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Behavior Therapy 43 (2012) 619 628

www.elsevier.com/locate/bt

The Relationship Among Self-Efficacy, Negative Self-Referent

Cognitions, and Social Anxiety in Children: A Multiple
Mediator Model
Brittany M. Rudy
Thompson E. Davis III
Russell A. Matthews
Louisiana State University

Evidence suggests that general self-efficacy, an individual's
beliefs about his global abilities, and social self-efficacy, an
individual's beliefs in his ability to navigate social situations,
are strongly connected to levels of social anxiety. Negative
self-statements, also known as negative self-referent cogni-
tions, have also been linked with levels of social anxiety.
Although self-efficacy and negative self-statements have
been shown to be important variables in the phenomenology
and maintenance of social anxiety in children, they have yet
to be examined in conjunction with one another. The
purpose of this study was to examine the relationship
between negative self-referent cognitions and self-efficacy
and to examine both general self-efficacy and social self-
efficacy as mediator variables in the relationship between
negative self-statements and social anxiety. Results were
based on a sample of 126 children ages 11 to 14 years. A
significant association between negative self-statements and
both general self-efficacy and social self-efficacy was
established. Results also indicated that general self-efficacy
fully mediated the relationship between negative self-
statements and social anxiety; however, contrary to
hypotheses, social self-efficacy did not mediate the relation-
ship between negative self-statements and social anxiety.
Implications and future recommendations are discussed.
The authors would like to thank Johnny L. Matson Ph.D. for his
contribution to the manuscript.
Address correspondence to Brittany M. Rudy, Laboratory for
Anxiety, Phobia, and Internalizing Disorder Studies, Louisiana State
University, 236 Audubon Hall, Department of Psychology, Baton
Rouge, LA 70803; e-mail: bmoree@lsu.edu.
0005-7894/43/619-628/$1.00/0
2011 Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. Published by
Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: social anxiety; self-efficacy; negative self-statements;
children; multiple mediator model
A HOST OF VARIABLES have been connected to the
development and maintenance of social anxiety.
Two of which, self-efficacy and negative self-
referent cognitions, have become increasingly
more important in recent literature. Although a
systematic relationship has been demonstrated to
exist between self-efficacy and social anxiety as well
as between negative self-statements and social
anxiety, the three variables have yet to be examined
in relation to one another. The purpose of this
study was to test a multiple mediator model that
examined the specific relationships among these
variables in children and early adolescents. A better
understanding of the specific relationships among
these variables could lead to more efficient assess-
ment and treatment of social anxiety in children
and adolescents.
social anxiety
Social phobia (also known as social anxiety
disorder) is a debilitating disorder that affects the
lives of many children, adolescents, and adults.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR; APA, 2000),
social phobia is characterized by an excessive or
unreasonable, marked and persistent fear of social
situations that invariably provokes an anxiety
response and significantly interferes with the
person's daily life. Prevalence rates for social
phobia are reported to range from 3% to 13%
620 rudy et al.
(DSM-IV-TR), with the most recent estimates
indicating a lifetime prevalence rate of 12.1%
(Kessler et al., 2005). Similarly, Schlenker and
Leary (1982) defined social anxiety (i.e., a contin-
uous construct) as anxiety that results from the
prospect or presence of personal evaluation as well
as fear of social failure and criticism. This marked
fear of social failure is intricately interwoven into
one's beliefs about himself/herself and his capabil-
ities in social situations. Despite the prevalence
of social phobia (i.e., a categorical, diagnosable
disorder), elevated levels of social anxiety (i.e., a
dimensional construct) that may or may not meet
clinical criteria are more commonly addressed in
the literature. Researchers suggest that social
anxiety exists along a continuum with social phobia
at one extreme and marked elevations in anxious-
ness at the other (Norton, Cox, Hewitt, & McLeod,
1997). Therefore, social anxiety is often examined
when a diagnosis of social phobia is not relevant,
convenient, or applicable. Whether or not social
anxiety is examined as a clinical diagnosis or an
anxious elevation along the social anxiety contin-
uum, it is clear that without treatment, social
anxiety can drastically impair one's social, educa-
tional, and professional capacities throughout the
lifespan (for a review see Davis, Munson, & Tarzca,
2009).
