Larose 3e Online Ch14 Hires

14 Overview
Nonparametric
Statistics
14.1 Introduction to
Nonparametric Statistics
14.2 Sign Test
14.3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank
Test for Matched-Pair
Data
14.4 Wilcoxon Rank Sum
Test for Two
Independent Samples
14.5 Kruskal-Wallis Test
14.6 Rank Correlation Test
14.7 Runs Test for
Randomness
Chapter 14 Formulas and

Vocabulary
Chapter 14 Review Exercises
Chapter 14 Quiz
Wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
Larose_3e_ch14.indd 1 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Has Median Gas Mileage Increased?
case
studyMore than ever, the increasing price of gasoline has made consumers aware of
the gas mileage of their cars, trucks, and SUVs. Has the population median gas mileage
improved from 2007 to 2014? We attack this problem using the sign test in Section 14.2.
Then, in Section 14.6, we test whether a rank correlation exists between the miles per gallon
of the vehicles in 2007 and 2014.
The Big Picture

Where we are coming from and where we are headed . . .
In earlier chapters, we learned how to perform hypothesis tests for population parameters,
such as the population mean m or the population proportion p.
Here, in Chapter 14, we learn about a family of hypothesis tests known as nonparametric
hypothesis tests, whose conditions are similar to those in earlier chapters but less stringent.
Congratulations on getting this far in your discovery of the field of statistics! Your data analytic
skills will enhance your marketability in the twenty-first century workplace. Best of luck in the
future!
14-2

14-3 Chapter 14 Nonparametric Statistics
14.1 Introduction to Nonparametric Statistics

Objectives By the end of this section, I will be able to . . .
1 Explain what a nonparametric hypothesis test is, and why we use it.
2 Describe what is meant by the efficiency of a nonparametric test.
1 What Is a Nonparametric Hypothesis Test?

In Chapters 9, 10, 12, and 13, we learned how to perform hypothesis tests for popula-
tion parameters, such as the population mean m or the population proportion p. To
perform each of these parametric hypothesis tests, certain conditions need to be sat-
isfied. For example, Section 9.4 showed that the required condition of a t test for the
population mean m, when we have a small sample size, is that the population be nor-
mally distributed. However, what if we need to perform a t test with a small sample and
the population is not normal? We turn to one of the nonparametric hypothesis tests,
the subject of this chapter.
Parametric hypothesis tests are used to test claims about a population parameter, such as
the population mean m or the population proportion p. Often, parametric tests require that
the population follow a particular distribution, such as the normal distribution.
Nonparametric hypothesis tests, also called distribution-free hypothesis tests, generally
have fewer required conditions. In particular, nonparametric tests do not require the
population to follow a particular distribution, such as the normal distribution.
Recall that we should not perform a parametric hypothesis test (such as the t test
for the population mean m) if the conditions are not met. Why, then, would a data ana-
lyst take a chance and use a parametric test when the conditions may not be satisfied?
The answer is that there are advantages and disadvantages to each method.
Advantages of Nonparametric Hypothesis Tests

1. Nonparametric methods may be used on a greater variety of data because they
require fewer conditions than their parametric counterparts. For this reason, it is
less likely that nonparametric hypothesis tests will be performed inappropriately.
2. Nonparametric methods can be applied to categorical (qualitative) data, such as
class standing (freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior).
3. For certain nonparametric procedures, the manual computations tend to be easier
than their parametric counterparts. (However, see Disadvantage 3 below.)
Disadvantages of Nonparametric Hypothesis Tests

1. Nonparametric hypothesis tests are less efficient than parametric tests. This
means that, for a given level of significance a, nonparametric tests require a
larger sample size to reject a null hypothesis (more on efficiency below).
2. Nonparametric tests replace the actual data values with either signs (positive or
negative) or ranks. Thus, the exact data values are wasted. For example, in the
nonparametric sign test performed in Section 14.2, the actual data values are
discarded and replaced with positive or negative signs.
3. Because the use of nonparametric hypothesis tests is less widespread, graphing
calculators and statistical software often do not have dedicated procedures for
these tests.

14.1 Introduction to Nonparametric Statistics 14-4
2 The Efficiency of a Nonparametric Hypothesis Test

In general, parametric tests are more efficient than corresponding nonparametric tests.
The efficiency of a nonparametric test is used to compare it with its corresponding
parametric test.
The efficiency of a nonparametric hypothesis test is defined as the ratio of the sample size
required for the corresponding parametric test to the sample size required for the
nonparametric test, in order to achieve the same result (such as correctly rejecting the null
hypothesis). The efficiency ratings are reported on the assumption that required conditions
for both the parametric and the nonparametric tests have been met.
For example, in Section 14.3 we will learn about the Wilcoxon signed rank test for
matched-pair data. The corresponding parametric test is the t test for the difference in
means for dependent samples that we learned about in Section 10.1. If a certain result
is achieved by using the Wilcoxon signed rank test with a sample size of 100, an
equivalent result may be obtained using the dependent-samples t test with a sample
size of 95. Thus, the efficiency of the Wilcoxon signed rank test (assuming that the
conditions have been met for both tests) is
95
efficiency 5 5 0.95
100
Thus, the Wilcoxon signed rank test is fairly efficient compared with the dependent-
samples t test. On the other hand, the sign test that we will learn about in Section 14.2 has
an efficiency of only 0.63, meaning that the corresponding dependent-samples t test
requires a sample size of only 63 to achieve the same result that the sign test achieves
with a sample size of 100. Thus, the sign test is less efficient than the Wilcoxon signed
rank test. However, as we shall see, the conditions for performing the Wilcoxon signed
rank test are stricter than for performing the sign test. As is often the case, there is a trade-
off between the efficiency of a test and the conditions required for performing the test.
Table 1 contains the efficiency ratings of the nonparametric (distribution-free)
hypothesis tests that we will learn about in this chapter. The efficiency ratings are cal-
culated under the assumption that the conditions for both the parametric and the non-
parametric tests have been met.
Table 1 Efficiency of nonparametric tests compared with parametric tests

Nonparametric
Section Situation Parametric test test Efficiency
14.2 Matched pairs t test or Z test Sign test 0.63
(dependent samples)
14.3 Matched pairs t test or Z test Wilcoxon signed 0.95
(dependent samples) rank test
14.4 Two independent t test or Z test Wilcoxon rank 0.95
samples sum test
14.5 Several independent Analysis of variance Kruskal-Wallis 0.95
samples (F test) test
14.6 Correlation Linear correlation Rank correlation 0.91
Note: A data analyst could perform test
both the parametric test and the 14.7 Randomness No parametric test Runs test
nonparametric test and leave it up
to the client or the end user of the
data to determine whether the In each case, the parametric test is more efficient than its nonparametric counterpart,
greater efficiency of the parametric though, of course, this greater efficiency comes at the cost of more stringent required
test is worth the cost of the more conditions for the parametric tests. Thus, when the conditions for the parametric test are
stringent required conditions. met, it is preferable to perform the parametric test as opposed to the nonparametric test.

Section 14.1 Summary

1. Nonparametric tests do not require the population to 2. The efficiency of a nonparametric hypothesis test is
follow a particular distribution, such as the normal defined as the ratio of the sample size required for the
distribution. Because of this, nonparametric hypothesis tests corresponding parametric test to the sample size
are often called distribution-free hypothesis tests. There are requiredforthe nonparametric test, in order to achieve
advantages and disadvantages to using nonparametric tests thesame result (such as correctly rejecting the null
instead of parametric tests. hypothesis).
Section 14.1 Exercises

Clarifying the Concepts 5. What are the advantages to using nonparametric
1. What is a parameter? Explain why the hypothesis tests hypothesis tests as opposed to using parametric hypothesis
from Chapters 9, 10, 12, and 13 are called parametric tests? (p. 14-3)
hypothesis tests. (p. 14-3) 6. What are the disadvantages to using nonparametric
2. What is another term for nonparametric hypothesis tests? hypothesis tests? (p. 14-3)
(p. 14-3) 7. Explain what is meant by efficiency. (p. 14-4)
3. Explain the difference between nonparametric tests and 8. True or false: There is a trade-off between the
parametric tests. (p. 14-3) efficiency of a test and the conditions required for
4. Which types of tests have more stringent conditions, performing the test. (p. 14-4)
parametric or nonparametric tests? (p. 14-3)
14.2 Sign Test

Objectives By the end of this section, I will be able to . . .
1. Perform the sign test for a single population median.
2. Perform the sign test for matched-pair data from two dependent samples.
3. Perform the sign test for binomial data.
1 Sign Test for a Single Population Median

In Section 9.4, we learned how to perform the one-sample t test for the population
mean m, which is a parametric test requiring either a normal population or a large
sample (n $ 30). However, what do we do when we have neither a normal popula-
tion nor a large sample? We could use either the sign test for the population
median, which we learn in this section, or the signed rank test, which we learn in
Section 14.3.
The sign test is a nonparametric hypothesis test in which the original data are
transformed into plus or minus signs. The sign test may be conducted for (a) a single
population median, (b) matched-pair data from two dependent samples, or (c) binomial
data.
The following example illustrates a situation where we want to perform a

h ypothesis test, but the conditions are not met for performing the usual parametric
hypothesis test.

14.2 Sign Test 14-6
Example 1 Conditions for parametric test are not met

Since 1940, the National Weather Service has reported the annual number of
hurricane-related deaths in the United States. Here is a random sample size n 5 8 from
Chad Purser/E+/Getty
the population of yearly hurricane deaths:
Year 1959 1963 1974 1988 1999 2001 2005 2010

Deaths 24 11 1 9 19 24 1016 13
We are interested in testing whether the population mean number of hurricane-related

deaths is less than 25. Figure 1 is the normal probability plot for the data. Determine
99
whether the conditions required for the one-sample t test are met.
95
90
80
70
Solution
Percent
60
50
40
30
20 The t test may be used if the population is normal or if the sample size is at least 30.
10
5 The normal probability plot shows two data values outside the bounds, indicating that
1
1000 500 0 500 1000 1500
the data are not normally distributed. Also, the sample of size n 5 8 is not at least 30.
Hurricane-related deaths Therefore, the conditions for performing the t test for the population mean are not
Figure 1 Normal probability plot
met. (The unusual data value of 1016 hurricane-related deaths for 2005 is the result of
for the hurricane-related deaths data. Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.)
Fortunately, however, the required conditions for performing the sign test for the
population median are less stringent than those for the t test for the population mean.
The sign test requires only that the sample data have been randomly selected. It is not
required that the population be normally distributed. It should be noted, however,
that the sign test is a hypothesis test for the population median, not the population
mean.
The key concept for performing the sign test for the median is the following: each
of the data values is converted to either a plus sign (1) or a minus sign (2). If there is
a preponderance of plus signs to minus signs, or vice versa (depending on the form of
the hypothesis test), then this is evidence against the null hypothesis.
Example 2 Changing the data values to plus or minus signs

Suppose that we are interested in testing whether the population median M number of
hurricane-related deaths per year is less than 50.
a. Write the null and alternative hypotheses for this test.
b. Change each data value that is less than 50 to a minus sign (2), and change
each data value that is greater than 50 to a plus sign (1). Ignore any data values
that are equal to 50. The sample size n is the total number of plus signs and
minussigns.
Solution
a. We may write the hypotheses as
H0 : M 5 50 versus Ha : M , 50
where M represents the population median number of hurricane-related deaths
per year.

b. As shown here, we have 7 minus signs and 1 plus sign, so that our sample size is
7 1 1 5 8.
Year 1959 1963 1974 1988 1999 2001 2005 2010

Deaths 24 11 1 9 19 24 1016 13
Sign 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2
Recall that the median of a data set is the 50th percentile and splits the data set into
equal halves. Thus, if the null hypothesis were true, we would expect about half of the
sample data values to lie above the median and half below, so that about half of the signs
would be plus signs and about half would be minus signs. Now, only 1 of the 8 signs in
this data set is a plus sign, which may indicate evidence against the null hypothesis.
However, to make sure, we need to perform the sign test for the population median. The
procedure for the sign test for the population median is summarized as follows.
Sign Test for the Population Median M

The only requirement for performing the sign test for the population median M is for the
sample data to have been randomly selected. It is not necessary to have a population that
is normally distributed.
Step 1State the hypotheses. Choose one of the forms in Table 2.
Table 2 Hypotheses for the sign test for the population median M
Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis Type of test
H0 : M 5 M0 Ha : M . M0 Right-tailed test
H0 : M 5 M0 Ha : M , M0 Left-tailed test
H0 : M 5 M0 Ha : M M0 Two-tailed test
Note: M0 is the value of the population median M for which a claim is being made.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule.

Small-Sample Case (sample size n # 25): Use Appendix Table I. Choose the column
withthe appropriate level of significance (a) and the applicable one-tailed or two-tailed
test. Then select the row with the appropriate sample size n 5 number of pluses and
minuses. The number in that row and column is your critical value Scrit. The rejection rule
is to reject H0 if Sdata # Scrit.

Large-Sample Case (sample size n . 25): Use Appendix Table C, the standard
normal table. The Z critical value for this sign test is always found in the left tail of the
standard normal distribution, so that Zcrit is always less than 0. For a left-tailed test or a
right-tailed test, the critical value Zcrit is the value of Z with area a to the left of it. For a
two-tailed test, the critical value Zcrit is the value of Z with area a/2 to the left of it.
Table 4 in Chapter 9 on page 500 contains values of Zcrit for some common values
of a. The rejection rule is to reject H0 if Zdata # Zcrit.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic.

Small-Sample Case (n # 25): Use Table 3 to find the test statistic Sdata.
Table 3 Finding Sdata

Type of test Test statistic Sdata
Right-tailed test Sdata 5 number of minus signs
Left-tailed test Sdata 5 number of plus signs
Two-tailed test Sdata 5 number of minus signs or plus signs, whichever is smaller

14.2 Sign Test 14-8

Large-Sample Case (n . 25): First use Table 3 to find Sdata, and then calculate the test
statistic Zdata:
n
_Sdata 1 0.5+ 2
2
Zdata 5
n
2
Step 4State the conclusion and the interpretation.
Compare the test statistic with the critical value, using the rejection rule. A generic
interpretation is as follows. If H0 is rejected, then state, Evidence exists that [whatever Ha
says]. If H0 is not rejected, then state, There is insufficient evidence that [whatever Ha says].
Example 3 Small-sample sign test for the population median

For the data from Example 2, use the sign test to determine whether the population
median M number of hurricane-related deaths per year is less than 50, using level of
significance a 5 0.05.
Solution
From Example 1, we know that the data come from a random sample, which is the only
condition for conducting the sign test. Thus, we may proceed.
Step 1 State the hypotheses. The hypotheses are
H0 : M 5 50 versusHa : M < 50
where M represents the population median number of hurricane-related deaths per year.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The total number of
plus signs and minus signs is n 5 7 1 1 5 8, which is not greater than 25, so we use
the small-sample case. We have a one-tailed test, with a 5 0.05 and n 5 8, which gives
us Scrit 5 1 (Figure 2). The rejection rule is to reject H0 if Sdata # 1.
a
0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05
(one tail) (one tail) (one tail) (one tail)
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10
n (two tails) (two tails) (two tails) (two tails)

1 * * * *

2 * * * *

3 * * * *

4 * * * *

5 * * * 0

6 * * 0 0

7 * 0 0 0

8 0 0 0 1
Figure 2 Using Appendix Table I to find the critical value Scrit.

Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We have a left-tailed test, and so, from
Table 3, our test statistic is
Sdata 5 number of plus signs 5 1

Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. The value of our test statistic
NOW YOU CAN DO is Sdata 5 1, which is # 1, so we reject H0. Evidence exists that the population median
Exercises 916. number of hurricane-related deaths is less than 50 per year.
Example 4 Large-sample sign test for the population median using technology
The data set Nutrition (on the text website) contains information about 961 food
nutrition items. The variable calories states the number of calories per serving for each food
item. Consider these 961 food items to be a random sample of the population of all
food items. Test whether the population median number of calories differs from 120,
using level of significance a 5 0.10.
Solution
The 961 food items are a random sample from the population of all food items, so the
conditions for performing the sign test for the population median are met.
Step 1 State the hypotheses. The key words differs from indicate that we have a
two-tailed test. The answer to the question Differs from what? gives us the value of
M0 5 120.
H0 : M 5 120 versus Ha : M 120
where M represents the population median calories per food item.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. We have a large sample
here. Among the 961 values, there are 18 that are equal to the proposed population
median M0 5 120. We ignore values that do not have a sign associated with them, so
n 5 961 2 18 5 943. We are given the level of significance a 5 0.10, so our Zcrit 5
21.645. We will reject H0 if Zdata # 21.645.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We use the instructions provided in
the Step-by-Step Technology Guide at the end of this section. Figure 3 shows
the Minitab results from the sign test for the population median. The value for
Below is the number of minus signs, and the value for Above is the number
of plus signs. So, we have 448 minus signs and 495 plus signs. Thus, the sample
size is n 5 448 1 495 5 943. From Table 3, Sdata 5 the number of minus signs
or plus signs, whichever is smaller. Thus, Sdata 5 448. We then calculate the test
statistic Zdata:
n 943
_Sdata 1 0.5+ 2 s448 1 0.5d 2
2 2
Zdata 5 5 < 21.498
n 943
2 2
Sign Test for Median: Calories

Caution The value of N reported
! by Minitab does not equal
the actual sample size
Sign test of median =
N Below
120.0 versus not = 120.0
Equal Above P Median

used for the sign test. To find n, we Calories 961 448 18 495 0.1341 125.0
need to subtract the number of data
values equal to M0. FIGURE 3 Minitab output for the sign test for the population median.

14.2 Sign Test 14-10
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Zdata 21.498 is not
# Zcrit 5 21.645, we do not reject H0. The evidence is insufficient that the population
median number of calories differs from 120 calories per serving. The Minitab output
NOW YOU CAN DO shows that the sample median equals 125 calories, which is a little bit different from
Exercises 1720. M0 5 120, but the difference is not statistically significant.
2 Sign Test for Matched-Pair Data from Two Dependent

Samples
In Section 10.1, we performed a hypothesis test for the population mean of the differ-
ence between two dependent samples. Recall that two samples are dependent when the
subjects in the first sample determine the subjects in the second sample. For example,
suppose we are interested in comparing the heights of girl-boy fraternal twins. Select-
ing a girl twin for the first sample automatically results in the selection of her twin
brother for the second sample. The boy-girl pairs are called matched-pair samples, or
paired samples.
The paired-sample t test we learned in Section 10.1 required either that the popula-
tion of differences be normal or that the sample size of the differences be at least 30.
Here, we learn the sign test for the population median of the differences, Md, which
requires only that the sample data be randomly selected.
The hypotheses for the population median of the differences are given in Table 4.
Table 4 Hypotheses for the sign test for the population median of the differences Md
Alternative
Null hypothesis hypothesis Type of test Test statistic Sdata
H0 : Md 5 0 Ha : Md . 0 Right-tailed test Sdata 5 number of minus signs
H0 : Md 5 0 Ha : Md , 0 Left-tailed test Sdata 5 number of plus signs
H0 : Md 5 0 Ha : Md 0 Two-tailed test Sdata 5 number of minus signs or
plus signs, whichever is smaller
We may use the same methods for the matched-pair sign test that we used for the
sign test for a single population median, with the following modifications:
1. For each matched pair, subtract the value of the second variable from the value of
the first variable.
2. We are interested only in the sign of the difference found in Step 1, not the
difference itself.
3. Exclude ties. That is, omit any matched pairs in which the values for both
variables are equal.
We illustrate the sign test for the population median of the differences using the follow-
ing example.
Example 5 Sign test for matched-pair data from two dependent samples
The National Center for Educational Statistics publishes the results from the Trends in
International Math and Science Study (TIMSS). The following table contains the2007
and 2011 average eighth-grade mathematics scores for a random sample of 12 coun-
tries. Test whether the population median math score M has decreased from 2007 to
2011, using a 5 0.05.

