ~\on ne ' l llckcr,

Spirit \'elil!el, tvfississippi 1\ lud,
1989. Raku Ceramics,
Wheel Thrown and Slab Built,
 BILL MAX\VI-:1.1. (b. 193-1-) has experimented with most of the textures
possible for clay pottery. Inventive and executed with a raw directness,
his forms include many organ ic icons that recall the African Past
[Ill us. 2 30) . iVIost of MaxwellS pieces arc hand-built, but some arc
combinations of hand-built and wheel-thrown sections.
His ceramic sc ulpture Jomo #1 [Illus. 231 ) is a product of MaxwellS
slab construction method: clay is rolled on textured surfaces, draped,
and formed into slabs that, after being paddled in to shape, arc often
decorated with stamping and iron oxide to give them more exc iting
surfaces. Composed of several clay pieces, Jom o # 1, a "cruciform
sculpture," gets much of its impact from the placement of heavily
textured areas alongside smooth projecting planes. The work conveys
the presence of an ancestral Figure without resorting to a duplication of
African forms.
Maxwells Double-Spouted Weed Pot [Illus. 232), also a slab con-
struction, remind~ one of a monumental edifice covered with sandy
debris. This unglazed clay form takes full advantage of the subtle
light-reflecting properties of its sand-fl ecked surface. The projecting
double necks arc integrated by a horizontal clay slab, which also
creates visual interest and breaks the plane of the body of the vessel.

230 Bill Nlaxwcll, African Pasl ,

1968. Stoneware, 2 ..( high.

231 Bill Maxwell, fomo #1,

1968. Earthenware, q " high .

232 Bill}, laxwcll,

Double-Spouted Weed Pol,
1970 . Stoneware, 7'' high.
232
CMvliLLE BILLOPS (b. 1934) produces imposing combinations of
wheel-thrown and hand-built forms. Her terra cotta Three-Headed
Fountain (Illus. 233) , for exa mple, consists of severa l wheel-thrown
forms that have been joined to several hand-bui lt ones by means of
fine , incised lines and painted decorations. The three heads seem
both human and animal, and the hornlike projections of their faces
create visual interest and complexity that contrast with the long, un-
broken curve of the central form.
Billops work reflects th e influence of her frequent travels to, and
study in , places such as Egypt, India, Japan, and Ch ina. The influ-
ence of Japa nese and Egyptian cultures ca n be seen in her ceramic
vessels.
As a ceram ist, sc ulptor, printmaker, photographer, and film-
maker, Cami ll e Billops combines a variety of techniques to create
unique and striking works of art.

233 Camille Billups,

'f'hree-1-leaded Fountain, 1969.
Ceramic, 28" high.
Courtesy of the artist.

233
 (b. 19 54) through exquisite craftsmanship, creates
} AI\ IJo:S T ATU I\ 1
works of art by using clements of both traditional cerami cs and con-
temporary sculpture. His uniquely personal approach and style pro-
vide an opportun ity to exp lore and understand the fal lacy surround-
ing the belief that th ere is a major difference in the aestheti c qua li ty
and value between items regarded as fine arts and those traditionally
considered as crafts.

234 James 'fatum , Oba, 1982. Ea rthcn\\"arc, 38" high.

234
 'Jl-aincd in both painting and ceramics, 'latum says of his approach
to making art:

As an artist, I primarily work in two diverse media; paint and clay. I

strive to crea te with both media ambiguously ancient and mysterious
quality that suggests something sensual and ritualistic. The form s
and images that are generated from paint and cla y are directed
toward sim ilar ends and are dependent upon each other for con-
tinued growth and development. By iuxtaposing such opposites as
painting vs ceramics, ancient vs modem , flat vs relief, or biological
vs mechanical, I challenge the viewer to re-evaluate the way he is
conditioned to perceive opposing entities.

235 James ' l ~1 tum ,

Ancestral Drum, 1982 .
' lc rra cotta, 28" high.

Rega rdl ess of the form 'latum's work takes, the inspiration for it
seems phi losoph ica ll y rooted in African traditions. His Oba [Ill us.
23-+}, a beautifully structured hand built piece with its monumental
presence seems wel l suited to house the spirit of the king.
Ancestral Drum [lllus. 235}, is a ceramic work in which Tatum
clearly demonstrates his ability to successfully join traditi onal and
modern forms. The surface of the unglazed terra cotta drum is incised
to fo rm designs of vertica l colum ns. These designs contrast with
scored horizo ntal areas to create a textured contrast th at contributes to
the restrained emotional impact of the work. 235
 Stained-glass murals represent an art form that is frequently but
seldom effecti vely revived. The "light murals" of Do uGLAS PIIILLI PS
(b 19 2 2) provide exception to this rule largely beca use they arc un en ..
cumbered by the medieval methods and forms common to most re-
viva ls of this pre-Renaissance art. Phillips creates stained-glass win-
dows that are compatible with the simpli city of contemporary
architecture. His windows for the First Congregational C hurch in
Painesville, Ohio [Ill us. 2 36), are excellent examples of his style. The
windows are devoid of traditional spiritual representations and,
through the sweeping upward movement of their leaded dividers,
suggest humanitys striving for greater worlds. Adding to the overtone
of transcendence, the rich blues and greens, vibrant purples, yell ows,
and reds of the lower portions of the windows give way to lighter, more
aerial shades in their upper sections.

236 Douglas Phillips,

window for the First Congregational
C hurch, Painesville, Ohio, 1960.
Stained glass. Courtesy of the artist.

236
 237 Art Sm ith, earrings, 1968. Silver, 3" wide. 238 Art Smith, earrings, 1968. Si lver, 3" wide.
From the collection of Val Spaulding. From the collection of Val Spau lding.

ART SMITH (1923-1982) was one of Greenwich Village's first creative

jewelry makers. His work often combines sterling silver and semi-
precious stones and, over the last four decades, beca me progressively
more delicate. Many of Smiths later necklaces, for example, include
fine wires that coil around the neck or hang like miniature mobiles
from a circular support. T his simplicity also extends to Smiths other
jewelry forms. His rings have simple cabochon-cut stones and pearls
as their dom inant design clement, and the earrings that he created are
simple and unobtrusive [Illus. 237, 238].

Bos }EFFERSOI'\ (b. 19-B) uses a rather personalized technique in

creating jewelry. Delicate explorations of space, many of his jewelry
forms show th e influence of his training in furniture design and
welded-steel sculpture. One such piece, the pendant in Illustration
2 39, consists of a single-ga uge wire that has been cut and soldered to
create appea ling linear relationships.

239 Bob Jefferson, pendant, 1968.

Cold . Courtesy of Contemporary
Crafts, Los Angeles.

237
 EVANGELINE MONTCOMI:RY (b. 1933) works primarily in metal and
produces such items as lost-wax cast boxes and incense burners. A
good exa mple of her work is provided by Ancestor Box I, Justice for
Angela [Ill us. 240}. The piece is dominated by the Ashanti symbol for
jusl'icc, which, in this reference to Angela Davis, represents the tic
between contemporary Black Americans and their African past.

Evangdine Montgomery, Ancestor Box I, Justice for Angela , 197 1.

2..J.O
Bronze, 3" x 4" x 3". Courtesy of the artist. (Photograph by Jonathan Eubanks,
Oakland California.)

Montgomery is also an accomplished jeweler, and her jewelry

forms exh ibit the spontaneity and expressionistic textural properties of
her boxes. Usually fusions of such metals as bronze, copper, gold , and
sil ver that have been combined with uncut stones or rock crystals,
Montgomery$ "crusty" jewelry forms convey a sense of undulating
movement and are often both sophisticated and evocative {Ill us. 241].

241 Evangel ine Montgomery,

penda nt , 1970. Copper, silver,
brass, enamel , 4" x 3".