Social anxiety has been found to correlate with a
number of variables (e.g., Spence, Donovan, &
Breckman-Toussaint, 1999) and is thought to
develop through several different pathways (e.g.,
Schlenker & Leary, 1982); however, a specific
cause of the construct has yet to be determined.
Conceptually, it is suspected that self-efficacy and
negative self-statements are two variables that can
play a role in the manifestation of social anxiety.
Low levels of self-efficacy are negatively correlated
with high levels of social anxiety in adults as well
as in children and adolescents (Leary & Atherton,
1986; Muris, 2002). A greater number of negative
self-statements has been found to be positively
correlated with higher levels of social anxiety in
adults, children, and adolescents (Glass & Furlong,
1990; Wichmann, Coplan, & Daniels, 2004).
However, the relationship between these two vari-
ables has yet to be examined together in the lit-
erature with adults or children. Therefore, the
current study aimed to examine the connections
between these two variables and their relationship
with social anxiety in children and adolescents.
social anxiety and self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a well-known construct that has been
linked to a number of emotional issues, including
anxiety disorders. Bandura (1977) defined self-
efficacy as the conviction that one can successfully
execute the behavior required to produce the desired
outcome (p.193). More simplistically, self-efficacy
is the belief in one's own capability to perform
successfully in a given situation. Adding to this
definition, Sherer et al. (1982) noted that this belief
has a strong effect on mastery expectations. As a part
of people's beliefs and expectations of themselves,
self-efficacy plays an important role in the develop-
ment and maintenance of social anxiety.
Although Bandura (1977; 1997) advocates that
efficacy applies to specific situations, Sherer et al.
(1982) describes self-efficacy as a more global
concept. Global self-efficacy (also known as general
self-efficacy) refers to more general beliefs about a
person's expectations across situations whereas the
more specific term social self-efficacy refers to a
person's belief about his capability to accurately
perform in a social situation (Shelton, 1990).
Although there are opposing views concerning
which type of self-efficacy is more influential,
research has suggested that global and domain
specific self-efficacy (e.g., social self efficacy) often
interact with one another to influence a person's
beliefs (Shelton). Therefore, it is important to
examine both global self-efficacy and social self-
efficacy to understand how self-efficacy influences
social anxiety.
Researchers have found evidence for the link
between social self-efficacy and social anxiety, as
well as global self-efficacy and social anxiety, in
adults as well as in children and adolescents. Leary
and Atherton (1986) made a specific connection
between self-efficacy and social anxiety in adults by
proposing the concept of self presentation efficacy
expectancy (p. 257). They describe this concept
as the probability of behaving in a certain intended
manner in order to convey an intended impression.
They suggested that the more positive the beliefs
or expectancies are, the less social anxiety one will
experience and vice versa. In other words, if a
person does not believe that he or she can accu-
rately execute a social situation, the lack of con-
fidence is likely to heighten anxiety levels and
decrease the probability of competently handling
the situation. Similarly in children, Wheeler and
Ladd (1982) found that social self-efficacy corre-
lated negatively with feelings of social anxiety,
and Hannesdttir and Ollendick (2007) found that
the overall level of social self-efficacy predicted
the level of social anxiety regardless of the inter-
personal relationship (peers or strangers) in which
the action is taking place. Examining adolescents,
Smri, Ptursdttir, and orsteinsdttir (2001)
found that the less perceived social competence (a
construct used interchangeably with social self-
 social anxiety in children: a multiple mediator model
efficacy) an individual has, the more social anxiety
he or she will experience. These findings collec-
tively suggest that social self-efficacy is indicative
of the amount of social anxiety present in social
interactions.
Global self-efficacy has also been found to play a
role in the presence of social anxiety. For instance,
findings from two studies conducted by Matsuo
and Arai (1998) suggested that lower levels of
general self-efficacy consistently accompanied
higher levels of social anxiety in children. Muris
(2002) addressed both general and specific areas of
self-efficacy by examining three domains of global
self-efficacy (emotional, academic, and social) and
their relationship to several anxiety problems (e.g.,
social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, sepa-
ration anxiety disorder, etc.) in adolescents. His
findings suggested that lower levels of global self-
efficacy were correlated with higher levels of trait
anxiety and social anxiety. Furthermore, social self-
efficacy was linked to social phobia and played a
large role in anxiety disorders in general.
