Existential Beliefs and Values

Author(s): Niranjan Narasimhan, Kumar Bhaskar and Srinivas Prakhya

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 96, No. 3 (October 2010), pp. 369-382
Published by: Springer
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Journal of Business Ethics (2010) 96:369-382 Springer 2010
DOI 10.1007/sl0551-010-0472-7

Niranjan Narasimhan
Kumar Bhaskar
Existential Beliefs and Values Srinivas Prakhya

ABSTRACT. Research on values is extensive. Values

culture (Schein, 1985). In this article, our interest is
and value systems are concepts that have interested
to study the notion of human values. What does
researchers across domains such as psychology, sociology,
being a human essentially mean and what should a
and anthropology. However, antecedents of valueshuman have being strive for? What are the antecedents to
not received sufficient attention. In this study, we develop
values? These questions have perennially interested
and assess a personal value system from the ancient texts of
mankind and philosophers in particular. Spiritual
India. The texts describe a system of existential beliefs and
traditions across the world are also primarily con-
values or prescriptive beliefs. Existential beliefs are con-
cerned with these questions. We turn to the ancient
cerned with the nature of reality. Prescriptive beliefs or
texts of wisdom in India to look for answers. While
values follow from these existential beliefs, and behavior is
literature on values is extensive, antecedents to val-
influenced by values. The content of existential beliefs
ues have received less attention. Our attempt in this
and the implied values or prescriptive beliefs are extracted
study is to construct the belief system comprising
from the texts and a conceptual model of the belief system
values
is developed. Scales are constructed and administered to aand antecedent beliefs.
sample of subjects. Responses from the survey are ana-
In the Indian tradition, the primary sources of
lyzed using a structural equation modeling framework.
wisdom about human nature and evolution are in
Confirmatory factor analysis is used to assess the scales and
two categories. The first category, which includes
establish their adequacy. The nomological net of exis-
the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita,
tential beliefs and values is empirically assessed, and
deals with the fundamental nature of the ultimate
construct validity is examined. Results support the belief
reality that transcends time and approaches that
system described in the texts.
facilitate experiential awareness and knowledge of
this reality (Griffith, 2005; Radhakrishnan, 1973,
KEY WORDS: existential beliefs, nomological net,
self, reality, values 1994; Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1957). The sec-
ond category, which includes the epics Mahabharatha
and Ramayana (Ganguli, 1883; Griffith, 1915), rec-
Introduction ognizes the contingent nature of how beliefs about
the nature of reality translate into values and
accordingly dwells on delineation of values accord-
Values and value systems have interested researchers
across disciplines such as sociology, psychology,
ing to place and circumstance. The epics, though
philosophy, and political science. For instance,ancient,
val- are well known and disseminated. These
ues and value systems have been useful in under-ancient texts contain detailed descriptions of philo-
standing subjective well-being (Diener, 1984, 2000),
sophical systems clarifying oncological and epistemic
issues with direct implications for values and
psychological well-being (Ryff, 1989), and individ-
ual psychology (Taylor, 1988, 1989). In manage- appropriate modes of action. A study of these texts
ment literature, these concepts have enhanced enables a complete description of a personal belief
understanding of work values (Hofstede, 1980;system.
Ros
et al, 1999; Schwartz, 1999), organization behav-
The article is organized as follows. In the fol-
ior (Meglino and Ravlin, 1998) and organization
lowing section, we briefly review literature on values

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 370 Niranjan Narasimhan et al.