238
 In Western cultures, jewelry is usually thought to involve "pre-
cious" or "semiprecious" materials. Elsewhere in the world rarity docs
not play as great a role in determining highly valued objects of per-
sonal adornment. The work of MANUEL GOMEZ (b. 1948) echoes this
regard for more commonplace materials. His pendants and combs
are made from pieces of wood that have interesting gra in patterns
and coloration; their impact is provided by their subtle coloring,
finish , and design rather than by thei r qualities of light reflection.
{lllus. 242).

242 Manuel Go mez, Wooden Natural Comb, 197 1. Rosewood, 11" x 3Yz".
Courtesy of the artist.

j OANNA Lr:J: (b. 1937) takes macrame beyond its traditional role as a
fabric-making technique into the realm of jewelry design. The neck-
piece by Lee in Illustration 2..f3 makes effective usc of a single type of
knot, va rying it on ly in terms of direction. The shiny metall ic surface
of the copper tubing acts as a contrast to the subtle sheen of the fibers.

24 3 Joanna Lee,
macrame neck piece, 1972.
Courtesy of Contemporary
Crafts, Los Angeles.

239
 ALLEN I'ANNIN (b. 1939) hand-spins the yarns he uses to make his
expressive weavings. Unlike much of the work made with handspun
yarns, his pieces arc usuall y qui te fine, their texture showing excellent
control of the processes of yarn preparation. Fannin suggests that every
handwcavcr "must ultimately spin in order to have complete design
control over his product."
Many of Fann in s wcavings are interesting conjunctions of hand-
spun wool, Aax, rayon, and monofilament line. Often three-dimen-
sional, or exhibiting depth by means of overlapping planes, his works
contrast areas of uncovered warp with areas of solid weaving. Some of
them also juxtapose the controlled irregularity of handmade yarn and
the glossy, shimmering regularity of the monofilament. The woven
images created by Fannin have much in common with Minimal
painting and sculpture in that they rely on simplicity of shape and
surface texture rather than on chromatic complexity {/flus. 244).
Although he was among the first to create sculptural woven form s,
his work never ga ined acceptance within the contemporary craft com-
munity, nor, more important, among the genera l public. Because of
th is, and because of his dedication to handloom weaving as an eco-
nomically viable twentieth-century trade, Fannin ceased to pursue
weaving strictl y as an art form. Instead, beginn ing in 1971, he ex-
panded into what had once accounted for only a small portion of his
total output: the production of handspun , handwoven special ities for
direct retail sa le. Since that tim e, Fannin has become one of the
foremost authorities on small-scale handloom production, from both
a technical viewpoint and an economical one.

244 Allen Fannin,

untitled construction, 1969.
ylon, linen, and plcxiglass,
7' x 3'. Collection of
Mr. and Mrs. Michael G laser,
Los Angeles.

LEO TWIGGS (b. 1934) views his batik not as textile art but as pa int-
ings: "I paint with dyes and usc wax on fabric instead of ... pigment on
canvas." His works ma ke effective usc of the colorful, crackled textures
achieved when dye is applied to a layer of cold wax bent so as to expose
areas of the fabric beneath it. The irregular lines produced by Twiggs'
brush or other painting tool clearly show the fluidity and spontaneity
of his technique. Occasional accidental drips of wax are allowed to
remain on the surface of the fabric in order to add to its texture.
240
 Window (llfus. 245}, through its strong yet sensitive treatment of
form s, exhibits 1\viggs' fine control of his medium. The overlays used
to produce this work give it much the same feel ing as a watercolor.
The descriptive treatment of the interior images reflect the graphic
simplicity and the spontaneity common to Leo rl\viggs' work.
Having chosen batik as his medium, Leo '1\viggs devoted many
yea rs developing the technique to master this ancient art form. I low-
ever, for him , the medium is not the issue. "The ability of the artist to
achieve his magic is all that counts."

-
/ (
I

I'
'

245 Leo 1\viggs, Window. Batik, 22" x 22".

241
 ]AMJo:S TANN ER (b. 1941) during the 196os studied in the graduate
school at the Un iversity of Wisconsin with the distinguished artist/
teacher, Harvey Littleton. Like his teacher, Ta nner wo rked in both
ce ramics and glass and following his grad uati on began to distinguish
himself in both areas of concentrati on.
l i:m ner began his teaching career at Man kato University where he
remains and where he worked with the late, great Will iam Artis (page
105). In addition to his teaching he began to participate in national
and international exhibitions. Among the most important of these
exhibitions was the landmark "Ob jects U.S.A." whi ch traveled to
ma jor museums in the United States and Europe. In this exhibition
Ta nner displayed fine glasswork in the style and tradition of
Crambrook Academy and Scand inavia.
In his later work, Timncr began to focus entirely on ceramics. His
painted slab constructions, alth ough less functional than previous
works, reveal high levels of cultural consciousness and an affi nity for
mask shapes . Old Ghost {Illus. 246) is an excellent exa mple of this
type of heavily painted mask forms that typify Tanners current work.

246 James 1 anner,

Old Ghost, 1987.
C lay, glazes,
llandbu ilt, 19Y2" x 14" x 7Y2".
Courtesy, Maurine Littleton Callery,
Washi ngton, D.C.

242
T m:ru. tAN STATOI\ t (b. 1953), a rarity among Afri can American artists,
uses glass as his principle medium. This Florida native who holds a
B. FA. from the Rhode Island School of Design and an M.EA. from
Pratt Institute is one of the least pred ictable and unique artists in the
field .
Statom has benefi ted from the pioneering efforts of artists such as
Harvey Littleton and Domenick Labino, who participated in the de-
velopment of the use of glass as a medium for studio artists. However,
Statoms approach to the med ium is far more rustic and de\o id of the
delicacy that mark the traditional approaches to working with glass. In
constructing his Green Ladder {Illus. 2-J.?] , Statom adds green and
yellow pa int with accents of reel to the su rface of the glass - thus,
creating a dichotomy between work and play.
The limitations of glass as a medium docs not restrict Statom in his
desire to create public works. Among his commissions arc Portable
Works, City of Seattle, and a Brody Arts Foundation G rant to design
and install works for windows in abandoned buildings in urban areas
of Los Angeles.

247 '!'herma n Statom,

Green Ladder, 1988.
G lass, mi xed media,
Constructed, painted, 76" x s" x 3".
Courtesy, llc ller Gallery, N. Y. C.

243
 DRAWING
I I
One of th e earli est forms of communication, drawing, is held b,
many artists to be the most basic artistic expression and the one mos
useful for experimentati on. Line, shape, texture, and value are amont
its major va riables; color, since its usc is infrequent, must be consid
..""'
I
creel only a supportive element.
An absolute , clea r distinction between painting and drawing is diffi
cult to make; however, drawing is, in general, a more convcntiona
graphic art, with a linear emphasis rather than a strong reliance 0 1
color modulation. For most purposes, the medium is the basis or
which the two types of art are usually distinguished - charcoal, pastel ,
conte crayon, ink, and graph ite bei ng the characteristic media 0 1
drawing.

2~8 i\ Iarion Sampler, MAR ION SAi\lPI.ER (b. 1920) is an artist whose drawings make skil lful
Chair, 1969. usc of line. Chair {!/Ius. 2-t8], an ink drawing by Sampler, provides an
Ink, 26" X 20". example of his scnsiti,c rendering of everyday objects. It also ill us-
Collecti on of Dr. and
trates that, though ink is his principal medium , Sampler's works incor-
Mrs. Leon 0 . Banks,
porate a great deal of control and val ue gradation.
Los Angeles.

ARTli UR MoNROE (b. 1935) crea tes drawings that arc expressioni stic
and full of spirit and vigor. In corpo rating energeti c, semiautomatic
strokes, his style is indicative of gesture drawing and may be regarded
as a blending of drawing and painting. In his Self-Portrait [lflus. 2-1-9],

2~9 Arthur i\ lonroc,

Sei{-Porlrail , 1965 . Ink wash.
Courlcsy of the arti~t
244
 exampl e, the means used to apply the ink range from wash to dry
>r
rush, and the brushstrokcs vary from long to short and from thick to
1in. The figure Monroe presents is fill ed with restless energy, his
lathing and hair depicted through a combination of splashes and
Jrbulent strokes. An exciting graphi c portrayal, this self-portrait gives
1e viewer significant insight into the personality of the artist.