Difference
Country 2007 2011 (2011 2 2007) Sign
Korea 597 613 116 1
Singapore 593 611 118 1
United States 508 509 11 1
Lithuania 506 502 24 2
Hungary 517 505 212 2
Romania 461 458 23 2
Russia 512 539 127 1
Australia 496 505 19 1
Indonesia 397 386 211 2
Norway 469 475 16 1
Sweden 491 484 27 2
Malaysia 474 440 234 2
Solution
The countries represent a random sample of matched-pair data, so the condition for
performing the sign test for the population median of the differences is met.
Step 1 State the hypotheses. We have a left-tailed test:
H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md < 0
where Md represents the population median of the differences in eighth-grade math
scores from 2007 to 2011.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The sample size is
thesum of the number of plus signs and minus signs: n 5 6 1 6 5 12. Because n # 25,
we use the small-sample case. To find the critical value, we use Appendix Table I. We
have a one-tailed test, with a 5 0.05 and n 5 12, which gives us Scrit 5 2. The rejection
rule is to reject H0 if Sdata # 2.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. From Table 3, we have Sdata 5 the number
of plus signs 5 6.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Sdata 5 6 is not # 2,
NOW YOU CAN DO we do not reject H0. There is insufficient evidence that the population median eighth-
Exercises 2124. grade math score has decreased from 2007 to 2011.
The sign test may also be applied using the p-value method and technology.
p-Value Method for Conducting the Sign Test

Step 1State the hypotheses.
Step 2 Find the p-value using technology.
If the p-value is # the level of significance a, reject H0; otherwise, do not reject H0.
Example 6 The sign test using the p-value method

The following data set represents the education receipts (such as taxes) and the educa-
education tion expenditures for a random sample of 10 states. Test, using level of significance
a 5 0.05, whether the population median of the differences (receipts 2 expenditures)
per state differs from zero.

Receipts Expenditures
State ($ millions) ($ millions) Difference
Florida 28,208 26,832 1,376
California 73,272 68,045 5,227
New Jersey 20,032 19,938 94
Alabama 7,000 6,540 460
Minnesota 10,280 10,191 89
Indiana 11,996 11,315 681
Maine 2,458 2,458 0
New York 41,800 42,895 21,095
Mississippi 4,341 3,945 396
Ohio 24,259 21,237 3,022
Source: National Education Association.
Solution
The states represent a random sample of matched-pair data. We may thus proceed with
the sign test for the population median of the differences.
Step 1 State the hypotheses.
H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md 0
where Md represents the population median of the differences in education receipts
minus expenditures per state.
Step 2 Find the p-value using technology. We use the instructions provided in the
Step-by-Step Technology Guide at the end of this section. The Minitab output shown
in Figure 4 and the JMP output shown in Figure 5 provide the p-value for this hypothesis
test: p-value 5 0.0391. Note that one state (Maine) has education receipts equal to
expenditures, so that the difference for Maine equals zero. Maine is thus omitted, and
the p-value is based on the other nine states left in the sample.
FIGURE 4 Minitab output for the sign test for the FIGURE 5 JMP output for the sign
population median. test for the population median.
Step 3 State the conclusion and the interpretation. The p-value 0.0391 is less than
the level of significance a 5 0.05, so we reject H0. Evidence exists that the population
median difference between education receipts and expenditures differs from zero.
3 Sign Test for Binomial Data

In Section 9.5, we performed the Z test for the population proportion of successes p. Here,
we learn about the sign test for binomial data, which is a special case of the Z test for the
population proportion for p 5 0.5. Recall that a variable is binomial if it takesonly two
possible values, such as on/off, up/down, in/out. For example, the following example

looks at the numbers of spam emails and nonspam emails processed by auniversity
spam filter. When using the sign test, spam emails are represented by plus (1) signs,
and nonspam emails are represented by minus (2) signs. Table 5 contains the hypoth-
eses for the sign test for binomial data. Note that the hypothesized population propor-
tion is always p0 5 0.5.
Table 5 Hypotheses for the sign test for binomial data

Alternative
Null hypothesis hypothesis Type of test Test statistic Sdata
H0 : p 5 0.5 Ha : p . 0.5 Right-tailed test Sdata 5 number of minus signs
H0 : p 5 0.5 Ha : p , 0.5 Left-tailed test Sdata 5 number of plus signs
H0 : p 5 0.5 Ha : p 0.5 Two-tailed test Sdata 5 number of minus signs or
plus signs, whichever is smaller
We use the same methods for the sign test for binomial data that we used for the sign
test for a single population median. However, only the large-sample case is used (n . 25),
because only when the sample size is large does the Central Limit Theorem apply.
Example 7 Sign test for binomial data

The National Center for Health Statistics reports that 50% of Americans take at least
one prescription drug per month. Suppose that a random sample of 100 Americans
shows 67 who took at least one prescription drug per month. Test whether the propor-
tion of Americans who take at least one prescription drug per month has increased,
using a 5 0.01.
Solution
Because the sample of Americans has been selected randomly and n . 25, we may
proceed. We represent people taking at least one prescription drug per month by plus
(1) signs and people taking no prescription drugs by minus (2) signs.
H0 : p 5 0.5 versusHa : p . 0.5
where p represents the population proportion of Americans taking at least one pre-
scription drug per month.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The sample size
n 5 100 is greater than 25, so we may use the large-sample case. Using Table 4 in
Chapter 9 (page 500) for level of significance a 5 0.01, we have Zcrit 5 22.33. We will
reject H0 if Zdata # 22.33.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. From Table 5, Sdata 5 the number of
minus signs 5 the number of people not taking prescription drugs. Thus, Sdata 5 100 2
67 5 33. We then calculate the test statistic Zdata:
n 100
_Sdata 1 0.5+ 2 s33 1 0.5d 2
2 2
Zdata 5 5 5 23.3
n 100
2 2
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Zdata 5 23.3 is # Zcrit 5
NOW YOU CAN DO 22.33, we reject H0. Evidence exists that the population proportion of Americans
Exercises 2526. taking at least one prescription drug per month has increased.

Has Median Gas Mileage Increased?

vehicles
case
The data set in Table 6 represents a random sample of vehicles that were manu-
study
factured in model years 2007 and 2014 and matched so that the various engine
characteristics (displacement, number of cylinders, and so on) are the same for each
model in the two years.1 Thus, we are dealing with matched-pair data, comparing the
combined miles per gallon (that is, city and highway mpg) for the same vehicles from two
different years. Use the sign test to test whether the population median of the difference
in gas mileage (2014 2 2007) is greater than zero, using level of significance a 5 0.01.
Table 6 Miles per gallon of a random sample of 14 vehicles for 2007 and 2014
Combined Combined Difference
Make Model mpg for 2007 mpg for 2014 (2014 2 2007) Sign
Chevrolet Tahoe 17 17 0 None
Chevrolet Suburban 17 17 0 None
Dodge Caravan 21 20 21 2
Ford Explorer 17 19 2 1
Wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
Ford F150 Pickup 16 18 2 1

Ford Mustang 17 19 2 1
Ford Taurus 23 21 22 2
GMC Savana Cargo 17 16 21 2
GMC Yukon XL 17 17 0 None
Subaru Forester 25 27 2 1
Subaru Impreza 25 27 2 1
Subaru Legacy 25 27 2 1
Toyota Corolla 36 35 21 2
Toyota Tacoma 21 23 2 1
Solution
The vehicles represent a random sample, so the condition for performing the sign test
for the population median of the differences is met.
Step 1 State the hypotheses. Here, we have a right-tailed test:
H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md . 0
where Md represents the population median of the differences in miles per gallon
(2014 2 2007).
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The sample size is the
sum of the number of plus signs and minus signs. There are 7 plus signs and 4 minus
signs, so that n 5 7 1 4 5 11. Because n # 25, we use the small-sample case. To find
the critical value, we use Appendix Table I. We have a one-tailed test, with a 5 0.01
and n 5 11, which gives us Scrit 5 1. The rejection rule is to reject H0 if Sdata # 1.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. From Table 5, we have Sdata 5 the number
of minus signs 5 4.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Sdata 5 4 is not # 1,
we do not reject H0. The evidence is insufficient to conclude that the population median
of the differences (2014 2 2007) is greater than zero. In other words, the evidence is
insufficient to conclude that the population median vehicle gas mileage has increased
from 2007 to 2014.
We return to this Case Study in Section 14.3, when we apply the Wilcoxon signed rank
test to the same question.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Sign Test

TI-83/84
The TI-83/84 calculator does not have a built-in sign test function. p 5 0.5
However, you can use the binomcdf( function to calculate the x 5 the value of Sdata (from Table 3)
p-value for a sign test. Step 3 Press ENTER. The result is the p-value for a one-tailed
Step 1 Press 2nd,VARS, scroll down and select binomcdf(, and test. Double this value for a two-tailed test. Reject H0 if the p-value
press ENTER. is less than a.
Step 2 The entry should be binomcdf (n, p, x), with
n 5 the sum of the number of pluses and minuses
EXCEL
Excel does not have a built-in sign test function. However, you Step 2 In the dialog box, enter the following values: For
can use the BINOMDIST function to calculate the p-value for a Number_s, enter the value of Sdata (from Table 3) For Trials, enter
sign test. n 5 the sum of the number of pluses and minuses. For
Step 1 On the main menu bar, click fx. Where it says Search Probability_s, enter 0.5. For Cumulative, type True.
for a function, type BINOMDIST and click Go. Where it says Step 3 Click OK. The result is the p-value for a one-tailed test.
Select a function, select BINOMDIST and click OK. Double this value for a two-tailed test. Reject H0 if the p-value is
less than a.
MINITAB
Step 1 If you are performing the sign test for a single Step 2 Select Stat > Nonparametrics > 1-Sample Sign....
population median, enter the original data into column C1. If you Step 3 For the Variables cell, select C1. Select Test
are performing the sign test for the population median of the Median, and enter the hypothesized value of the median, M 0.
differences, enter the difference data into column C1. Select the direction of the alternative hypothesis, and click OK.
SPSS
Step 1 Enter the data into the first column. Under Variable Step 5 Under Output, select Filter out unselected cases. This
View, rename the first variable, and name the second (currently will ignore values that do not have a sign associated with them.
empty) variable Sign. Click OK.
Step 2 Click Transform > Compute Variable. Step 6 Click Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Legacy
Step 3 Under Target Variable type Sign, and under Numeric Dialogs > Binomial....
Expression enter the first variable, a less-than sign (<), and then Step 7 Move Sign to Test Variable List, and under Test
M 0. Click OK twice. Proportion put 0.50, and click OK.
Step 4 Select Data > Select Cases. Click If condition is
satisfied, click If, and enter the first variable, the not equals
button, and then M 0. Click Continue.
JMP
JMP does the sign test for matched pairs only. Step 2 Click Analyze > Matched Pairs. Move both columns to
Step 1 Click File > New > Data Table. Enter the two samples Y, Paired Response. Click OK.
in the first two columns. Step 3 Click the arrow beside Matched Pairs, and select Sign
Test. The output using Example 6 is shown in Figure 5.

1. In the sign test for the population median, each of second variable from the value of the first variable. We are
the data values is converted to either a plus sign (1) or a minus interested only in the sign of the differences, not in the exact
sign (2). If there is a preponderance of plus signs to minus value of the difference itself.
signs, or vice versa (depending on the form of the hypothesis 3. The sign test for binomial data is a special case of the Z
test), then this is evidence against the null hypothesis. test for the population proportion for p 5 0.5.
2. In the sign test for the population median of the
differences, for each matched pair, subtract the value of the

Clarifying the Concepts 2. The key concept for performing the sign test for the median
1. The sign test for the median represents an alternative to involves converting each of the data values to what? (p. 14-6)
which parametric hypothesis test? (p. 14-5)

3. True or false: In the sign test for the median, if there is a 16. Test whether the population median M differs from
preponderance of plus signs to minus signs, or vice versa 1000, using level of significance a 5 0.10.
(depending on the form of the hypothesis test), then this is
950100097592590010001025900
evidence against the null hypothesis. (p. 14-6)
4. In the sign test for the population median, explain why 8759501000975925750775900
the sample size for the hypothesis test may not be the same
For Exercises 1720, perform the large-sample sign test for
as the number of data values in the sample. (p. 14-6)
the population median. Use the following steps:
5. True or false: When computing the test statistic for the
a. State the hypotheses.
large-sample case for the sign test for the population median,
b. Find the Z critical value and state the rejection rule.
we need not calculate Sdata. (p. 14-8)
c. Calculate the value of the test statistic Zdata.
6. True or false: The matched-pair sign test is interested in
d. State the conclusion and the interpretation.
the exact value of the difference between the first and second
17. H0 : M 5 3.14 vs. Ha : M . 3.14, a 5 0.05. There are
variables. (p. 14-10)
100 pluses and 10 minuses.
7. The matched-pair sign test represents an alternative to
18. H0 : M 5 3.0 vs. Ha : M , 3.0, a 5 0.01. There are
which parametric hypothesis test? (p. 14-10)
8. The sign test for binomial data represents a special case
19. H0 : M 5 20.25 vs. Ha : M 20.25, a 5 0.10.
of which parametric hypothesis test? (p. 14-12)
There are 225 pluses and 5 minuses, and ten data values
PRACTICING THE TECHNIQUES equal 20.25.
20. H0 : M 5 75 vs. Ha : M 75, a 5 0.05. There are 10,350
CHECK IT OUT! pluses and 5,492 minuses, and 300 data values equal 75.
For Exercises 2124, you are given matched-pair data and
To do Check out Topic
are asked to perform a hypothesis test. Assume that each
Exercises 916 Example 3 Small-sample sign test for sample of differences is obtained through dependent random
the population median sampling. Do the following:
Exercises 1720 Example 4 Large-sample sign test for a. State the hypotheses.
the population median b. Find the critical value and state the rejection rule.
Exercises 2124 Example 5 Sign test for matched-pair c. Find the value of the test statistic.
data from two dependent d. State the conclusion and the interpretation.
samples 21. Test whether the population mean of the differences
Exercises 2526 Example 7 Sign test for binomial data Md . 0, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
For Exercises 916, perform the small-sample sign test for Subject 1 2 3 4 5
the population median. Use the following steps: Sample 1 3.0 2.5 3.5 3.0 4.0
a. Use Appendix Table I to find the value of Scrit. Sample 2 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.5
b. State the rejection rule.
c. Calculate Sdata. 22. Test whether the population mean of the differences
d. Provide the conclusion and the interpretation of the Md . 0, using level of significance a 5 0.01.
hypothesis test.
9. H0 : M 5 10 vs. Ha : M . 10, a 5 0.05. There are Subject 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 pluses and 10 minuses. Sample 1 10 12 9 14 15 8
10. H0 : M 5 100 vs. Ha : M , 100, a 5 0.01. There are Sample 2 8 11 10 12 14 9
11. H0 : M 5 0 vs. Ha : M 0, a 5 0.10. There are 0 pluses 23. Test whether the population mean of the differences
and 8 minuses. Two data values equal 0. Md . 0, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
12. H0 : M 5 98.6 vs. Ha : M 98.6, a 5 0.05. There is
1 plus and 1 minus. Three data values equal 98.6. Subject 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13. Test whether the population median M is less than 10,
Sample 1 20 25 15 10 20 30 15
Sample 2 30 30 20 20 25 35 25
10895111069312172
14. Test whether the population median M is greater than 24. Test whether the population mean of the differences
100, using level of significance a 5 0.01. Md . 0, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
105219100136345996100400102100229331
15. Test whether the population median M is less than 400, Subject 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
using level of significance a 5 0.05. Sample 1 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.2 4.0
105219100136345996100400102100229331 Sample 2 1.0 1.7 2.1 2.0 2.7 2.9 3.3

For Exercises 25 and 26, perform the sign test for binomial 30. New Car Prices. Kelleys Blue Book (www.kbb.com)
data. publishes data on new and used cars. The following table
25. A sample of size n 5 200 has x 5 75 successes. Test contains the fair market value for five new 2013 and 2014
whether the population proportion is less than 0.5, using vehicles (data recorded July 2014). Test whether prices have
level of significance a 5 0.01. risen. That is, test whether the population median of the
26. A sample of size n 5 1000 has x 5 525 successes. Test difference in price is greater than zero, using level of
whether the population proportion is greater than 0.5, using significance a 5 0.05. carprice
level of significance a 5 0.10.
Toyota Honda Ford Chevy Tesla
Applying the Concepts Camry Civic 150 Corvette Model S
27. Electric Cars. The accompanying tableshows the 2014 $20,672 $17,069 $24,362 $45,684 $68,738
miles-per-gallon equivalent (MPGe) for five electric (Sample 1)
cars, as reported by www.hybridcars.com in 2014. Test 2013 $20,284 $16,499 $22,674 $44,021 $68,674
whether the population median mileage is greater than (Sample 2)
90 MPGe, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
electricmiles
31. High and Low Temperatures. The University of
Waterloo Weather Station tracks the daily low and high
Electric vehicle Mileage (mpg) temperatures in degrees Celsius in Waterloo, Ontario,
Tesla Model S 89 Canada. The table contains a random sample of the daily
Nissan Leaf 99 high and low temperatures for 10 days in calendar year
Ford Focus 105 2010. Test whether the population median of the difference
in price differs from zero, using level of significance
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 112
a 5 0.05. waterlootemp
Chevrolet Spark 119
28. A Rainy Month in Georgia? The following table Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

represents the total rainfall (in inches) for the month of High 9.4 6.1 5.9 29.1 11.9 30.6 23.1 33.1 14.8 0.1
February 2011 for a random sample of 10 locations in Low 0.8 8.9 1.3 19.3 6.7 21.5 10.5 18.7 7.4 9.9
Georgia. Test whether the population median amount of
rainfall differs from 4 inches, using level of significance
a 5 0.10. 32. NASDAQ Stock Prices. The table provides the start-of-
georgiarain
trading and end-of-trading prices for the eight most active
stocks on July 28, 2014. Test whether the population median
Rainfall Rainfall
of the difference in price differs from zero, using level of
Location (inches) Location (inches)
significance a 5 0.10. nasdaq72814
Athens 4.72 Atlanta 4.25
Augusta 4.31 Cartersville 3.03
End-of- Start-of-
Dekalb 2.96 Fulton 4.36
Stock trading price trading price
Gainesville 4.06 Lafayette 3.75
Sirius XM $3.38 $3.44
Marietta 3.20 Rome 3.26
Apple $99.02 $97.67
29. Deepwater Horizon Cleanup Costs. The following Facebook $74.92 $75.19
table represents the amount of money disbursed by BP to a Micron Technology $31.98 $33.42
random sample of six Florida counties, for cleanup of the Dollar Tree $54.87 $54.22
Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in millions of dollars. Test Intel $34.23 $34.25
whether the population median cleanup cost exceeds Microsoft $43.97 $44.50
$500,000, using level of significance a 5 0.01. Cisco Systems $25.92 $25.97
deepwaterclean Source: NASDAQ.com
Cleanup costs Cleanup costs 33. Firefox Market Share. A random sample of 1000
County ($ millions) County ($ millions) Internet users in Finland showed that 472 used the
Broward 0.85 Pinellas 1.15 Firefox browser.2 Use the sign test to test whether the
population proportion of Internet users in Finland using
Escambia 0.70 Santa Rosa 0.50
Firefox differs from 0.50, using level of significance
Franklin 0.50 Walton 1.35 a 5 0.10.

14.3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Matched-Pair Data 14-18
34. Too Much Info on Facebook? A random sample of 287 on Facebook.3 Use the sign test to test whether the
corporate employees found 189 who worried that work population proportion of corporate employees who worry
colleagues and employees are sharing too much information about this exceeds 0.50, using level of significance a 5 0.01.
14.3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Matched-Pair

Data
Objectives By the end of this section, I will be able to ...
1 Assess whether or not a data set is symmetric.
2 Perform the Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data from two
dependent samples.
3 Perform the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population median.
The sign test that we learned about in Section 14.2 required only that the sample be ran-
domly selected. However, because the requirements for performing the sign test are so mini-
mal, the efficiency of the sign test may not be as high as the analyst would want it to be.
If the sample data are randomly selected and symmetric, however, the data analyst
may apply the more efficient Wilcoxon signed rank test to two of the situations in
which the sign test can be applied, namely, to test for a single population median and
to test for the population median of the differences for matched-pair data.
1 Assessing the Symmetry of a Data Set

In Section 2.2, we learned that a distribution is symmetric if an axis of symmetry splits
the image in half so that one side is the mirror image of the other. The distribution of
womens heights in Figure 6 is approximately symmetric (exact symmetry is rarely
achieved with real-world data). If the data were randomly selected, it would be appro-
priate to perform the Wilcoxon signed rank test on the data in Figure 6. On the other
hand, the distributions shown in Figures 7 and 8 are not symmetric.
In Section 3.5, we learned that a boxplot is a convenient method for assessing the
symmetry of a data set. Figure 7 shows the clearly right-skewed histogram of the
120
100
80
Frequency
60
0.20
Axis of symmetry 40
Relative frequency
0.15 20
0
0.10 0.00 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 8.75
Calories per gram
0.05
IQR = 66 8 = 58
0
57.5 60.0 62.5 65.0 67.5 70.0 72.5
Height (inches) Min = 0 Q1 = 0.6 Median = 1.8 Q3 = 3.4 Max = 9.0
Figure 6 Approximately symmetric distribution. Figure 7 Calories per gram are right-skewed.