As described, both general self-efficacy and social
self-efficacy are closely related to the construct
of social anxiety. It is possible that self-efficacy
plays a considerable role in the phenomenology and
maintenance of social anxiety. Therefore, its rela-
tionship with other social anxiety variables, such
as negative self-statements, is also important to
examine. Exploring these relationships could facil-
itate better assessment of social anxiety and aid in
determining the best treatment for the disorder.
social anxiety and negative self-referent
cognitions
Much like self-efficacy, negative self-statements
play a role in the development and severity of
social anxiety. Negative self-statements are negative
self-referent cognitions that can affect one's level
of anxiety or depression (Ronan, Kendall, & Rowe,
1994). More specifically, these statements are
thoughts about oneself (e.g., I will make a fool
of myself) that are negatively oriented and can be
state or situationally dependent. Greater numbers
of negative self-statements are indicative of higher
levels of anxiety. According to a study conducted
by Treadwell and Kendall (1996), children with
anxiety disorders reported more frequent anxious
negative self-statements (e.g., I get a nervous
feeling like something bad is going to happen)
than children without anxiety disorders, and fur-
thermore, negative self-statements were predictive
of the severity of anxiety experienced before and
after treatment had taken place. These findings
suggest that negative self-referent cognitions signif-
icantly contribute to the construct of social anxiety.
621
A pattern in which negative self-statements
positively correlate with and significantly predict
social anxiety has been repeatedly demonstrated
in adults (Beidel, Turner, & Dancu, 1985; Glass &
Furlong, 1990; Turner, Beidel, & Larkin, 1986);
unfortunately, less research has examined this
relationship in children and adolescents. On the
basis of previous findings with adults, Spence et al.
(1999) aimed to examine whether relationship
trends carried over from social anxiety symptom
presentation in adults to social anxiety symptom
presentation in children and adolescents. The
authors found that several variable trends exhibited
by adults with social anxiety do exist in children
and adolescents with social anxiety as well. In doing
so, they identified the specific trend that children
with social anxiety also exhibited more negative
self-referent cognitions about their social perfor-
mance than those without social anxiety. Similarly,
Wichmann et al. (2004) found that much like
adults, socially withdrawn children exhibited more
negative self-perceptions (negative self-referent cog-
nitions) than those of their peers who were not
socially withdrawn. Muris, Merckelbach, Mayer,
and Snieder (1998) replicated Treadwell and
Kendall's (1996) finding that a greater number of
negative self-statements is predictive of higher
levels of anxiety symptoms and trait anxiety, and
specifically demonstrated that number of negative
self-statements reported significantly predicted the
severity of social anxiety experienced by children ages
7 to 10 years; however, their results for adolescents
ages 11 to 15 years were not as conclusive.
Collectively, these results indicated that children
and adolescents who exhibit more negative self-
statements are more socially withdrawn and often
more socially anxious. Therefore, the relationship
between negative self-referent cognitions and social
anxiety is an important relationship that must be
considered when examining the phenomenology
and maintenance of social anxiety. Because of its
importance, the relationship between this variable
and other important social anxiety variables, such
as self-efficacy, should also be examined thorough-
ly as a means of better understanding assessment
and treatment of social anxiety.
negative self-referent cognitions and
self-efficacy
Despite their importance as contributing variables
in the maintenance of social anxiety, the relation-
ship between negative self-referent cognitions and
self-efficacy in children and adolescents has yet to
be examined in the literature. However, evidence
suggests that a person's self-referent cognitions may
affect his beliefs in his abilities (Cieslak, Benight, &
622 rudy et al.
Lehman, 2008). Bandura (2001) discusses the vast
importance of self-reflectiveness on one's beliefs
about himself and his abilities, and in turn, his
competency and life choices. Self-reflectiveness is
noted to have multiple components, which lead
sequentially to one another and affect future actions
or agency (Bandura). In this way, negative self-
referent cognitions, which as previous mentioned
are more state dependent (i.e., lower level reflective-
ness), are likely to influence one's beliefs in his ability
to perform in situations over time (i.e., higher level
reflectiveness). In other words, the more one neg-
atively references himself in his thoughts (e.g., I
am an embarrassment), the less confidence he will
have in his ability to perform in a given situation.
Similarly, the underpinnings of the importance of
addressing cognition in CBT stem from the idea
that negative cognitions affect core beliefs, which in
turn can affect behavior (Chorpita, 2007; Kendall,
1993). Therefore, it is likely, at least theoretically,
that one's negative self-statements will be associated
with one's social anxiety and that that association
may be accounted for by core beliefs, or self-efficacy.