AMES LAWR ENC I~ (b. 1947) produces drawings distinguished by their

maginative quality. In Growth of a Child {lllus. 2 50) , for example, he
ombines visual rea lism with distortions of pictorial space. Increased
nterest in the figure of the child is achieved through the division of
he composition into two rectangles. The upper rectangle is limited on
wo sides by broad coa rse-textured bands; th ese form a "frame" that
)lends with the stark silhouette of the trees.

VlARVIN HARDEN (b. 1935) creates intricate compositions that express

2 50 James Lawrence,
1 unique and personal iconography. An outstanding draftsman, he
Growth of a Child, 1970.
relates images of animal and plant life by combining visua l symbols of Ballpoint pen, 24" x 18".
:ontrasting dimensions. Hardens placement of precisely drawn cows Courtesy of the artist.
:Jr trees aga inst a broad simplified expansive shape introduces concepts (Photograph by Jonathan Eu banks,
of ph otographic realism and clean simplicity {lllus. 251). Oakland , California.)

251 Marvin llardcn, ritual of

consumption, illusion, share and salient flaw,
1971. Pencil on paper, 30" x zzW'.
Collection of Clark Polak.
245
 RAYMOND LARK (b. 19 39), a contemporary Rea list, gives his subj ccl
pictorial conventional form but personalizes his images through a1
abundance of detail and surface texture. Displaying a stylistic kinshi
with art of the past, Larks drawings arc intense renderings of subject
with strong emotional impact:

1 try to th row myself into the complete feeling of the subject that I an
recording. I will only work from the surroundings and people tha
stimulate me. People often ask me wh y I always paint and draw ole
people, poverty, and depressing subjects; they would bu y some of m.
work if I would draw or paint them, this, or the other. I am no
concerned with pleasing the public with my subject matter. If I d<
not get that certain emotional feeling and dynamic charge ({ron
something], 1 will not attempt to record it. 1 may get turned on b;
an old pair of shoes, a scrub bucket and a mop, a poor old lady, {ire
a child of poverty, color in a dress, or the structure of a body. I ca n se<
beauty in earth y subject matter that most people feel is very insig
nificant. 1 usually elevate to full status subject matter that nobod)
seems to care about. [Personal commumcation with the author. ]

Larks figurative compositions are enriched with line patterns thai

act as nets covering the surfaces of his works. In Bernard's Dadd )
(IIlus. 252] the surface planes arc an imated by the inclusion of a wei:
of lin es that at times follows the form of the figure and at other time~
opposes it. The shimmering surfaces that result suggest the rcAcctiom
of light on a body of water.

252 Ra ymond Lark, Bernard's Daddy,

197 1. Pencil drawing, 23%"x pYz".
Courtesy of the artist.

246
MuRRY OEPILLARS (b. 1938). Uncle Remus, Aunt Jemima, and other
stereotypical characteri zations of Afri can Americans are used by
graphic artist Murry DePillars as subjects for his compositions. lie
attempts to reverse the past influences of these submissive characters
by placing them in scenes in which they aggressively participate in the
struggl e of Africa n Americans and other third-world peoples against
exploitation and discriminati on. ln DePillars' ln Tribute to the Family
. . . The People of the S un {1 /lus. 253} the major figure, a defiant Uncle
Remus, is shown emerging from a book of folk tales, benea th whi ch
lie the littered rema ins of a decadent society. O verweight white nudes
disport themselves beneath a monumental cross bearing the "cru-
cified" seal of the United States, and a reference to the fa te of minority
cultures is made through the "Indian" skulls at the foot of the cross
and at the base of the United States history book.

253 Murry DePi llars,

The People of the Sun, 1972.
Pen, ink, and pencil, 40" x p".
Courtesy of the artist.

247
 DoNA lD CoLES (b. 19.n) has developed a drawing style that is high
disciplined and imaginative. Fill ed with awesome constructions, h
dreamlike compositions arc intended to awaken in the vie,,er imagi1
ings generall y suppressed. As in the surrea listic pencil drawing 1
lflustralion 25-J., Coles often uses massive constructions to rcpresc1
th e systemati zation of human life and the denial of individual right
The loneliness of people in the modern mechan ized world is a rccu
rent Coles theme.

2 54 Donald Coles, untitled drawing. Craphitc.

JosEPII GERAN (b. 1945), a close observer of nature, uses naturd

amazing structural designs as the basis for much of his art. Th<:
delicate lines in the drawing Ananse [Ill us. 2 55} resemble the web of a
spider, and Ccran has combined them with masks and small human
figures that suggest Africa and its cu ltural experiences. (The heroic
spider Anansc is an important character in African and Caribbean
248 folklore: his web symbolizes the sun and its rays and, therefore, God .)
 255 Joseph Ccran. A11anse,
1971. Pen and ink, to" x 12".
Courtesy of the artist.

2;6 Ron Adams, Sku ll , 1968.

Ink wash, 20" x q ". Collection of
the Colden State Mutual
Life Insurance Co.

Ro ADAMS (b. 1934), by using freely brushed patterns, gives his

drawings a spontaneous, relaxed effect. Skull (Jllus. 256), a black-ink
rendering by Adams, is representative of his bold drawings. Go ing
beyond mere factual representation , the arti st depicts his subj ect with
ambiguous features that suggest a va riety of forms. Like most of his
compositi ons this one has a brooding, ominous quality and seems to
hold a mystery with in . 249
 Kl~NNETI I FALANA (b. 1940), like many artists who also work in otl
media, considers drawing important in his continued development
an artist. Known primarily as a printmaker, he is also an expert draf
man who uses a well defined figurative style to express the illusion
three dimensional form .
In his Portrait of A Young Black Man {Ill us. 2 57), Falana a
proaches the sub ject with great sensitivity and expression. Althou
executed in black and white, there is a richness of tone and value tl
adds "color" to this penetrating study of man.

257 Kenneth Fala na, Portrait of A Young Black Man, 1975 . Craphit(

250
 GRAPHIC PROCESSES: ECONOMICAL AND AESTHETIC
APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATION

Among the major problems that confront artists today are earning a
living and communicating with as many people as possible. Printmak-
ing and other methods of creating quality productions offer answers to
both these imperatives. Improved printing methods have made it pos-
1

sible for more people to own original works of art and fine reproduc-
tions by outstanding artists. '
Thus we are witnessing a renaissance in the production of original
prints - that is, prints made from artwork created especially for re-
production and, generally, offered in limited editions supervised by
the artist. For the most part, the methods used to create such prints fall
into four categories: relief, intaglio, planographic, and stencil. Relief
prints are made by transferring ink from a raised surface onto paper or
some other two-dimensional material. Intaglio, the reverse of relief
printing, is the making of impressions from recessed surfaces that hold
ink. Planographic prints are pulled from smooth, inked surfaces on
which drawings have been made and, in most cases, sensitized for
printing by means of chemicals. Lithography, in which the drawing is
generally executed on limestone or on a metal plate, is a planographic
process. The stencil method of printmaking involves the masking of
certain areas of the surface being printed on so that the only areas left
open and receptive to ink represent the desired design. When the
masking material used is silk, tr~ated so that some of its areas are no
longer porous, the process is call~d silkscreening, or serigraphy.
Although most collectors still prefer the small-edition original print,
a good case can be made for the production of less-limited originals
and other quality reproductions. The issue should be quality, not
quantity. For rather than decreasing interest in original works, inex-
pensive prints and reproductions tend to encourage collecting by those
who might not otherwise be able to afford commercial works of art.
The fact that several thousand records of a musical composition are
1

produced in no way lessens the' quality of the composition as created

by the composer.
Stone, metal, wood, linoleum, and screens of various materials
(primarily silk, nylon, and metal) are the surfaces most commonly
used in graphic design. The r~lative inexpensiveness and ease with
which prints can be produced ]from linoleum and wood make these
materials particularly popular among artists involved in print-making.
The linoleum print and the woodblock print are both examples of
relief printing, an ancient graphic process that lends itself to a wide
variety of subjects and stylistic Jariations.
I

251
 R ELIEF

RuTII WADDY (b. 1909) often uses linoleum as a principal medium .