150
150
100
Frequency
100
Frequency
50
50
0
0
0 100 200 300
70 80 90 100
Fitness scores
Exam scores
IQR = 200 99 = 101
IQR = 98 86 = 12
Min = 70 Q1 = 86 Median = 94 Q3 = 98 Max = 100 Min = 1 Q1 = 99 Median = 153 Q3 = 200 Max = 297
Figure 8 Exam scores are left-skewed. Figure 9 Fitness scores are symmetric.
number of calories per gram for the food items in the Nutrition data set. Note that the
corresponding boxplot has a longer whisker on the right side, and that the median line
is somewhat to the left of the center of the box.
For the left-skewed exam score data in Figure 8, the boxplot has a longer whisker
on the left side, and the median line is somewhat to the right of center. Finally, for the
symmetric fitness score data in Figure 9, the corresponding boxplot has whiskers of
approximately equal length, and the median line is situated approximately in the center
of the box.
Boxplot Criterion for Assessing Symmetry

A data set is symmetric when its corresponding boxplot has whiskers of approximately
equal length, and the median line is situated approximately in the center of the box.
Example 8 Assessing symmetry using the TI-83/84

In Example 18 in Chapter 9, we examined a random sample of n 5 20 young women
who were admitted with the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa to the Toronto Hospital for
Sick Children. Use the TI-83/84 to assess the symmetry of the ages of these women
(data on page 526).
Figure 10 The age data are

Solution
symmetric. Figure 10 shows the TI-83/84 boxplot of the ages of the young women. The
whiskers are of approximately equal length, and the median line is situated
NOW YOU CAN DO approximately in the center of the box. We therefore conclude that the age data are
Exercises 1114. symmetric.
2 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Matched-Pair Data

from Two Dependent Samples
In Section 14.2, we performed the sign test to test for both a single population median and
for the population median of the difference between two dependent samples. Similarly, in
Section 14.3 we apply the Wilcoxon signed rank test for these two situations. We begin
with the Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data from two dependent samples.

In the sign test, the data are

converted into plus signs or minus The Wilcoxon signed rank test is a nonparametric hypothesis test in which the original
signs. The magnitude of the data data are transformed into their ranks. The Wilcoxon signed rank test may be conducted
values is lost, which contributes to for (a) a single population median or (b) matched-pair data from two dependent
the low efficiency of the sign test. In samples.
1945, Frank Wilcoxon developed
the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a
single population median, which The following example illustrates how to calculate the signed ranks for the
takes the magnitude of the data into Wilcoxon signed rank test.
account by ranking the data values.
Example 9 Calculating the Wilcoxon signed ranks

The California Community Colleges Chancellors Office publishes enrollment data
for each of its community colleges. Table 7 contains the number of students enrolled
in the Spring 2013 and the Spring 2014 semesters at a random sample of six com-
munity colleges in California. We are interested in testing whether the median num-
ber of enrolled students has declined from 2013 to 2014. That is, we are interested
in testing whether the population median of the differences (2014 2 2013) is less
than zero.
a. Calculate the signed rank for each community college.
b. Find the sums of the positive signed ranks and the negative signed ranks.
Solution
Calculate the signed ranks as follows:
a. 1.
For each data value, find the difference d between the data values for each
matched pair. That is, for each community college, we find d 5 the number
of enrolled students in 2014 minus the number of enrolled students in 2013.
Omit observations where d 5 0. These differences are shown in Column 4
of Table 7.
2. Find the absolute values of the differences. The absolute values of the
differences d are shown in Column 5 of Table 7.
3. Rank the absolute values of the differences from smallest to largest. If two or
more data values are tied with the same rank, assign to each the mean value
of their ranks had they not been tied. (There are no ties in this data set. See
Example 11 to see how ties are handled.) The ranks of the absolute
differences d are shown in Column 6 of Table 7.
4. Attach to each rank the sign of its corresponding value of d. This is its
signed rank. For example, the rank of d for Los Angeles Community
College is 3, but the sign of d (2392) for Los Angeles is negative (2).
We attach this negative sign to the rank to give us Los Angeless signed
rank of 23. Replace each original data value with its corresponding
signed rank. The signed ranks are shown in the last column of
Table 7.
b. The sum of the positive sign ranks is
11556
The sum of the negative signed ranks is
2 3 2 2 2 4 2 6 5 215

Table 7 Students enrolled at California community colleges

Community Enrollment Enrollment Difference d Rank Signed
college Spring 2013 Spring 2014 (2014 2 2013) d of d rank
Los Angeles CC 148,754 148,362 2392 392 3 23
Santa Monica CC 31,719 31,437 2282 282 2 22
El Camino CC 22,657 22,791 134 134 1 1
North Orange CC 51,780 53,993 2,213 2,213 5 5
Foothill CC 34,415 33,574 2841 841 4 24
Los Rios CC 75,230 71,911 23,319 3,319 6 26
The procedure for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data is summarized
as follows.
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Matched-Pair Data

The requirements are that the sample data be randomly selected and that the distribution
of the differences be symmetric. It is not required that the population be normally
distributed.
Choose one of the forms in Table 8.
Table 8 Hypotheses for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data
H0 : Md 5 0 Ha : Md . 0 Right-tailed test
H0 : Md 5 0 Ha : Md , 0 Left-tailed test
H0 : Md 5 0 Ha : Md 0 Two-tailed test

Small-Sample Case (n # 30): Use Appendix Table J. Choose the column with the
appropriate level of significance (a) and the applicable one-tailed or two-tailed test.
Then select the row with the appropriate sample size n, where n is the number of data
values for which d does not equal zero. The number in that row and column is your
critical value Tcrit. The rejection rule is to reject H0 if Tdata # Tcrit.

Large-Sample Case (n . 30): Use Appendix Table C, the standard normal table. The
Z critical value for this sign test is always found in the left tail of the standard normal
distribution, so that Zcrit is always less than 0. For a left-tailed test or a right-tailed test,
the critical value Zcrit is the value of Z with area a to the left of it. For a two-tailed test,
the critical value Zcrit is the value of Z with area a/2 to the left of it. Table 4 in Chapter9
(page 500) contains values of Zcrit for some common values of a. The rejection rule is
to reject H0 if Zdata # Zcrit.
First find the signed ranks using the following steps:
a. For each data value, find the difference d between each data value and the
hypothesized median M 0. Omit data values for which d 5 0.
b. Find the absolute values of the differences.
c. Rank the absolute values of the differences from smallest to largest. If two or more data
values have the same rank, assign to each the mean value of their ranks had they not
been tied.
d. Attach to each rank the sign of its corresponding value of d. This is its signed rank.
Replace each original data value with its corresponding signed rank.


Small-Sample Case (n # 30): Use Table 9 to find Tdata, where T1 is the sum of the
positive signed ranks, and T2 is the absolute value of the sum of the negative
signed ranks.
Table 9 Finding Tdata

Type of test Test statistic Tdata
Right-tailed test Tdata 5 T2
Left-tailed test Tdata = T1
Two-tailed test Tdata = T1 or T2, whichever is smaller

Large-Sample Case (n . 30): Use Table 9 to find Tdata, and then calculate the test
statistic Zdata:
nsn 1 1d
Tdata 2
4

Zdata 5
nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
24
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Compare the test statistic with the
critical value, using the rejection rule.
We illustrate the Wilcoxon signed rank test for the population median of the differ-
ences using the following example.
Example 10 Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data

Use the data from Example 9 to test whether the population median number of enrolled
students M has decreased from 2013 to 2014, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
Solution
Figure 11 is a TI-83/84 boxplot of the differences (2014 2 2013). The whiskers are
approximately the same length, indicating symmetry. Thus, we have a random sample
Figure 11 TI-83/84 boxplot of
of data exhibiting acceptable symmetry, and so our conditions are met.
the differences.
Step 1 State the hypotheses. We have a left-tailed test:
H0 : Md 5 0 versusHa : Md , 0
where M represents the population median of the differences in number of enrolled

students at California community colleges from 2013 to 2014.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The sample size is the
number of data values for which the difference does not equal zero. Because none of
the differences equals zero, our sample size is n 5 6. Because n # 30, we use the
small-sample case. To find the critical value, we use Appendix Table J. We have a one-
tailed test, with level of significance a 5 0.05 and n 5 6, which gives us Tcrit 5 2, as
shown in Figure 12. The rejection rule is to reject H0 if Tdata # 2.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. The signed ranks are given in Table 7. We
have a left-tailed test, so from Table 9, we have
Tdata 5 T1 5 the sum of the positive signed ranks 5 1 1 5 5 6


0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10
5 * * * 1
6 * * 1 2
7 * 0 2 4
Figure 12 Finding the critical value Tcrit.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Tdata 5 6 is not # 2,
we do not reject H0. The evidence is insufficient to conclude that the population median
NOW YOU CAN DO number of students enrolled at California community colleges has decreased from
Exercises 1518. 2013 to 2014.
3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for a Single Population

Median
We can use the same methods for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population
median that we used for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data. However,
only one sample is involved, so no subtraction is necessary to find the differences. The
hypotheses for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population median are the
same as those for the sign test for matched-pair data, given in Table 10.
Table 10 Hypotheses for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population median
H0 : M 5 M0 Ha : M . M 0 Right-tailed test
H0 : M 5 M0 Ha : M , M 0 Left-tailed test
H0 : M 5 M0 Ha : M M 0 Two-tailed test
We illustrate the small-sample case of the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single
population median using the following example.
Example 11 Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population median:

Small-sample case
The Web site www.missingkids.com provides a searchable database of missing chil-
dren. The ages of the following six children were obtained from this database.
Child Adam Juan Benjamin Samantha Kayleen Aiko

Age 4 9 5 7 6 3
Test, using level of significance a 5 0.10, whether the population median age of the
missing children equals 6 years old.

Solution
Step 1 State the hypotheses. We have a two-tailed test:
H0 : M 5 6 versus Ha : M 6
where M represents the population median age of the missing children. Thus, the
hypothesized value for the median is M0 5 6.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. To find the critical
value, we use Appendix Table J, excerpted here in Figure 13. We have a two-tailed test,
with level of significance a 5 0.10 and n 5 5, which gives us Tcrit 5 1. The rejection
rule is to reject H0 if Tdata # 1.

0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10
5 * * * 1
6 * * 1 2
Figure 13 Using Appendix Table J to find the critical value Tcrit.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. The calculations to find the signed ranks
are shown in Table 11.
Table 11 Finding the signed ranks for the child age data
Child Age Age 2 M0 5 d |d| Rank of |d| Signed rank
Adam 4 4 2 6 5 22 2 3 23
Juan 9 92653 3 4.5 4.5
Benjamin 5 5 2 6 5 21 1 1.5 21.5
Samantha 7 72651 1 1.5 1.5
Kayleen 6 62650
Aiko 3 3 2 6 5 23 3 4.5 24.5
a. Find d 5 age 2 M0 5 age 2 6 for each child. Note that the value of d for
Kayleen is zero, so we omit Kayleens age from further calculations.
b. The absolute values of the differences d are shown in the fourth column of
Table 11.
c. We rank the absolute differences. Notice that the absolute values for Benjamin
and Samantha are d 5 1. Had they not been tied, their ranks would have been
1and 2. The mean of 1 and 2 is (1 1 2)2 5 1.5. Thus, each childs age is
assigned the rank of 1.5. There is also a tie between Juan and Aiko, with d 5 3.
Had they not been tied, their ranks would have been 4 and 5, so each childs age
is assigned the mean rank of 4.5. The ranks of the absolute differences d are
shown in the fifth column of Table 11.
d. Attach to each rank the sign of its corresponding value of d. This is its signed
rank. For example, the rank of d for Adam is 3, but the sign of d 5 22 for
Adam is negative (2). We attach this negative sign to the rank for Adam to

giveus Adams signed rank of 23. Replace each original data value with its
corresponding signed rank, shown in the last column of Table 11.
Next, we need to sum the positive ranks and the negative ranks. There are two
positive signed ranks: Juans 4.5 and Samanthas 1.5. Thus, T1 5 4.5 1 1.5 5 6.
There are three negative signed ranks, which we add to get T2 : 23 1 (21.5) 1
(24.5) 5 29. Taking the absolute value gives us T2 5 29 5 9. Table 9 tells
us that Tdata 5 the smaller of T1 and T2. Thus, Tdata 5 6.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. The rejection rule is to reject
NOW YOU CAN DO H0 if Tdata # 1. Because Tdata 5 6 is not # 1, we do not reject H0. There is insufficient
Exercises 1922. evidence that the population median age of missing children differs from 6 years old.
Example 12 Large-sample Wilcoxon signed rank test for a population median

using technology
Test using level of significance a 5 0.10 whether the population median age of miss-
ing children differs from 6 years old, using the random sample of 50 missing children
shown here:
Child Age Child Age Child Age Child Age

Amir 5 Carlos 7 Octavio 8 Christian 8
Yamile 5 Ulisses 6 Keoni 6 Mario 8
Kevin 5 Alexander 7 Lance 5 Reya 5
Hilary 8 Adam 4 Mason 5 Elias 1
Zitlalit 7 Sultan 6 Joaquin 6 Maurice 4
Aleida 8 Abril 6 Adriana 6 Samantha 7
Alexia 2 Ramon 6 Christopher 3 Michael 9
Juan 9 Amari 4 Johan 6 Carlos 2
Kevin 2 Joliet 1 Kassandra 4 Lukas 4
Hazel 5 Christopher 4 Hiroki 6 Kayla 4
Melissa 1 Jonathan 8 Kimberly 5 Aiko 3
Kayleen 6 Emil 7 Diondre 4 Lorenzo 9
Mirynda 7 Benjamin 5
Missing children and their ages.
Solution
The boxplot of the age data is shown here.
The conditions are met because we have a random sample and the distribution of
ages is symmetric.
H0 : M 5 6 versus Ha : M 6
where M represents the population median age of the missing children.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. There are 50 children.
Boxplot of childerns ages.
Ten of these children are 6 years old, so that d 5 6 2 6 5 0. These 10 children are
therefore omitted from this hypothesis test. This leaves us with 40 children, which is
greater than 30, so we use the large-sample case. From Table 4 in Chapter 9 (page500),
the two-tailed test with level of significance a 5 0.10 gives us Zcrit 5 21.645. We will
reject H0 if Zdata # 21.645.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We use the instructions provided in the
Step-by-Step Technology Guide at the end of this section. Figure 14 shows the Minitab

results, and Figure 15 shows the SPSS results, from the Wilcoxon signed rank test for the
population median. Note that the original sample size (N) is 50, but that N for Test
is n 5 40, because 10 data values have been omitted. The Wilcoxon Statistic is the
value of Tdata 5 279, which represents the smaller of T1 5 279 and T2 5 2541 5 541.
We use this value to find the test statistic:
nsn 1 1d 40s41d
Tdata 2 279 2
4 4

Zdata 5 5 < 21.7608
nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d 40s41ds81d
24 24
Figure 14 Minitab output for the

Wilcoxon signed rank test for a population
median.
Figure 15 SPSS output for the Wilcoxon signed rank test for a population median.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Zdata < 21.7608 #
21.645, we reject H0. There is evidence that the population median age of the missing
children differs from 6 years old. Acquiring more data has changed our conclusion.
STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

Neither TI-83/84 calculators nor Excel has a built-in function for the Wilcoxon signed rank test.
MINITAB
Step 1 If you have two samples, enter the values in C1 and Step 3 Click Stat > Nonparametrics > 1-Sample Wilcoxon.
C2. If you have one sample, enter the values in C1. Step 4 For Variables, type C3. Select Test Median, and enter
Step 2 For two samples, click Calc > Calculator. For Store the hypothesized value of the median M 0. Select the form of the
result in variable, type C3. For Expression, type C1C2. Click OK. Alternative hypothesis, and click OK.
SPSS
We use the data in Example 12 to illustrate the procedure. Step 2 Click Data > Select Cases, click If condition is
Step 1 Enter the data into the first column. Under the Variable satisfied, and click If.
View tab, rename the variable Age and change Measure Step 3 In the empty formula box, type Age 6. Click
to Scale. Continue then OK.

Step 4 Click Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > One signed-rank test). Enter the Hypothesized median, 6, and
Sample. click Run.
Step 5 Select the Fields tab, and move Age to Test Fields. Step 7 Double-click the table of results in the Output window to
Step 6 Select the Settings tab, select Customize tests, open the Model Viewer, and observe the right-hand side. The
and check Compare median to hypothesized (Wilcoxon results are shown in Figure 15 of Example 12.
CRUNCHIT!
We use the data in Table 7 to illustrate the procedure. Step 3 Select Statistics > Non-parametrics > Wilcoxon Signed
Step 1 Enter the 2013 data into Var1 and the 2014 data into Var2. Rank. For Sample, select Var5. Enter the Median under null
Step 2 Select Insert > Evaluate Formula. Enter Var22Var1 hypothesis, 0, and for the Alternative hypothesis choose Less
and click Evaluate. The differences appear in Var5. than. Click Calculate.

1. A distribution is symmetric if a line (axis of symmetry) dependent samples. The hypotheses for the Wilcoxon signed
splits the image in half so that one side is the mirror image of rank test for the population median of the differences are the
the other. A data set is symmetric when its corresponding same as those for the corresponding sign test.
boxplot has whiskers of approximately equal length, and the 3. The Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population
median line is situated approximately in the center of the box. median is comparable to the sign test for the population
2. The Wilcoxon signed rank test takes the magnitude of the median. The hypotheses are the same, there are small-sample
data into account by ranking the data values. The Wilcoxon and large-samples cases, and the test statistic depends on the
signed rank test can be applied to matched-pair data from two form of the hypotheses.

CLARIFYING THE CONCEPTS CHECK IT OUT!
1. What are the conditions required for performing the
Wilcoxon signed rank test? (p. 14-21) To do Check out Topic
2. Describe what is meant by a symmetric distribution. Exercises 1114 Example 8 Assessing symmetry
(p. 14-18) Exercises 1518 Example 10 Wilcoxon signed rank
3. Explain the boxplot criterion for assessing symmetry. test for matched-pair data
(p. 14-19) Exercises 1922 Example 11 Wilcoxon signed rank
4. Describe how the Wilcoxon signed rank test takes the test for a single
magnitude of the data into account. (p. 14-20) population median:
5. What are the four steps involved (a2d) in calculating small-sample case
the signed ranks of the data? (p. 14-21)
6. State the three ways in which the Wilcoxon signed rank
test for the population median is comparable to the sign test 11.
for the population median. (p. 14-24)
7. For each of the right-tailed test, the left-tailed test, and the 12.
two-tailed test, state what the test statistic Tdata equals. (p. 14-22)
8. Explain how ties are resolved when calculating ranks.
(p. 14-21) 13.
9. State the rejection rule for the Wilcoxon signed rank test
for the small-sample case. Do the same for the large-sample
case. (p. 14-21) 14.
10. We may use the same methods for the Wilcoxon signed
rank test for matched-pair data that we use for the Wilcoxon
For Exercises 1518, perform the indicated Wilcoxon signed
signed rank test for a single population median, except that
rank test for the population median of two dependent
we must do one extra step. What is that step? (p. 14-23)
samples using level of significance a 5 0.05. Assume the
data are symmetric.
PRACTICING THE TECHNIQUES 15. H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md . 0, with n 5 12 and
For Exercises 1114, assume that the data represented by the T2 5 20
boxplots have been randomly sampled. Assess whether it is 16. H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md . 0, with n 5 12 and
appropriate to perform the Wilcoxon signed rank test. T2 5 15

17. H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md , 0, with n 5 18 and T1 5 45 2272 294 2291 243782454 223320

18. H0 : Md 5 0 versus Ha : Md 0, with n 5 20, T1 5 160, 2204 2136 22452638255 293
and T2 5 50
The accompanying figure is a boxplot of the data. Note that
For Exercises 1922, perform the indicated Wilcoxon signed the Wilcoxon signed rank test is a robust method (see Section
rank test for a single population median using level of 3.6 for similar robust methods) and is insensitive to the
significance a 5 0.05. presence of the outlier indicated in the boxplot. In other
19. H0 : M 5 10 versus Ha : M > 10, with n 5 20 and words, the presence of a reasonable numberof outliers does
T2 5 50 not impair the performance of the Wilcoxon signed rank test.
20. H0 : M 5 45 versus Ha : M , 45, with n 5 15 and T1 5 40 Perform the Wilcoxon signed rank test at level of significance
21. H0 : M 5 45 versus Ha : M , 45, with n 5 15 and T1 5 20 a 5 0.05 to determine whether the population median of the
22. H0 : M 5 100 versus Ha : M 100, with n 5 10, T1 5 5, differences (vitamin C 2 placebo) differs from zero.
and T2 5 50
APPLYING THE CONCEPTS

23. Womens Body Temperatures. Use the following 27. Reiki Touch Therapy. A study was performed to
random sample of seven womens body temperatures to test, determine whether Reiki touch therapy was useful in the
using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, whether the population reduction of chronic pain, including that suffered by
median of womens body temperatures differs from 98.6 cancerpatients.7 The pain levels reported by a random
degrees Fahrenheit.4 sample of 13 patients before and after Reiki touch therapy
97.297.898.198.398.798.899.3 are shown here in Table 12.
The accompanying figure is a boxplot of the data. Use level Table 12 Pain levels before and after Reiki touch
of significance a 5 0.05. therapy
Patient 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
After 3 1 0 0 2 1 2 1 0 4 1 4 8
24. Earthquake Magnitudes. The following data from Before 6 2 2 3 3 4 2 5 1 6 6 4 8
the U.S. Geological Survey represent the magnitude on the Difference 23 21 22 23 21 23 0 24 21 22 25 0 0
Richter scale of a random sample of 10 earthquakes
worldwide that occurred during the week of August 3, 2014.
Test, using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, whether there was
5.65.06.35.45.75.35.14.55.34.9 a reduction in mean pain level after the Reiki therapy, using
The accompanying figure is a boxplot of the data. Use the level of significance a 5 0.05. The accompanying figure is a
Wilcoxon signed rank test to test whether the population boxplot of the data.
median magnitude of earthquakes is less than 6.0. Use
28. Video Game Ratings. GameRankings.com publishes
summary statistics for reviews of video games. The
25. Small Businesses. The following data set represents the following data set represents a random sample of video
number of businesses in a random sample of eight cities games, with their average reviewer score for the PlayStation 3
nationwide.5 platform and the Xbox 360 platform, as of January 23, 2009.
Test whether the population median of the differences
79233642690963314311557828282781 (PlayStation 3 2 Xbox 360) is less than zero, using level of
The accompanying figure is a boxplot of the data. Test, using significance a 5 0.05. gameranking
the Wilcoxon signed rank test, whether the population
median number of businesses per city is greater than 2500, PlayStation 3 Xbox 360
using level of significance a 5 0.01. mean mean
Game reviewer score reviewer score
Grand Theft Auto IV 0.9373 0.9656
BioShock 0.9403 0.9525
26. Outliers: Muscular Endurance. The muscular
Call of Duty 4 0.9378 0.9416
endurance of 15 randomly selected males was measured after
Rock Band 0.9119 0.9225
taking a single 600-milligram dose of vitamin C and also after
The Orange Box 0.8838 0.9624
taking a sugar placebo. Muscular endurance was measured by
Guitar Hero III: 0.8390 0.8622
repetitive grip strength.6 The following data setrepresents the
Legends of Rock
differences in muscular endurance (vitamin C 2 placebo).

