ELSEVIER Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781

High-resolution sequence stratigraphy from piezocone tests:

an example from the Late Quaternary deposits of the southeastern
Po Plain
Alessandro Amorosi a, , Nazaria Marchi b
a Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e Geologico-Ambientali, Universita di Bologna, Via Zamboni 67, 40127 Bologna, Italy
b Servizio Cartografico e Geologico, Regione EmiliaRomagna, Viale Silvani 4=3, 40122 Bologna, Italy

Received 26 October 1998; accepted 2 May 1999

Abstract

Cone penetration tests are traditionally regarded as a major tool for geotechnical investigations. This study, based upon
interpretation of 234 cone penetration tests with pore-pressure measurements (piezocone tests or CPTU), carried out in
the Late Quaternary deposits of the southeastern Po Plain, shows how CPTU tests can also be used for sedimentological
purposes, including detailed facies characterization, subsurface stratigraphic correlations, and identification of the key
surfaces for sequence-stratigraphic interpretation. The Late Quaternary depositional history of the southeastern Po Plain,
reconstructed on the basis of data from seventeen continuously cored boreholes, includes (1) alluvial plain development
during the Late Quaternary lowstand and the early stages of transgression, (2) formation of a rapidly migrating
barrierlagoon system during the late transgressive phases (88006000 y BP), (3) construction and progradation of a
wave-dominated delta (ancient Po delta) during the following sea-level highstand (6000800 y BP), and (4) development
of the present-day alluvial plain, following the delta lobe abandonment in the 13th century A.D. Local execution of
CPTU tests in coincidence with drilling sites enables the calibration of borehole data with piezocone penetration profiles.
Lithofacies characterization is based upon estimation of three major parameters: corrected cone resistance (qt ), sleeve
friction ( f s ), and pore water pressure (u). Plotting of qt versus the ratio of cone friction to cone bearing (FR) is adopted
as the major tool for sediment texture classification. Eight major facies associations for the southeastern Po Plain are
identified. These are, for decreasing qt values: (1) fluvial channel sands, (2) beach-ridge sands, (3) transgressive barrier
sands, (4) crevasse sands and silts, (5) levee silts and sands, (6) floodplain silts and clays, (7) prodelta clays, and (8) marsh
clays and peats. CPTU profile interpretation also provides the basis for the identification of the three major key surfaces
within the Late Quaternary 4th-order depositional sequence. (1) The transgressive surface (TS), marking the boundary
between the locally pedogenized, stiff Pleistocene alluvial clays and the overlying Holocene transgressive paralic deposits,
has a distinctive pore-pressure response, with very low u values, and is characterized by a sharp downward increase in f s ,
which is paralleled by a moderate increase in qt . (2) The ravinement surface (RS), corresponding to the boundary between
fine-grained back-barrier deposits and the overlying transgressive barrier sands, is invariably marked by a sharp upward
increase in qt (and decrease in FR). (3) The maximum flooding surface (MFS), which is not clearly recognizable on the
sole basis of core data, is identified within shallow-marine (prodelta) clays in combination with minor peaks of qt , which
have been interpreted to reflect a laterally extensive fossil lag, with transition in proximal areas to sand (shell-rich?) layers.
Simplicity, speed, and comparatively low costs of CPTU tests imply that an extensive use of this method, when used