The Key [Illus. 258), one of her early works, is a linoleum composi-
tion in which both geometric and figural elements are used. Waddys
ability to handle the medium effecti vely is demonstrated by her reten-
tion of a major portion of the linoleum in creati ng her image. Another
Waddy linoleum print is a boldly colored but simple statement that
echoes forms common to African sculpture [lllus. 259). Because inks
arc applied to the linoleum by means of a brush, it is possible to print
several colors simultaneously using the sa me master.
Largely self-taught, Waddy is a California-based artist and the
founder of Art West Associated, an organization of artists established
in the ea rly 1960s. Through Art West and independently, she has been
instrumental in encouraging many Afri can Americans to pursue their
interest in art.

zs8 Ruth W;~ddy, The Key, 1969. Linoleum print, 2 .( X 18". Collection of
Samella Lewis.
252
 259 Ruth Waddy,
untitled linoleum print,
11
1969. 24 X 18".
Courtesy of the artist.

VAN SLATER (1937-1989) is another printmakcr who created composi-

tions in relief. One of these, his Eula Sea ted [lllus. 26o], contrasts a
forceful geometric background and a dejected femal e figure . The
effective usc of the wood surface gives a spontaneous appeara nce to
th e print and convin cingly suggests the material used.

26o Van Slater, Eula Seated,

1964. Woodcut , 26Yz" x 18".
Courtesy of the artist.
(Photograph by lvor Prothcroc,
Los Angeles.)

253
 JoYCE W ELLMAN (b. I 9-t9 ) used the relief printing techn ique to
create Pathway Dancers {lllus.261), a complex linocut which fea-
tures anth ropomorphic form s th at represent four stages of life. C rea ted
in 198-t this graphic expression is a part of a suite of works that express
phases of physical and spiritual development in the life of a female
character. The four stages pictured in this work symboli ze the life
of a little girl, a teenage girl, a post-teenage girl, and a sensuous and
se lf-aware adul t woman. Through the movement of the dance the
Figure shifts from one phase of life to another.
In Pathway Dancers Wellman has managed to carry the technique
of the linocut to an involved and intricate level, similar to that of
the woodcut. She makes use of line and overla pping forms to create
a lacy quali ty and integrate the web-li ke nature of her compos ition.
Joyce Wellman is a versatile artist whose range in style and media
in cludes the traditional and the experimental. I ler works, although
exhibited primarily in the eastern United States where she lives, can
be found in num erous national publications on art and culture.

26 1 Joyce Wellman , Pathway Dancers. I .inoeu t, ..p X 51 em , 1984.

254
WILLIAM SM ITH (1919-2000) worked excl usive ly as a printmaker. A
veteran artist, Smith , along with Hughi e Lee-Smith and other nota-
bles, was a member of the famous Karamu House in Cleveland, O hio.
During the 1930s and 1940s, Smith's linocut prints were exhibited
widely and attracted the attention of critics and coll ectors who placed
his work in the vanguard of th e important emerging artists of that
time.
Throughout his career, William Smith maintained th e dramati c
style and subjective interpretations oflocal scenes that brought his work
to the attention of luminaries such as Ala in Locke and James Porter.
His Native Son {Illus. 262] and Bill Johnson as Emperor Jones {Illus.
263] are examples of Smith 's sensitive and penetrating figurative style.
A longtime resident of Los Angeles, William Smith throughout his
life continued to produ ce prints with the same vitali ty and spirit that
marked his work decades ago.

262 William Smith,

Native Son. Linocut.

263 William Smith,

Bill fohnson as Emperor Jones.
Li nocut, 12" x 10".

255
 i NTAGLIO

The intaglio printmaking method , the reverse of relief printing,

produces impressions from recessed surfaces housing ink, rather than
from inked surfaces that arc raised.

LEON I licKs (b. 1933) makes use of the intaglio process in a series of
etchings ca lled New Faces. As shown in Illustra tion 264, one face
from the series is an effecti ve work that has the soft quality produced
by close value changes and luminous yet earthy color tones. With
gentle and subdued shapes, Hicks fuses the haunted face with an
environment to form a composite view of figure and field. The result-
ing quality is one of subtle splendor.
Known for his fin e technical ability, Hicks demonstrates a facil e use
of line that ranges from intricate vertical patterns to clclicatc horizon-
tals. At times his lines arc incised so deeply that they appea r to be
excised on his prints. Genera lly the artist covers the entire area of his
printing surface and does not allow any of the ground to appear.
Because of this approach and his use of closely related colors, Hicks
creates works that reflect soft mon ochromatic patterns achi eved
through overlays of separate plates. His special sensitivity in the use
and va riation of line gives his work the visual richness achieved on ly
by a mature and dedicated artist.

264 Leon Hicks,

from the series New Faces,
1969. Intagl io, 2 0 " x t6".
Collection of Samella Lewis.

256
MARION EPTING (b. 1940) uses a variety of printing techniques to
produce strong social and political statements, and he frequently
makes visual phrases an integral part of his design. For exa mple, in
Alternative {lllus. 265}, an etching that attempts to call attenti on to
racial struggles in America, he places a Aag in the upper area of the
composi tion to express idea lized, organized, and stately aspects of the
nation; the lower portion suggests the realities of life and its growing
conflict and opposition. Alternative is about conflicts and dual isms,
subjects of marked interest to the artist:

To find yourself attempting to defend one side or the other of a

dualism is to find you rself in a position that is uncomfortable,
confining, limiting, prejudicial, impossible to maintain, and dis-
honest.

Dualisms, or what ma y be referred to as examples of the operation of

the "rule of two" are, by their nature and definiti on, situations
which are potentially conflicting. [Quoted in Samella S. Lewis and
Ruth Waddy, Black Artists on Art, val. I (Los Angeles: Contempo-
rary Crafts Publishers, 1969), p. 109.)

265 Marion Epting, A.ltenwtive,

1968. Int<~glio, 38" x 28".
Courtesy of Contemporary Cr<Jfts,
Los Angeles.

257
 Epting also expresses his concern for the struggles of Afri can J\mcri
cans in an intaglio print titled Share [Illus. z66]. In this compositi01
he uses a fi eld of red, white, and blue to suggest the Aag. J\ blacl
arrow confronts a wh ite barrier that it must penetrate in order to shan
in the benefits of the nation.

266 t\ la rion l:pting, Share, 1969.

Intaglio, 16" x 10".
Courtesy of Contemporary C rafts,
Los Angeles.

Russ~-:1.1.CoRDON (b. 1932) is the crea tor of Kaleidoscopic Portrait

Series #5 [lllus. 267], an intaglio print whose upper portion is fill ed
by bristling hairs that resemble the tentacles of a squid. The indi vidual
hair shafts arc enlarged and their rhythmic movements and abrupt
changes in direction create strong visual and textural interest. A wide
variety of grays is achieved through th e usc of the aq uati nt technique,
and the etched and aquatint areas combine to make the work an
epitome of"psycheclcl ic" portraiture. Monumenta l in scope, Cordons
258 prints arc like photographic close-ups.
1

267 Russell Cordon,

Kaleidoscopic Portrait Series# 5,
1970. Color etchi ng 27" x 23 w'.
Collection ofThc Oakland Museum
(gift of the Donors'
Acquisition Fund).

Lri'I IOCRAPII Y

Lithography, unlike rel ief and intaglio, is a planographie meth od of

printing. Smooth limestone that has been chem icall y sensitized and
inked is the su rface from which a lithographic pri nt is pu ll ed. C losely
related to drawing- crayon or touche drawings are sometimes made
directly on stones - li thography provides for a wide range of va lue
changes, from extreme lights to clarks.