14.4 Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test for Two Independent

Samples
OBJECTIVE By the end of this section, I will be able to . . .
1 Perform the Wilcoxon rank sum test for the difference in population medians,
using two independent samples
In Section 14.3, we compared data from dependent samples. Here, in Section 14.4, we
analyze data from independent samples. Recall from Section 10.1 that two samples are
independent when the subjects selected for the first sample do not determine the sub-
jects in the second sample. In Section 10.2, we learned how to perform a hypothesis test
for the difference in population means using two independent samples. The two-sample
t test that we learned in that section required either that each sample size be large
(at least 30) or that each population be normally distributed. Here, in Section 14.4,
we will learn about the Wilcoxon rank sum test for the difference in population medi-
ans using two independent samples, which has less stringent conditions.
1 Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test for the Difference in

Population Medians Using Two Independent Samples
The requirements for the Wilcoxon rank sum test are less strict, as we shall see.
The Wilcoxon rank sum test is a nonparametric hypothesis test in which the original data
from two independent samples are transformed into their ranks. It tests whether the two
The Wilcoxon rank sum test is population medians are equal or not.
equivalent to the Mann-Whitney
test, another nonparametric test
used in some textbooks to test for In the Wilcoxon rank sum test, the two samples are temporarily combined, and the
the difference in population ranks of the combined data values are calculated. Then the ranks are summed sepa-
medians. (By an equivalent rately for each sample.
hypothesis test, we mean a
hypothesis test that is applicable to R1 5 the sum of the ranks for the first sample
the same situations and always
provides the same conclusions.) R2 5 the sum of the ranks for the second sample
Example 13 Finding the ranks of combined data and summing the ranks for each
sample
The following table shows the pulse rates in beats per minute for a random sample of
five women and a random sample of four men.
a. Combine the data sets and find the ranks.
b. Find the sum of the ranks for the women and the sum of the ranks for the men.
Women 6677576268
Men 79716871
Solution
a. We temporarily combine the two samples and arrange the values in increasing
order. We then rank the data values from smallest to largest, as shown in the
following table. Note that we have two pulse rates of 68 beats per minute. Had
these not been tied, they would have had ranks 4 and 5. We therefore assign to

14.4 Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test for Two Independent Samples 14-30
each the mean rank (4 1 5)2 5 4.5. Similarly, the two pulse rates of 71 beats
per minute are assigned the mean rank (6 1 7)2 5 6.5.
Combined data 576266 68 68 71 717779

Rank 1 2 3 4.5 4.5 6.5 6.5 8 9
b. The sum of the ranks for the women is

R1 5 1 1 2 1 3 1 4.5 1 8 5 18.5
NOW YOU CAN DO The sum of the ranks for the men is
Exercises 710. R2 5 4.5 1 6.5 1 6.5 1 9 5 26.5
Suppose we have two independent samples. Let M1 and M2 represent the popula-
tion median of the first and second samples, respectively. Then we have the following
two-tailed hypotheses for the Wilcoxon rank sum test:
H0 : M1 5 M2versusHa : M1 M2
The null hypothesis states that the two populations have the same median. If this is
When performing the Wilcoxon
true, we expect that R1, the sum of the ranks for the first sample, will not be very dif-
rank sum test, we need to find R1
only, the sum of the ranks for the
ferent from R2, the sum of the ranks for the second sample. Large differences between
first sample. It is not necessary to R1 and R2 will therefore lead us to reject the null hypothesis that no difference exists in
find the sum of the ranks for the the population medians. When the conditions are met, the distribution of R1 follows an
second sample, R2. approximately normal distribution.
Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test for Two Independent Samples

The requirements are that (a) the samples are independent random samples, (b) each
sample size is larger than 10, and (c) the shapes of the distributions are the same. It is not
required that the populations be normally distributed. Note: In this section, we assume that
condition (c) is satisfied.
Choose one of the forms in Table 13.
Table 13 Hypotheses for the Wilcoxon rank sum test

H0 : M1 5 M2 Ha : M1 . M2 Right-tailed test
H0 : M1 5 M2 Ha : M1 , M2 Left-tailed test
H0 : M1 5 M2 Ha : M1 M2 Two-tailed test
Use Table 14 to find the critical value and the rejection rule.
Table 14 Critical values and rejection rules for the Wilcoxon rank sum test
Form of hypothesis test
Right-tailed Left-tailed Two-tailed
H0 : M1 5 M2 H0 : M1 5 M2 H0 : M1 5 M2
Ha : M1 . M2 Ha : M1 , M2 Ha : M1 M2
a 5 0.10 Z crit 5 1.28 Z crit 5 21.28 Z crit 5 1.645
Rejection rule Reject H 0 if Reject H 0 if Reject H 0 if
Zdata $ Z crit Zdata # Z crit Zdata # 2Z crit or if
Zdata $ Z crit

Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic Zdata.

R1 2 mR
Zdata 5
sR
where
n1sn1 1 n2 1 1d
mR 5
2
sR 5 n1n2sn1 1 n2 1 1d
12
n1 and n2 represent the sample sizes for samples 1 and 2, respectively, and R1 5 the sum
of the ranks for the first sample.
Step 4State the conclusion and the interpretation. Compare the test statistic with the
Example 14 Performing the Wilcoxon rank sum test

We are interested in testing whether the population median pulse rate for women
(Population 1) is less than that for men (Population 2). We use the data from Example 13
supplemented with an additional seven women and seven men, sampled randomly and
independently. The data are presented below.8 Perform the Wilcoxon rank sum test at
level of significance a = 0.05.
Women 667757626878738184696279
Men 7971687168867358687478
Solution
The data were obtained using random samples. Also, we assume that the distributions
of the populations have the same shape. Also, we have n1 5 12 and n2 5 11, so the
conditions for performing the Wilcoxon rank sum test are satisfied.
Step 1 State the hypotheses. The key words less than indicate that we have a left-
tailed test, from Table 13:
H0 : M1 5 M2versusHa : M1 , M2
where M1 and M2 represent the population median pulse rates of the first (women) and
second (men) samples, respectively.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The level of significance
is a 5 0.05, so from Table 14 our critical value is Zcrit 5 21.645, and our rejection rule
is to reject H0 if Zdata # 21.645.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We combine the two samples and arrange
in increasing order. We then rank the data values from smallest to largest, as shown in
the following table, assigning ties to the mean rank value.
Combined data 57 58 62 62 66 68 68 68 68 69 71 71
Rank 1 2 3.5 3.5 5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 10 11.5 11.5
Combined data 73 73 74 77 78 78 79 79 81 84 86
Rank 13.5 13.5 15 16 17.5 17.5 19.5 19.5 21 22 23
The sum of the ranks for the women is

R1 5 1 1 3.5 1 3.5 1 5 1 7.5 1 10 1 13.5 1 16 1 17.5 1 19.5 1 21 1 22 5 140

We have
n1sn1 1 n2 1 1d 12s12 1 11 1 1d
mR 5 5 5 144
2 2
sR 5 n1n2 sn1 1 n2 1 1d
12
5 12s11ds12 1 11 1 1d
12
< 16.2481
So that
R1 1 mR 140 2 144
Zdata 5 < < 20.2462
sR 16.2481
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. We said in Step 2 that we
would reject H0 if Zdata # 21.645. But Zdata < 20.2462, which is not # 21.645.
NOW YOU CAN DO Therefore, our conclusion is to not reject H0. There is insufficient evidence that the
Exercises 1114. population median pulse rate for women is less than that for men.
Example 15 Performing the Wilcoxon rank sum test using technology

A study investigated whether there was a difference in physical activity levels between
female adolescents with anorexia nervosa (AN) and those without AN.9 In this study,
the amount of physical activity (in minutes for the year) of n1 5 314 randomly selected
Dennys Bisogn/
female adolescents with AN (patients) and n2 5 340 randomly selected female ado-
Getty Images
lescents without AN (controls) was estimated by interviewing their mothers. The sam-
ples were drawn independently. Use Minitab and SPSS to test whether the population
median minutes of physical activity for the patients differs from that for the controls,
Solution
Because both the patients and the controls were randomly selected, because n1 . 10
and n2 . 10, and because we assume that both population shapes are the same, we may
proceed with the hypothesis test.
H0 : M1 5 M2versusHa : M1 M2
where M1 and M2 represent the population median activity level (in minutes) of the
patients and the controls, respectively.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. The level of significance
is a 5 0.01, so our critical value is Zcrit 5 2.58. We will reject H0 if Zdata # 22.58 or if
Zdata $ 2.58.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We use the instructions provided in the
Step-by-Step Technology Guide at the end of this section. Figure 16 shows the Minitab
results from the Mann-Whitney test, which is equivalent to the Wilcoxon rank sum test
for independent samples. Figure 17 shows the SPSS results from the Mann-Whitney test.
Minitab Mann-Whitney results (equivalent to Wilcoxon rank sum test)
N Median
with AN 314 4200.0
without AN 340 3240.0
Point estimate for ETA1-ETA2 is 810.0

95.0 Percent CI for ETA1-ETA2 is (150.0,1485.1)
W = 109336.5
Figure 16 Minitab results.

FIGURE 17 SPSS results.
The highlighted W 5 109336.5 represents R1 in our notation. We have

n1sn1 1 n2 1 1d 314s314 1 340 1 1d
mR 5 5 5 102,835
2 2
sR 5 n1n2 sn1 1 n2 1 1d
12
5 314s340ds314 1 340 1 1d
12
< 2413.9836
So that
R1 1 mR 109,336.5 2 102,835
Zdata 5 < < 2.6933
sR 2413.9836
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. We said we will reject H0 if
Zdata # 22.58 or if Zdata $ 2.58. We have Zdata < 2.6933, which is greater than 2.58.
Therefore, we reject H0. There is evidence that the population median amount of
physical activity for female adolescents with AN differs from the population median
amount of physical activity for female adolescents without AN.
STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test

TI-83/84
Neither the TI-83/84 calculators nor Excel has a built-in function
for the Wilcoxon rank sum test.
MINITAB
Step 1 Enter the values of the first variable in C1 and the values Step 3 For First Sample, type C1. For Second Sample, type
of the second in C2. C2. Select the Not Equal form of the Alternative hypothesis, and
Step 2 Click Stat > Nonparametrics > Mann-Whitney. click OK.

SPSS
Step 1 Enter the activity data in the first column and a numeric code Step 3 In the Fields tab, move Activity to Test Fields and Group
for group (for example, 0 for control and 1 for patients) in the second to Groups.
column. Under the Variable View tab, name your variables Activity Step 4 In the Settings tab, select Customize tests and check
and Group, set Decimals at 0 for Group, and set the Measure for Mann-Whitney (2 samples). Click Run.
Activity to Scale and the Measure for Group to Nominal. Step 5 Double-click on the output to open the Model Viewer
Step 2 Click Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Independent window, and observe the results on the right-hand side, shown in
Samples. Figure 17 of Example 15.
CRUNCHIT!
Step 1 Click File, highlight Load from Larose, Discostat3e > Step 3 For Sample 1, select Women. For Sample 2, select
Chapter 14, and select Example 14. Men.
Step 2 Click Statistics, highlight Non-parametrics, and select Step 4 For Location shift under null hypothesis, input 0. For
Mann-Whitney U. Alternative, choose Less than. Click Calculate.

1. The Wilcoxon rank sum test is a nonparametric The two samples are temporarily combined, and the ranks
hypothesis test in which the original data from two of the combined data values are calculated. Then the sum
independent samples are transformed into their ranks. It tests of the ranks for the first sample is used to calculate the test
whether the two population medians are equal or not. statistic.

CLARIFYING THE CONCEPTS 7. Sample 1 4 3 5 4 7 9 2 9 2 3 5
1. What do we mean when we say that we have two Sample 2 11 7 5 3 10 8 6 3 3 4 5 3
independent samples? (p. 14-30)
2. Which hypothesis test did we learn about in Section 10.2 8.
Sample 1 65911 612712810 86
that examined the difference in population means for two
independent samples? What were the conditions for this test? Sample 2 20191620191120101011 11
Are the conditions for the Wilcoxon rank sum test stricter or
less strict? (p. 14-29) 9. Sample 1 96 98 81 94 89 88 84 88 84 80 81 97
3. True or false: When performing the Wilcoxon rank sum Sample 2 97 97 86 90 82 85 96 81 85 79 79 80 96 83
test, it is not necessary to find the sum of the ranks for the
second sample, R2. (p. 14-30) 10. Sample 1 565544509523598525521530
4. Clearly explain the meaning of M1 and M2. (p. 14-30)
523544589589
5. If the null hypothesis is true, what do we expect
regarding R1 and R2? (p. 14-30) Sample 2 532572589544601548561539
6. What are the requirements for performing the Wilcoxon 578549582
rank sum test? (p. 14-30)
For Exercises 1114, we are interested in whether the
PRACTICING THE TECHNIQUES population medians differ. Do the following:
a. State the hypotheses.
CHECK IT OUT! b. Find the critical value Zcrit and state the rejection
rule.
To do Check out Topic c. Find the value of the test statistic Zdata.
Exercises 710 Example 13 Finding and summing the d. State the conclusion and the interpretation.
ranks of combined data 11. Use the data and the value you calculated for R1 in
Exercises 1114 Example 14 Performing the Wilcoxon Exercise 7. Use level of significance a 5 0.05.
rank sum test for two 12. Use the data and the value you calculated for R1 in
independent samples Exercise 8. Use level of significance a 5 0.05.
13. Use the data and the value you calculated for R1 in
For Exercises 710, calculate R1, the sum of the ranks for the Exercise 9. Use level of significance a 5 0.10.
first sample. The data represent two independent random 14. Use the data and the value you calculated for R1 in
samples. Exercise 10. Use level of significance a 5 0.10.

APPLYING THE CONCEPTS European Carbon African Carbon

15. Facebook Game Pages. The following table shows nation emissions nation emissions
the number of fans for independent random samples of Portugal 61.71 Tanzania 4.68
Facebook pages for games and Facebook pages for
television shows as of February 11, 2009. Test whether the Spain 372.62 Zimbabwe 10.33
population median number of fans of Facebook pages for United Kingdom 585.71
games differs from the population median number of fans Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2008.
of Facebook pages for television shows, using level of
significance a 5 0.10. The data are shown in thousands. 17. Property Taxes. You want to move to either a small
facebook town in Ohio or a small town in North Carolina. You did
some research on property taxes in each state and chose the
Number of fans of Facebook game and Facebook two independent random samples shown in the table below.
television show pages The data represent the property taxes in dollars for a
residence assessed at $250,000. Test whether the population
Facebook game Fans Facebook TV Fans median property tax in Ohio differs from that in North
page (1000s) show page (1000s) Carolina, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
Guitar Hero 640 House 1445 propertytax
World of Warcraft 167 American Idol 377
Pro Evolution Soccer 497 Greys Anatomy 1244 Ohio 270315177245180292291298
Grand Theft Auto 4 459 Gossip Girl 981 270165400268289285225
Texas Hold em 191 Futurama 546 North Carolina206129176120154123164147
Poker 207138143201
Need for Speed 248 Lost 379 Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
Crash Bandicoot 394 South Park 146
Call of Duty 4 227 CSI: Miami 363 18. Florida Cities versus Texas Cities. Does the
Final Fantasy Series 197 Family Guy 855 metropolitan-level gross domestic product differ for
Mario Kart 399 The Office 567 cities in Florida versus cities in Texas? Independent
The Sims 2 568 Mythbusters 545 random samples of Florida and Texas cities were drawn,
The Simpsons 807 and the gross domestic product of the cities was recorded.
Test whether the population median metropolitan-level
Source: allfacebook.com. gross domestic product differs for cities in Florida versus
cities in Texas, using level of significance a 5 0.10.
16. Carbon Emissions. Independent random samples of flvs.tx
European and African nations were taken, and the carbon
dioxide emissions from fossil fuels were recorded (in Gross domestic product for cities in Florida and Texas
millions of metric tons). Test whether the population median
carbon emissions per nation in Europe differs from that of GDP GDP
the nations in Africa, using level of significance a 5 0.01. Florida city ($ millions) Texas city ($ millions)
carbon2 Sarasota 24,772 Abilene 4,927
Fort Myers 21,838 Amarillo 8,435
Carbon emissions from European and African nations
Daytona Beach 11,919 Austin 71,176
European Carbon African Carbon Gainesville 8,903 College Station 5,669
nation emissions nation emissions Jacksonville 58,163 Corpus Christi 14,352
Belgium 147.58 Algeria 88.23 Miami 248,029 Dallas 338,493
Czech Republic 116.30 Congo 5.53 Orlando 97,384 El Paso 23,563
Denmark 59.13 Egypt 151.62 Pensacola 13,040 Houston 344,516
France 417.75 Ethiopia 5.13
Tallahassee 12,152 San Antonio 72,738
Germany 857.60 Kenya 10.79
Tampa-St. 108,520 Port Arthur 13,476
Greece 107.07 Mozambique 4.98 Petersburg
Ireland 46.86 Rwanda 0.83 Winter Haven 17,309 Brownsville 6,555
Italy 468.19 South Africa 443.58 Killeen 12,286
Poland 303.42 Sudan 12.26 Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.