and philosophical thought that is most

among relevant
researchers to
on the importance of values in
the worldview embedded in the ancient Indian texts. influencing behavior. Values are believed to have a
The content of existential and prescriptive beliefs substantial influence on the affective and behavioral
embedded in the texts is detailed in the next section.
responses of individuals (Locke, 1976; Rokeach,
Linkages between these beliefs are examined to 1973). Values directly affect behavior in that, they
develop the system of belie. An empirical assess- encourage individuals to act in accordance with their
ment of the constructs and the belief system using values (e.g., see Rokeach, 1973; Williams, 1979).
survey responses is then presented. Finally, we dis- Because values specify modes of conduct that are
cuss implications of the belief system for ethics andsocially desirable, the threat of social sanctions (e.g.,
directions for future research. shame, punishment) will induce individuals to con-
form to dominant social values in their public actions
(Kluckhohn, 1951). This inducement would be
present whether or not an individual's internalized
Overview of background literature values conform to dominant social values. The
mechanics that operate in the case of private
Kluckhohn (1951, p. 389) defined a value as "a behavior is a form of self-sanction. An individual's
conception, explicit or implicit ... of the desirable internalized values function as personal standards of
which influences the selection from available modes, conduct. Thus, any actions that are inconsistent with
means, and ends of action." England (1967) views these values are likely to result in feelings of guilt,
values as being composed of a relatively permanent shame, and self-depreciation (Kluckhohn, 1951).
perceptual framework which shapes and influencesThe enduring scholarly interest in values is probably
the general nature of an individual's behavior. For due to the strong linkage between values and action.
Williams (1968, p. 16; 1979, p. 16), the core phe-However, the link may not be direct as personal
nomenon is that values serve as "criteria or standards value systems along with related constructs such as
of preference." According to Rokeach (1968, pp. worldview and ideology give meaning to action
124, 160), values are global beliefs that "transcen- (Rohan, 2000).
dentally guide actions and judgements across specific Research in values gained an impetus with the
objects and situations." Posner and Schmidt (1996, study of Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) who
p. 277) describe values as lying "at the core of per- examined the question of motives underlying values.
sonality, influencing the choices individuals make, Summarizing earlier research, they reiterate that
...and the way individuals and organizations alike values are enduring beliefs or concepts about desir-
invest their energy." Behavior is the manifestation of able goals and modes of action; they are trans-situ-
one's fundamental values (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; ational and influence behavior; and they provide
Fazio, 1986). Many researchers argue that values are relative ordering of competing beliefs and modes of
predictors or at least antecedents of actual behavior action and behavior (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987,
(Connor and Becker, 1994; Homer and Kahle, 1990). Further, unlike the early studies of Allport
1988; Stackman et al., 2000). et al. (1960) and Rokeach (1973) which provide a
A clear definition of values has been elusive and listing of values and elicit relative importance to
arrive at a value system, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987,
despite the popularity of the construct, there is a lack
of consensus on the nature of values themselves 1990) provided a theoretical basis for the structure of
(Hitlin and Piliavin, 2004; Meglino and Ravlin,
value system by examining the motivation under-
lying each value. Here, ten value types (power,
1998). Values have been conceptualized in different
ways. Values have been considered as needs, achievement,
per- hedonism, stimulation, self-direction,
universalism, benevolence, conformity, tradition,
sonality types, motivations, goals, utilities, attitudes,
and security) are arranged in a two-dimensional
interests, and non-existent mental entities (Meglino
and Ravlin, 1998). This lack of agreement has structure.
cre- The two dimensions are bipolar and rep-
resent the tension between the motivations of (1)
ated problems in interpreting the results of various
studies (see, e.g., Kluckhohn, 1951; Williams, 1979).
openness to change and conservation, and (2) self-
enhancement and self-transcendence.
However, there seems to be considerable agreement

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 Existential Beliefs and Values 371

While there has been considerable interest

meaning among
in life. This is one of the implicit themes in
the studies
researchers on value typologies and of both Kierkegaard
implications for and Nietzsche who
behavior, literature on antecedents
are to values
considered is rela- as the founding fathers
posthumously
tively sparse. A recent stream of of existentialism.in
literature However,
socialthe two also differed in
manyare
psychology focuses on the beliefs that ways, most notably in that Kierkegaard was a
antecedent
to values (Bernard et al., 2003;devout
Maiobeliever
and in God while Nietzche was atheistic.
Olson,
1998). Maio and Olson (1998) suggest that affirming
Nietzche advocated values,life here and now in the
though widely shared, lack cognitivematerial world and was and
support dismissive of all notions of

hence function like truisms. The concept of truisms

hereafter. Kierkegaard's works too reflect a focus on
is traced to McGuire (1964) who proposed
individual wide
and personal choices to be made in exist-
agreement and lack of cognitive support
ing. He described
as the the two
evolution of a human being as
defining characteristics of truisms. Bernard
sequentially et al.
progressing through aesthetic, ethical,
(2003) provide further evidence for and religious
values as stages.
truisms The term existentialism was not
explicitly
by considering a larger set of values. used either in
The approach by Kierkegaard or Nietzche.
Widespread
these studies is to experimentally examine theuseeffect
of this term possibly originated
within
of introspection on values; a change Satre's famous statement
values implies in Existentialism is a