Corresponding author. Fax: C39 051 2094522; E-mail: amorosi@geomin.unibo.it

0037-0738/99/$ see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 6 2 - 7
68 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781
in conjunction with core programs, can be a very attractive alternative to economically less convenient methods for the
geological mapping of alluvial=coastal plain areas consisting of non-gravel deposits. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: piezocone penetration test; sedimentary facies; sequence stratigraphy; Quaternary; Po Plain
1. Introduction
One of the primary applications of cone pene-
tration tests (CPT), which measure soil resistance
to penetration at the tip of the penetrometer and
friction along the sleeve of the tool, is for strati-
graphic profiling. The two major parameters that can
be measured through normal static cone penetration
tests correspond to the resistance to penetration at
the tip of the penetrometer (qc ) and friction of the
sediment along the sleeve of the tool ( fs ). Plotting
of qc versus the ratio of cone friction to cone bear-
ing (FR D f s =qc ) has been generally adopted as the
major tool for soil texture classification (Begemann,
1965; Schmertmann, 1969).
The piezocone penetrometer differs from normal
static cone penetration tests by the presence of a
porous element that allows pore-pressure measure-
ments (pore pressure, u). The cone penetration test
with pore-pressure measurements or piezocone test
(CPTU) is based on the principle that when the
penetrometer is pushed down into the sediment, ad-
ditional pore-water-pressure changes occur as a func-
tion of its permeability and grain size. Particularly,
during a stop in penetration, the excess pore pressure
generated by penetration of the cone (u) starts to
dissipate, and the decay of u is monitored and then
plotted against time. In fine-grained sediments, such
as silts and clays, the penetration process is generally
undrained, and large penetration pore pressures can
be generated. In contrast, in well sorted sands u
dissipates as fast as it is generated, and measured
penetration pore pressures are commonly close to
the static equilibrium pore pressure (u 0 ). CPTU tests
provide additional advantages, such as the ability to
correct measured cone penetration resistance (qt ) and
improved sediment identification, stratigraphic reso-
lution and bed boundary characterization (Robertson
et al., 1992).
CPTU tests have been commonly used for foun-
dation engineering (Robertson, 1986; Almeida et al.,
1996) and the estimate of geotechnical parameters,
such as the shear strength (Baligh, 1985; Baligh and
Levadoux, 1986; Teh and Houlsby, 1991; Danziger
et al., 1997; Silvestri et al., 1997) and the coefficient
of consolidation (Konrad and Law, 1987; Crawford
and Campanella, 1990; Robertson et al., 1992; Jones
and Rust, 1983; Schnaid et al., 1997). Despite its
strikingly high potential for stratigraphic and sedi-
mentological studies, in very few circumstances this
method has been used to obtain continuous sedi-
mentological data and for facies identification and
stratigraphic correlations (Moran et al., 1988; Powell
and Quarterman, 1995; Beets et al., 1996).
As part of the Geological Mapping Project of
the southern Po Plain to scale 1 : 50,000, sponsored
by the Geological Survey of the Regione Emilia
Romagna and the Geological Survey of Italy, seven-
teen continuously cored boreholes, 40 to 170 m deep,
were recently made in the subsurface of the south-
eastern Po Plain (sheet 223, Ravenna) in an area 500
km2 wide (Fig. 1), leading to the reconstruction of
stratigraphic architecture and to the sequence-strati-
graphic interpretation of the Late Quaternary de-
posits of this area (Amorosi et al., 1999a,b; Fig. 2).
Unfortunately, drilling methods have comparatively
high costs and the number of boreholes is largely
insufficient for mapping purposes. A series of alter-
native methods, including electric logs and geophys-
ical tests, were used as possible complementary tools
for stratigraphic investigations. Among these, pene-
tration tests, which are significantly less expensive
(1=3 to 1=4) than continuously cored boreholes, ap-
peared to be a very efficient method. Consequently,
234 CPTU tests, approximately 35 m deep, and with
0.52.3 km spacing, were carried out in the area,
for identification and geological mapping of major
sedimentary bodies and stratigraphic discontinuities.
Seventeen CPTU tests were made in combination
with drilling sites, for calibration with the studied
cores. The grain size of the study units is invariably
finer than gravel size; this ensures the applicabil-
 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781 69

This study presents the results of the interpreta-

Fig. 1. Location of the study area (sheet 223), with indication of
the section traces of Figs. 2 and 9 (numbers refer to continuously
cored boreholes).
tion of these CPTU profiles. Aims of this paper are:
(1) a detailed characterization of eight major facies
associations on the basis of CPTU parameters, in
order to show how CPTU tests can be used after
calibration with continuous cores as an independent
method for subsurface stratigraphic correlations and
mapping of sedimentary bodies; (2) the identifica-
tion of the key surfaces for sequence-stratigraphic
interpretation (Posamentier et al., 1988; Thorne and
Swift, 1991). These surfaces are: the transgressive
surface (TS), the ravinement surface (RS), and the
maximum flooding surface (MFS).

2. Equipment design and test procedures

ity of the CPTU method. The groundwater level is
very shallow throughout the study area and fluctuates A commercial standard piezocone device, con-
from 1 to 4 m depth. forming to the international standard (ISSMFE,

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic correlations within the Late Quaternary deposits of the southeastern Po Plain (see Fig. 1 for section trace), showing
stratal architecture and the major discontinuity surfaces (after Amorosi et al., 1999a). The hiatal surface corresponds to the transgressive
surface.
70 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781

Fig. 3. Results of a standard piezocone test (140U515) with facies interpretation (see text for discussion), including measurements of
corrected cone tip resistance (qt ), sleeve friction ( f s ), and pore water pressure (u) profiles. The calculated parameter FR (friction ratio) is
reported on the right. u 0 : static equilibrium pore pressure.