14.5 Kruskal-Wallis Test 14-36
19. Phosphorus and Potassium in Food. The following per county differs for California versus Georgia, using level
data represent independent random samples taken from a of significance a 5 0.05. gacaincome
population of food items, recording the amount of
phosphorus in the first sample and the amount of potassium Income in California and Georgia
in the second sample (both measurements are
in milligrams). Test whether the population median amount Per capita Per capita
of phosphorus differs from the population median amount California personal Georgia personal
of potassium, using level of significance a 5 0.05. county income ($) county income ($)
phospotassium
Alameda 45,689 Treutlen 18,840
Ventura 42,746 Effingham 28,443
Phosphorus (mg) 42414361213950927222143 Napa 47,491 Echols 19,171
976631140142011089131 Solano 35,074 Wilcox 21,546
547171295611734 Yolo 31,990 Whitfield 29,838
Potassium (mg) 10638762723766315010318 Tulare 24,153 Monroe 30,352
26527162171323027336 San Benito 32,472 Fannin 25,020
292298278 Colusa 25,201 Henry 26,876
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Santa Clara 55,735 Liberty 24,216
Monterey 38,373 Stephens 25,931
20. Income in California and Georgia. The following table
contains the per capita personal income for independent Shasta 30,762 Dooly 21,228
random samples of counties in California and Georgia. Test San Mateo 66,839
whether the population median per capita personal income Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
14.5 Kruskal-Wallis Test

OBJECTIVE By the end of this section, I will be able to . . .
1 Perform the Kruskal-Wallis test for equal medians in three or more
populations.
In Section 14.4, we learned the Wilcoxon rank sum test, which tests whether the popu-
lation medians of two independent random samples are equal. Here, in Section 14.5,
we extend this method from two populations to three or more populations.
1 Kruskal-Wallis Test for Equal Medians in Three

or More Populations
The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to determine whether the population medians of three
or more independent random samples are equal. In Chapter 12, we learned how to
perform analysis of variance (ANOVA), which is a hypothesis test to determine if the
population means of three or more populations are equal. However, ANOVA requires
that each population be normally distributed. The Kruskal-Wallis test is less strict, in
that it does not require that the populations be normally distributed. Thus, the Kruskal-
Wallis test is more widely applicable than is ANOVA.
The Kruskal-Wallis test is a nonparametric hypothesis test in which the original data from
three or more independent samples are transformed into their ranks. It tests whether the
population medians are all equal.
To calculate the test statistic for the Kruskal-Wallis test, we temporarily combine
all the data values from all the samples and find the ranks of the combined data values.

So far, this is exactly what we did for the Wilcoxon rank sum test, except that now we
have k (three or more) samples instead of just two samples. Then the ranks are summed
separately for each of the k samples.
R1 5 the sum of the ranks for the first sample
R2 5 the sum of the ranks for the second sample, and so on, until
:
Rk 5 the sum of the ranks for the kth (last) sample
Let n1, n2, . . . , nk represent the sample sizes for samples 1, 2, . . . , k, respectively. And
let N represent the total number of data values in all the samples combined; that is,
N 5 n1 1 n2 1 . . . 1 nk. To perform the Kruskal-Wallis test, each of the sample sizes
n1, n2, . . . , nk must be at least 5. Then the Kruskal-Wallis test statistic is given by
R2k
1 2
12 R21 R22
x2data 5 1 1? ? ? 1 2 3sN 1 1d
NsN 1 1d n1 n2 nk
When the conditions are met, x2data follows a x2 distribution with k 2 1 degrees of
freedom.
Example 16 Calculating the Kruskal-Wallis test statistic

The U.S. Small Business Administration publishes the number of small businesses in
medium-size cities. We are interested in testing whether the population median num-
ber of small businesses per city is the same in Florida, North Carolina, and Texas. For
the following independent random samples given in the table below, calculate the test
statistic for the Kruskal-Wallis test, using these steps:
a. Temporarily combine the three samples and arrange them in increasing order.
Then rank the data values from smallest to largest. Resolve ties using the mean
rank, as we have done in the previous sections.
citybusiness
b. Calculate the sum of the ranks for each sample, R1, R2, and R3.
c. Finally, calculate x2data.
Number North Number of Number

of small Carolina small of small
Florida city businesses city businesses Texas city businesses
Gainesville 3,718 Asheville 4,883 El Paso 8,150
Tallahassee 4,948 Wilmington 5,825 Lubbock 4,403
Daytona Beach 9,489 Greenville 2,153 Killeen 3,274
Melbourne 8,771 Fayetteville 3,424 College Station 2,276
Sarasota 13,729 Rocky Mount 2,108 Laredo 3,070
Lakeland 6,865 Amarillo 3,855
Naples 7,184
Solution
a. The combined data, and their ranks, are shown here.
Combined data 2,108 2,153 2,276 3,070 3,274 3,424 3,718 3,855 4,403
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Combined data 4,883 4,948 5,825 6,865 7,184 8,150 8,771 9,489 13,729
Rank 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

b. The sum of the ranks for Florida is

R1 5 7 1 11 1 13 1 14 1 16 1 17 1 18 5 96
The sum of the ranks for North Carolina is
R2 5 1 1 2 1 6 1 10 1 12 5 31
The sum of the ranks for Texas is
R3 5 3 1 4 1 5 1 8 1 9 1 15 5 44
Also, there are 7 cities in the Florida sample, 5 cities in the North Carolina sample, and
6 cities in the Texas sample, so that n1 5 7, n2 5 5, and n3 5 6, and the total sample
size is N 5 7 1 5 1 6 5 18.
c. Finally, the value of the test statistic is
R2k
1 2
12 R21 R22
x2
5 1 1 1 2 3sN 1 1d
data
NsN 1 1d n1 n2 nk
5
12
1 962 312 442
18s19d 7
1
5
1
6 2
2 3s19d 7.261
NOW YOU CAN DO Later, we will find out if this value for the test statistic warrants rejection of the null
Exercises 714. hypothesis. But first, we need to learn the hypotheses for the Kruskal-Wallis test.
Recall from Chapter 12 that the null hypothesis for ANOVA is that all population
means are equal, and that the alternative hypothesis is that not all the population means
are equal. The hypotheses for the Kruskal-Wallis test are the same, except that we are
testing for medians instead of means.
Hypotheses for the Kruskal-Wallis Test

H 0 : The population medians are all equal.
Ha : Not all the population medians are equal.
Next, we will summarize the steps for performing the Kruskal-Wallis test for the
equality of three or more population medians.
Kruskal-Wallis Test for k Independent Samples

The requirements are (a) there are k $ 3 independent samples, each randomly selected,
and (b) there are at least 5 data values in each sample. It is not required that the
populations be normally distributed.
H0 : The population medians are all equal.
Ha : Not all the population medians are equal.
Step 2 Find the x2 critical value x2crit and state the rejection rule.
Use Appendix Table E. Select the column with Area to the right of critical value equal
to the given level of significance a. The value of x2crit is in the row with degrees of
freedom k 2 1. The Kruskal-Wallis test is always a right-tailed test, so that the rejection
rule is always to reject H0 if x2data $ x2crit.

Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic x2data.
R21 R22 R2k

1n 2 2 3sN 1 1d
12
x2data 5 1 1 ? ? ? 1
NsN 1 1d 1
n2 nk
where
R1 5 the sum of the ranks for the first sample
R2 5 the sum of the ranks for the second sample, and so on, until
o
and where n1, n2, . . ., nk represent the sample sizes for samples 1, 2, . . . , k,
respectively, and N 5 n1 1 n2 1 . . . 1 nk
Step 4State the conclusion and the interpretation. Compare the test statistic with the
Example 17 Performing the Kruskal-Wallis test

Use the data in Example 16 to test whether the population median number of small
businesses per city is the same in Florida, North Carolina, and Texas. Use the Kruskal-
Wallis test with level of significance a 5 0.05.
Solution
Each sample is independent and randomly selected, and each sample has at least five
data values. Thus, the conditions for the Kruskal-Wallis test are met, and we may pro-
ceed with the hypothesis test.
H0 : The population median numbers of small businesses per city are all equal.
Ha : Not all the population median numbers of small businesses per city are equal.
Step 2 Find the x2 critical value x2crit and state the rejection rule. We have level of
significance a 5 0.05. There are k 5 3 samples, so our degrees of freedom equals
k 2 1 5 3 2 1 5 2. Using Appendix Table E, we select the column headed 0.05 and
the row with degrees of freedom 5 2. This gives us x2crit 5 5.991 (see Figure 18). The
rejection rule is to reject H0 if x2data $ 5.991.
Area to the right of critical value

Degrees of
freedom 0.995 0.99 0.975 0.95 0.90 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005
1 0.001 0.004 0.016 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879
2 0.010 0.020 0.051 0.103 0.211 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.597
Figure 18 Finding the x2 critical value for the Kruskal-Wallis test.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic x2data. From Example 16, we have
x2data 7.261.
NOW YOU CAN DO Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because 7.261 $ 5.991, we
reject H0. Evidence exists that not all the population median numbers of small
Exercises 1518. businesses per city are equal for Florida, North Carolina, and Texas.

Example 18 Performing the Kruskal-Wallis test using technology

Recall the Chapter 12 Case Study, which investigated whether the amount of informa-
tion a professor posts about himself or herself (that is, self-disclosure) on the online
Elena Elisseeva/SuperFusion/SuperStock
social network Facebook is related to student motivation.10 A professor constructed

three different Facebook sites: one offering low self-disclosure, one offering medium
self-disclosure, and one offering high self-disclosure. Study participants (students not
enrolled in the professors courses) were then randomly and independently assigned
to access and browse one of the three Facebook sites, develop an impression of the
professor, and complete theresearch questionnaire. Student motivation was measured
using a set of 16 items, and the sum of the 16 items was calculated to form the total
motivation score. Use technology and the Kruskal-Wallis test at level of significance
a 5 0.01 to test whether the population median motivation scores are equal for the
three types of Facebook pages (low, medium, and high self-disclosure). There were 43
students assigned to the low-disclosure page, 43 assigned to the medium-disclosure
page, and 44 assigned to the high-disclosure page.
Solution
Each sample is independent and randomly selected, and there are at least five data
values in each sample. Thus, the conditions for the Kruskal-Wallis test are met, and we
may proceed with the hypothesis test.
H0 : The population median motivation scores are all equal.
Ha : Not all the population median motivation scores are equal.
Step 2 Find the x2 critical value x2crit and state the rejection rule. We have level of
significance a 5 0.01. There are k 5 3 samples, so our degrees of freedom equals
k 2 1 5 3 2 1 5 2. Using Appendix Table E, we find x2crit 5 9.210. The rejection rule
is to reject H0 if x2data $ 9.210.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic x2data. We use the instructions in the Step-
by-Step Technology Guide at the end of this section. Figure 19 shows the Minitab
results from the Kruskal-Wallis test applied to the Facebook data. Figure 20 shows the
output from the same test in JMP. Minitab denotes x2data as H (use the one that is
adjusted for ties). Thus, from Figure 19, x2data 5 15.79.
FIGURE 19 Minitab Kruskal-Wallis results. FIGURE 20 JMP Kruskal-Wallis results.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because 15.29 . 9.210, we reject
H0. There is evidence that not all the population median motivation scores areequal for the
low-disclosure, medium-disclosure, and high-disclosure Facebook pages.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Kruskal-Wallis Test

Neither TI-83/84 calculators nor Excel have a built-in function for the Kruskal-Wallis test.
MINITAB
We use Example 18 to illustrate. Step 2 Click Stat > Nonparametrics > Kruskal-Wallis.
Step 1 Enter the Motivation values for all samples in C1 and Step 3 For Response, type C1. For Factor, type C2. Click OK.
the group label in C2. The group data indicate which sample the Output is shown in Figure 19 of Example 18.
response data values are drawn from.
SPSS
Step 1 Enter the Motivation data in the first column. Enter a
numeric code for the self-disclosure level in the second column.
Step 2 Under the Variable View tab, rename the columns
Motivation and Group. Assign Decimals of 0 for Group. Change
Measure to Scale for Motivation and Nominal for Group.
Step 3 Click Analyze > Non-parametric Tests > Independent
Samples .
Step 4 Under the Fields tab, move Motivation to Test Fields and
Group to Groups.
Step 5 Under the Settings tab, click Customize tests and select
Kruskal-Wallis 1-way ANOVA (k samples). Click Run.
Step 6 Double-click the output to bring up the Model Viewer
window. Observe the results on the right-hand side, shown in
Figure 21.
FIGURE 21 SPSS results.
JMP
Step 1 Enter the motivation score in the first column. Enter a Step 4 Select the red triangle beside One-Way Analysis of
numeric code for the self-disclosure level in the second column. Motivation by Group, click Nonparametric, and select Wilcoxon
Step 2 Rename the columns Motivation and Group. Right-click Test. Output for the Kruskal-Wallis Tests appears, under the
Group, select Column Info and change Data Type to Character. heading Wilcoxon/Kruskal-Wallis Tests. See Figure 20 in
Step 3 Click Analyze > Fit Y by X. Move Motivation to Y, Example 18.
Response and Group to X, Factor. Click OK.
CRUNCHIT!
For data with groups in different columns (unstacked data): Step 1 Select Statistics, highlight Non-parametrics, and select
Step 1 Select Statistics, highlight Non-parametrics, and select Kruskal-Wallis.
Kruskal-Wallis. Step 2 Select the Grouped tab. For Data, select the column
Step 2 In the Columns tab, select the columns that contain the that contains the data. For Group by, select the column that
data. Click Calculate. contains the group labels. Click Calculate.
For data with values in one column and groups in another column
(stacked data):


1. The Kruskal-Wallis test tests whether the medians of k combined data values are calculated. Then the ranks are
independent samples are equal. In the Kruskal-Wallis test, summed separately for each sample. These sums are used to
the k samples are temporarily combined, and the ranks of the calculate the test statistic for this test.

CLARIFYING THE CONCEPTS 10. Sample 1 113186162122197190
1. Explain how the Kruskal-Wallis test is an extension of Sample 2 127197178102162144
the Wilcoxon rank sum test from Section 14.4. (p. 14-37)
Sample 3 120142198167165156178
2. What is the difference between the Kruskal-Wallis test and
the analysis of variance (ANOVA) from Chapter 12? (p. 14-36) Sample 4 167102122113109
3. True or false: To calculate the test statistic for the Sample 5 124138187109100159142
Kruskal-Wallis test, we temporarily combine all the data
values from all the samples and find the ranks of the For Exercises 1114, calculate x2data.
combined data values, just as we did in Section 14.4 for the 11. Use the data and the statistics you calculated in Exercise 7.
Wilcoxon rank sum test. (p. 14-39) 12. Use the data and the statistics you calculated in Exercise 8.
4. What is the meaning of the notation k for the Kruskal- 13. Use the data and the statistics you calculated in Exercise 9.
Wallis test? (p. 14-38) 14. Use the data and the statistics you calculated in Exercise 10.
5. Explain what the notation N means for the Kruskal- For Exercises 1518, we are interested in whether the
Wallis test. (p. 14-39) population medians differ. Do the following:
6. When the conditions are met, what distribution does the a. State the hypotheses.
test statistic for the Kruskal-Wallis test follow? (p. 14-37) b. Find the critical value x2crit and state the rejection rule.
c. Find the value of the test statistic x2data.
PRACTICING THE TECHNIQUES d. State the conclusion and the interpretation.
CHECK IT OUT! 15. Use the data in Exercise 7 and the value you calculated
for x2data in Exercise 11. Use level of significance a 5 0.05.
To do Check out Topic 16. Use the data in Exercise 8 and the value you calculated
Exercises 714 Example 16 Calculating the for x2data in Exercise 12. Use level of significance a 5 0.05.
Kruskal-Wallis test 17. Use the data in Exercise 9 and the value you calculated
statistic for x2data in Exercise 13. Use level of significance a 5 0.01.
18. Use the data in Exercise 10 and the value you calculated
Exercises 1518 Example 17 Performing the
for x2data in Exercise 14. Use level of significance a 5 0.01.
Kruskal-Wallis test
For Exercises 710, calculate R1, the sum of the ranks for the 19. Student-Run Caf Business. In Chapter 2, Example 8,
first sample, R2, R3, and, if appropriate, R4 and R5. Also find we looked at data from a student-run caf business. The
the sample sizes and the total sample size. The data represent table contains the number of food items sold per day. Test
independent random samples. whether the population median number of items sold is the
7. Sample 1 23455 same for wraps, muffins, and chips, using level of
significance a 5 0.05. cafeanova
Sample 2 691079
Sample 3 53312 Wraps Muffins Chips
8. Sample 1 96831 12 6 7
13 3 16
Sample 2 674109
19 10 8
Sample 3 931012
5 1 4
9. Sample 1 184152168164183143 22 8 10
Sample 2 193182112155145 20. The Pros versus the Darts. In the Chapter 3 Case
Sample 3 144149150112127133 Study, we examined stock market returns for professional
Sample 4 129172193172162187 financial analysts, compared with random darts and the Dow
Jones Industrial Average (DJIA). The table contains daily
Sample 5 158152137172114 stock market returns. Test whether the population median

stock market returns are the same across all three groups, States, Canada, and Mexico. Use level of significance
using level of significance a 5 0.01. prosdartsanova a 5 0.01. infantmortality
Pros Darts DJIA

U.S. state Infant mortality rate
10.6 20.6 4.4
California 5.8
27.8 18.5 11.2
29.1 1.8 3.7 Florida 7.2
2.2 11.7 17.6 Georgia 8.5
14.1 1.8 0.2 Illinois 8.4
Pennsylvania 7.1
21. Weight and Age. The Chapter 4 Case Study looked at Texas 6.4
body measurements for physically fit males and females. Is
there a difference in weight among different age groups? The Virginia 7.7
table contains the weights of five randomly chosen females
from each of three age groups: younger (1822), middle Canadian province Infant mortality rate
(2330), and older (311). Test whether the population median
weight is the same for younger, middle, and older females, Alberta 4.8
using level of significance a 5 0.05. weightages
Manitoba 7.5
Nova Scotia 4.4
Younger Middle Older Ontario 5.5
119.0 142.9 121.3 Quebec 5.6
124.8 104.3 107.4
130.7 115.1 169.3
130.1 98.8 122.8 Mexican state Infant mortality rate
155.4 110.2 155.4 Campeche 26.0
Chihuahua 23.4
22. The Full Moon and Emergency Room Visits. Is there Sonora 22.6
a difference in emergency room visits before, during, and
Tabasco 25.3
after a full moon? A study looked at the admission rate
(number of patients per day) to the emergency room of a Veracruz 28.0
Virginia mental health clinic over a series of 12 full moons. Yucatan 27.0
The data are provided in the table. Assume the data represent Source: The Poverty Mapping Project at the Earth Institute
independent random samples. Is there evidence of a at Columbia University.
difference in emergency room visits before, during, and after
the full moon? Test whether the population median number 24. Environmental Performance Index. The
of emergency room visits is the same before, during, and EnvironmentalPerformance Index (EPI) is a measure of a
after a full moon, using level of significance a 5 0.05. nations commitment to environmental protection and global
fullmoon sustainability. Data for 2008 were released at the World
Economic Summits annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland.
Before During After The following data represent independent random samples
6.4 11.5 5 13 5.8 13.5 of the EPI ratings for nations from four continental regions.
Test whether the population median EPI is the same in
7.1 13.8 13 16 9.2 13.1
the four continental regions, using level of significance
6.5 15.4 14 25 7.9 15.8 a 5 0.05. epirating
8.6 15.7 12 14 7.7 13.3
8.1 11.7 6 14 11.0 12.8 Americas EPI European Union EPI
10.4 15.8 9 20 12.9 14.5 Canada 88.3 France 87.8
Brazil 82.7 Germany 86.3
23. Global Infant Mortality. The following data set
represents the infant mortality rate for states or provinces in USA 81.0 United Kingdom 86.3
the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The infant mortality Mexico 79.8 Portugal 85.8
rate is defined as the number of children who die before their Jamaica 79.1 Italy 84.2
first birthday, for every 1000 live births. The data represent Spain 83.1
independent random samples. Test whether the population
median infant mortality rate is the same for the United Ireland 82.7

14.6 Rank Correlation Test 14-44
Sub-Saharan Africa EPI Asia and Pacific EPI Nutritional

Kenya 69.0 Japan 84.5 Cereal Manufacturer rating
South Africa 69.0 Taiwan 80.8 Kix General Mills 39.2411
Ethiopia 58.8 Australia 79.8 Double Chex Ralston-Purina 44.3309
Rwanda 54.9 Vietnam 73.9 Triples General Mills 39.1062
Chad 45.9 China 65.1 Rice Chex Ralston-Purina 41.9989
India 60.3 Raisin Nut Bran General Mills 39.7034
Source: Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy. Just Right Crunchy Kelloggs 36.5237
Nuggets
25. The data in the accompanying table represent the Raisin Bran Kelloggs 39.2592
nutritional ratings of breakfast cereals for three manufacturer Frosted Flakes Kelloggs 31.4360
brands.11 The data were selected independently and Cinnamon Toast Crunch General Mills 19.8236
randomly. Test whether the population median nutritional Almond Delight Ralston-Purina 34.3848
rating differs by manufacturer, using level of significance
a 5 0.05. cerealnutrition 26. Ant Sizes. A study compared the sizes of ants from
different colonies. Researchers measured the masses
Nutritional ratings of breakfast cereals (in milligrams) of random samples of ants from three
different colonies, which were selected independently. The
Nutritional
samples are shown here. Test whether the population median
Cereal Manufacturer rating
sizes differ in the three ant colonies, using level of
Just Right Fruit & Nut Kelloggs 36.4715 significance a 5 0.05. antcolony
Corn Chex Ralston-Purina 41.4450
Count Chocula General Mills 22.3965 Colony Size Colony Size Colony Size Colony Size
Rice Krispies Kelloggs 40.5602 3 78 2 59 2 77 1 75
Wheat Chex Ralston-Purina 49.7874 3 89 2 74 3 116 1 87
Product 19 Kelloggs 41.5035 1 78 1 43 3 29 3 144
Honey Nut Cheerios General Mills 31.0722 2 111 1 130 3 153 1 112
Apple Jacks Kelloggs 33.1741 2 147 3 122 3 93 1 65
14.6 Rank Correlation Test

ObjectiveS By the end of this section, I will be able to . . .
1 Perform the rank correlation test for paired data.
In Chapter 4, we learned how to calculate the correlation coefficient, which measures

the strength of the linear association between two numerical variables. Here, in Sec-
tion14.6, we will learn how to calculate the rank correlation of two variables, which
isthe correlation of the variables based on ranks. We will also learn how to test whether
the rank correlation between the variables is significant.
1 Rank Correlation Test

Similar to many nonparametric tests, the rank correlation test is a nonparametric
hypothesis test that uses data that are ranked.
The rank correlation test (also called Spearmans rank correlation test) is based on the
ranks of matched-pair data. This test may also be applied when the original data are
ranks. In the rank correlation test we investigate whether two variables are related by
analyzing the ranks of matched-pair data. The rank correlation test may also be used to
detect a nonlinear relationship between two variables.