STEPHANIE PocuE (b. 1944) is one of the participants in a virtual

explosion of inn ovative printm aking. T hese enormous in novations
beca me possible during the ea rl y twentieth century when artists were
freed from the noti on that printmaking was specificall y for commer-
cial production. 259
 With restrictive boundaries removed, artists arc free to employ
combinations of materials and techniques that push printmaking be-
yond traditional limits. Stephanie Pogue in her co lor etching Ban-
galore Skylight [Illus. 268] expands the expressive possibilities of
color and shape through the usc of simplified geometric shapes and
complementary color combinations. Although the abstract forms are
reminders of contemporary times, the subtle modulating forms that
cover the surface of the central yellow rectangu lar shape retain th e
properties of an ancient cave dwelling. All of this grows out of the
artists experi ence and identification with time and place from which
these forms can be traced.
India gave to the modern world her strong co lor sense and clarity of
line and movement. Pogue$ studies at C ranbrook Academy of Art

268 Stephanie Pogue,

Bangalore Skylight , 1982.
Color etch ing, 20" x 16".

260
surely had some inAuence on her pursuit of an architectonic style, just
as her studies and travels in Indi a have inAucncccl her choice of
colors. A striking example of this Asian inAucncc is seen in Pogue$
Palace Passageway [Ill us. 269).
In a statement rega rding her work Pogue writes:

My recent works were inspired by images gathered during travels

through India in the summer of 198 1. The excitement of the colors
and patterns that are found everywhere; the rh ythms of the land, sea
and sky; the ancient windows, walls and temples; and the people
weaving their lives in and out of the temples, patterns and sea
provided visual stimulation that is with me as much today as it was
then.

So much from India that has been inspiring is new and different -
and yet so much is close to that to which I have responded in the
past. Ultimately, it is the mystery of the similarities and differences
between that culture and my own that 1 am exploring and recording
in my prints and paintings.

269 Stepha n ie Pogue,

Palace Passageway, 1982.
17Vz" x 22 Yz".

261
 DEVOICJo: BERRY (b. 1937) creates lithographs that reAect a mixture of
symbolism and rea lism. An artist who captures the inner mood of his
subjects and exhibits a great capacity for compassion, Berry is able to
combine his sensitive style with a high degree of drama and a great
facility for design.
Berry is concerned with soc ial issues, and his highly expressive
themes extend beyond the rea lm of personal matters. figures [Illus.
270} is a compositi on in which he expresses the essence of struggle by
means of repeated angles and dynamic ligures filled with anx iety and
compassion. T he orchestration of the bod ies, their intense religious
gestures, convey passion and suffering.

270 Dcvoicc Berry, Figures, 1970. Lithograph, ..n" x 33". From the
262 collection of Dr. IIerman W. Dorsett, Miami, Florida.
 271 Margo I lumphrey, Crying Ain't Conna 1/elp
None Baby or Don't Shed Your'liwrs on My Rug, 1971.
Lithograph, q Yz" x q". Courtesy of the artist.

272 Margo ll umphrey,

A Second Time in Blackness
(from the Zebra series), 1968.
Lithograph, 22" x 10%".
Courtesy of Con temporary
Crafts, Los Angeles.

MARCO HUMPIIREY (b. 1942) more than a decade ago, began produc-
ing works based on the activities of inner-city dwellers, subjects that
make us rea lize how tenuous is our hold on li fe. Her Crying Ain't
Can na Help None Baby or Don't Shed Your Tears on My Rug {lllus.
271] , a strong composition of pure, brilliant colors, demonstrates
Humphreys command of the difficulties of close color registration.
In an early stage of her artistic development, Humphrey directed
her attention toward the African past, gaining from it inspiration and
material fo r her creative production. Among the important litho-
graph ic works she produced during this period is the outstanding
Zebra series [Illus. 272}, whose animal and human forms arc sharply
delineated from their environments by means of light lines. 263
 SERICRAPIIY

Serigraphy or silkscreen, is a branch of stencil printing whose his-

tory can be traced back to ancient China; its development in the West
is as recent as the 1930s, however. An opportuni ty for the artist to
create complex and exciting visual relationships through line, shape,
and color, the process involves blocking out areas of a mounted screen
- with glue, shellac, wax, paper, or plastic film - to create a stencil of
the desired image and then applying ink so that it passes through the
remaining porous areas onto a surface beneath.
Some of the most exciting artwork produced by serigraphy is that
don e by I IOWARD SMITII (b. 1928), a Philadelphian who has been a
resident of Finland since 1962. Smiths Design Multiple {1 /lus. 273) is
a highly successful print derived from a stencil of plastic film. Its

273 lloward Smith, Design Multiple, 196<:). Silkscrecn, 54" x 42".

264
repeated triangular shapes form a complicated optical pattern, and its
color scheme - red, black, and whi te - emphasizes the interplay of
shapes through contrast. Smi ths bold use of color and honest regard
for clean shape help hi m create imagi native, lively designs that coor-
dinate old- and new-world qual ities. African and Asian cultures have
been of special interest to Smith, and his designs, whether fo r
paper prints or for textiles, show the infl uences of both continents
{Illus. 274).
Despite the transference from the United States to Finland , Smith
does not see the development of his art as "discontinous", because
"What was going for me here onl y continued and flowered in
Finland. I did not suddenly discover the Finnish landscape to the
excl usion of all else and get myself drowned in all of those virtues in
the summer. In fact, I actively resisted the threat of being totally
engulfed by the Finnish culture. I had to, because I just couldn't
manage it ... the whol e spccturm of the thing. But I would say that
what has happened did happen as a logical development, a change of
place."

274 I loward Sm ith, Personages, 198o. Serigraph on Egyptian cotton, 38" x 40".
265
 j EI' I' DONALDSON (b. 1932). The credo of numerous African Ameri-
can artists who gained attention in the late 196os and ea rly '7os de-
mands that they view themselves first as responsible members of
cu ltural groups and only secondarily as individual contributors. Be-
cause these artists believe that maximum fulfill ment is obtained by
pooling their efforts, they have joined organi zations that foster coordi-
nated explorations of African American aesthetics. The work of Jeff
Donaldson, an AfriCOBRA founder, must be considered within the
context of that organization.
Sharing the belief that there are qualities intrinsic to African Ameri-
can people, AfriCOBRA members have decided to usc specific visual
clements to express their common denominator as a group. These
clements arc "bright colors, the human figure, lost and found line,
lettering, and images which identify the social."

27 5 Jeff Donaldson, Victory in the Valley o{Eshu, 197 1. Gouache,

36" x 26". Courtesy of the artist.

266
\
\
Like other members of AfriCOBRA, Donaldson produces art to
communicate and to express positive modes of thought. In the silk-
1

screen print Victory in the Valley of Eshu [Illus. 275] Donaldson

makes a positive, direct statement. He uses the organizations "bright,
vivid, singing Kool-Aid colors of orange, strawberry, cherry, lemon,
lime and grape" to express the "pure vivid colors of the sun and
nature. Colors that shine on African American people, colors that
stand out against the greenery of rural areas."

THE PHOTO SILKSCREEN

Photography has contributed a new dimension to printmaking, the

photoscreen. Originally developed primarily for commercial use but
rapidly becoming important in the fine arts, photoscreening is the
process of transferring a photographic image to a screen. It can be
accomplished through two basic means: direct application of a photo-
graphic emulsion or the use of photo-sensitive film. A photographic
emulsion is usually a light-sensitive mixture of gelatin and chemicals
(halides) and can be prepared con1mercially or by the individual artist.
I

Its direct application to a screen most often involves spraying or the

use of a brush or squeegee. Photo-sensitive film is coated with a
similar gelatin-based mixture. It is solidly affixed to a plastic backing
and serves the same purpose as a directly applied emulsion but with
greater ease and efficiency.
Both photographic emulsions and photo-sensitive films vary widely
in light sensitivity. Some require a sophisticated darkroom to transfer
the image from the negative successfully, while other emulsions and
films are "slow" and can be exposed ~nder natural sunlight.
Multiple-color prints are also possible through photoscreening.
Color separation, variation in the exposure times of a negative, and
combinations of photo imagery and hand-cut screens are all effective
ways of introducing color into prints, Color separation is achieved by
I

photographing an image through va~iously colored lenses. When the

resulting negatives are transferred to screens and each is printed in one
of the four basic inks (magenta, blue, yellow, and black), they can be
combined to reproduce the color of the original image. 267
!
 Ll-:v MI I.LS (b. 1940), on graduation from the University of Wiscon-
sin , was awarded a Ford Foundati on fellowship that allowed him to
study at the University of London $ Slade School of Fine Arts and at
Atelier 17 in Paris. Mills is typical of the highly talen ted, uni versity-
trained graphic artists who develop thei r creative talents in conjun c-
tion with a grea t respect for contem porary materials and techniques.
In his prints Mills combines an immaculate techn ical fac ility with a
personal vision of the meaning of ethnic identity. The serigraph I'm
Punky, But Clea n [Illus. 276], a highl y decorative work, shows the
architectural boldness of his design. It also shows the sincerity of
Mills' psychologica l insights into the spirit of the contemporary young
African Ameri can male.