1989) and reference test procedures (ISOPT, 1988),
was used. The test equipment consists of a 60 cone,
with a 10 cm2 base area and a 150 cm2 friction
sleeve located above the cone. The system includes
electronic load cells. The filter position for pore
pressure measurements is behind the cone tip. Cone
penetration tests were carried out at a constant speed
of 2 cm=s.
The pushing equipment consists of hydraulic
jacking and reaction systems mounted on a heavy
lorry with screw anchors. The thrust capacity is of
20 tonnes. The field data acquisition system includes
analogue to digital converters so that the analogue
signals can be directly converted to digital form for
data logging. Data are stored on floppy disk for
processing and plotting.
Three major parameters are measured during a
standard piezocone test (Fig. 3). These are the cone
tip resistance (qc ), the sleeve friction ( fs ) and the
pore water pressure .u/. The cone tip resistance
equates the total force acting on the cone, divided
by the projected area of the cone. The sleeve friction
is obtained by dividing the total friction force acting
axially on the friction sleeve by the outer surface
area of the sleeve. The pore water pressure is the
pore pressure that is measured during penetration:
u D u 0 C u where u is the change in pore
pressure that is created at cone penetration and u 0 is
the calculated static equilibrium pore pressure.
A few classification charts use a corrected cone
resistance value, qt (Baligh et al., 1981; Campanella
et al., 1982), that takes into account the effect that
water pressures have on the measured penetration
resistance qc because of unequal end areas. This
 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781
correction, which is especially important in soft clays
and silts where qc is generally small and the excess
pore pressure (u) very large (Robertson, 1990), is
given by the following expression:
qt D qc C u.1 a/
where u is pore pressure measured between the cone
tip and the friction sleeve and a is the net area ratio.
In the special case where u D 0 or is negligible, such
as in the case of cohesionless soils where penetration
is generally drained and qc values are high, qc D qt .
Some authors (Konrad, 1987) have suggested an
expression to also get corrected values of the sleeve
friction. This correction, however, is very difficult to
obtain and apply properly (Chen and Mayne, 1996).
As a consequence, the expression has been used in
only a few cases (Robertson, 1990).
Another fundamental calculated parameter is the
friction ratio (FR) (Fig. 3), which is the ratio, ex-
pressed as a percentage, of the sleeve friction, fs , to
the cone resistance, qc , both measured at the same
depth.
Among the several charts existing for evaluating
the sediment type from cone penetration tests, the
chart by Robertson et al. (1986) and Campanella and
Robertson (1988), which includes the corrected qt
value and ensures simplicity and speed of use, was
chosen. Normalized charts, which take into account
the increase in cone resistance with depth, have been
proposed. These charts, however, require the detailed
knowledge of parameters that are very difficult to
estimate and do not provide practical benefits when
used at depth less than 30 m (Robertson, 1990).
Other charts, using the pore pressure parameter ratio,
Bq D u=.qt vo / (Senneset and Janbu, 1984),
where u D excess pore pressure, qt D cone resis-
tance and vo D total overburden stress, or plotting
the excess pore pressure versus qc vo (Jones and
Rust, 1983), were discarded, due to poor identifica-
tion of sediment type and difficulties of using from a
practical point of view (Cheng-hou et al., 1990).
In a recent comparison of four different clas-
sification charts, based upon visual estimation and
analyses of undisturbed samples, the chart used in
this paper, from Robertson et al. (1986) (see Fig. 4)
and Campanella and Robertson (1988), appeared to
be the most effective tool for sediment classification,
with about 80% correct plots (Berry et al., 1998).
71
3. Geological setting
The general stratigraphy of the uppermost 30 m
in the study area has been recently documented by
Amorosi et al. (1999a). Facies architecture (Fig. 2)
reflects the changes in sedimentation that occurred
during the last glacial=interglacial cycle in response
to glacioeustatic fluctuations.
Alluvial plain sedimentation took place during
the latest stages of relative sea-level fall, between
35 ka and 25 ka BP, in a migrating fluvial channel
system, leading to accumulation of a laterally contin-
uous, sheet-like, sand body (lithofacies A3 in Fig. 2).
A stratigraphic hiatus, marked by an indurated and
locally pedogenized horizon, separates the alluvial
plain deposits from the overlying fine-grained back-
barrier deposits, dated approximately to 89 ka BP.
The back-barrier deposits are overlain by transgres-
sive barrier sands, changing upwards into shallow-
marine claysand alternations (Fig. 2). This tract has
been interpreted to reflect the rapid landward mi-
gration of a barrierlagoon system during the early
Holocene sea-level rise. A progradational stacking
pattern of facies, marking the growth of an ancient
Po delta lobe, characterizes the upper part of the
sequence (Fig. 2), related to the last 56 ka BP.
Shallow-marine sandclay alternations (prodelta de-
posits) are overlain by beach-ridge sands (delta front
deposits). A veneer of lagoonal deposits (lower delta
plain deposits) separates the beach-ridge sands from
the overlying marsh clays (upper delta plain de-
posits). The upper part of the succession consists of
alluvial plain deposits, following the Po delta lobe
abandonment in the XIII century A.D.
In terms of sequence stratigraphy, two major dis-
continuities have been identified from core data
(Fig. 2). These are: (1) the transgressive surface
(TS), in the sense of Thorne and Swift (1991), sep-
arating the Pleistocene lowstand alluvial deposits
from the Holocene transgressive paralic deposits,
this surface coincides with the lower boundary of a
5th-order depositional sequence; (2) the ravinement
surface (RS) of Swift (1968) and Nummedal and
Swift (1987), marking the erosional lower boundary
of the transgressive barrier sands (transgressive sand
sheet) with the underlying back-barrier deposits.
A shell-rich horizon within homogeneous pro-
delta clays has been suggested by Amorosi et al.
72 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781