The hypotheses are

H0: No rank correlation exists between the two variables.
Ha: A rank correlation exists between the two variables.
The advantages to using the rank correlation test are that (a) it can be applied to
ranked data, whereas linear correlation cannot, (b) it does not require normality, and
(c) it can sometimes be used to uncover nonlinear relationships. A disadvantage of
using the rank correlation test is that its efficiency rating is 0.91. That is, 100 data val-
ues are needed to achieve the same power that a linear correlation test achieves with
only 91 data values, when the conditions for both tests are met.
To find the test statistic, we must calculate and square the paired differences of the
ranks, a procedure shown in the next example.
Example 19 Calculating the test statistic for the rank correlation test
femaleliteracy
The fertility rate is the mean number of children born to a typical woman in the
country, and the female literacy rate is the percentage of women at least 15 years old
who can read and write. The table contains the female literacy rate (in percent) and the
fertility rate (in numbers of children) for a random sample of 10 countries.
Country Female literacy Fertility

Afghanistan 21 6.69
India 48 2.73
Sudan 51 4.72
Saudi Arabia 71 4.00
South Africa 86 2.20
ImagesBazaar/Getty Images
China 87 1.73
Israel 94 2.41
Italy 98 1.28
United States 99 2.09
Poland 100 1.25
Calculate the test statistic for the rank correlation test, using the following steps:
a. Rank the values of the first variable (female literacy) from lowest to highest.
b. Rank the values of the second variable (fertility) from lowest to highest.
c. For each subject (country), find the difference in ranks, d, and square the
difference in ranks to get d2. Add up the d2-values to get d2.
d. Complete the calculation of the test statistic rdata:
rdata 5 1 2
6 od
2
nsn2 2 1d
where n represents the sample size (number of matched pairs).
Solution
Table 15 contains the calculations needed to find rdata.

Table 15 Table of calculations to find d2

Female Literacy Fertility Difference
Country literacy Fertility rank rank d d2
Afghanistan 21 6.69 1 10 29 81
India 48 2.73 2 7 25 25
Sudan 51 4.72 3 9 26 36
Saudi Arabia 71 4.00 4 8 24 16
South Africa 86 2.20 5 5 0 0
China 87 1.73 6 3 3 9
Israel 94 2.41 7 6 1 1
Italy 98 1.28 8 2 6 36
United States 99 2.09 9 4 5 25
Poland 100 1.25 10 1 9 81
d 2
5 310
Because there are n 5 10 countries, the value of the test statistic is given by
rdata 5 1 2
6 od 2
512
6s310d
< 20.8788
nsn 2 1d
2
10s99d
NOW YOU CAN DO
Exercises 912. We now present the steps for performing the rank correlation test.
Rank Correlation Test

The sample paired data must be randomly selected. There is no requirement of normality.
H0 : No rank correlation exists between the two variables.
Ha : A rank correlation exists between the two variables.
Small-Sample Case (n # 30): Use Appendix Table K. Select the column with the
appropriate level of significance a and the row with the appropriate sample sizen.
The rejection rule for the rank correlation test is always to reject H0 if rdata $ rcrit or if
rdata # rcrit.
Large-Sample Case (n . 30): A normal approximation is used. The critical value Zcrit
and the rejection rule are given in Table 16.
Table 16
Critical values and rejection rule for the rank correlation test,
large-sample case
Level of significance a Critical value Zcrit Rejection rule
0.10 1.645yn 2 1 Reject H0 if

0.05 1.96yn 2 1 Zdata # 2Zcrit
0.01 2.58yn 2 1 or if Zdata $ Zcrit

Small-Sample Case (n # 30): Use the following steps, preferably with a table similar
to Table 15. If the original data already consist of ranks, then skip Steps a and b.
a. Rank the values of the first variable from lowest to highest.

b. Rank the values of the second variable from lowest to highest.

c. For each subject, find the difference in ranks, d, and square the difference in ranks
to get d 2. Add up the d 2-values to get d 2.
d. Complete the calculation of the test statistic:
rdata 5 1 2
6 od 2
nsn2 2 1d
where n represents the sample size (number of matched pairs).
Large-Sample Case (n . 30): Use Steps ad from the small-sample case. However,
we are using a normal approximation, so the test statistic is called Zdata.
zdata 5 1 2
6 od 2
nsn 2 1d
2

Compare the test statistic with the critical value, using the rejection rule.
Example 20 Performing the rank correlation test

Use the data in Example 19 to test whether a rank correlation exists between female
literacy and fertility. Use level of significance a 5 0.01.
Solution
The data come from a random sample, so we may proceed with the hypothesis test.
H0 : No rank correlation exists between female literacy and fertility.
Ha : A rank correlation exists between female literacy and fertility.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. There are n 5 10
countries in the data set in Table 15, so we apply the small-sample case (n # 30). Use
Appendix Table K. We select the column with level of significance a 5 0.01 and the
row with n 5 10. Our critical value is rcrit 5 0.794 (see Figure 22). We will reject H0 if
rdata $ 0.794 or if rdata # 20.794.
n a 5 0.10 a 5 0.05 a 5 0.02 a 5 0.01

5 0.900 * * *

6 0.829 0.886 0.943 *

7 0.714 0.786 0.893 0.929

8 0.643 0.738 0.833 0.881

9 0.600 0.700 0.783 0.833

10 0.564 0.648 0.745 0.794
Figure 22 Finding the critical value rcrit for the rank correlation test.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic rdata. In Example 19, we found rdata
20.8788.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because 20.8788 # 20.794,
our conclusion is to reject H0. There is evidence for a rank correlation between female
literacy and fertility. Because rdata is negative, the association between female literacy
NOW YOU CAN DO and fertility is a negative relationship. That is, as female literacy increases, fertility
Exercises 1320. tends to decrease, and vice versa.

Example 21 Rank correlation test: Large-sample case

Expand the previous example from n 5 10 countries to a random sample of n 5 37
countries, and conduct the same hypothesis test, using the same level of significance
a 5 0.01. Assume that the 37 countries yield a test statistic of Zdata 5 20.831.
Solution
The expanded data set comes from a random sample, so we proceed with the hypoth-
esis test.
H0 : No rank correlation exists between female literacy and fertility.
Ha : A rank correlation exists between female literacy and fertility.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. There are now n 5 37
countries, so we apply the large-sample case (n . 30). With level of significance a 5
0.01, we find our critical value Zcrit from Table 16:
2.58
Zcrit 5 5 0.43
37 2 1
We will reject H0 if Zdata $ 0.43 or if Zdata # 20.43.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic rdata. We use the instructions provided in
the Step-by-Step Technology Guide at the end of this section. Figure 23 shows the
Minitab results, with rdata denoted as Pearson correlation of female literacy and
fertility 5 20.831. Although Minitab thus identifies the statistic as the linear
correlation coefficient for numerical data that we learned in Chapter 4, this statistic is
nevertheless equal to the rank correlation coefficient, because it is based on ranks.
Correlations: C12, C13
Pearson correlation of female literacy and fertility = -0.831

PValue = 0.000
Figure 23 Minitab results.
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because 20.831 # 20.43, we
reject H0, just as we did for the small-sample case. There is evidence for a rank
correlation between female literacy and fertility.
Example 22 Using rank correlation to detect a nonlinear pattern

In the Chapter 13 Case Study, How Fair Is the Scoring in Scrabble? we noted from
scrabble a scatterplot of Scrabble point values versus English-language letter frequencies that
the relationship between the variables was not linear. Thus, we could not use a linear
regression analysis. However, we can use rank correlation to test whether the two vari-
ables are associated, because linearity is not a condition for applying the rank correla-
tion test.
For the following random sample of letters, use the rank correlation test to investi-
gate whether an association exists between English-language frequencies and Scrabble
point values. Use level of significance a 5 0.05. Note from Figure 24 that the relation-
ship between the variables is certainly nonlinear.

10 Q
Letter Frequency Scrabble points
X
Q 0.003 10 8
Points in Scrabble
L 0.035 1 6
K
G 0.016 2
4
E 0.130 1
X 0.005 8 G
2
L S T E
T 0.093 1
0
S 0.063 1
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
K 0.003 5 Relative frequency in English language
Figure 24 A linear relationship.
Solution
The data come from a random sample, so we may proceed with the hypothesis test.
H0 : No rank correlation exists between language frequency and Scrabble points.
Ha : A rank correlation exists between language frequency and Scrabble points.
Step 2 Find the critical value and state the rejection rule. There are n 5 8 letters in
the random sample, so we apply the small-sample case (n # 30). Using Appendix Table K,
we select the column with level of significance a 5 0.05 and the row with n 5 8. Our
critical value is rcrit 5 0.738. We will reject H0 if rdata $ 0.738 or if rdata # 20.738.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. See Table 17.
Table 17 Table of calculations to find Sd2

Scrabble Frequency Scrabble Difference
Letter Frequency points rank rank d d2
Q 0.003 10 1.5 8 26.5 42.25
L 0.035 1 5 2.5 2.5 6.25
G 0.016 2 4 5 21 1
E 0.130 1 8 2.5 5.5 30.25
X 0.005 8 3 7 24 16
T 0.093 1 7 2.5 4.5 20.25
S 0.063 1 6 2.5 3.5 12.25
K 0.003 5 1.5 6 24.5 20.25
Sd2 5 148.5
There are n 5 8 letters in the sample, so the value of the test statistic is given by
rdata 5 1 2
6 od 2
512
6s148.5d
20.7679
nsn 2 1d 2
8s63d
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because 20.7679 # 20.738,
we reject H0. There is evidence for a rank correlation between the frequency of letters
in the English language and the number of points each letter is worth in the game of
Scrabble. Because rdata is negative, the relationship is also negative. That is, high point
values are associated with low frequency in English, and vice versa.

Does a Rank Correlation Exist Between the 2007

case
and 2014 Vehicle Gas Mileages?
study
We return to the random sample of 14 vehicle gas mileages (shown below in
Table 18) for the Chapter 14 Case Study. Recall that we are dealing with matched-pair
data, comparing the miles per gallon (mpg) for the same vehicles from two different
years. In Section 14.2, we tested whether the median gas mileage increased. However,
the data take the form of matched pairs, so we can also investigate whether an associa-
tion exists between the 2007 and 2014 vehicle gas mileages using the rank correlation
test. Test whether a rank correlation exists between the 2007 mpg and the 2014 mpg,
Table 18 Table of calculations to find d 2

Combined mpg Combined mpg 2000 mpg 2007 mpg Difference
Make Model for 2007 for 2014 rank rank d d2
Chevrolet Tahoe 17 17 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
Chevrolet Suburban 17 17 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
Dodge Caravan 21 20 8.5 8 0.5 0.25
Ford Explorer 17 19 4.5 6.5 2 4
Ford F150 Pickup 16 18 1 5 4 16
Ford Mustang 17 19 4.5 6.5 2 4
Ford Taurus 23 21 10 9 1 1
GMC Savana Cargo 17 16 4.5 1 3.5 12.25
GMC Yukon XL 17 17 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
Subaru Forester 25 27 12 12 0 0
Subaru Impreza 25 27 12 12 0 0
Subaru Legacy 25 27 12 12 0 0
Toyota Corolla 36 35 14 14 0 0
Toyota Tacoma 21 23 8.5 10 1.5 2.25
What Result Might We Expect?

Consider Figure 25, which shows a scatterplot of the 2014 mpg versus the 2007
vehicle mpg. There appears to be a rather strong positive relationship between the
two variables, and thus a strong correlation. We would therefore expect to reject the
null hypothesis that there is no rank correlation.
35
30
2014 mpg
25
20
15
15 20 25 30 35
2007 mpg
Figure 25 Scatterplot of 2014 versus 2007 vehicle mpg.

Solution
The data come from a random sample of matched pairs, so we may proceed with the
hypothesis test.
H0 : No rank correlation exists between the 2007 mpg and the 2014 mpg.
Ha : A rank correlation exists between the 2007 mpg and the 2014 mpg.
Step 2 Find the critical value rcrit and state the rejection rule. There are n 5 14
vehicles in the data set, so we apply the small-sample case (n # 30). In Appendix Table K
we select the column with level of significance a 5 0.01 and the row with n 5 14. Our
critical value is rcrit 5 0.679. We will reject H0 if rdata $ 0.679 or if rdata # 20.679.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic rdata. We use Table 18 to find d2
We have
o d 2
5 46.5
Then, because there are n 5 14 vehicles, the value of the test statistic is given by
rdata 5 1 2
6 od 2
512
6s46.5d
< 0.8978
nsn 2 1d
2
14s195d
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because rdata 0.8978 $
0.679, we reject H0. Evidence exists for a rank correlation between the 2007 vehicle
mpg and the 2014 vehicle mpg. Because rdata is positive, the association between 2007
and 2014 vehicle mpg is a positive relationship. In other words, vehicles that had low
gas mileage in 2007 tended to have low gas mileage in 2014, while the vehicles that
had high gas mileage in 2007 tended to have high gas mileage in 2014.
STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Rank Correlation Test

Although the TI-83/84 and Excel do not have a built-in function for the rank correlation test, we can find the rank correlation as follows:
(a) for each data value in the first sample, substitute its rank within that sample, (b) for each data value in the second sample, substitute
its rank within that sample, and (c) find the value of the correlation coefficient r (see Section 4.1) for the two sets of ranks.
TI-83/84
Step 1 Enter the ranks into lists L1 and L2. Make sure that the Step 3 Press STAT, and highlight CALC. Select LinReg(a+bx)
two lists represent paired data; that is, the first value in L1 and press ENTER twice. The displayed value of r is the value of
represents the same subject as the first value in L2, and so on. the rank correlation.
Step 2 Press 2nd and then CATALOG. Scroll down to
DiagnosticOn and press ENTER twice.
EXCEL
Step 1 Enter the ranks into columns A and B. Make sure Step 2 In cell C1, type 5 CORREL(A1 : An, B1:Bn), where n is
thatthe two lists represent paired data; that is, the first value in A replaced by the sample size for your data. Hit Enter. The
represents the same subject as the first value in B, and so on. displayed value of r is the value of the rank correlation.
MINITAB
Step 1 Enter the raw data values into columns C1 and C2. Step 2 Select Stat . Basic Statistics . Correlation .
Make sure thatthe two lists represent paired data; that is, the first Step 3 Enter C1 and C2 under Variables. Under Method,
value in C1 represents the same subject as the first value in C2, choose Spearman rho and click OK.
and so on.

SPSS
Step 1 Enter the raw data values into the first two columns. Step 2 Select Analyze . Correlate . Bivariate .
Make sure thatthe two lists represent paired data; that is, the first Step 3 Move the two variables to Variables, uncheck Pearson,
value in the first column represents the same subject as the first check Spearman, and clickOK.
value in the second column, and so on.
JMP
Step 1 Click File > New > Data Table. Enter the raw data Step 2 Select Analyze . Multivariate Methods . Multivariate
values into Column 1 and Column 2. Make sure thatthe two lists Step 3 Move the two variables to Y, Columns and click OK.
represent paired data; that is, the first value in Column 1 represents Step 4 Click the red arrow beside Multivariate, highlight
the same subject as the first value in Column 2, and so on. Nonparametric Correlations, and select Spearmans r.

1. The rank correlation test (also called Spearmans rank the ranks of matched-pair data. The rank correlation test
correlation test) is a nonparametric hypothesis test based on investigates whether the two variables are associated.

CLARIFYING THE CONCEPTS For Exercises 912, you are given random samples of paired
1. What is the rank correlation test used for? (p. 14-44) data. Do the following:
2. Describe three advantages and one disadvantage to a. Rank the data within each sample, using our
using the rank correlation test. (p. 14-45) convention for handling ties.
3. Is the rank correlation test used for dependent or b. Calculate the sum of the squared differences of the
independent samples? Explain. (p. 14-46) ranks, d2.
4. The test statistic rdata is based on the calculation of the c. Compute the value of the test statistic rdata.
sum of the squared differences of the ranks, d2. Explain the 9. Sample 1 711043
steps involved in calculating d2. (p. 14-45)
Sample 2 6169910
5. What is the general form for the hypotheses for the rank
correlation test? (p. 14-46) 10. Sample 1 8102997
6. In Chapter 13, we found that linear regression was not
appropriate when the relationship between the variables was Sample 2 637294
not linear. Does this condition also hold true for the rank 11. Sample 1 2521282819252720
correlation test? (p. 14-48)
7. Suppose that two Olympic judges each rank five figure Sample 2 6062657064695869
skaters from 1 through 5, and their rankings are exactly 12. Sample 1
the same. What is the value of the sum of the squared 3129242427203732
differences d2? What is the value of the test statistic rdata? Sample 2 3859547054605452
(pp. 14-45, 14-46)
8. Based on your answer to Exercise 7, what is the For Exercises 1316, find the critical value rcrit.
conclusion of the rank correlation test for association 13. Use the data from Exercise 9 and level of significance
between the two judges? Explain. (p. 14-47) a 5 0.01.
14. Use the data from Exercise 10 and level of significance
PRACTICING THE TECHNIQUES
a 5 0.05.
CHECK IT OUT! 15. Use the data from Exercise 11 and level of significance
a 5 0.10.
To do Check out Topic 16. Use the data from Exercise 12 and level of significance
Exercises 912 Example 19 Calculating the test a 5 0.05.
statistic for the rank For Exercises 1720, perform the rank correlation test for
correlation test the indicated data sets.
Exercises 1320 Example 20 Performing the rank a. State the hypotheses.
correlation test b. Find the critical value rcrit and state the rejection rule.

c. Calculate the test statistic rdata. (AP) poll and the USA Today poll. Test whether a rank
d. State the conclusion and the interpretation. correlation exists between the two polls, using level of
17. Use the data and test statistic from Exercise 9, level of significance a 5 0.10. collegefootball
significance a 5 0.01, and rcrit from Exercise 13.
18. Use the data and test statistic from Exercise 10, level of College AP Poll USA Today Poll
significance a 5 0.05, and rcrit from Exercise 14. Florida State 1500 1475
19. Use the data and test statistic from Exercise 11, level of Auburn 1428 1388
significance a 5 0.10, and rcrit from Exercise 15. Michigan State 1385 1375
20. Use the data and test statistic from Exercise 12, level of
South Carolina 1247 1219
significance a 5 0.05, and rcrit from Exercise 16.
Missouri 1236 1200
APPLYING THE CONCEPTS Oklahoma 1205 1189
Alabama 1114 1086
21. Ranking the Presidents. A study asked a randomly
selected group of liberal historians and a randomly selected Clemson 1078 1091
group of conservative historians to rank the presidents of the Oregon 974 975
United States since George Washington.12 Interestingly, both UCF 959 865
groups agreed on the top five presidents, but the rankings Stanford 936 872
were not exactly the same. The rankings for the top five are Ohio State 816 872
shown here. Test whether a rank correlation exists between Baylor 778 796
the liberal ranks and the conservative ranks, using level of LSU 717 719
significance a 5 0.10. Note that you need not calculate the
Louisville 693 703
ranks, as the ranks are given. presidents
UCLA 632 597
Oklahoma State 598 587
Conservative
President Liberal rank rank Texas A&M 459 443
USC 299 313
Abraham Lincoln 1 1
Notre Dame 256 125
George Washington 3 2
Arizona State 255 302
Franklin Roosevelt 2 3
Wisconsin 245 266
Thomas Jefferson 4 4
Duke 190 202
Theodore Roosevelt 5 5
Vanderbilt 117 180
22. Best Countries for Business. The Web site www.
24. Population and Area. Does an association exist
doingbusiness.org publishes rankings on the best countries for
between the size (in square miles) of a nation and the
doing business. The following data set represents a random
number of people who live in that nation (the population)?
sample of nations and their rankings in two categories: ease of
The following data set represents a random sample of 12
doing business and ease of starting up a new business. Test
countries and their areas and populations. Test whether a
whether a rank correlation exists between the two categories,
rank correlation exists between area and population, using
using level of significance a 5 0.05. Note that you need not
level of significance a 5 0.05. populationarea
calculate the ranks, as the ranks are given. bestbusiness
Area
Ease of doing Ease of starting Nation (square miles) Population
Nation business a new business
Bangladesh 55,598 147,365,352
Ireland 2 2 United States 3,718,691 298,444,215
Japan 4 6 China 3,705,386 1,313,973,713
Canada 3 1 India 1,269,338 1,095,351,995
South Africa 5 4 Greece 50,942 10,688,058
United States 1 3 Canada 3,855,081 33,098,932
Mongolia 7 5 Japan 145,882 127,463,611
Mexico 6 7 Kazakhstan 1,049,150 15,233,244
Mexico 761,602 107,449,525
23. College Football. Different polls do not all show the Saudi Arabia 756,981 27,019,731
same rankings for the best teams in college football. The
Singapore 267 4,492,150
table contains the points (calculated by votes received) for
the top 24 teams for the 2013 season in the Associated Press Australia 2,967,893 20,264,082