However, due to the reciprocal nature of the var-
iables and the greater stability of self-efficacy
(both global and domain specific), the connection
between negative self-statements and social anxiety
may be explained via self-efficacy, as cognitions in-
fluence beliefs which then influence levels of anx-
iety. Therefore, a mediational approach may best
describe these variables and their relationship with
social anxiety.
present study
The purpose of the present study was to examine
the connection between negative self-statements
and self-efficacy as well as to use a multiple me-
diator model to determine whether or not general
self-efficacy, a person's broad beliefs in his abili-
ties, and/or social self-efficacy, a person's beliefs in
his ability to accurately perform in a social sit-
uation, would mediate the relationship between
negative self-statements and social anxiety in
children and early adolescents. Previous research
has demonstrated that both global and specific self-
efficacy play important roles in the development
and maintenance of social anxiety (Hannesdttir &
Ollendick, 2007; Muris, 2002; Wheeler & Ladd,
1982) and may interact with one another to in-
fluence a person's abilities (Shelton, 1990). There-
fore, the use of a multiple mediator model is essential
to fully understanding the relationship between these
variables.
The authors hypothesized that, consistent with
previous literature, (1) negative self-referent cogni-
tions would be associated with the amount of social
anxiety with more negative self-statements, indi-
cating greater social anxiety, and (2) both types of
self-efficacy would be associated with the amount
of social anxiety present with more self-efficacy,
indicating less social anxiety. The authors also
hypothesized that (3) the number of negative self-
statements present, would be associated with the
amount of both general and social self-efficacy
present indicating that participants reporting a
greater number of negative self-statements would
report less general and less social self-efficacy.
Furthermore, (4) an overall multiple mediator model
would be significant with general self-efficacy, fully
mediating the relationship between negative self-
statements and social anxiety and social self-efficacy
also fully mediating the relationship between nega-
tive self-statements and social anxiety. A significant
model would aid in understanding the role of each of
these variables in the phenomenology of social
anxiety in children and adolescents (see Figure 1 for
model).
Anticipated findings of this study could have
treatment implications for social anxiety issues and
social phobia. For instance, CBT has been identified
as an empirically supported treatment for children
and adolescents with anxiety issues (Davis, 2009;
Davis & Ollendick, 2005; Kendall et al., 1997).
Cognitive restructuring, the primary cognitive com-
ponent of CBT, involves identifying cognitive
distortions such as negative thoughts, anxious self-
talk, and negative self-evaluations and challenging
those distortions with alternative interpretations
(Chorpita, 2007; Kendall, 1993). Negative self-
referent cognitions have been found to be associated
with anxiety levels even after treatment and,
therefore, are an important target of cognitive
restructuring (Treadwell & Kendall, 1996). If either
general self-efficacy or social self-efficacy mediates
the relationship between negative self-statements and
social anxiety, this finding could enhance treatment
approaches by indicating the importance of targeting
one's self-efficacy during the cognitive components
of treatment for better treatment outcomes.
Method
participants
One hundred and thirty-nine participants ranging
in age from 11 to 14 years were recruited from the
middle school grades of a laboratory school
affiliated with a university in the southern United
States. Of those participants, 13 were excluded due
to excessive missing data (N 10% of responses
missing). For the remaining 126 participants mean
imputation was used to account for any missing
data. Participants were primarily Caucasian
(82.5%) with 7.9% being African American,
 social anxiety in children: a multiple mediator model 623

General
Self-Efficacy

H3 : a = -.15** H2 : b = -.16**

H1 : c = .05**
Negative Social
Self-Statements Anxiety
H4 : c =.02

H3 : a2 = -.09** H2 : b2 = -.07
Social
Self-Efficacy

FIGURE 1 Self-efficacy, negative cognition, and social anxiety: A multiple mediator model.
Note. A multiple mediator model in which general self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship
between negative self-statements and social anxiety but social self-efficacy does not. Standarized
coefficients are provided. ** p b .01.