Fig. 4. Plotting of the eight facies associations discussed in this paper in the Robertson et al. (1986) chart. Once that calibration between
cores and piezocone data has been carried out, the average range of variation (expressed as two standard deviations) of qt and FR can
provide an accurate prediction of sediment type on a local scale. 1 D sensitive fine grained; 2 D organic material; 3 D clay; 4 D silty
clay to clay; 5 D clayey silt to silty clay; 6 D sandy silt to clayey silt; 7 D silty sand to sandy silt; 8 D sand to silty sand; 9 D sand; 10
D gravelly sand to sand; 11 D very stiff fine grained; 12 D sand to clayey sand.

(1999a) as the most likely candidate for the maxi-
mum flooding surface (MFS), although the few cores
available do not provide definitive data to detect this
key surface.
4. Identification of facies associations by
piezocone tests
Plotting of qt versus FR in the Robertson et al.
(1986) chart enables the identification of eight differ-
ent facies associations, most of which plot in distinct
fields of the diagram with scarce or no overlap
(Fig. 4). Superposition of beach-ridge and transgres-
sive barrier facies associations in the Robertson et
al. (1986) chart is consistent with the attribution of
both deposits to a nearshore environment (see fol-
lowing sections). Particularly, two groups of facies
associations can be differentiated. Coarse-grained fa-
cies associations (fluvial-channel, beach-ridge, trans-
gressive-barrier, and crevasse sands) display high
cone resistance and low friction ratios, whereas fine-
grained facies association (floodplain, prodelta and
marsh deposits) have low cone resistance and high
friction ratios. Levee deposits are generally in be-
tween.
The following sections show the characteriza-
tion of the eight different facies associations in
terms of lithology, bed boundary characteristics,
bed thickness, vertical grading, and presence of
fining=coarsening upward sequences. The correct fa-
cies determination is ensured by calibration with
cores and stratigraphic position. The facies associa-
tions are described for decreasing qt (and increasing
FR) values. For a detailed sedimentological descrip-
tion of facies, see Amorosi et al. (1999a).
 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781
4.1. Fluvial channel sands
This facies association consists of elementary
fining-upward successions, generally 2 to 7 m
thick, displaying invariably a sharp lower bound-
ary (Figs. 2, 3 and 5). The deposits include fine to
coarse sands, which are gradationally overlain by
silty sands, sandy silts and silts, with a few dm of
dark clayey silts at the top. This facies association,
which plots in a distinct field of the Robertson et al.
(1986) chart (Fig. 4), is characterized by the highest
qt (around 200 kg=cm2 or 20 MPa on average) values
and the lowest (0.41.8) FR values (Table 1). Nega-
Fig. 5. Different response of five distinct facies associations to
cone penetration, showing a major separation in terms of qt
values between coarse-grained (beach-ridge, transgressive and
fluvial channel sands) and fine-grained (prodelta and floodplain
clays) deposits. Fluvial sands generally have higher qt values
with respect to the marine (beach-ridge and transgressive bar-
rier) sands. Note how grain-size tendencies (fining upward, FU,
versus coarsening upward, CU, successions) and sharp versus
gradational boundaries can be easily detected by penetration
tests. Minor peaks of qt within the prodelta clays correspond to
either sand layers or shell (Turritella) layers. The latter could
not be identified lacking calibration with adjacent cores. RS D
ravinement. CPTU test 120U504, corresponding to borehole S3
in Fig. 1.
73