25. Video Game Ranking. GameRankings.com publishes Rank of

summary statistics for reviews of video games. The overall Tuition
following data set represents a random sample of video Community college quality and fees
games and their average reviewer score for the PlayStation 3
platform and the Xbox 360 platform, as of January 23, 2009. Atlanta Technical College, GA 1 $1362
Test whether a rank correlation exists between the two game Cascadia Community College, WA 2 $2642
platforms, using level of significance a 5 0.10. Southern Univ. at Shreveport, LA 3 $2252
gameranking Southwestern CC, NC 4 $1171
Hazard CC, KY 5 $2616
PlayStation 3 Xbox 360
North Florida Community College, 6 $1910
mean reviewer mean reviewer
FL
Game score score
Indianhead College, WI 7 $2912
Grand Theft Auto IV 0.9373 0.9656
Southeast Kentucky CC, KY 8 $2760
BioShock 0.9403 0.9525
Zane State College, OH 9 $3849
Call of Duty 4: 0.9378 0.9416
Modern Warfare Baldwin College, GA 10 $2098
Rock Band 0.9119 0.9225 Texas State Technical College, 11 $3930
Marshall, TX
The Orange Box 0.8838 0.9624
Lake City CC, FL 12 $2979
Guitar Hero III: 0.8390 0.8622
Legends of Rock Itasca CC, MN 13 $4590
South Piedmont CC, NC 14 $1319
26. Environmental Scores. Greenpeace International Vermilion CC, MN 15 $4366
publishes its rankings of the major manufacturers of
electronics, according to their policies on toxic chemicals, Hawaii CC, HI 16 $1478
recycling, and climate change. The following data set Ellsworth CC, IA 17 $3108
represents the scores received for a random sample of Chipola College, FL 18 $2137
companies in Greenpeaces September 2008 report and their Martin CC, NC 19 $1302
November 2008 report. Higher scores mean that the
Texas State Technical College, TX 20 $3105
company is more environmentally responsible in these areas.
Test whether a rank correlation exists between the two South Texas College, TX 21 $1996
reports, using level of significance a 5 0.05. Skagit Valley College, WA 22 $2712
environmentalco
Valencia CC, FL 23 $2091
MiraCosta College, CA 24 $590
Electronics September November
Florida CC at Jacksonville, FL 25 $1714
company 2008 score 2008 score
New Hampshire CC, NH 26 $5464
Nokia 7.0 6.9
Frank Phillips College, TX 27 $2766
Toshiba 4.7 5.9
Mesabi Range CC, MN 28 $4174
Samsung 5.7 5.9
Northwest Vista College, TX 29 $2292
Microsoft 2.2 2.9
New Mexico University Grants, NM 30 $1320
Motorola 3.7 5.3
Sharp 3.1 4.9
28. Age and Weight. The relationship between age and
Dell 4.7 4.7
weight is nonlinear, so that linear regression should not be
Philips 4.3 4.1 used to test for the relationship. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention published a case study regarding a
27. Community Colleges. The following data set represents
particular child, recording the age and weight of this child at
the results of the Washington Monthlys ranking of the top 30
various intervals. Assume that the data set represents a
community colleges in the nation. Two rankings are provided:
random sample. Use the rank correlation test to test for a
the first for overall quality and the second for tuition and fees.
relationship between age and weight, using level of
Test whether a rank correlation exists between the two
significance a 5 0.01. ageweight
variables, using level of significance a 5 0.05. You need to
calculate the ranks for the tuition and fees variable, but not
for the overall quality variable. communitycollege

Age of child Weight cancer per 100,000 people and the number of cigarettes
in months in ounces smoked in hundreds per capita. Use the rank correlation test
to test for a relationship between the number of deaths from
0 103
bladder cancer and the per capita number of cigarettes
1 152
smoked, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
3 194
cigarettecancer
4 229
6 276
8 276 Deaths from
10 288 Cigarettes per bladder cancer per
12 304 State capita (100s) 100,000 people
15 319 Kansas 21.84 2.91
18 334 Washington 21.17 4.04
24 359 Oklahoma 23.44 2.93
30 394
Maryland 25.91 5.21
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Texas 20.08 2.94
29. Cigarettes and Bladder Cancer. A study examined the Louisiana 21.58 4.65
relationship between the number of cigarettes smoked and Massachusetts 26.92 4.69
various types of cancer.13 The relationship between bladder Rhode Island 29.18 4.99
cancer and the number of cigarettes may involve a nonlinear
Florida 28.27 4.46
component. The following data set is a random sample of
U.S. states, along with the number of deaths from bladder Alaska 30.34 3.46
14.7 Runs Test for Randomness

ObjectiveS By the end of this section, I will be able to . . .
1 Perform the runs test for randomness.
Recall from Chapter 13 that one of the assumptions for the linear regression model was
that the values of the response variable y were independent. We checked this assump-
tion using a scatterplot of the residuals against the fitted values; if systematic curvature
was present, then the assumption was violated. Here, in Section 14.7, we learn a
hypothesis test for checking this assumption, called the runs test for randomness.
1 Runs Test for Randomness

In contrast to the other sections in this chapter, in this section we look upon our data
set as a sequence. The first observation is considered to occur before the second, which
Caution Note that we are is before the third, and so on. That is, a sequence is an ordered data set.
! considering the data set to
be a sequence (time-
The runs test for randomness helps us determine whether the data in the sequence
ordered) only for the application of
are random or whether there is a pattern in the sequence. The runs test applies to data
the runs testfor randomness. We that have two possible outcomes (such as female or male) or data that can be reex-
are not suggesting that the data set pressed as one of two outcomes (such as correct or incorrect answers on a multiple-
itself isnecessarily time-ordered. choice quiz). The runs test works by counting the number of runs in the data set.
A sequence is an ordered data set. A run is a sequence of observations sharing the same
value (of two possible values), preceded or followed by data having the other possible
value or by no data at all. The runs test for randomness tests whether the data in a
sequence are random or whether there is a pattern in the sequence.

14.7 Runs Test for Randomness 14-56
For example, suppose that we are noting the gender (F 5 female, M 5 male) of the
first 16 students to enter your statistics classroom today as they walk in the door. Here
are two possible sequences:
Sequence 1: F F F F F F F F M M M M M M M M
Sequence 2: F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M
In the first sequence, there is a run of eight females, followed by a run of eight males.
The eight females form a run because they represent a sequence of observations shar-
ing the same value: F. Similarly, the eight males form a run. In Sequence 2, we note
that the genders are alternating. The first data value F is followed immediately by an
observation with a different value: M. Thus, the first data value itself forms a run. Simi-
larly, each of the remaining observations forms a run of length 1.
The following notation is used in conducting a runs test for randomness:

n1 5 the number of observations having the first distinct outcome
n2 5 the number of observations having the second distinct outcome
n 5 the total number of observations in the data set, n 5 n1 1 n2
G 5 the number of runs in the sequence
Example 23 Notation used for the runs test for randomness

The following sequence represents the genders of 20 students in a statistics class
recorded as they enter the classroom:
FFMMMFFFMFFFMMFFMFFM
Calculate the values of n1, n2, n, and G.
Solution
NOW YOU CAN DO There are n1 5 12 females and n2 5 8 males, so that n 5 n1 1 n2 5 12 1 8 5 20. There
Exercises 58. are G 5 10 runs.
If the number of runs is too low or too high, this is evidence that a pattern exists in
the data set. If the number of runs is neither too high nor too low, this is evidence that
no time-ordered pattern exists in the data set, which may then be considered random.
Thus, the runs test for randomness tests whether the number of runs is either too high
or too low. There are large- and small-sample cases for the test statistic and the critical
values for the runs test for randomness, as shown in the following steps.
Runs Test for Randomness

Two conditions are necessary for the runs test: (a) the data are ordered, and (b) each data
value represents one of two distinct outcomes (such as female or male).
H0 : The sequence of data is random.
Ha : The sequence of data is not random.
Step 2 Find the critical values, and state the rejection rule.

Small-Sample Case (n1 # 20, n2 # 20, and level of significance a 5 0.05): Use
Appendix Table L. Note that the table is applicable only for level of significance
a 5 0.05. Find the row with the appropriate value of n1 and the column with the

appropriate value of n2. The two values at the intersection of this row and column
represent the lower critical value Gcrit, lower and the upper critical value Gcrit, upper. The
rejection rule is to reject H0 if Gdata # Gcrit, lower or if Gdata $ Gcrit, upper.

Large-Sample Case (n1 . 20 or n2 . 20): A normal approximation is used. See Table 19.
Table 19
Critical values and rejection rule for the runs test,
large-sample case
Level of
significance Critical value Zcrit Rejection rule
0.10 1.645 Reject H0 if
0.05 1.96 Zdata # 2Zcrit
0.01 2.58 or if Zdata $ Zcrit

Small-Sample Case (n1 # 20 and n2 # 20): The test statistic Gdata is simply the number
of runs, G:
Gdata 5 G

Large-Sample Case (n1 . 20 or n2 . 20): First find the number of runs G. Then
calculate the following quantities:
2n1 n2
mG 5 11
n1 1 n2
sG 5 s2n1n2ds2n1n2 2 n1 2 n2d
sn1 1 n2d2 sn1 1 n2 2 1d
Finally, the test statistic is Zdata:
G 2 mG
zdata 5
sG

Compare the test statistic with the critical value, using the rejection rule.
Example 24 Conducting the runs test for randomness

Test whether the sequence from Example 23 is random by conducting the runs test for
randomness, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
Solution
We know that the data are time-ordered, and that each data value represents one of two
distinct outcomes. We may thus proceed with the hypothesis test.
Step 2 Find the critical values, and state the rejection rule. We have n1 5 12
females and n2 5 8 males, so the small-sample case applies (n1 # 20 and n2 # 20). In

Value of n2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
2
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Value of n1
1 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 6 6 7
10
6 8 10 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 17
1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
11
6 8 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18
2 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 7
12
6 8 10 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 19
Figure 26 Finding the critical values for the runs test for randomness.
Appendix Table L we find the row with n1 5 12 and the column with n2 5 8, giving us
the critical values Gcrit, lower 5 6 and Gcrit, upper 5 16 (see Figure 26). We will reject H0 if
Gdata # 6 or if Gdata $ 16.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We have the small-sample case, so the
test statistic Gdata is simply the number of runs, G:
Gdata 5 G 5 10
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Gdata 5 10 is not # 6
NOW YOU CAN DO and is not $ 16, we do not reject H0. There is insufficient evidence that the sequence is
Exercises 920. not random.
The runs test may also be used for numerical data, as long as the numerical data
are classified into two categories, as shown in the following example.
Example 25 Runs test for randomness of numerical data classified into categories
The weather station at the University of Missouri at Columbia publishes daily infor-
mation on the amount of rain that falls at Sanborn Field at the university. The follow-
ing 62 observations represent the daily rainfall information for the months of July and
August 2008. For example, on July 1 the weather station reported 0.00 inch of rain,
and on July 2 the weather station reported 0.37 inch of rain. We categorize each days
rainfall as follows: N 5 no rain falling, and R 5 some rain falling. Test whether the
sequence is random by conducting the runs test for randomness, using level of sig-
nificance a 5 0.10.
RRNNNNRRNNRNNNNNNNNNRNRRNRRNRR
N
NNNNNNNNNNNRNRNNNNNRRRNNNNNRNNN
Solution
The data are ordered, because they are arranged from July 1 to August 31, 2008. Also,
each data value represents one of two distinct outcomes: some rain or no rain. We may
thus proceed with the hypothesis test.

Step 2 Find the critical values, and state the rejection rule. We have n1 5 18 rainy
days and n2 5 44 days with no rain. Because n2 . 20, the large-sample case applies.
From Table 19, the critical value is 1.645, and we will reject H0 if Zdata # 21.645 or if
Zdata $ 1.645.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We have n 5 n1 1 n2 5 18 1 44 5 62,
and there are G 5 23 runs. Then
2n1 n2 2s18ds44d
mG 5 115 1 1 < 26.5484
n1 1 n2 18 1 44
sG 5 s2n1n2ds2n1n2 2 n1 2 n2d
sn1 1 n2d2 sn1 1 n2 2 1d
5 [2s18ds44d][2s18ds44d 2 18 2 44]
s18 1 44d2 s18 1 44 2 1d
< 3.2065
Finally, the test statistic is
23 2 26.5484
zdata 5 < 21.1066
3.2065
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because 21.1066 is not less
than 21.645 and is not more than 1.645, we do not reject H0. There is insufficient
evidence that the sequence is not random.
The runs test for randomness may also be used to test the independence assump-
tion for linear regression data, as shown in the following example. The important thing
to remember is that the runs test should be applied to the residuals, which are ordered
by the size of the fits (y ).
Example 26 Using the runs test for linear regression

Consider the following ordered bivariate data set and the accompanying scatterplot
(Figure 27). We are interested in performing linear regression of the y variable on
the x variable. Make a scatterplot of the residuals (y 2y ) versus the fits (y ). Classify
theresiduals as being either positive (P) or negative (N). Then evaluate the indepen-
dence assumption for the linear regression model by performing the runs test for
randomness on the residuals, ordered by the fits.
x y x y
0.0 1.00000 3.3 20.98748
1.0
0.3 0.95534 3.6 20.89676
0.6 0.82534 3.9 20.72593 0.5
0.9 0.62161 4.2 20.49026
1.2 0.36236 4.5 20.21080 0
y
1.5 0.07074 4.8 0.08750

0.5
1.8 20.22720 5.1 0.37798
2.1 20.50485 5.4 0.63469
1.0
2.4 20.73739 5.7 0.83471
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2.7 20.90407 6.0 0.96017 x
3.0 20.98999 6.3 0.99986
Figure 27 Scatterplot of y versus x. Do you see a pattern here?

Solution
The scatterplot of the residuals versus the fits is shown in Figure 28.
1.0
0.5
Residuals
0
0.5
1.0
0.040 0.042 0.044 0.046 0.048 0.050 0.052 0.054 0.056

Fits
Figure 28 Scatterplot of the residuals versus the fits.
What Results Might We Expect?

When applied to linear regression analysis, the runs test for randomness tests
whether a pattern exists in the residuals. Do you observe a pattern in the scatterplot
of the residuals (Figure 28)? If so, then what might we expect our conclusion to be
for the runs test? Yes, there appears to be a descending and then ascending pattern
in the data (In fact, can you discern the exact relationship between x and y?), and
thus we expect to reject the null hypothesis that the data are random
By examining Figure 28, we can classify the residuals from left to right as positive
or negative, giving us:
PPPPPPNNNNNNNNNNPPPPPP
The residuals are ordered by the size of the fits, and we have classified each r esidual
into one of two distinct outcomes. Thus, we may proceed with the hypothesis test.
H0 : The sequence of residuals is random.
Ha : The sequence of residuals is not random.
Step 2 Find the critical values, and state the rejection rule. We have n1 5 12
positives and n2 5 10 negatives, so the small-sample case applies (n1 # 20 and n2 # 20).
From Appendix Table L we find our critical values Gcrit, lower 5 7 and Gcrit, upper 5 17. We
will reject H0 if Gdata # 7 or if Gdata $ 17.
Step 3 Find the value of the test statistic. We have the small-sample case, so the
test statistic Gdata is simply the number of runs, G:
Gdata 5 G 5 3
By the way, have you guessed the
Step 4 State the conclusion and the interpretation. Because Gdata 5 3 is less than 7,
equation of the pattern shown in
Figures 27 and 28? The we reject H0. Evidence exists that the sequence of residuals is not random. The residuals
relationship between x and y is are nonrandom, so the independence assumption for the linear regression model is
y 5 cos(x). violated, and we should not proceed with a linear regression analysis.

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Runs Test for Randomness

TI-83/84
The TI-83/84 calculators and Excel do not have a built-in function
for the runs test for randomness.
MINITAB
Minitab can perform the runs test for randomness for numerical Step 3 For the variable, type C1. Select Above and Below, and
data only. enter the value that is used to classify the data into two distinct
Step 1 Enter the numerical data in column C1. categories. For example, in Example 26, we would enter 0 here,
Step 2 Click Stat > Nonparametrics > Runs Test. because values above 0 are positive and values below 0 are
negative. Click OK.
SPSS
SPSS can perform the runs test for randomness for numerical data Step 3 Move the first column to Test Variable List. For Cut Point
only. select Custom, and enter the value that is used to classify the data
Step 1 Enter the numerical data in the first column. into two distinct categories. Click OK.
Step 2 Click Analyze > Nonparametric Tests > Legacy
Dialogs > Runs.

1. The runs test for randomness helps us determine if the possible outcomes (such as female or male). The sample
data in a sequence are random or whether a pattern exists in data are ordered in a sequence, and the runs test determines
the sequence. The runs test applies to data that have two whether there are too many or too few runs.

