Determining

by Daniel P. Cole

Fixture Units
for High-Efficiency
Plumbing Fixtures
The fi xture unit is one of the most misun-
derstood terms in the plumbing industry,
owing mostly to the fact that we are now
several generations removed from its
origin at the National Bureau of Standards
in the 1920s, along with the reality that
it has never been a course of study in an
engineering degree or plumbing program.
Plumbers and engineers who routinely
consult fi xture units for estimating demand
may not realize that they are actually using
a complex system in probability theory
rather than fluid mechanics. Th is article
delves into this probability theory and pro-
poses a resolve to the problem design engi-
neers are currently facing regarding how to
determine fi xture units for high-efficiency
(HE) plumbing fi xtures that have water use
reductions of at least 20 percent from cur-
rent federal standards (see Appendix A in
the DOE Supplemental Guidance to Execu-
tive Order 13423 at www1.eere.energy.gov/
femp/pdfs/water_guidance.pdf ).
The National Bureau of Standards (now
the National Institute of Standards and
Technology) has long since closed the door
on its plumbing program and turned atten-
tion away from the plumbing industrys
water conservation efforts, so the plumbing
code committees have taken responsibil-
ity for dealing with the impact of the 1992
Energy Policy Act on low-consumption
plumbing fixtures. Knowing the effect of
reduced flows on estimating demand, they
have variously modified fixture unit values
based on some method of rational reduc-
tion or assumptions. However, the disparity
among the model codes in their modifica-
tion efforts is evident, as seen in Table 1.
How these modifications were determined
is largely unknown, and obtaining historical
documentation or witness has been unsuc-
cessful. According to Dick Wagner (chair
of the National Standard Plumbing Code,
or NSPC), the late Thomas Konen from
Stevens Institute of Technology accom-
plished the modification of fixture units for
the NSPC, but his premature death left us
without enough documentation to retrace
his steps. Therefore, the codes are not much
help in determining fixture unit values for
HE fixtures.
A viable recourse is to retrace the steps by
which the fixture units were originally deter-
mined. This leads us back to the National
Bureau of Standards (NBS), where plumbing
fixtures were first weighted, measured, and
standardized. If our retracing proves correct,
then we have the possibility to standardize
fixture units once again for all codes.
LEARNING HOW TO DERIVE
FIXTURE UNITS
Two documents published by the NBS
detail the method for deriving fi xture units.
Recommended Minimum Requirements for
Plumbing (BH 13) includes the methodol-
ogy for drainage fi xture units, and Methods
of Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems
(BMS 65) includes the process for deriving
fi xture units for the water supply demand.
(Note: Th is article only retraces the steps to
determine water supply fi xture unit values
for HE fi xtures with low water consump-
tion.)
All sizing methodologies begin by estimat-
ing the water demand load for a particular
type of building. Once the demand load
is determined, then the rest of the design
methodology is calculating friction losses,
pressures drops, and pipe sizes to maintain
the minimum required residual pressure
for the proper working of each fixture. The
fixture unit value is used to estimate the
probable demand load prior to any hydraulic
calculations and therefore only has an indi-
rect relation to pipe sizing. This distinction is
often confused and misunderstood. Pipe size
determined initially by the probable demand
load may need to be modified to compen-
sate for pressure and friction losses.

Table 1 model Code fixTure uniT values

Fixture NBS Hunter IPC UPC NSPC1
Private Public Private Public Private Public Assembly Single Family Multifamily Other Assembly
One bathroom 6 8 3.6 8 5 3.5
group
Bathtub 2 4 1.4 4 4 4 4 3.5
Combination xture 3 3
Kitchen sink 2 4 1.4 4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1.5
Laundry tray 3 1.4 1.5 1.5 2 1 2
Lavatory 1 2 0.7 2 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1
Service sink 3 3 1.5 3 3
Shower 2 4 1.4 4 2 2 2 2 2
Urinal, flush valve 5 5 * * * 5 6
Urinal, flush tank 3 3 2 2 3
Water closet, flush 6 10 6 10 * * * 5 5 5 8
valve
Water closet, flush 3 5 2.2 5 2.5 2.5 3.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4
tank
1
NSPC includes additional groupings. The FU selected are those for comparison purposes with the other codes.
*The UPC assigns accumulative xture unit values beginning at 40 FU for WC flushometers and 20 FU for urinal flushometers.