1.6% being Asian, 1.6% being Hispanic, and 6.3%
reporting other for ethnicity. Participants came
from grades 6 through 8 (grade 6 = 46%; grade
7 = 32.5%; grade 8 = 21.4%) with an average age of
12.23 years and were divided relatively equally by
gender, with 57.1% being female and 42.9% being
male. Fourteen of the 126 participants exceeded
the clinical cutoff of 18 on the Social Phobia and
Anxiety Inventory for Children, creating a potential
prevalence rate (11.1%) similar to that reported by
Kessler et al. (12.1%; 2005).
measures
Demographic Questionnaire
To obtain background information about the child
and his or her family, a demographic questionnaire
was created and included in the initial parent
consent packet distributed to the parents. The
questionnaire inquired about age, gender, and
ethnicity of the child, socioeconomic status of the
family, family history of mental illness, and number
of people living in the home.
The Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for
Children (SPAI-C; Beidel, Turner, & Morris, 1998)
The SPAI-C was used to determine the level of social
anxiety of each participant. The SPAI-C was de-
signed to assess physical, cognitive, and avoidant
domains of social phobia in children and adolescents.
It consists of 26 self-report items that are rated on
a 3-point Likert scale (0 = never or hardly ever and
2 = always or almost always). Within the normative
sample, the mean for nonsocially anxious children
was 13.74 (SD = 8.5) and the mean for socially
anxious children was 21.8 (SD = 8.4), with the
clinical cutoff for social phobia being 18 (Beidel &
Morris, 1995; Beidel et al., 1998). Using the cutoff
score of 18, Beidel et al. (1998) found the sensitivity
of the SPAI-C to be 63% and the specificity to be 71%.
Similarly, by comparing the SPAI-C to the Social
Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A; LaGreca,
1998), Inderbitzen-Nolan, Davies, and McKeon
(2004) found the sensitivity of the SPAI-C to be
61.5% and the specificity to be 82.7%. The inventory
also has previously demonstrated good internal
consistency and test-retest reliability ( =.95, r =.86;
Biedel et al., 1998). Internal consistency of the scale
for this study was excellent ( = .94).
The Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children
(SEQ-C; Muris, 2001)
The SEQ-C assesses general self-efficacy across three
domains (i.e., academic, social, and emotional
situations) with an additive total score. The SEQ-C
is a 24-item self-report measure with 8 items for each
domain. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = not at all and 5 = very well). The scale has been
shown to demonstrate good construct validity via
strong correlations with Muris, Schmidt, Lambrichs,
and Meesters (2001) Negative Attributions Ques-
tionnaire and Bijstra, Jackson, and Bosma's (1994)
Coping List measure (Muris, 2001). Example items
include How well can you control your feelings?
How well can you study when there are other
interesting things to do? and How well can you
work in harmony with your classmates? Internal
consistency of the scale for this study was excellent
( = .90).
624 rudy et al.
The Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Social Skills for
Children (SEQ-SS-C; Ollendick & Schmidt, 1987)
The SEQ-SS-C assesses children's self-efficacy spe-
cifically for social situations by inquiring if the child
thinks that he or she could complete the social task
being asked of him or her. The scale is a 10-item self-
report measure that is rated on a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = not sure at all and 5 = really sure). The scale is
based on Bandura's (1977) notion of self-efficacy
and has been demonstrated to be parallel to related
constructs such as outcome expectancy (Ollendick &
Schmidt), predictive of social anxiety (Hannesdttir
& Ollendick, 2007), and exhibit high internal
consistency and test-retest reliability ( = .87, r = .75;
Ollendick & Schmidt). By administering the SEQ-SS-
C, an accurate representation of participant's beliefs
in his or her capabilities to perform in a social inter-
action was obtained across 3 relationships (peers,
strangers, and adults). Example items include, How
sure are you that you could start a conversation?
and When someone does something you don't like,
how sure are you that you could ask them to change
their behavior? Internal consistency was good for
each of the subscales as follows: peers ( = .89),
strangers, ( = .85), and adults ( = .81).
Negative Affectivity Self-Statement Questionnaire
(NASSQ; Ronan et al., 1994)
The NASSQ was used to measure participants
negative cognitions about themselves. The NASSQ
is a 39-item self-report questionnaire that examines
anxious and depressive self-statements in children
with negative affect. Participants are asked to
endorse how true the statements are of themselves
on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all and 5 = all the time).