lack of cognitive support. Leung Humanism that "existence

et al. (2007) con- precedes essence" sug-
duct a cross-cultural examination ofgesting that choices rather than a predetermined
the relationships
between social axioms and values. Social axioms are nature constitute the person. Satre referred to
general beliefs about the social world. Bain et al.Heidegger's position in Being and Time as exemplified
(2006) unravel further the role of beliefs in the in the statement "The essence of human-being lies in
determination of value importance, value trade-offs,its existence." The debate on whether primacy is to
and responses to value-laden rhetorical statements.be accorded to essence or to existence goes back at
They provide evidence for the centrality of the roleleast to Aristotle, Socrates, and other philosophers of
of human nature beliefs in the psychology of values. ancient Greece. The discussion on values and the
This body of literature underscores the importancepurpose of human existence has proceeded with
of beliefs of different kinds when tracing the ante-renewed vigor after Kierkegaard and Nietzche. Joas
cedents of value systems. The self has provided(2000) adopts a hermeneutic approach to assess the
another important direction in understanding whyviews of modern philosophers such as William James,
values arise. Hitlin (2003) argues that values form the Max Scheler, John Dewey, Georg Simmel, and
core of personal identity which leads to the forma-Charles Taylor to understand the nature of values and
tion of role and other social identities. Relevant how value commitments arise. He finds the question
frameworks include identity theory (Stryker, 1980) of the genesis of values more interesting than devel-
and social identity theory (Tajfel, 1981) which oping a typology of values and suggests that values
develop the linkages between the individual and arise
the in the context of self formation and self tran-
social world. scendence.
Philosophical discussion on human values has The literature on values is vast, and we have
focused on the fundamental question of whether briefly reviewed in this section works that are rele-
there is an essence to human nature. A related issue is vant when examining the view embedded in the
whether the question of what is good for the human Indian tradition. In the ancient texts of India, the
being can be objectively defined or addressed at all primary purpose of human existence is defined as
through rational contemplation. There is a sharp immediate experience of the ultimate reality and
focus on this issue in the body of philosophical values and value commitments arise in the context of
thought known as existentialism where the personal this quest. Further, we find that beliefs about the
concrete experience of the individual is given ultimate reality and the self are central to the expe-
importance. An implication is that a person has no rience or lack of experience of the ultimate reality.
predetermined nature and hence there is no such The basic thrust in these texts is on examination of
thing as a value to start with. The individual creates the nature of the self across the waking, dream, and
his own values and through his actions constructs deep sleep states. Such an examination leads to the

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372 Niranjan Narasimhan et al.

source from which the self arises. Once the self is rooted in duality. In these states of duality, the one
transcended there is direct experience of the ultimate ultimate reality appears to have manifested as the
reality. The question then is not whether existence knower, known, and knowing.
precedes essence or vice versa but what is the source The ultimate reality is transcendental or a priori to
from which the everyday experience of existence the body and mind and yet the individual inhabiting
arise and into which it subsides. In the next section, the body and equipped with a mind is the ultimate
we extract the content of existential beliefs and reality itself. It always exists as the true Self, though
values from these texts, examine the linkages, and
shrouded by the individual's mistaken identification
describe the belief system. with the mental and physical layers. The most direct
way then for assessing the truth of this claim of
oneness is to look within and examine the current
notion of self where existence and essence seem to
Existential beliefs arise together. What really is the self that experiences
existence and whence does it arise? The texts aver
that the individual who enquires thus is able to
The primary theme that pervades the ancient Indian
texts is that of non-duality or oneness in existencerecognize
of the transient nature of the physical and
the individual Self and the ultimate reality. This view
mental layers of identity and experience the source
is concisely expressed in four statements infrom the which these arise - the transcendental Self
ancient texts (1) Consciousness is Brahman, (2) which
This is the ultimate reality in its all pervasive nat-
Self is Brahman, (3) Thou art That, and (4) Iure.amThe individual then transcends duality and gains
Brahman (Aitreya Upanishad 3.3; Mandukya Upani- knowledge of oneness as an experiential reality. A
knower of this truth abides in this state of oneness.
shad 1.2; Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7; Brhadaran-
yaka Upanishad 1.4.10). Here, Brahman is aThis path of knowledge through self enquiry is
designation of the ultimate reality from whichadopted by very few. In most cases, the starting point
everything springs forth. The root meaning of is an individual who firmly believes in his own
this
separate existence, is outward looking, and finds
word is "to expand." The texts describe Brahman as
existence, consciousness, and bliss and postulate himself
that in the midst of a collective. The ancient texts
it is the basis for time, space, being, and the entire
suggest that such an outward looking individual too
changing universe. In this view, diverse namescan and
progress toward experience of ultimate reality by
forms are part of a fullness that retains its fullnessaligning
and with the order underlying the transient
characteristics of existence, consciousness and world.
bliss When the idea of non-duality or oneness is
examined not from an individual identity perspec-
even as it separates into many (Ishavasya Upanishad).
The seemingly separate existence of the individual
tive is
but from that of the world in all its diversity, the
notion of rta takes center stage. Rta refers to the
due to a veiling of reality which creates and sustains
the experience of a being in time. These statements
underlying order or natural law and is described as
sharply focus on the identity of the individual,thehis"truth of things" (Rig Veda II 6.10; IV 5.5).
fundamental nature as consciousness, and the ulti-
This order, while changeless, is the basis of all
mate reality. The primary goal of human existencechanges
is in nature and life. Rta is considered to be a
fundamental characteristic of the ultimate reality; it is
to experientially realize the truth of these statements.
One fundamental characteristic of this transcendental
the manifestation of sathya in the objective universe
which is rooted in duality. A more specific version
ultimate reality is described as Sathya which translates
as truth, and is elucidated as "truest," "unchange-
of this idea is dharma. The meaning of the root of this
able," "that which has no distortion," "that which
wordis is to support, sustain. This concept is expli-
beyond distinctions of time, space, and person,"cated
and in many ways, as it is applicable to individuals
"that which pervades the universe in all its and con- collectives. The word refers to the innate nature
stancy" etc. Non-duality means that Sathya is or also
characteristic of any entity in the universe. For
the "truth of being" and is the individual in hisinstance,
real the dharma of fire is to burn. Rta, which can
nature as supreme consciousness in contrast toalso thebe translated as "the course of things" (Rig Veda
limited self in waking and dream states thatI, are 1.8, 23.5), is a concept that is very similar to