More and more the artist is becoming a technician, constructor, or a

"structurist." This is due to the ever-changing society in which we
live. All of us are living closer to machines, tools, computers, and
materials that are used in our everyda y endeavors. I am greatly
influenced by the discovery of new materials that might be used to
produce a work of art. It is necessary to define these components that
make art meaningful as new media are produced.

276 Lev Mi lls, I'm Funky But Clean,

1972 . Serigraph, 30" x 22".
Collection of Samella Lewis.

268
 The ongoing effort of a "structurist'' is to struggle with fo rms - to
build up, modify, tea r down, and build up again before the resolu-
tion of a given piece of work finally does take place. This has opened
new avenues to visual expression . Certainly this new art is not quite
like any art of the past. However, the times in which we live and the
materials now available to use are not like anything we have ever
known before. [Personal communication with the author. ]

::::AROL WARD (b. 19..t3) uses photo collage and multiple-color screens
o create such prints as Foloyan {Illus. 277] , a study of tenement
iving. The dramatic geometric pattern evident in the print is achieved
)y the inclusion of such shapes as the window and the American Aag.
)ignificant among the colors used are black, reel, and green, the triad
;ymbolic of African American li beration. Like numerous other artists,
W'ard finds her subjects in everyday scenes in volving ordinary people.
3ecausc of her fin e ability as a photographer, she finds photoscrccn a
1atural medium for her provocative visual statements.

277 Ca rol Ward, Poloyan, 1973.

Photo-si lkscreen, 40" x 30".
Courtesy of the artist.

269
 MoNo PRINT

Making a monoprint involves a type of printmaking in which on ly

one copy ca n be made from each prepared plate. This type of art is
recognized as belonging to the oldest print category - the
planographic.
Felix Brunner, in his book A Handbook of Graphic Reproduction
Processes, rather skeptically holds that "the monotype (monoprint) is
strictly not classifiable as graphic art. ... Only one print can be made
and the intermediary of the plate is used only to obta in certain effects."
The monoprint makes use of a technique in which an image is
applied to a plate and lifted when paper is placed on the surface and
limited pressure is applied. Since most of the pigment is removed on
the first appl ication of paper, additional prints can not be made until
another image is applied to the surface of the plate.

278 David I Iammons,

Couple, 1970.
Bodyprint and paint.
Collection of
Dr. and Mrs. J. Eugene
Grigsby Ill, Los Angeles.

270
 )AVID HAMMONS (b. 1943) is the African American artist who has
~ontributed most to the resurgence of the basic monoprint (bodyprint).
) uring the 196os, Hammons produced a series of exceptional works
n which he used the human body and other objects as transfer agents.
--lam mons capitalized on the potential of the monoprint as an avenue
or experimenting with many devices and materials to produce a single
)Tint.
Cou ple [Illus. 278] is an example of Hammons approach to body
)Tinting. This life-size black-and-white portrait of two figures in dcco-
ative robes demonstrates the control and technical proficiency cxhib-
ted by the artist in the execution of this complex work. In creating
:ouple and other works such as lniustice Case {Illus. 279}, Hammons
::overed the forms or materials to be printed with a substance consist-
mg of a greasy transparent base. The act of transferring the desired
images to the transitional paper ground and separating the objects
from the ground without smudging them presented a major challenge
for the artist. When the images have been transferred to the ground,
powdered pigment is then dusted over the surface, where it adheres to
the grease. A strong fixing agent is then applied, and the resulting
image resembles a reversed photographic negative.
In a number of his compositions, David Hammons combines body
printing with direct painting and sometimes serigraphy, thus produc-
ing mixed-media arrangements.

279 David !Iammons,

Injustice Case, 1970.
Mixed media body print,
6o" x 4oYz".

271
 MICHAEL KELLY WILLIAMS (b. 1950) has been making monoprints fa
the past two decades. The method he uses to produce his print:
utilizes stencils and elements of color viscosity.
The color viscosity approach to monoprinting is an involved pro
cess. A zinc plate is etched or engraved to roughly two diffe rent levels,
and its relief surface is either textured or left plain. Then three inks ol
differing tackiness, three viscosities, are appl ied: the thickest to the
deeper recesses, the thinnest to the upper level of the intaglio, and tht:
ink of middle viscosity to the highest of the relief surface of the plate.
These inks arc usually of three different colors and, since their vis-
cosities differ, they interact somewhat unpredictably. Since the ink~
are applied by hand , there is another clement of chance present -
another reason why no two prints that come off the same plate are
alike. The print is pulled from a single pass t:lfough press.
Suited to producing work of an abstract nature, viscosity/mono-
printing is the approach that Michael Kelly Williams finds most ap-
propriate for his style of printmaking. Around About Midnight {lllus.
28o] is an impressive print in which abstract shapes are arranged to
suggest human figures and stylized versions of-musical instruments.

280 Michael Kelly Wi lliams,

Around About Midnight, 1984.
Monoprint, 30" x 22".

272
 28 1 Michael Kelly Williams,
Isis, 1984.
Monoprin t, 30" x 22".

instruments. Similar to other works by Williams, this composition

resembles a ritual celebration with jazz, or Afri can American music,
as the core of the ceremony.
Isis {Illus. 281], another work by Michael Kell y Williams portrays
the Egyptian Goddess of motherhood and fertility. This work consists
of shapes that are strongly inAuenced by patterns traditionally used in
collages and often found in Afri can appliques of historica l signifi-
cance. 273
 LAU RIE OU RLICIIT (b. 1953) is another of the many printmakers who
studied with Robert Blackburn at his workshop in New York C ity. In~
addition to her studies at other facilities in New York, she has lived
and stud ied at workshops in Siena and Rome.
O urlichts recent work consists of large sca le monoprints featuring
im ages of wrestlers and bodybuilders. "T hese figures suggest power
struggles and bravura. I've always been interested in working with the
human body." Bodybuilders {Illus. 282) is a dramatic monopri nt in
which Ourlicht demonstrates her ability to apply color in an ex-
pressioni stic manner while maintaining concise and distinctive figur-
ative forms.
O urlicht states that her ultimate aim is to create work that is honest
to herself and true to her viewers. T hrough her art, she is interested in
expressing a quality of beauty that extends beyond the narrow limits
that dominate contemporary society.

282 Lauric Ourlieht, Bodybuilders, 1988. Monoprint on handmade paper, 22" x 30".
274
 -

GARRY Bmns (b. 1960) creates monoprints that arc rich in color and
complex in form and structure. He employs motifs and themes, in-
spired by personal myths that evoke energeti c responses from viewers.
In addition , Bibbs combines figures and landscapes in a surrea listic
manner using a special style that he refers to as "funk art." Bibbs
attributes his spec ial feeling for color, which is essential to his style, to
a former professor from California who taught him at Kentucky State
Un iversity. "His Cali fo rnia influence rea ll y opened my eyes. It was
really bright, rea l active and colorful; just some things that I could
rea lly relate to."
House Party [Jllus. 283) is an example of Garry Bibbs' vivid imag-
ination and his active symbolic vocabulary. In this pri nt, he adopts a
playful and highl y emoti onal approach in which he creates figures
that Aoat, dance, and play aga inst a graffiti environment. In this
composition, two worlds exist concurrentl y and viewers arc led to
vica riously feel the movemen t of color and figures evolve into a pre-
ca rious balance.