Example items include, I wish I could do things
right and I was afraid I would make a fool of
myself. The measure has excellent internal consis-
tency and test-retest reliability ( = .96, r = .78; Ronan
et al., 1994). The measure also has excellent con-
struct validity. According to Ronan et al., strong
patterns of correlation exist between the depressive
and anxious items when compared with the
Children's Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs,
1981), Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale
(RCMAS; Reynolds & Richmond, 1978), and the
State Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children: Trait Scale
(STAIC-T; Spielberger, 1973). Internal consistency for
the scale for this study was excellent ( =.94).
procedure
Permission was first obtained from the university's
Institutional Review Board to recruit and gather
information from participants. Participants were then
recruited from a public middle school in Louisiana.
Teachers were informed of the study via an informa-
tional email. A promotional letter was then sent home
by participants to inform parents of the study and
request permission for their child's participation. An
active consenting/assenting procedure was used as
parents were asked to sign an informed consent form,
and participants were asked to sign an assent form
before beginning the study. The demographic ques-
tionnaire was also included in the initial consent
packet sent home to the parents to be returned by the
participants before participation in the study. Once
the consent/assent was collected and any questions
concerning the study were addressed, the participant
measures were administered to students in assembly
format at a single time period during school hours.
Data collection took place midway through the
academic year to allow students to better adjust to
their current grade levels and academic requirements.
Parents whose children demonstrated clinical eleva-
tions on the SPAI-C were provided an informational
letter with referral information.
Results
preliminary analyses
Preliminary analyses were conducted to examine the
effects of gender, age, and ethnicity on the key
variables of social self-efficacy, general self-efficacy,
number of negative self-statements, and social
anxiety level. An analysis of variance (ANOVA)
revealed significant gender differences for general
self-efficacy, F(1, 124) = 5.66, p b . 05, with girls
reporting higher levels of general self-efficacy than
boys. Therefore, gender was entered as a covariate
for all subsequent analyses. No other significant
differences were found for gender, ethnicity, or age
on any of the key variables. See Table 1 and Table 2
for descriptive statistics of key variables and relation-
ships among them.
multiple mediation analyses
A multiple mediator model was proposed as the
best method to statistically examine the relationship
between the variables collectively. 1 In accordance
with multiple mediation analysis procedures sug-
gested by Preacher and Hayes (2008), the direct
effect of the independent variable on the mediator
variables, the direct effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable, and the direct
effects of the mediator variables on the dependent
1
Initially, two proposed mediator models were examined
separately with general self-efficacy and social self-efficacy as the
mediator variable in each model respectively. Using two separate
mediator models, similar results to those described above were
demonstrated. Therefore, it was determined that the use of a
multiple mediator model, which could statistically account for a
greater portion of the variance, would be the more appropriate
method of analysis.
 social anxiety in children: a multiple mediator model 625

Table 1 did not yield a significant indirect effect (.01;

Descriptive Statistics (N = 126) p N .05). These results collectively indicate that the
Variable Minimum Maximum Mean Standard path through general self-efficacy accounts for a
Deviation significant portion of the variance within the overall
General Self-Efficacy 53 120 89.91 13.12 multiple mediator model; however, the path
Social Self-Efficacy 29 145 112.68 15.62 through social self-efficacy does not.
Social Anxiety 0 26.02 8.95 6.46
Negative Self- 72 278.99 127.92 39.37 Discussion
Statements The purpose of this study was to examine the
relationship among negative self-referent cognitions,
self-efficacy, and social anxiety. A multiple mediator
model was proposed in which general self-efficacy
variable were examined. The direct effect of the
and social self-efficacy would mediate the relation-
independent variable was then again examined con-
ship between negative self-statements and social
trolling for the mediator variables. Additionally, a
anxiety. To establish the importance of each variable,
nonparametric bootstrapping procedure was used
each pair was first examined individually. As
to examine the indirect effects of the mediator
hypothesized, the variable negative self-statements
variables and to determine the significance of the
was significantly associated with the amount of
multiple mediator model.
social anxiety experienced, with more negative self-
Results indicated that the overall multiple media-
statements indicating greater social anxiety. General
tor model was significant, R 2 = .22; F(4, 121) = 8.30,
self-efficacy was significantly related to the level of
p b .01. Specifically, consistent with Hypothesis 1,
social anxiety experienced, with more self-efficacy
analyses revealed that a greater number of negative
being associated with less social anxiety. These
self-statements was significantly associated with
findings replicated results from previous literature
greater social anxiety [path c; t(125) = 3.17, p b .01].