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 Existential Beliefs and Values 373

dharma but cosmic in scope. This knowledge

principle(Satprakashananda,
refers to 1974). The view that
the unchanging harmony underlying and sustaining
the intrinsic characteristic of perceptual knowledge is
the immediacy
all change in the universe (Rig Veda IV, 23.9). of This
cognition to consciousness has
also
is considered to be the natural and been supported
equitable law by other scholars of ontology
that
(Hobhouse, This
regulates all phenomena in the universe. 1905).law
Montague (1925) and Royce
(1964)
keeps all things and beings in their admit intuitionism as one valid approach to
course.
understanding
The entire sweep of Indian philosophical thought reality. Every individual has some
can be seen as we move across the Vedas, Brahma-
degree of grasp on the ultimate reality since it is the
nas, and the Upanishads and is summarized in the
very core of his being. However, the ineffable nature
Bhagavad Gita. These studies concur in that
of the ultimate realitythey
and the limited sense of being of
the individual
recognize the ephemeral nature of the world often only enable characterization of
and
provide ways to transcend the same. However,
the ultimate reality as we
as something beyond such as God
move from the Vedas to the Upanishads, there is power.
or spirit or a supernatural a Also, recognition of a
shift in relative focus from the extrinsic to the basic order in the structure of existence raises the

intrinsic. The Vedas recognize sathya and rta but possibility of a purpose and meaning in life. Hence, we
dwell on forces of nature and prescribe modes of attempt to capture the strength of the two aspects of
action. The Brahmanas develop this theme further existential beliefs using the respondents' degree of
and detail the duties of the human being toward agreement with the following statements. The first
creation. The idea in these texts is that appropriate
statement accommodates heterogeneous beliefs about
action in the world makes one ready to embark the on ultimate reality, and the second focuses on the
the path of self enquiry. Action prescribed in the fundamental law governing action and consequences.
Vedas is considered to enable transition to a mind

that is more probing and able to turn upon itself.I believe in a Supernatural Power/God/Spirit/
Self (EB1 -Reality)
The Upanishads relentlessly adopt an inward looking
approach and explore in depth the inner recesses of believe in the law of action and reaction (EB2
I
- Order)
the self within. The transition from objective
external reality to the subjective one is striking.
"The source of the entire universe is indeed the
Values
deepest self in each man" (Chandogya Upanishad III
13.7, 4.4) and "the wise man striving for immortality
The two beliefs about reality and order together
turns his eyes inward and peeps into the self within"
(Katha Upanishad II 1.1). Clearly, this sweep
provide the basis for values which are modes of affect
accommodates different initial conditions and pro- and behavior that facilitate experience of the ulti-
vides approaches for both outward looking mate and reality. Sathya or the truth of being is often
inward looking individuals enabling a gentle transi-elaborated in the context of an individual rooted in
tion for the former to the latter. Thus, in these texts,
duality as: "All that takes you closer to the ultimate
there is an explicit recognition of the diversity in is sathya." The ancient texts define values as
reality
the very essence of an individual and hold that the
initial existential beliefs of mankind along the bipolar
spectrum of duality and non-duality; an external enduring worth of a human being lies in his value
God and the Self. It should be noted that these commitments (Bhagavad Gita 17.03). These values
notions of the truth of being (sathya), naturalare derived with the final truth of oneness as the
order
basis.
(rta), and the moral ideal (dharma) are not limited toThis is more beneficial to the individual than
what is desirable
the scope of sensory experience and reasoning. in his current state of existential
Indeed, if the ultimate reality is transcendental or
maturity. Implicit in this understanding is a principle
a priori to the body and mind, then sensory ofexpe-
equity that governs human life and interactions
rience and reasoning are unlikely to be sufficientwith
forothers.
Integrity, appropriate action, and inner peace
experiencing it. This school of non-duality admits
(Bhagavad Gita, 17.17; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
perception, inference, verbal testimony, comparison,
postulation, and non-apprehension as means of4.14) are considered as the bases of value based
valid

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 374 Niranjan Narasimhan et a.