tive excess pore pressures are often recorded (Fig. 3),
indicating a tendency for dilation of these deposits.
The fluvial channel sands are easily identified on qt
profiles owing to the very contrasting values with
adjacent floodplain clays (Figs. 3 and 5). FU (fining-
upward) tendencies are readily indicated by regularly
decreasing qt values (and increasing FR) (Fig. 5).
4.2. Beach ridge sands
This facies association includes fossiliferous, very
fine to medium nearshore sands and silty sands
(Fig. 2), and is defined by relatively high qt val-
ues (Table 1, Figs. 4 and 5) to a maximum in excess
of 200 kg=cm2 (Fig. 3). The narrow range of fric-
tion ratios for this unit (Table 1) indicates a high
degree of sorting. Decreasing cone resistance and
increasing friction ratios with depth are commonly
encountered, documenting a coarsening-upward ten-
dency (from shoreface to foreshore sands) and a
gradational boundary with the underlying prodelta
claysand alternations (Fig. 5). In contrast, the up-
per boundary with lagoonal and marsh (delta plain)
deposits is invariably sharp (Fig. 3). The u values
are very low and generally lower than or equal to
u 0 (Fig. 3), suggesting a high permeability of these
deposits.
4.3. Transgressive barrier sands
This facies association displays very similar sedi-
mentological features with respect to the beach-ridge
sands, differing for stratigraphic position (Fig. 2) and
depositional regime (transgressive barriers versus
prograding deltas). It consists of very fine shoreface
sands, with minor intercalations of silty clays and
abundant shelly material (marine bivalves and gas-
tropods). This facies association has an erosional
lower boundary, evidenced from core studies, and
generally a gradational upper boundary to prodelta
claysand alternations (Figs. 2 and 5). The qt and
FR values of the sand layers are very similar (al-
though slightly less scattered) to those observed for
the beach-ridge sands, as indicated by the strik-
ing overlap of the two facies associations in the
Robertson et al. (1986) chart (Fig. 4). A major differ-
ence, however, is the fining-upward trend within the
transgressive barrier sands (Fig. 5), reflecting a deep-
74 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781

Table 1
Summary diagnostic features of the eight facies associations discussed in this paper

Qt FR u Sedimentological features Accessories

(kg=cm2 ) or (%)
(MPa=10)
Fluvial channel sands 146251 0.41.8 <0 sharp base and top, FU trend
Beach-ridge sands 52126 1.12.0  u0 gradational base, sharp top, CU trend shells
Transgressive barrier sands 62122 1.32.1  u0 sharp base, gradational top, FU trend shells
Crevasse sands and silts 93123 1.13.7  u 0 , <0 sharp base and top, FU trend (channel),
gradational base, sharp top, CU trend (splay)
Levee silts and sands 4774 2.03.7 u 0 , <u 0 siltsand alternations
Floodplain silts and clays 1526 4.28.3 u 0 carbonate nodules
Prodelta clays 815 4.58.2 >u 0 , <u 0 claysand alternations shell layers
Marsh clays and peats 510 6.29.5 u 0 woods

FU D fining upward, CU D coarsening upward.

ening-upward tendency related to a transgressive fining-upward (crevasse channel) and coarsening-

phase. The measured pore pressure, u, is generally
lower than or equal to u 0 .
4.4. Crevasse sands and silts
This facies association includes fine to medium
sands, silty sands and sandy silts, showing both
upward (crevasse splay) successions, generally less
than 11.5 m thick (Fig. 6). Channel deposits
have erosional bases and gradational or sharp tops,
whereas splay deposits show gradational lower
boundaries and sharp tops (Fig. 6). This facies asso-
ciation, showing vertical boundaries with floodplain
and subordinate levee deposits, can be distinguished