CLARIFYING THE CONCEPTS 5. MMFFFMFMFMMMMFMMM
1. Describe what a sequence is. (p. 14-55) 6. NNNNNNPPPPPPPPNNNNN
2. Clearly describe what the runs test for randomness is NN
used for. (p. 14-55) 7. TFTFTFFTTFTFTFTTFTFT
3. Explain what a run is. (p. 14-55) FTFFFTFTFTFTFFTFTFTTTF
4. What does it mean if the number of runs in a sequence 8. YYNNYYYNNYYNNNYNNN
is too low or too high? (p. 14-56) NYYNNYYYNNNNYYNNNNN
YYYYYYY
PRACTICING THE TECHNIQUES 9. Find Gcrit, lower and Gcrit, upper for the sequence in Exercise 5
CHECK IT OUT! for level of significance a 5 0.05.
10. Find Gcrit, lower and Gcrit, upper for the sequence in Exercise 6
To do Check out Topic for level of significance a 5 0.05.
11. Find the critical value Zcrit for the sequence in Exercise 7
Exercises 58 Example 23 Notation used for the
for level of significance a 5 0.01.
runs test for
12. Find the critical value Zcrit for the sequence in Exercise 8
randomness
for level of significance a 5 0.10.
Exercises 920 Example 24 Conducting the runs
test for randomness For Exercises 13 and 14, calculate the test statistic Gdata.
13. For the sequence in Exercise 5
For Exercises 58, you are given sequences of data.
14. For the sequence in Exercise 6
Calculate the following:
a. n1, the number of observations having the first For Exercises 15 and 16, do the following:
distinct outcome a. Calculate mG.
b. n2, the number of observations having the second b. Calculate sG.
distinct outcome c. Compute the test statistic Zdata.
c. n 5 n1 1 n2 15. For the sequence in Exercise 7
d. G, the number of runs in the sequence 16. For the sequence in Exercise 8

Chapter 14 Formulas and Vocabulary 14-62
For Exercises 1720, conduct the runs test for randomness NNAAANAAAAANAAANNAN
using the following steps: NNNNNNNNNNNNAANAANAA
a. State the hypotheses. A A N A N N N A N
b. Find the critical values. 25. Douglas Fir Trees: Annual Growth versus Age. The
c. Calculate the test statistic. following scatterplot depicts the residuals versus the fits from a
d. State the conclusion and the interpretation. regression of the annual growth of Douglas fir trees versus the
17. Use the sequence in Exercise 5, the critical values in age of the tree.16 Proceeding from left to right, classify each
Exercise 9, the test statistic in Exercise 13, and level of residual as either above zero (A) or below zero (B). Then
significance a 5 0.05. perform the runs test to determine whether the independence
18. Use the sequence in Exercise 6, the critical values in assumption is violated, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
Exercise 10, the test statistic in Exercise 14, and level of 1.0
19. Use the sequence in Exercise 7, the critical value in
Exercise 11, the test statistic in Exercise 15, and level of
significance a 5 0.01. 0.5
20. Use the sequence in Exercise 8, the critical value in
Residuals
Exercise 12, the test statistic in Exercise 16, and level of
significance a 5 0.10. 0

21. Florida Lottery Winners. The following sequence 0.5
represents whether there is one (A) or more than one (B)
winning ticket for the Florida Lotto Jackpot lottery for the
year 2008. Test whether the A/B sequence is random, using 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
level of significance a 5 0.05. Fits

AAAAAAAAAAAAAABBAAAABA 26. Womens Pulse Rates versus Temperature. The
22. Boston Red Sox. The following sequence represents the following scatterplot depicts the residuals versus the fits from a
last 15 games of the 2013 regular season, showing whether regression of pulse rates versus body temperatures for a random
the Red Sox won (W) or lost (L) the game. Test whether the sample of 20 women. Proceeding from left to right, classify
sequence is random, using level of significance a 5 0.05. each residual as either above zero (A) or below zero (B). Then
WLWLWWLWWWLLWWW perform the runs test to determine whether the independence
23. Nobel Prize Winners. The following sequence assumption is violated, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
represents the nationality of the Nobel Prize in
10
Economics winners (20002013), with A representing an
American and O representing all other nationalities.14 Test 5
whether the sequence is random, using level of significance
a 5 0.05. 0
AAAAAOAAOOAAAAAAOAAAOAAAA
Residuals
5
AAAAA
24. Super Bowl Winners. The following sequence 10
represents the conference of the Super Bowl winners from
1967 to 2014, where A represents the American Football 15
Conference and N represents the National Football
Conference.15 Test whether the sequence is random, using 20
level of significance a 5 0.10. 70 72 74 76 78 80 82
Fits
Chapter 14 Formulas and Vocabulary

SECTION 14.1 Zdata (p. 14-8).
Efficiency (p. 14-4)
n
Nonparametric hypothesis tests (p. 14-3) sSdata 1 0.5d 2
Parametric hypothesis tests (p. 14-3)
2
Zdata 5
n
SECTION 14.2
Sign test (p. 14-5)
2
S (p. 14-7)
data

SECTION 14.3 where

Boxplot criterion for assessing symmetry (p. 14-19) R1 5 the sum of the ranks for the first sample
Symmetry (p. 14-18)
R2 5 the sum of the ranks for the second sample, and so
T (p. 14-22)
data on, until
Wilcoxon signed rank test (p. 14-20)
SECTION 14.4 and where n1, n2, . . . , nk represent the sample sizes for
Independent samples (p. 14-29) samples 1, 2, ..., k, respectively, and N 5 the total
Wilcoxon rank sum test (p. 14-29)
number of data values in all the samples combined; that is,
Z (p. 14-31). N 5 n1 1 n2 1 1 nk.
data
R1 2 mR SECTION 14.6
Zdata 5 Rank correlation test (p. 14-44)
sR
r (p. 14-47). The test statistic for the rank correlation
data
where test is
mR 5
n1sn1 1 n2 1 1d
rdata 5 1 2
o6 d2
2 nsn2 2 1d
sR 5 n1n2sn1 1 n2 1 1d
12
where d 5 the difference in ranks between the two samples.
SECTION 14.7
Gdata (p. 14-57)
and where n1 and n2 represent the sample sizes for Run (p. 14-55)
samples 1 and 2, respectively, and R1 5 the sum of the Runs test for randomness (p. 14-55)
ranks for the first sample. Sequence (p. 14-55)
Z (p. 14-57). The test statistic for the large-sample case

SECTION 14.5 data
for the runs test for randomness is
Kruskal-Wallis test (p. 14-36)
x2 (p. 14-39). The test statistic for the Kruskal-Wallis G 2 mG
data Zdata 5
test is sG
where

R21 R22 R2k
1n 2 2 3sN 1 1d
12 2n1n2 s2n1n2ds2n1n2 2 n1 2 n2d
x2data 5 1 1 1
NsN 1 1d n2 nk mG 5 1 1 and sG 5
1
n1 1 n2 sn1 1 n2d2 sn1 1 n2 2 1d
Chapter 14 Review Exercises

6. H0 : M 5 50 vs. Ha : M 50, n 5 17, level of
SECTION 14.1 significance a 5 0.05. There are 10 pluses and 6 minuses.
1. What is a nonparametric hypothesis test? Explain why One data value equals 50.
the term distribution-free may be more accurate. 7. H0 : Md 5 500 vs. Ha : Md 500, n 5 12, level of
2. Explain why the sign test may be less efficient than the significance a 5 0.10. There are 9 pluses, 0 minuses, and 3 ties.
Wilcoxon signed rank test when both are compared to the t 8. NHL Goals Scored. Between 2003 and 2014, the
test for dependent sample data. National Hockey League endured two lockout seasons and
3. Why is there no efficiency rating in Table 1 (page 14-4) underwent a number of rules changes. Did this affect the
for the runs test? number of goals scored? The following table shows the
SECTION 14.2 mean goals scored per game for a random sample of five
4. Explain the meaning of the notation M0 in the NHL teams for the 20032004 and the 20132014 seasons.
hypotheses for the sign test for a single population median. Test whether the population median of the difference in
5. Explain the meaning of the notation Md in the mean number of goals scored per game is greater than zero,
hypotheses for the sign test for matched-pair data. using level of significance a 5 0.05. nhlgoals
For Exercises 6 and 7 do the following. (Hint: Exercise 6 20032004 20132014

represents the sign test for a single population median.
Exercise 7 represents the matched-pair sign test.) Detroit Red Wings 3.11 2.65
a. Use Appendix Table I to find the value of Scrit. Tampa Bay Lightning 2.99 2.83
b. State the rejection rule. Phoenix Coyotes 2.29 2.56
c. Calculate Sdata. Colorado Avalanche 2.88 2.99
d. Provide the conclusion and the interpretation of the
hypothesis test. Dallas Stars 2.37 2.82

Chapter 14 Review Exercises 14-64
9. Eighth-Grade Alcohol Use. The National Institute on Heating Cooling

Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) reports on the City degree-days degree-days
proportion of eighth-graders who have used alcohol (Source:
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications). A random sample of Austin 1648 2974
100 eighth-graders this year showed that 41 of them had College Station 1616 2938
used alcohol. Test whether the population proportion of Dallas 2219 2878
eighth-graders who have used alcohol is less than 0.5, using El Paso 2543 2254
Houston 1174 3179
SECTION 14.3 Killeen 2190 2477
10. For the Wilcoxon signed rank test, what do the notations San Antonio 1573 3038
T1 and T mean?
SECTION 14.4
For Exercises 11 and 12, perform the indicated Wilcoxon For Exercises 17 and 18, test whether the population
signed rank test for a single population median, using medians differ, using level of significance a 5 0.01. The
level of significance a 5 0.05. data represent two independent random samples.
11. H0 : M # 10 vs. Ha : M . 10, with n 5 20 and T2 5 70.
12. H0 : M 5 100 vs. Ha : M 100, with n 5 10, T1 5 15, 17. Sample 1 2422282433343820322732
and T2 5 40. 3334262240
For Exercises 13 and 14, perform the indicated Wilcoxon Sample 2 3625292329342832273838
signed rank test for the population median of two dependent 18. Sample 1 7173596168516056596667
samples, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
7062
13. H0 : Md $ 0 vs. Ha : Md , 0, with n 5 18 and T1 5 49.
14. H0 : Md = 0 vs. Ha : Md 0, with n 5 20, T1 5 150, and Sample 2 5969687462646074506754
T2 5 60. 747352
15. Precipitation in Florida. The following table shows
19. Unemployment Rates. The following table contains the
the annual precipitation (in inches) for a random sample of
unemployment rates for independent random samples of
cities in Florida. Use the Wilcoxon signed rank test to test
cities in Ohio and Virginia. Test whether the population
whether the population median annual precipitation in
median unemployment rate differs between cities in Ohio
Florida differs from 50 inches, using level of significance
and cities in Virginia, using level of significance a 5 0.05.
a 5 0.05.
unemployment
flprecipitation
Unemployment Unemployment
City Annual precipitation (inches) Ohio city rate Virginia city rate
Gainesville 49.56 Akron 6.6 Alexandria 2.8
Jacksonville 51.88 Cincinnati 6.4 Charlottesville 4.6
Miami 58.53 Cleveland 7.9 Lynchburg 4.4
Tampa 44.77 Columbus 5.4 Richmond 5.3
Fort Lauderdale 64.19 Dayton 7.6 Roanoke 4.2
Orlando 48.35 Toledo 7.5 Petersburg 7.3
Virginia Beach 3.4
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
16. Hot and Cold in Texas. Is the weather in Texas on the SECTION 14.5
hot side or the cold side? The following table shows the For Exercises 20 and 21, test whether the population
annual number of heating degree-days and cooling medians differ, using level of significance a 5 0.05. The
degree-days for a random sample of cities in Texas.17 Test, data represent independent random samples.
using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, whether the population
20.
median of the differences (heating degree-days minus Sample 1 11141713181210
cooling degree-days) is less than zero, using level of Sample 2 171515151818
Sample 3 1119181211121115
hotcoldtx Sample 4 212220212319172324

21. Sample 1 1215131619121215 24. Sample 1 252228302025

Sample 2 1215181717142011 Sample 2 353137393135
Sample 3 11171917111217
Sample 4 171923212220 25. Hot and Cold in California. The following table
contains a random sample of 13 cities in California, along
22. Manufacturing Workers. The following tables contain with the average number of heating degree-days and cooling
the number of workers employed in manufacturing for degree-days for each city. Test whether a rank correlation
independent random samples of cities in Connecticut, Georgia, exists between heating degree-days and cooling degree-days,
and Illinois. Test whether the population median number of using level of significance a 5 0.05. hotcoldca
manufacturing workers differs among the three states. Use
level of significance a 5 0.05. manufacturing
Heating Cooling
Connecticut city Workers California city degree-days degree-days
Bridgeport 5,991 Arcadia 1295 1575
Danbury 6,553 Burlingame 2720 184
Hartford 1,646 Simi Valley 1822 1485
Middletown 4,670 Azusa 1727 1191
New Britain 3,603 Palo Alto 2584 452
New Haven 3,253 Lake Forest 1465 1183
Waterbury 4,808 Santee 1313 1261
Torrance 1526 742
Georgia city Workers Whittier 1295 1575
Atlanta 15,002 Dana Point 1756 666
Athens 6,966 Camarillo 1961 389
Columbus 11,116 Glendora 1727 1191
Dalton 17,718 Bellflower 1211 1186
Savannah 8,679 Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
Illinois city Workers SECTION 14.7

For Exercises 26 and 27, you are given sequences of data.
Danville 3,632
Conduct the runs test for randomness, using level of
Champaign 2,776 significance a 5 0.05.
DeKalb 2,205 26. YYYYYNNNNNNNYYYYYYY
Evanston 1,939 NNNNN
27. MFFMMMFFMFFMFMMMFFF
Peoria 4,763
MFM
Waukegan 4,780 28. Presidential Election Winners. Since 1852, every U.S.
presidential election has been won by either the Democratic
SECTION 14.6
Party or the Republican Party. The following sequence
For Exercises 23 and 24, you are given random samples of
represents the presidential election winners since 1852, with
paired data. Perform the rank correlation test, using level of
D representing Democrat and R representing Republican.18
Test whether the sequence is random, using level of
23. Sample 1 1012 15131815 significance a 5 0.10.
DDRRRRRRDRDRRRRDDRRRD
Sample 2 963711 DDDDDRRDDRRDRRRDDRRD D

Chapter 14 Quiz 14-66
Chapter 14 Quiz
True or False 11. Carbon Emissions. The following table shows the
1. True or false: The hypotheses for the Wilcoxon signed carbon dioxide emissions (in millions of metric tons)
rank test for the population median of the differences are the fromthe consumption of fossil fuels in 2000 and 2005 for
same as those for the corresponding sign test. arandom sample of 10 nations. Test whether the emissions
2. True or false: The sample size used in the Wilcoxon signed have been increasing. That is, test, using a sign test, whether
rank test always equals the number of data values in the sample. the population median of the difference (2005 2 2000) in
3. True or false: In the Wilcoxon rank sum test, the two carbon dioxide emissions is greater than zero, using level of
samples are temporarily combined, and the ranks of the significance a 5 0.05. carbon3
combined data values are calculated. Then the ranks are
summed separately for each sample.
Carbon emissions Carbon emissions
Fill in the Blank in 2000 (millions of in 2005 (millions
4. A convenient graphic for assessing the symmetry of a Nation metric tons) of metric tons)
data distribution is a ___________.
Brazil 342.1 360.6
5. The cutoff sample size between using the small-sample
case and the large-sample case for the Wilcoxon signed rank Canada 558.4 631.3
test is ___________. China 2912.6 5322.7
6. The Kruskal-Wallis test is the nonparametric alternative France 399.0 415.3
to ___________ of ___________, which we learned in an
India 994.1 1165.7
earlier chapter.
Ireland 40.4 44.1
Short Answer
South Africa 383.4 423.8
7. In the Wilcoxon signed rank test for matched-pair data,
which data values need to be omitted? Thailand 160.6 234.2
8. Is the Wilcoxon rank sum test used for dependent or Vietnam 47.4 80.4
independent samples? What about the Wilcoxon signed rank United States 5823.5 5957.0
test?
9. State the conditions for performing the Kruskal-Wallis test.
12. Military Veterans. The following table contains
Calculations and Interpretations the number of U.S. military veterans (in thousands) for a
10. Children Without Health Insurance. The following random sample of 13 states. militaryvets
table contains the number of children (in thousands) who
arenot covered by health insurance for a random sample of a. Verify that the data are symmetric.
24 states. Use the sign test to test whether the population b. Use the Wilcoxon signed rank test to test whether the
median number of children per state without health population median number of veterans per state
insurance is greater than 75,000, using level of significance differs from 100,000, using level of significance
a 5 0.05. a 5 0.05.
childhealth
Children Children State Veterans (1000s)

without health without health Montana 104
insurance insurance Vermont 55
State (1000s) State (1000s)
Alaska 75
Idaho 52 Wisconsin 63
New Hampshire 132
Georgia 314 Massachusetts 103
Oklahoma 114 Illinois 302 Kansas 237
Delaware 24 California 1225 Nevada 246
Minnesota 104 New Mexico 93 Arkansas 262
Louisiana 170 Missouri 127
South Dakota 74
Alabama 82 New York 380
Florida 771 Ohio 157 West Virginia 178
Colorado 176 Arkansas 65 Maine 144
Washington 105 Connecticut 49 Delaware 81
Pennsylvania 203 Texas 1392 North Dakota 58
Tennessee 94 Indiana 123
Mississippi 216
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

13. Trade Balance. Table 20 contains the trade balance (in Table 20 U.S. trade balances
millions of dollars) that the United States has with a random
Trade Trade
sample of 12 European countries and a random sample
European balance Asian balance
of 11 Asian countries. Positive numbers indicate that our
country ($ millions) country ($ millions)
exports to that country exceed in value our imports from
that country. Negative numbers indicate that exports are Austria 7,497 Bangladesh 2,976
less than imports. Test whether the population median trade Belgium 10,009 China 256,207
balance with European countries differs from the population Czech Republic 1,168 Japan 82,760
median trade balance with Asian countries, using level of Germany 44,513 South Korea 12,918
significance a 5 0.05. Greece 918 Israel 7,775
Ireland 21,436 Malaysia 20,948
United Kingdom 6,629 Nepal 61
Netherlands 14,560 Thailand 14,300
Norway 4,256 Taiwan 11,968
France 14,140 Saudi Arabia 25,230
Luxembourg 475 Cambodia 2,325
Finland 2,133
Notes and Data Sources

1. See www.fueleconomy.gov, which is an excellent Web site for 10. Joseph Maze, Richard Murphy, and Cheri Simonds, Ill see
tips on improving gas mileage. you on Facebook: the effects of computer-mediated teacher self-
2.blog.mozilla.com/metrics. disclosure on student motivation, affective learning, and classroom
3.Sophos.com. climate, Communication Edition 56 (2007): 117.
4. P. A. Mackowiak, S. S. Wasserman, and M. M. Levine, A 11. The data set is adapted from the Cereals data set from the Data
critical appraisal of 98.6 degrees F, the upper limit of the normal and Story Library, lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/.
body temperature, and other legacies of Carl Reinhold August 12. Robert K. Murray and Tim H. Blessing, Greatness in the White
Wunderlich, Journal of the American Medical Association 268 House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald
(1992): 157880. Reagan, 2nd ed. (University Park: Pennsylvania State University
5. U.S. Small Business Administration. Press, 1994).
6. R.E. Keith and E. Merrill, The effects of vitamin C on maxi- 13. J.F. Fraumeni, Cigarette smoking and cancers of the urinary
mum grip strength and muscular endurance, Journal of Sports tract: geographic variations in the United States, Journal of the
Medicine and Physical Fitness 23 (1983): 25356. Data available National Cancer Institute 41, 120511. Data courtesy of the Data
at http://www.statsci.org/data/general/vitaminc.html. and Story Library lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/.
7. Data set adapted from Karin Olson and John Hanson, Using 14.Nobelprize.org.
Reiki to manage pain, Cancer Prevention and Control 1, no. 2 15.NFL.com.
(1997): 10813. 16.Height-age curves for planted stands of Douglas fir, with
8. Data represent random samples from the Pulse Rates data set, adjustments for density, by James Flewelling et al., College of
originally from P. A. Mackowiak, S.S. Wasserman, and M.M. Levine. Forest Resources, University of Washington (2001).
See n. 4. 17. InfoPlease Almanac.
9. Caroline Davis, Elizabeth Blackmore, Deborah Katzman, and 18.Ibid.
John Fox, Anorexia Nervosa Case Study, Statistical Society of
Canada Annual Conference, Montreal, 2004. http://www.ssc.ca/
en/education/archived-case-studies/case-study-II-for-ssc-2004.

Larose 3e Online Ch14 Hires

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Larose 3e Online Ch14 Hires

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

14 Overview

Chapter 14 Formulas and

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 1 10/30/15 11:03 AM

The Big Picture

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 2 10/30/15 11:03 AM

14.1 Introduction to Nonparametric Statistics

1 What Is a Nonparametric Hypothesis Test?

Advantages of Nonparametric Hypothesis Tests

Disadvantages of Nonparametric Hypothesis Tests

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 3 10/30/15 11:03 AM

2 The Efficiency of a Nonparametric Hypothesis Test

Table 1 Efficiency of nonparametric tests compared with parametric tests

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 4 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Section 14.1 Summary

Section 14.1 Exercises

14.2 Sign Test

1 Sign Test for a Single Population Median

The following example illustrates a situation where we want to perform a

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 5 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Example 1 Conditions for parametric test are not met

the population of yearly hurricane deaths:

Year 1959 1963 1974 1988 1999 2001 2005 2010

We are interested in testing whether the population mean number of hurricane-related

Example 2 Changing the data values to plus or minus signs

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 6 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Year 1959 1963 1974 1988 1999 2001 2005 2010

Sign Test for the Population Median M

Table 3 Finding Sdata

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 7 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Example 3 Small-sample sign test for the population median

Figure 2 Using Appendix Table I to find the critical value Scrit.

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 8 10/30/15 11:03 AM

H0 : M 5 120 versus Ha : M 120

where M represents the population median calories per food item.

Sign Test for Median: Calories

Equal Above P Median

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 9 10/30/15 11:03 AM

2 Sign Test for Matched-Pair Data from Two Dependent

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 10 10/30/15 11:03 AM

p-Value Method for Conducting the Sign Test

Example 6 The sign test using the p-value method

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 11 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Source: National Education Association.

3 Sign Test for Binomial Data

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 12 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Table 5 Hypotheses for the sign test for binomial data

Example 7 Sign test for binomial data

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 13 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Has Median Gas Mileage Increased?

Ford F150 Pickup 16 18 2 1

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 14 10/30/15 11:03 AM

STEP-BY-STEP TECHNOLOGY GUIDE: Sign Test

Section 14.2 Summary

Section 14.2 Exercises

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 15 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 16 10/30/15 11:03 AM

28. A Rainy Month in Georgia? The following table Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 17 10/30/15 11:03 AM

14.3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Matched-Pair

1 Assessing the Symmetry of a Data Set

Larose_3e_ch14.indd 18 10/30/15 11:03 AM

Boxplot Criterion for Assessing Symmetry

Example 8 Assessing symmetry using the TI-83/84

Figure 10 The age data are

Example 11 Wilcoxon signed rank test for a single population median:

Example 12 Large-sample Wilcoxon signed rank test for a population median