existence. "Speak the truth and practice

The individual virtue"
who identifies with the body-mind
(Taittiriya Upanishad, I: 11.1) is the
complex key
faces the parting
consequences of his actions over
instruction given by the teacher
lifetimes.to
The a student
good on
and bad circumstances faced by
completion of studies. Integrity and
an individual areappropriate
simply the consequences of earlier
action lead to the all important
actions.quality of inner
This follows from the principle of oneness.
Action isthe
peace. Integrity includes speaking done intruth,
a collective of entities that are one
i.e.,
being honest in the sense of articulating and hence implicitly
views, connected.
facts,One's actions have
etc. as one believes them to be. It includes com- consequences not only for others but also for oneself.
All entities involved in the context of an action are as
munication that is consistent with one's knowledge
and undertaken in a fair manner. Further, an inner
important as the actor and cannot be viewed simply
as means to an end. Accordingly, the ideal of dharma
consistency is another important element of integrity
- the individual must act as he speaks. Harmonyorin appropriate action contains explicit recognition of
thought, word, and deed is oneness at the level ofthe
anconsequences of action to oneself and to others
individual person. Values are to be uncompromis- and does not view ends separately from means.
ingly adhered to regardless of the situation and Hence,
the we use the following two items to measure
adherence is not for the purpose of any immediate appropriate action:
outcome. The degree to which the individual is able
to regulate himself and practice these two qualitiesACT1 I do actions keeping in mind the conse-
constitutes his integrity. The practice of integrityquences of those actions.
requires self regulation in the face of immediate pulls
ACT2 I give as much importance to the means
as to the ends.
of the body and mind that would enhance the cur-
rent idea of self. Hence, integrity is an expression of
It should be noted that integrity and appropriate
existential beliefs in the person's life. Thus, we assess
action are guiding ideals rather than specific do's and
integrity with the following three statements.
don'ts. The texts recognize the contingent nature of
INT1 I am truthful, honest, and straightforward
values and ask the individual to arrive at specific
courses of action in each situation and circumstance
in my dealings with others.
after due consideration of these ideals.
INT2 My actions are consistent with my words.
INT3 I will not compromise my personal values Integrity as a personal sense of oneness allows
irrespective of any crisis situation.
appropriate action which explicitly recognizes the
oneness in a collective. Such action facilitates
Integrity enables appropriate action in a collec-
experience of the ultimate reality by building inner
tive. Action is natural to everyone (Bhagavad Gita,peace which in turn fosters integrity and appropriate
action. Inner peace is considered to be the pre-
3.04, 3.05, 3.08) but appropriate action is that which
is efficacious for evolution (Bhagavad Gita, 3.09; requisite
Isa for experiential knowledge of reality. This
Upanishad 2; 18). Action by itself is not conduciveis so since the ultimate goal is the transcendental Self
to evolution; action that arises out of attachmentandto this to be gained only by looking within. This
knowledge and happiness is beneficial (Bhagavad end-state is characterized by a pure mind that finds
Gita, 14.06). Selfless action undertaken for the satisfaction in the Self alone (Bhagavad Gita, 2.55,
benefit of the aggregate is valued (Bhagavad Gita, 3.17). The texts suggest that an outward looking
3.25). Any action has to be evaluated on the basis mind will become turbulent due to the very nature
of its consequences to oneself as well as othersof involvement with the world. As the mind dwells
(Bhagavad Gita, 4.18). The means used to achieveonanobjects of the world, it becomes attached to
end is also important in the spiritual journey. One them. Attachment breeds desire, and denial of de-
facet of the natural order rta is its manifestation in sired objects leads to anger. Anger leads to a deluded
human life as the law of karma. The literal meaning mind and loss of memory and capacity to reason, and
of karma is action, and this law holds that the indi- inappropriate action follows (Bhagavad Gita, 2.62,
vidual is the architect of his own destiny in that 2.63). The texts accord so much importance to this
actions have consequences that fructify in the future. state that individuals who achieve inner peace are

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 Existential Beliefs and Values 375