Fig. 6. Contrasting response of four different alluvial facies associations (fluvial channel, crevasse splay, levee and floodplain deposits)
to cone penetration. Test 090U515, coincident with borehole S9 (see Fig. 1 for location). A palaeosol, marking the transgressive surface
(TS) is indicated by anomalous f s and u values (for sequence-stratigraphic interpretation see text and Fig. 8).
 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781
from the fluvial channel sands by the generally
smaller thickness (Fig. 3) and finer texture, as in-
dicated by the generally lower qt and the higher FR
values (Fig. 4). The comparatively wide range of
FR values indicates a wide spectrum of textures, re-
flecting deposition by both traction and traction plus
fall-out processes during the major flood events. Pore
pressure values are very low, with u D u 0 and locally
u < 0 (Fig. 3), indicating a tendency for dilation of
these deposits.
4.5. Levee silts and sands
This facies association, consisting of rhythmically
bedded sandy silts and clayey silts, a few cm to a
few dm thick, generally shows gradational vertical
boundaries with floodplain clays (Fig. 6). The sandy
silt layers, which commonly display sharp bases and
gradational tops, are characterized by qt values be-
tween 40 and 80 kg=cm2 (slightly lower on average
than the values recorded from crevasse deposits) and
FR ranging between 2.0 and 3.7 (Table 1, Figs. 4 and
6). Pore pressure values are generally u 0 in the
silty clays. Decreasing u values (u < u 0 and locally
u < 0) indicate local changes in grain size to dilative
silts and sands (Fig. 6).
4.6. Floodplain silts and clays
This facies association is dominated by clays,
with abundant organic-rich layers, low-mature
palaeosols and rare sand intercalations. These de-
posits are generally characterized by qt values that
are narrowly constrained between 15 and 26 kg=cm2 ,
and FR ranging approximately between 4 and 8
(Table 1, Figs. 4 and 6). Palaeosols can be identi-
fied by sharp fs peaks, which are paralleled by the
sharp decrease in u to u < u 0 . This behaviour is
characteristic of fissured, overconsolidated deposits.
Anomalous CPTU responses have been observed to
correspond to carbonate nodules (Bk horizons of
palaeosols). Pore pressure values are generally u 0
(Fig. 3).
4.7. Prodelta clays
This facies association is characterized by the
rhythmical alternation of clays and subordinate very
75
fine sands. Sand layers have erosional bases and sharp
tops, and generally show a distinctive normal grading.
For this facies association, which shows gradational
lower and upper boundaries with the transgressive-
barrier and beach-ridge sands (Fig. 5), the majority of
qt values are comprised between 10 and 15 kg=cm2 ,
whereas an FR range of 4.5 to 8.2 is recorded (Table 1
and Fig. 4). Shell layers, consisting almost uniquely
of the gastropod Turritella (Amorosi et al., 1999a),
have a CPTU response that is very similar to that of
silty sands (Fig. 5). The pore pressure response is con-
siderably variable, due to the presence of contrasting
lithologies. The u values are generally >u 0 . Interbed-
ding of sands results in local u < 0 values and in
an overall increase of permeability, as documented
by relatively short dissipation times required during
dissipation tests (Fig. 7).
4.8. Marsh clays and peats
This facies association consists dominantly of
clays with abundant wood fragments and plant de-
bris. Peats and organic-rich layers are also common.
A veneer of lagoonal deposits locally separates this
facies association from the underlying beach-ridge
sands (Fig. 2), whereas the upper boundary is grada-
tional with floodplain silts and clays. A very linear
cone response, indicating a uniform lithology, char-
acterizes this facies association (Fig. 3); qt values
are generally constrained between 5 and 10 kg=cm2
(Figs. 3 and 4). The range of friction ratios for this
unit (Table 1) characterizes this unit as a clay with
abundant organic material (Fig. 4). The pore pressure
increases linearly with depth, reflecting a remarkably
homogeneous clay succession (Fig. 3). The very long
dissipation times required for dissipation of the ex-
cess pore pressure (Fig. 7) indicate that this unit
constitutes a major permeability barrier.
5. Detecting the key surfaces for
sequence-stratigraphic interpretation by
piezocone tests
The excellent correlation between the interpreted
piezocone profiles and the direct observations from
continuously cored boreholes can also be used to
identify stratigraphic discontinuities and for strati-
76 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781

Fig. 7. Use of dissipation tests for facies identification. A comparatively short dissipation time is required in the higher-permeability
prodelta claysand alternations to achieve the given proportion (80%) of the total dissipation of the excess pore pressure generated by
penetration of the cone. Longer dissipation times are needed in the higher-permeability marsh clays.