283 Carry Bibbs, House Pa r/)', 1988. Monoprint, 18" x 26".

275
 PERFORMANCES /INSTALLATIONS I ENVIRONMENTS

During the 196os and 1970s, African American Artists were expe1
menting with works specifically designed for outdoor areas. Sue
works differed from traditional public monuments because, in add
tion to sculptural forms, artists viewed nature and the environment .
essential components of their works.
Earthworks, constructions, and various other kinds of projects a
sembled out of different materials from nature, such as stones, plant
twigs and a variety of other types of found objects, were used by mar
artists whose main purpose was to complement and relate to t~
natural order of existing outdoor spaces.
Along with their increased concern for the environment, artis
committed themselves to the proposition that their work should l
regarded primarily as serious attempts toward improving the quality c
their physical and cultural surroundings, rather than as mere con
modities to be bought and sold. Parks, fields, alleys, farms and nume
ous other types of alternative spaces proved to be suitable sites fc
excavations and installations.
African American artists involved in performance, installations an
environmental art forms are inspired by traditions that date back t
ancient times. These traditions are basic to African societies and ar
symbolized by the creation of shrines and the organizing of cen:
monies and festivals.
While Africa is recognized as the primary source for the develo~
ment of ritual art forms, areas such as South America and the Cari~
bean Islands are also places where spiritual influences are prevalen
in daily activities affecting the lives of many groups among thes
populations.
Performance, installation and environmental art are often related t~
and dependent on other art forms such as painting, sculpture, drama
and dance. Artists engaged in these art forms, frequently rely on thei
peers working in traditional media to assist them with the activitie
necessary for the development and execution of projects.
Artists involved in performances, installations and environmenta
art are primarily interested in the process, rather than the product
They act out, or construct areas of influence where spirit worlds ofter
specify behavior and also function as the primary source in determin
ing the quality of aesthetics. In this arena "true art" cannot be directec
by the uninspired or the impure. Artists guided by these views arc
committed to the sacrifice of self through spiritual contemplation anc
expression, and aesthetic concerns. The communicative power o
performances, spaces, and environments is designed to evoke signifi.
cant memories that inform and enrich society as a whole.
276
HouSTON CONWILL (b. 1947) decided earl y in his artistic ca reer to
focus on traditiona l va lues germane to his environment and his cul-
tural heritage. Having grown up in a deepl y religious family, ritual was
no stranger to this artist who , in 1963, entered a monastery with the
intention of becoming a Catholi c priest. However, after three years of
monastic life, Conwill decided that experiences as a visual artist would
likely provide greater opportunities to express his deep-seated social,
cu ltura l, and spiritual comm itments.

284 Houston Comvill ,

The Passion o{St. Matthew, 1986 (detail).
Mixed media Installation.
277
 As an artist, Conwill continues to probe the mysteries of the lil
death struggle where meaning and understanding tend to be evasiv
In a 1986 essay for Conwill s The Passion of St. Matthew [Illus. 284
Madeleine Burnside states:

... As an artist, Con will does not press for mass subscription tom
one faith or creed, no matter what his own personal beliefs might b
What he does ask is that his audience should not allow themselves
be alienated by the difficulties inherent in solving large question
but that they should accord them their deserved seriousness anc
through their own passion achieve their own understanding.

In his installation, Easter Shout [Ill us. 285), Houston Conwi

created a work wh ich responds to the energy and vitality of contempc
rary religious celebration. I Ic extends our sensibilities beyond th
realm of the traditional concepts of religion. His combination of e>
prcssion istic and formalistic environmental clements, exposes th
viewer to both artistic tendencies, thereby, drawing on the full range c
human perception.

285 ll ouston Conwill , Easter Shout, 198 1. Mixed media Installation

278
 JuJu Funk {11/us. 286], an earl ier work by Conwill , is one in which
he serves as both maker and priest (shaman). The red carpet is placed
on the Aoor (ground) to define the sacred space where the ritual is
performed. One boundary is marked by a ceremonial stool, which
serves as a scat for the shaman, while the other boundary is marked by
a ceremonial bucket wrapped in embossed latex and bearing tiny JuJu
bags. This bucket serves as a symbol of the surviva l tactics often used
by African Americans in the Southern areas of the Un ited States who,
during periods of hardship, sustain themselves and their fam il ies by
coll ecting and sharing unused items of foodstuffs and other materia ls.
In Ju Ju Funk, llouston Conwill reaches back to the mid 1970s,
during the time when he chose to abandon stretc hed canvas and
replace it with sheets of latex, on which he embossed patterns ;md
textures reminiscent of ancient symbols of cu ltural and histori cal
significance.
I Iouston Conwi lls art is a strong mi xture of the richness of African
and Western traditions. Acknowledgi ng and accepting both worlds as llouston Cunwill ,
his own enables Conwill to enlarge his perspective and contribute JuJu l'tmk pc.:rfornwncc.:.
significantly to a broader interpretation of aesthetics.

286 Houston Conwill ,

/u/u Fu nk, 1976.
Mixed media Pcrfonna ncc/lnstallation.
MILDRED HOWARD (b. 1945) ended her career as a dancer when ,
following an accident, she realized that she would never be as good ~
dancer as she had been, and certainly not as good as she wanted to be.
Because of her desire to continue to express herself creatively, Howarci
decided to spend more time making the paintings and drawings thai
were already an important activity for her. Because she viewed he1
involvement in dance as an art form, Mildred Howard believes tha1
she simply changed mediums.

The process of making art and how it makes you feel, really come~
from within. The involvement gives you a sense of purpose- a sense
of place. Because I draw from my background and my environment,
I can see myself in all of my work.

Tap: Investigation of Memory [Illus. 287) is Mildred Howards ver-

sion of the past and incorporates details of how her memory of those
experiences are colored by the present. Her dream about shoes and the
important function tap dancing played in her family served as a princi-
ple motivation for this imaginative work. This installation, with its
dearth of color, resembles a shrine in which the formal design of the
shoeshine stand and the arrangement of the taps suggest a profound
state of silence.

287 Mi ldred Howard, 'l ap: Investigation of Memory, 1989 (side view).
Mixed media Installation, 10 high X 13. s' wide X 51. s' deep.
1
 However, this assumption of silence is short- lived, for a hidden
"nicrophone in the shoeshine stand records the sounds offootsteps and
'-te voices of viewers as they approach the work. Speakers mounted in
1e work play back every sound made by the viewer, following thirty-
~cond intervals. The thousands of taps that line the Aoor, along with
te twenty-four pairs of shoes, suggest the presence of "greats" from
te past whose names should be recorded as legends in the field of
mce.

Mildred Howard, Tap: Investigation of Memory, 1989 (front view).

281
 MARTI lA jACKSON-jARVIS (b. 1952) uses the ancient med ium of clay tc
explore and defin e th e prevalence of spirit and substa nce in life an
art. Her work consists of installations for interior spaces using a broa
field of glazes, stains and color applications. Through her worl
Jackson-Jarvis has developed an elaborate language, rich in tcxtu
and symbolism, and complex in meaning and interpretation.
speaking of her art, Martha Jackson-Jarvis says:

I want to go to the beginning and sea rch through those very ba~
things that work for me as an artist. These are probably things th
don't gel addressed publicly that often, but they go into the work
can only hope that once I've produced the work, once I've laid
bare, that I'll indeed begin to communicate some of these things.
have to search within myself, my existence, for a functioning defu;
lion of what I believe art to be. For art is that thing that has ca rri1
me from being a student to making my way in the real world.