(e.g., Cieslak et al., 2008; Glass & Furlong, 1990;
In examining Hypothesis 2, more general self-
Muris, 2002). Additionally, significant relationships
efficacy was significantly associated with less social
between negative self-statements and general self-
anxiety [path b; t(125) = 3.32, p b .01]; however,
efficacy as well as negative self-statements and social
contrary to previous literature, social self-efficacy
self-efficacy were established. Results indicated that a
was not significantly associated with social anxiety
greater number of negative self-statements was
[path b2; t(125) = 1.77, p N .05]. Consistent with
associated with less general and social self-efficacy.
Hypothesis 3, a greater number of negative self-
This novel finding is similar to previous findings
statements was significantly associated with less
indicating that negative self-referent cognitions are
general self-efficacy [path a; t(125) = 5.67, p b .01]
likely detrimental to one's emotional and psycholog-
as well as less social self-efficacy [path a2; t(125) =
ical well-being (Ronan et al., 1994; Treadwell &
2.66, p b .01]. Then, when controlling for the
Kendall, 1996) and supports the theoretical perspec-
mediator variables of general self-efficacy and
tive that self-reflective cognitions may contribute to
social self-efficacy, negative self-statements were
one's beliefs in his abilities (Bandura, 2001). Sur-
no longer significantly associated with social anxiety
prisingly, findings that social self-efficacy is associ-
[path c; t(125) = 3.17, p N .05] as proposed in
ated with the amount of social anxiety present were
Hypothesis 4. See Figure 1 for results.
not replicated. This anomaly may be explained by
Furthermore, as reported in Table 3, based on the
the respective contributions of other variables within
results from bootstrapping (2000 samples were
the proposed model.
drawn), the path through general self-efficacy
yielded a significant indirect effect (.02; p b .05) as
proposed in Hypothesis 5; however, contrary to
Table 3
Hypothesis 6, the path through social self-efficacy
Bootstrapping Indirect Effects and Confidence Intervals
BCa* 95% CI
Table 2
Point Estimate Lower Upper
Bivariate Correlation Matrix
1 2 3 4 1. Total .03 .01 .05
2. General Self-Efficacy .02 .01 .05
1. General Self-Efficacy 3. Social Self-Efficacy .01 .00 .02
2. Social Self-Efficacy .44**
*BCa = bias corrected and accelerated bootstrapping confidence
3. Negative Self-Statements -.44** -.23
intervals that include corrections for both median bias and skew.
4. Social Anxiety -.43** -.32** .27**
Confidence intervals containing zero are interpreted as not
Note: * p b .05, ** p b .01. significant.
626 rudy et al.
After establishing individual relationships among
the variables, the proposed multiple mediator
model was examined. As hypothesized, general
self-efficacy fully mediated the relationship between
negative self-statements and social anxiety, indi-
cating that the relationship between negative self-
referent cognitions and social anxiety can be sta-
tistically accounted for through the pathway of
one's beliefs in his global abilities. Unexpectedly,
social self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship
between negative self-statements and social anxiety.
Although the relationship between one's negative
self-referent cognitions and his social anxiety may
be partially explained through his beliefs in his
social abilities, it is likely that negative cognitions
have a separate, unique association with one's
social anxiety as well. It was previously hypothe-
sized that social self-efficacy would be an important
mediator variable due to the strong connection
previously demonstrated between social self-efficacy
and social anxiety, but results actually indicated
that general self-efficacy played a more important
role as a mediator variable of the relationship
between negative self-statements and social anxi-
ety. Specific reasoning for this finding is unclear;
however, it is possible that social self-efficacy,
which has a strong but specific relationship to
social anxiety, cannot statistically account for the
overarching importance of broad negative self-
referent cognitions in relation to social anxiety. For
instance, Treadwell and Kendall (1996) demon-
strated that negative self-statements significantly
predicted levels of anxiety even after treatment had
taken place, signifying that this type of cognition
has a substantial impact on one's overall level of
anxiety. General self-efficacy, a more global con-
struct, may encompass these general negative cog-
nitions within its broad boundaries while also
accounting for the social aspect of self-efficacy within
its overall concept.