JULY/AUGUST 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 13

 order of any two fixtures. For example, if
Table 2 Apartment fixtures there is a battery of six toilets and you want
Water-conserving Fixture t seconds T seconds q gpm, average to find the probability of two flushing simul-
(Average duration (Time between (Flow rate) taneously, then there are 15 random combi-
of flow) successive uses) nations of any two toilets out of the six that
Flush tank toilet, 1.28 gpf 21 210/50% 3.7 can operate simultaneously. This is the result
Shower, 2 gpm 510 1,800/50% 2.0
Lavatory faucet, 1.5 gpm 20 210/50% 1.5
of the factorial rule .
Allowing for randomness, the equation
further denotes the binomial expansion of
Table 3 Transit/transportation fixtures two probability terms, namely t/T and 1
Water-conserving Fixture t seconds T seconds q gpm, average t/T. The first term, t/T, is the probability that
(Average duration (Time between (Flow rate) r out of n fixtures are found operating at an
of flow) successive uses) instant of observation. The second term, 1
Flush valve toilet, 1.28 gpf 4 139 24 t/T, is the probability that r out of n fixtures
Urinal, 0.5 gpf 4 45 10 are not found in operation at an instant of
observation.
Lavatory faucet, 0.5 gpm 20 60 0.5

The notation indicates that

As we begin to discuss how to find fixture
unit values for HE fixtures, we first need to
know what a fixture unit means. A fixture
unit is a weighted unit of measure on some
selected scale relative to the water closet as
the base fixture and represents the probable
load-producing effect of a single plumbing
fixture of a given kind by considering the
duration of flow and the intervals of time
between operations of various types of
plumbing fixtures.
This is a mouthful, and it would be best
to consider it in two parts. First, we will look
at the latter part of the definition where
the fixture unit represents the probable
load-producing effect, and then we will look
at the first part where the fixture unit is a
weighted unit of measure. As we do so, we
will be developing the process of determin-
ing new and revised fixture unit values for
plumbing fixtures.
Part 1: Fixture Unit Represents the
Probable Load-producing Effect
The fixture unit represents the probable
load-producing effect of individual fixtures.
The probable load is determined by the
following binomial equation as expressed
by the standard formula. As Robert Wistort
pointed out, The binomial theorem is the
theoretically correct method to use where
a fixture is considered to have two states
of condition, on and off.1 A theoretical
binomial is:
where: the percentage of time r flows will occur
n = an exponential positive integer
= the binomial coefficient , or
x and a = real numbers
Applying the terms of distribution to fix-
ture analysis:
where: be chosen to determine satisfactory ser-
n = Total number of fixtures or supply
openings of a given kind in the system
r = Number of fixtures out of a total of n
that at any given instant of observation are
found operating to impose a demand load
on the supply system
t = Average duration of flow in seconds for
a given kind of fixture for one use
T = Average time in seconds between suc-
cessive operations of any given fixture of a
particular kind
This equation reduces to (as notated in
BMS 65):
p (FT), a 2-gpm (gallons per minute) shower-
Theoretically, the binomial coefficient
allows for randomness by mixing up the
the probability of two or more independent
events (fixtures operating and those not
operating) occurring together at the same
instant is the product of the probabilities of
their separate occurrence. This is the funda-
mental binomial probability theorem.
The result of the equation will indicate
out of a random combination of r out of n
fixtures. The percentage expressed as a frac-
tion of time is 1/. If is taken as 100 sec-
onds (Dr. Roy B. Hunters choice of the time
interval ), then this signifies that r fixtures
will be in simultaneous operation for an
aggregate of one second out of every 100
seconds. Based on this choice, the design
load should not be exceeded more than 1
percent of the time. This time interval can
vice, or what is commonly called the safety
failure factor. Therefore, the probability
function for each fixture will indicate that r
fixtures will be in simultaneous operation 1
percent of the time.
This probability function is used to
generate probable flow curves for each
plumbing fixture from which fixture units
are determined. To illustrate this, lets use
three bathroom fixtures for both a residential
apartment group and a commercial transit/
transportation group. For the apartment
group, the high-efficiency fixtures will be a
1.28-gpf (gallons per flush) tank-type toilet
head, and a 1.5-gpm lavatory faucet. For the
transit/transportation group, the high-effi-
ciency fixtures will be a 1.28-gpf flush-valve