Clay has been important to Martha Jackson-Jarvis' real world fr01

her early childhood when she reca lls accompanying her grandmoth<
to the spring near the famil y home in Lynchburg, Virginia, whe1
Jackson-Jarvis was born. One of her greatest joys was to fashi on sma
dolls and other objects from the clay. This preference for clay co1
tinucd, and through continuous study during the years that foll owec
she developed a great proficiency and expert means of handling th
medium.

288 1\larth<J jackson-jarvis,

'/'he Ga thering, 1988.
Ceramic shard/Installation.

282
-
In her installation Th e Gathering [Illus. 288], Martha Jackson-
vis focuses on endowing "dead'' substances with new life- a rccur-
lt theme of great interest to the artist, and one which she expresses
many of her works.
In The Gathering, the circular centerpiece fun ctions as a source of
ality from which pi eces of richly textured cera mic forms seem to be
)pellcd to other parts of the environment. The room in which the
;tallation is assembl ed is visuall y alive and full of energy as the
rcfull y chosen, irregularly shaped forms transform themselves into
J rces of power.
Belena S. C happ, Director/Curator for the Uni versity Ca llery of
e Uni versity of Delaware, where The Gathering was installed in
1Uary, 1988 said of this work:

The start/stop action and the lively transmutation of the once formal
room reveals Jackson-farvis' interest in the syncopated rh ythms of
jazz music, the profound impact of her Afro-American heritage, and
the influence of the frenetic pace of her contemporary urban lifestyle.
If one looks closely at the actual surfaces of the installation, a
persona/narrative emerges in the details of embedded bits of plates,
cups, sa ucers, and fired and glazed clay.

Ma rtha Jackson-Janis, '/'he Gathering, 1988 (detail).

283
 Auso ' SAAR (b. 1956) has the unusual distinction of being part o
a fam il y in whi ch each immediate member is a practicing artist. Hd
mother, father, and two sisters arc all professiona l artists. In spite<
th eir great admi ration for each other's work they have managed I
establish their indi vidual esthetic identities.
Accomplished in a variety of media, Al ison Saar is equa ll y effc
tive as a sculptor, a pa inter, and as an instal lation artist. I Iavit
grad uated from both the university and art school, she manag<
majors in both studio art and art history.
Saar's tendency tO\\ards the intu itive developed over several yea1
As a small child she frequented the home of her gra ndmother
Watts [a community in South Los Angeles] where she was fortuna
to visit the Watts Towers, a monumen t constructed by Simon Rocli.
one of this country's most important folk artists. As a junior in co
lege, Saar was awarded a travel grant to visit and study the works'

289 Alison Saar. D)ing S/a,e.

1989. Wood, tin , plcxiglass
and nails. 9' h. Courtesy of
Jan Baum Callery, Los Angeles.

284
 -
11erous folk artists in the southern United States. This experi ence
peel to strengthen her knowledge of the intuitive tendency and
tbled Saar to effectively combine it with an intellectual disposi-
1 resulting in an unique and powerful fusion. Her scu lpture,
ing Slave, is an excellent example of this fusion and of her pro-
:ative work.
nspircd by Michelangelo's 16th century work, Dying Sla ve, Ali-
t Saar's sculpture, executed in wood as is Michelangelo's work, is
impressive exa mple of her abili ty to reinterpret ideas and extend
a nings. A study of both these important works leads viewers to
derstand that their similarity ends with their title and stance.
Alison Saar's slave is interpreted from an African perspective.
th slaves clearly reflect spiritual symbolism: Michelangelo's with
agonizing gesture of hands raised as in sea rch of an unseen power,
1ereas Saar's dying slave, bound in chains, has planted in his bell y
instrument of spiritual power consistent with the beliefs of his
cestors.
In her version of Diva [lllus. 290) Saar continues to crea te rough ly-
wed sculpture of wood. T hi s ,,ork is a brightly painted bust of a
1man whose eyes are made of stones. T he express ionistic surface
bright blue. It reca lls folk carvings often found in Central and
uth America.

290 Alison Saar, Diva , 1988.

Wood, tin , paint and shell.
32"X3o"x 10". Courtesy of Jan
Baum Ca ll er ~ . Los Angeles.

285
 Another aspect of Alison Saa r's art is a reminder of th e time sL
spent as an artist-in-residence at th e Studio Museum in Harlem ..
During this period Alison had opportunities to \'iew a side of Africa1
American life seldom experienced outside Harl em-the specia
walk, talk, and genera l manner that is not revealed to outsiders q
understood by strangers. Like a patois, the signs of life and symbol
may suggest meaning; however, the substance of ideas can on ly b
communica ted from within. T he visual language of the Harle!'
streets is captured in works such as Sweet Thang [1/lus. 29 1) an
Champ [Ill us. 292)
In acknowledging the great art of the past Saar is proving th;
academia need not dim one's vision or spirit. Knowledge of trach
tiona I and contemporary ideas can offer today's artists different wa)
of seeing that can result in the past giving vent to the prese nt.
Ali son Saar has an unusual \\ay of creating installations. Her in
di vidual sculptures arc arranged in groups to suggest spec ial relation
ships. Th e arrangements arc loosely organi zed to stimulate idea
rather than to promote messages. This concept imolves th e viewer'
participation in a meaningfu l dialog, and encourages an ongoin~
relati onship among the artist, the vie\\cr, and the work of art. Alisor
Saar's insightful introspective vision enables her to exploit this lcvc,
of communica tion . {Illus. 293)

291 Alison Saar, Sweet

Thang, 1983 . Wood, tin , glass,
mi xed medi a. 19"x 17"X 5".
CourteS)' of Jan Baum Ca llery,
Lo\ Angeles.

286
 292 Ali son Saar. ChamfJ.
1985. Mixed media. 1o"x8 112''.
Courtesy of Jan Baum Ca ller~.
Los 1\ngelc~.

293 Alison Saar, Love Potion #9, 1988. Courtesy of Jan Baum Ca llery ,
Los Angeles.
 ~

LORENZO PACE (b. 1943) celebrates the passages of life through the
act of perfonnance. His art is based on ceremonies of the ancien(
past, c~remonies concerned with transiti?ns. fro1n life to cleat~.
Paces perforn1ances suggest that a behef In n1yth and ,n1ag1c, oj
l
truths, are necessary components for the reality he seeks. Along wit~
a company of musicians and an audience that he involves as initiate:
or participants, Pace attempts to evoke the powers that will alloJ
hin1 as the principal subject to enter the realm of his forebears anc 1
,

discover lost secrets of the past. I

Originally a sculptor, Lorenzo Pace became involved in perfor~
1nance following his return from nu1nerous Mrican countries. Hi1
study of African art led him to understand that the art of performance
1
n1ust be viewed as an essential part of the traditional past upon which
a meaningful present and future n1ust be based. \
In his Mummification Series Pace is wrapped in the symbolic man- 1

ner of an early Egyptian deity. This performance piece took place\

in 1982 in an underground space at the School of the Art Institute 1

of Chicago. The space was transformed into a sacred temple in whicn '
Pace took his audience on an excursion into the ancient where he
probed the questions of life and death. Regarding his performance
Pace in1plied that he was especially intrigued by the Egyptian mun1-
n1ification process, the ritual and technique of the whole preparation
for the sarcophagus. "There was a strong and very defined sense of
what is supposed to happen in the afterlife." He continues:

"Life and death have always been a mystery to mankind. We live

constantly in their presence, yet we have not touched the power of
their source.
"This performance is to express the entanglement of life and
death, for it can be said that this cyclical ritual is a continuous
evolution in the universe.
"The ancient Egyptians were masters of these mysteries. They
knew and understood the thread between past, present and fu-
ture life.
"That spiritual enlightenment, advanced technologies, and the
interrelationships between his sculptural concerns and ancestral
heritage have brought this artist to deep searching and to the
threshold . ..."

288
 r a '11 "-fit
- ...
..

.. .. ~ttu~
.. fl ..
! r--n ~ -~
F

294 Lorenzo Pace, Mummification Series, 1982 . Lorenzo Pace wrapped as

sculpture. ~li xcd media, life sire.
289