Despite their unexpected nature, these findings
could potentially have important treatment impli-
cations. As previously mentioned, the current
cognitive method used in CBT, cognitive restruc-
turing, challenges negative thoughts and negative
self-evaluation with alternative interpretations
(Chorpita, 2007; Kendall, 1993). The results of
this study indicate that it may be beneficial to
bolster one's general and social self-efficacy as a
way of combating negative self-referent thoughts
and evaluations as well. Specifically, because more
negative self-statements are related to higher levels
of social anxiety and that relationship can be
statistically accounted for by the mediator variable
of general self-efficacy, decreasing one's negative
self-referent cognitions may increase his beliefs in
his global abilities as well as his specific social
abilities, thereby decreasing overall levels of social
anxiety. Targeting change in general self-efficacy
may increase confidence and morale and lead to
better treatment outcomes.
limitations and future recommendations
Like all research, this study is not without lim-
itations. First, the sample primarily consisted of
Caucasian children and adolescents (82.5%). This
skewed ethnic distribution may make generaliz-
ability of the study findings to different ethnic
groups more difficult. Also, 46% of the sample came
from grade 6, which could have several implications.
Social anxiety usually does not occur until the late
childhood and early adolescence (DSM-IV-TR;
Davis et al., 2009; Van Roy, Kristensen, Groholt,
& Clench-Aas, 2009). With a large portion of the
sample being younger in age, the sample may not
accurately reflect the age at which one typically sees
increased social anxiety. Although, as previously
noted, data collection took place midway through
the school year, giving students ample time to ad-
just to a new setting, sixth grade is classified as a
transition year for the sample school (the first year
of the middle school setting), which could indicate
more social challenges and external stressors than
other years.
Furthermore, the data for the present study was
collected at a single point in time (i.e., cross-
sectional data). Because the data were not longitu-
dinal in nature, the ability to draw predictive con-
clusions, even those that are conceptually derived, is
limited despite sophisticated modeling techniques.
Great caution must be used when interpreting the
relationships among the examined variables. Addi-
tionally, due to the cross-sectional nature of the
data and the reliance upon a single informant for
information, generalizability of the results may be
limited. Future studies should include methodology
(i.e., longitudinal data collection, a multi-method,
multi-informant approach, etc.) to address these
collection concerns.
Another limitation may lie in the measures
themselves. Each measure was carefully chosen
because it had been previously demonstrated in
the literature to be a valid and reliable measure of
the construct it assesses. Despite those efforts, the
broad nature of the NASSQ may be more closely
related to the global focus of the SEQ-C than the
restricted, situational focus of the SEQ-SS-C,
thereby exaggerating the effects of full mediation
of general self-efficacy and no mediation with
social self-efficacy within the model and creating a
method effect. Similarly, general self-efficacy as a
construct does include social self-efficacy, making it
 social anxiety in children: a multiple mediator model
more difficult to determine how much of the general
self-efficacy effect was due to social self-efficacy
beliefs.
Finally, although the variables were examined
along a continuum similar to the trend in previous
literature (Norton et al., 1997) and the sample had a
similar prevalence rate (11.1%) to the national rate
(Kessler et al., 2005), only 14 of the 126 students met
the clinical cutoff for social anxiety on the SPAI-C.
Furthermore, the overall mean of social anxiety
(M = 8.95) was lower than the mean of nonanxious
children in the normative sample for the SPAI-C
(M = 13.74; Beidel et al., 1998). The low number of
participants who would potentially meet the criteria
for social anxiety as well as the potentially lower level
of social anxiety in the overall sample may make the
examination of variables specifically linked to the
manifestation and presentation of social anxiety
more challenging. Had the variables been examined
exclusively in the context of social phobia, an even
clearer depiction of the relationship between the
variables may have been possible.
conclusion
In conclusion, the proposed multiple mediator
model was significant with general self-efficacy
fully mediating the relationship between negative
self-statements and social anxiety. One's beliefs
about his global abilities were associated with his
negative cognitions and, subsequently, level of
social anxiety. Conversely, social self-efficacy did
not mediate the same relationship, indicating that
beliefs about social situational abilities cannot fully
statistically account for the relationship between
general negative self-referent cognitions and social
anxiety. Future research should focus on replicat-
ing the association between negative self-referent
cognitions and self-efficacy as well as determining
the value of targeting global and social ability beliefs
in the treatment of social anxiety for children and
adolescents.
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R E C E I V E D : June 24, 2011
A C C E P T E D : November 26, 2011
Available online 9 December 2011