graphic correlations. The detailed characterization of
the three key surfaces for the sequence-stratigraphic
interpretation of the Late Quaternary depositional se-
quence enables their identification on CPTU profiles,
as follows.
5.1. Ravinement surface (RS)
The RS is a diachronous, erosional surface within
the transgressive systems tract (TST), separating
back-barrier deposits from the overlying shell-rich,
transgressive sand sheet (Fig. 2). This surface forms
in response to the landward migration of barrier
lagoon systems during transgressions. Among the
major discontinuity surfaces recognized within the
Late Quaternary depositional sequence in the south-
eastern Po Plain, the RS is the most easily identified
surface, being associated to an outstanding litho-
logic contrast between back-barrier muds (or alluvial
clays, see Fig. 5) and transgressive barrier sands
(Fig. 2). The remarkable grain-size variations at the
RS imply that this surface can be readily recognized
on CPTU profiles in combination with sharp changes
in qt and FR (Fig. 8). Correlations of closely spaced
CPTU profiles enable the lateral tracing of the RS
throughout the study area (Fig. 9).
5.2. Transgressive surface (TS)
According to sequence-stratigraphic models
(Thorne and Swift, 1991; Saito, 1994), the TS sep-
arates the lowstand systems tract from the overlying
TST. In terms of facies associations, in the study
area the TS marks the boundary between the stiff
pedogenized Pleistocene alluvial sediments and the
overlying Holocene deposits. Unlike the RS, the TS,
which often occurs within homogeneous fine-grained
deposits with no important grain-size variations, is
rather a zone from a geotechnical point of view,
as indicated by the progressively increasing pocket
penetrometer values (in the range of 2.54 kg=cm2 ,
see Amorosi et al., 1999a) measured in a 1 m thick
stratigraphic interval below the TS. Consequently,
although a downward increase in qt is invariably
recorded across the TS, this surface is very diffi-
cult to identify solely on the basis of qt profiles
(Fig. 8). In contrast, abrupt changes in the sleeve
friction values and the pore-pressure response gen-
 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781 77

Fig. 8. Detecting the ravinement surface (RS) and the transgressive surface (TS) by CPTU tests (test 130U514). The RS is readily
identified on the basis of a marked upward increase in qt . The TS is hardly recognized on the basis of qt profiles, but is marked by a
characteristic downward increase in f s , which is paralleled by a sharp decrease in u.

erally enable a more precise characterization of the
TS. Particularly, on CPTU profiles the TS or the
underlying strata are marked by a downward in-
crease in fs and a sharp decrease in u (u D u 0 in
Figs. 6 and 8). Pore water pressures close to zero
in fine-grained deposits are characteristic of heav-
ily overconsolidated fissured clays (Mayne et al.,
1990; Chen and Mayne, 1996). Profiles similar to
those documented in this paper have been shown, for
instance, by Chang (1990) from overconsolidated,
weathered marine silty clays in Singapore.
The TS of the Ravenna coastal plain displays
very similar geotechnical characteristics to the co-
eval caranto horizon of the Venice lagoon (Tosi,
1994), which similarly separates overconsolidated
Pleistocene clays from the overlying Holocene trans-
gressive deposits. In the case of the caranto, over-
consolidation has been interpreted to have resulted
from clay desiccation during the prolonged phase of
subaerial exposure that characterized the southeast-
ern Po Plain during the last glacial maximum and
the first stages of transgression, when shoreline posi-
tion was up to 250 km south of its present position
(Rizzini, 1974). In this respect, the geotechnical sig-
nature of the TS is equivalent to that expected at an
interfluve sequence boundary.
5.3. Maximum flooding surface (MFS)
The MFS is located within a zone characterized
by a low sedimentation rate and separating the TST
from the overlying highstand systems tract (Loutit
et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). A com-
plex piezocone penetration response characterizes
this surface. Detailed stratigraphic correlations based
upon qt profiles (Fig. 9) indicate that the MFS could
coincide, at least at landward locations, with the
boundary between the transgressive barrier sands and
the overlying prodelta deposits, as suggested by the
classical sequence-stratigraphic models (Van Wag-
oner et al., 1988). At relatively seaward locations
the MFS is very likely to occur within the prodelta
clays rather than at their base (see discussions in
Greenlee et al., 1992; Allen and Posamentier, 1994;
Zaitlin et al., 1994; Amorosi and Centineo, 1997).
In this case, the lack of obvious physical indicators
generally constitutes a major problem in detecting
this surface. Figs. 9 and 10 show how CPTU tests
can be used in conjunction with core data to detect
the MFS. Particularly, the seaward extension of the
MFS coincides with a series of pronounced peaks
of qt that are interpreted to correspond to a sandy
(shell-rich?) horizon. The distal equivalents of these
78 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781