deemed to be firmly on the path to knowledge

saying: of be lived - forward. The
that it must
reality (Bhagavad Gita, 5.19). Analogies
ponderssuch
this,as "the
the more it comes to mean tha
depth of a water body can be seen only when
temporal the never becomes quite i
existence
surface is still" are used to underscore
precisely thebecause
impor-at no moment can I fin
tance of inner peace. A mind which quietis able
to taketo absorb
the backward-looking posit
desires without internal disturbances,
Diary justof Sorenas rivers
Kierkegaard; Kierkegaard, pt
enter the ocean without creatingno. 136). Thereisare nuances of the phi
disturbances,
desirable (Bhagavad Gita, 2.70). existentialism in the view embedded in the texts. The
Inner peace comprises of tranquility and
texts emphasize thatequa-
the individual defines himself by
the choices
nimity which are the appropriate affect he makes
states and advocate
prior to personal integrity
action and post outcome. Tranquility is a state
as in the existentialist view. of
There is also a strong
mind which is not perturbed byemphasis
sorrow, on thecravings,
individual finding meaning for
fear, anger, and attachments (Bhagavad
himself in hisGita
state of2.56,
existence. However, the pre-
2.57). The individual has only the right
eminent focustoin appro-
the texts is on the origin of the
priate action and not to any outcome
experience of (Bhagavad
existence. The individual is urged to
find
Gita, 3.25). Indeed, any expectations out forofhimself who he is and how he and the
outcomes
serve only to dilute the wholeness world inof the
which action.
he finds himself in the waking and
Tranquility makes such appropriate dream action
states comepossible.
about. The texts point out that
A corollary to this is that the individual has to
those who undertake thisbe
inner journey find the
unruffled by outcomes. Equanimity in the
transcendental Selfface
as the of
origin. The truth of non-
outcomes is hence an important value. Further,
duality is then the
experienced, and the Self is seen in all.
Until then,by
individual with inner peace is unaffected it ispraise
choices that
orare based on the belief of
blame (Bhagavad Gita, 4.20-4.22).non
Accordingly, the In summary, existential
duality that are beneficial.
following statements capture equanimity, tranquility,
beliefs regarding the self and the nature of the universe
and self-sufficiency as aspects of inner peace.
primarily foster internal oneness or integrity. Integrity
makes appropriate action possible which in turn leads
INP1 I am not carried away or to affected by theGita, 2.64, 4.33, 4.38, 6.10).
inner peace (Bhagavad
results of my actions.
Accordingly, we depict the system of beliefs and
INP2 I am always at peace irrespective
values with theseof my between constructs in
linkages
work pressure or any situation.
Figure 1.
INP3 I am self-motivated and do not depend on
external factors for sustaining my motivation.

It is perhaps the importance ofData

inner peace that
and analysis
Kierkegaard is stressing when he states "It is quite true
what Philosophy says: that Life must be understood
A questionnaire was administered to employees of
backward. However, that makes one forget
20 high-performingthe other
business organizations in India.

Integrity

Existential ' Inner

Beliefs * Peace

Action r

Figure 1. Belief system.

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376 Niranjan Narasimhan et al.

TABLE I specify a hybrid structural equation model incorpo-

Descriptive statistics rating measurement and structural components and
adopt a two-step modeling approach (Anderson and
Item N Mean Std dev Gerbing, 1988). First, the model is specified as a
CFA measurement model with independent mea-
INT1 337 4.51 0.56
surement errors (Anderson and Gerbing, 1984) and
INT2 332 4.30 0.59
subsequently refined by allowing correlated errors
INT3 332 3.89 1.00
that are substantively supported. Correlated mea-
ACT1 329 4.13 0.66
surement errors are not uncommon in social psy-
ACT2 329 4.15 0.66
INP1 329 3.74 0.86
chological research and significant error covariances
INP2 335 3.58 0.92 represent systematic relationships in measurement
INP3 333 4.28 0.71 errors due to respondent or item characteristics or
EB1 336 4.27 0.81 both (Aish and Joreskog, 1990). Once an acceptable
EB2 334 4.25 0.65 measurement model is obtained, a hybrid model
with structural paths is specified and estimated.
The two models can be compared using goodness of
The questionnaire elicited
fit statistics. Further, respons
if the factor loadings do not
values, work values,
significantly vary, organization
measurement invariance is sup- cu
ceptions of leader
ported. values. A total of
naires were administered, from
We first assess the values scale comprising eight wh
questionnaires items
weremeasuring the threereceived.
dimensions of integrity, Res
asked to indicate their level
action, and inner peace. The CFA with uncorrelated of ag
statements on measurement
a five point
errors produced a modest fit (y1 - scale r
87.53, dfto
(strongly disagree) = 17, p =50.00; (strongly
CFI = 0.90, AGFI =0.79; agree
responses to conduct an
RMSR = 0.075). Model diagnostics explorato
suggested that
empirically assess the
the model belief
could be improved system
by allowing correlated
measurement data
earlier section. The errors for the pairs
were INT1-INT3, random
estimation sampleINT2-INT3, with INT1-ACT1, 340 INT1-ACT1,respondand
dation sample INP2-INP3. Examination
with 358 of the itemresponden
characteristics
statistics for existential
and expected parameter changes beliefs
suggested that and
system items inrelaxing
the estimation
the assumption of independent errors forsamp
in Table I. The inner
these pairs wouldpeace items
be meaningful. Accordingly, we of
equanimity, and the
specify these errorintegrity
correlations as free parameters aspec
and estimate
promising values were the augmented
lower specification.onThis an
to the other items.
model produced a goodThe pattern
fit (/ = 19.41, df = 12, p =
0.07902; CFI The
sample was similar. = 0.99, AGFI values
= 0.92; RMSR = 0.028)inven
items has a Cronbach's alpha
and meaningful and significant of 0.72
parameter estimates
holdout sample). The
suggesting that thebelief
scale items identifysystem
with the
10 items had a Cronbach's alpha
appropriate dimensions. Before proceeding further, of
the holdout sample).
this re-specified three factor model was estimated
We assume that the indicators
using the validation are
sample resulting in an adequate fit refl
(X2 = 30.49, df = 12, p
underlying constructs = 0.00236; use
and CFI = 0.97,stru
AGFI = 0.88;
modeling to assess RMSR = 0.049). A
value model with a
structure a
belief system single
proposed in
factor represented by all eight Figure
indicators was
estimated
model generating (/ = 23.08, df = 15, p = (Joreskog
strategy 0.082; CFI =
a tentative 0.99, AGFI = 0.92;
covariance RMSR = 0.033) to assess dis-
structure is spec
and thereafter undertake
criminant theory
validity (Bender, 1990). The three factor an
refinements to arrive at a final model. Since we are model has a better fit suggesting discrimination
interested in the structure of the value system, we between the dimensions of integrity, action and inner

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 Existential Beliefs and Values 377

peace. These results provide support the x2 statistic

for showed no increase while the AGFI
convergent
and discriminant validity of three dimensions
and RMSR of
improved. Factor loadings for the two
personal values - integrity, actionmodels and are
inner peace.
similar supporting measurement invari-
Next, we consider the structure of the three ance. Thus, the conceptualization and measurement
dimensions of values as hypothesized in the nomo- of dimensions of values and the structure of the value
logical net of beliefs and values in Figure 1. Integrity system described in the texts are supported by the
is expected to lead to action and action leads to inner data.

peace. We specify a hybrid model which combines We next add existential beliefs to this structure of
path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis prescriptive beliefs or values and conduct a CFA
(Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Kline, 1998). From a (Model 3) of the belief system. The model fit (#2 =
measurement perspective, the focus is on the speci- 76.77, df = 24, p = 0.00000; CFI = 0.93, AGFI =
fied pattern of loadings of indicators on factors and 0.82; RMSR = 0.111) is marginal although it is
the structural aspect considers direct effects among better for the validation sample (x2 = 66.98, df = 22,
the latent variables. If all possible paths; integrity to p = 0.0001; CFI = 0.96, AGFI = 0.86; RMSR =
action and inner peace and action to inner peace; are 0.058). Finally, we consider the prescriptive belief
specified, then the resulting model is identical to network estimated earlier augmented with existen-
the CFA model (/ = 19.41, df = 12, p = 0.07902; tial beliefs (Figure 2) as the antecedent to the core
CFI = 0.99, AGFI = 0.92; RMSR = 0.028). value of integrity. The model fit Qf = 59.27, df =
27, p = 0.00033; CFI = 0.97, AGFI = 0.87; RMSR =
However, the path from integrity to inner peace was
not significant in both estimation and validation
0.082) is encouraging and the influence of existential
samples. A restricted model as described in the values
beliefs on integrity is positive and significant. Similar
segment in Figure 1 specifies structural effects
results were obtained with the validation sample.
The conceptual model of existential beliefs and
between the integrity, action and action, inner peace
pairs. This model did not show a significant deteri-
values is supported by the data.
oration (x2 = 19.61, df = 13, p = 0.10534; CFI =
0.99, AGFI = 0.93; RMSR = 0.029). The results
for the two models are summarized in Table Discussion
II;
Model 2 is the CFA model which serves as a baseline

model in which Model 3 (the hybrid path andIn this study, we have extracted the content of
measurement model) is nested. Model 3 has oneexistential and prescriptive beliefs embedded in the
ancient Indian texts and described the system of
extra degree of freedom since the path from integrity
to inner peace is fixed at zero. The path coefficients
beliefs. We have then used survey responses to assess
from integrity to action and action to inner peace the nomological network of beliefs. Results suggest
were both significant at 1.15 and 0.99, respectivelythat there are significant relationships between
in Model 3. The increase in the #2 statistic is 0.20existential beliefs and prescriptive beliefs. Specifi-
while the degrees of freedom increase by one. cally, the paths from existential beliefs to integrity,
When the restricted model was estimated with the
integrity to action, and action to inner peace are
validation sample data (x2 = 30.49, df = 13, p =
significant. The central feature of this system is its
0.004; CFI = 0.97, AGFI = 0.89; RMSR = 0.05),focus on the nature of the self and consequently the

TABLE II

CFA and hybrid models

X2 df x*/d r difference df difference GFI CFI AGFI RMSR

1. CFA initial -3 factor 87.53 17 5.15 0.9 0.9 0.79 0.075
2. CFA final - 3 factor 19.41 12 1.62 0.97 0.99 0.92 0.028
3. Hybrid model 19.61 13 1.51 0.2 1 0.97 0.99 0.93 0.029

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378 Niranjan Narasimhan et al.