Fig. 9. Interpreted geological cross-section, approximately normal to palaeoshoreline direction (section trace in Fig. 1), showing how
CPTU profiles (qt profiles are shown) can be used for recognition of major stratigraphic discontinuities and mapping of sedimentary bod-
ies. The ravinement surface (RS) within the transgressive systems tract (TST) is marked almost invariably by an abrupt upward increase in
qt (cf. Fig. 8) at the boundary between back-barrier deposits (1) and the overlying transgressive barrier sands (2). The seaward extension
of the maximum flooding surface (MFS) is correlative with sands and shell-rich layers within the prodelta clays (3). The progradation
of an highstand delta complex (HST), with vertical superposition of prodelta clays, beach-ridge (delta front) sands (4), lagoonal-marsh
(delta plain) clays (5) and alluvial deposits (6), can be clearly recognized in the upper part of the section. Mapping the boundary between
the beach-ridge sands and the overlying marsh clays (top of sands) can have important implications for engineering geology.

peaks (Fig. 9) are minor peaks of qt within the
homogeneous prodelta facies association. These mi-
nor peaks, that are invariably associated to very low
(u < u 0 ) pore pressure values, have been observed
to correspond to shell-rich layers (Fig. 10). The con-
siderable lateral extension of the shell lags suggests
important erosion events, possibly associated with
marine flooding and barrier migration. In this re-
spect, the bases of the thin transgressive lag deposits
should be interpreted as flooding surfaces, corre-
sponding to the base of parasequences in the sense
of Van Wagoner et al. (1988) and Arnott (1995). The
MFS, corresponding to the highest shell level and
marking the inversion from barrier retreat to progra-
dation, is likely to coincide with a thin shell-rich
horizon, the lateral extension of which (cf. Fig. 1)
would be in the order of several tens of km2 .
6. Conclusions
(1) A detailed stratigraphic study in the subsur-
face of the southeastern Po Plain documents the
excellent profiling capability of the piezocone pene-
tration (CPTU) tests in soft sediments consisting of
non-gravel deposits. Particularly, the extensive use of
CPTU tests in conjunction with the execution of sev-
enteen continuously cored boreholes shows that this
method can represent an economically convenient
tool for facies identification and reconstruction of
 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781 79

Fig. 10. Detailed comparison of CPTU response and core data, and implications for high-resolution sequence stratigraphy. The two minor
peaks of cone resistance within the prodelta clays (arrows), associated to very low (u < u 0 ) pore pressure values, coincide with shell
layers (see core S4). Correlation of these peaks with the dashed line of Fig. 9 implies that the maximum flooding surface (MFS) could
correspond to a laterally extensive fossil lag. RS D ravinement surface.

the stratal architecture of sedimentary bodies. A con-
sistent correlation is shown between CPTU profiles
and sedimentological characteristics of eight differ-
ent facies associations. No single parameter can be
considered diagnostic of a specific facies association,
but their assemblage is.
(2) CPTU profiles can also be used for iden-
tification and correlation of the key surfaces for
sequence-stratigraphic interpretation. The transgres-
sive surface, the ravinement surface, and the maxi-
mum flooding surface have distinctive signatures in
terms of cone resistance, sleeve friction and pore
water pressure, that can be easily correlated in adja-
cent tests on the basis of stratigraphic position, after
calibration with core data.
(3) The range of variation of the major parameters
that allow the identification of the eight facies asso-
ciations are unlikely to provide accurate prediction
of sediment type on a global scale, and exceptions
to the proposed classification schemes are to be ex-
pected. However, once that calibration between cores
and piezocone data has been carried out, excellent
correlations can be obtained on a local scale, repre-
senting the basis for detailed geological mapping of
sedimentary bodies.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to R. Pignone (Geological Survey
of the Regione EmiliaRomagna) for permission to
publish this paper. The paper benefitted from com-
ments by K. Moran, G. Postma and an anonymous
reviewer. We also thank S. Forni for the drawings.
80 A. Amorosi, N. Marchi / Sedimentary Geology 128 (1999) 6781
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