Figure 2. Existential beliefs and values.

a realization
implied desirability of integrity. A focusofoninner
thepeace
selfbelow
is potential. As the
also central in Schwartz's (1992) representation
gap between action and integrity of is closed, the inner
values; the two higher dimensions
peace circle are also
openness
expands, andto when there is com-
change versus conservation and pleteself
consistency
enhancement
of thought, word, and deed the
three circles become
versus self transcendence. However, in one.
our repre-
sentation, though the interplay We between
have adopted athe parsimonious
indi- approach in
vidual and the outer world is the context,
specifying a valuethe
system focus
that isis consistent with
existential
on inner peace which is reflective of self beliefs. This prescription
control and of a values sys-
affective self-sufficiency. Suchtem with
inner its relentless
peace inward enables looking approach is
self transcendence and achievement of the supra
admittedly difficult to practice. The pull of the body
and the mind isof
terminal goal of experiential awareness alsooneness.
natural, and an approach is
Our earlier depiction of therequired,
valuewhich accepts these
system waslimitations
a and yet
facilitates
static version and the texts suggest that transcending them. The texts have also
as individuals
evolve the ability to practice supported
these valuesprosperity increases.
and material desires as legiti-
In the limiting case, the valuesmate themselves become
as long as they are obtained without violating
one, and integrity, action,the and inner
principles peace
of action areearlier. When
as detailed
spontaneous expressions of duality
the individual
of the individual and who is is explicitly
the world
recognized, dharma,
established in oneness. A preliminary artha, kama, and moksha are
representation
of the dynamic structure of defined
theasbelief
the values ofsystem
life. Moksha is is
liberation and
depicted in Figure 3. The core values
characterizes theof
self integrity,
transcending itself and abiding
in the eternal stateas
action, and inner peace are represented of expanding
ultimate reality of satya. As
concentric circles. Action is contained withindetailed earlier, dharma is right action in that it allows
integrity, and the gap between the two captures
for enjoyment of objects in dual existence but at the
sameinto
the difficulty associated with translating intent time enables transcendence of duality and
realization
action. The gap between intent and action results in of oneness. Artha (relating to a thing or

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 Existential Beliefs and Values 379

y - - - ^ *%

Integrity "X
S '

ZV '''* KcliojJ ***> '

/ '/ - - -. ' '
/ / ^ />' Ver Pe0?' ' ' ' '
'' ' I ' ' ' ' t ' ''
! I ! ! S

' V" v
' ' -
s's Love S

Figure 3. Evolution of personal values.

two boundaries
object; material, significant; resulting fromof the or
love sector
based indicate its ever
expanding
on the possession of a thing) refers nature when
to external possession is pursued with
objects
such as wealth and focuses on possession
right action and as a value.
non-violence. Eventually, there is
experiential
Kama (wish, desire, longing) is desire which awareness
is partonlyof
of ultimate reality and
suchof
the human psyche. In this system awareness
four is characterized by unconditional
legitimate
values, it is important to note that each
love. The beliefis
in not to
oneness be
lead to simple behavioral
looked at in isolation. Desire for worldly
prescriptions whichobjects is
are breathtaking in scope such as
acceptable, and their acquisition is allowed
extending for
love and service asand always seeking
to all
long as dharma is not violated. Further, such
to help and never action
to hurt others.
even facilitates evolution and self- transcendence. It Our focus has been on the ancient texts of India,
should be noted that dharma is common to both the but our findings may not be limited to this world-
inward and outward looking approaches. Prema view. There is support in the literature for consid-
(universal and unconditional love) and ahimsa (non- erable similarities in the inner meaning embedded in
violence) are part of dharma but merit explicit and worldviews of major spiritual traditions (Kriger and
separate recognition as values. This system of values Seng, 2005). Further research is required to establish
that would be applicable in an outward looking the specific similarities with respect to existential
approach that is rooted in dual existence is also beliefs. Even within the Indian tradition, there are
depicted in Figure 3. The values in this approach schools of thought that interpret the texts as
that are distinct are possession (artha and kama), non- affirming the all pervasive and time transcending
violence (ahims), and unconditional love (prema); nature of the ultimate reality but with nuanced dif-
dharma or right action is common to both. This ferences. Among the many paths available toward
depiction indicates that possession of desired objects experience of the ultimate reality, we have consid-
is legitimate as long as the principles of right action ered in some detail the paths of knowledge and
and non-violence are not violated in the acquisition action. The path of devotion is another option and
process. Prema or unconditional love is the charac- considered as a relatively easy approach for those in
teristic of one who while retaining a functional who affect dominates rather than cognition.
However, as mentioned earlier, all paths lead to the
identity is experientially aware of the ultimate reality
and hence is one with everything. The arrows at the same goal and eventually subsume each other. The

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380 Niranjan Narasimhan et al.

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