14 Plumbing Systems & Design JULY/AUGUST 2011 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

toilet (FV), a 0.5-gpf urinal, and a 0.5-gpm
lavatory faucet.
Before generating the probable flow
curves, the terms of the probability function
need to be determined. The information in
Table 2 and Table 3 provides the values for
the two probability terms, t/T and 1 t/T,
for each fixture. Also included is the supply
flow rate for each fixture (q, in gallons per
minute) since the demand load will be
expressed in gpm flow units.
The t value (average duration of flow) for
the FT toilet is based on an average fill rate
of 3.7 gpm for a tank capacity of 1.28 gallons
of water. The t value for the FV toilet and the
urinal is an average of 4 seconds based on
test data supplied by a manufacturer. The t
and q (supply flow rate) for the shower are
based on statistical averages provided by
a residential end use of water survey and
a showerhead that restricts the flow rate.
The lavatory faucets were assigned a t value
of 20 seconds for handwashing as recom-
mended by the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, and the q was determined
by the manufacturers flow restriction at 60
psi (pounds per square inch), according to
ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1.
500
450
400
350
300
250
mq
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050
Figure 1 Probable flow in relation to n
The T term, which represents the time
between successive operations, is based on
the rush-hour concept when the fixtures
will have repeated successive uses. This is
the hardest term to evaluate since it is based
primarily on human function, behavior, and
the particular environment. Statistical data
that evaluates the average times needed
for urination and defecation, including the
differences between men and women, is
available. However, evaluating the frequency
of use of the toilet room seems challenging
when behavior depends on the environment.
Where the work clock controls the environ-
ment, for example, the rush hour will occur
at pre-determined breaks, as distinguished
from an office building that allows for indi-
vidual-need toilet breaks and the rush hour
is negligible.
Hence, there is a growing recognition of
the need to generate a family of demand
curves based on some average estimates of
frequency of use of toilet rooms (as well as
other plumbing fixtures) for different build-
ing types. Manual M22 published by the
American Water Works Association (AWWA)
depicts low-range and high-range curves
for differing building types, and Wistort
n
had suggested general categories such as
residential, commercial, public access-need
driven, and public access-event driven.2
However we wish to categorize flow curves,
the growing consensus is that a one-size-
fits-all curve is no longer desirable. Thus,
the following exercise generates a family of
two curves: one for a residential apartment
group and the other for a commercial tran-
sit/transportation group.
With respect to the T seconds for an apart-
ment group application, a rush hour occurs
two times a day on averagea morning
peak time and an evening peak timeas
evidenced in a statistical residential end
use of water survey by the AWWA Research
Foundation. Assume that the bathroom
is for single use. Based on the analysis of
fixtures used during the peak time, you can
derive the assumption that the toilet is used
primarily for urination during the rush hour
and has a T value of 210 seconds. This is the
average urination time between men and
women (70 seconds) and includes toiletry
events such as brushing teeth (120 seconds
recommended) and handwashing (20 sec-
onds). Therefore, the T value for the lavatory
is also 210 seconds. The showering activ-
Flush Valve - 1.28gpf
Urinal .5gpf
Lavatory .5gpm
Flush Tank - 1.28gpf
Shower 2.0gpm
Lavatory 1.5gpm
JULY/AUGUST 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 15
 Table 4 Transit/transportation group weighted relative to the February 2003 issue of PS&D. The assessed
1.28-gpf flush valve toilet percentages of toilets used as urinals are 47
Flush Valve, 1.28 gpf Urinal, 0.5 gpf Lavatory, 0.5 gpm percent (NSPC), 58 percent (UPC), and 50
percent (IPC). In this exercise, the average is
gpm No. Wt. No. Wt. No. Wt.
rounded to 50 percent.)
80 35 10 42 8.33 413 0.85
When the toilet is used primarily for
140 81 10 88 9.2 750 1.08 defecation, 300 seconds (five minutes) is an
200 133 10 138 9.64 1091 1.22 average time, including entering and exiting
260 189 10 190 9.95 1435 1.32 the stall. This means that while the person is
sitting on the toilet for the duration, the toilet
Averages 10 9.3 1.1
is not flushing. At the end of the duration,
Fixture Units 10 9 1 the toilet is flushed, the person exits the stall,
and another enters, resuming the duration
and repeating the flushing. With respect
Table 5 Apartment group weighted relative to the 1.28-gpf tank-
type toilet to the urinal, an average of 45 seconds was
determined as a result of actual observation
Flush Tank, 1.28 gpf Shower, 2 gpm Lavatory, 1.5 gpm
in a study conducted in a Mass Rapid Transit
gpm No. Wt. No. Wt. No. Wt. system.3 Urination times for men were tabu-
10 15 10 13 11.54 60 2.5 lated between 30 and 35 seconds and were
40 110 10 90 12.22 355 3.1 rounded to 45 seconds to include exiting
70 225 10 173 13.01 710 3.17
time and for another to enter the urinal stall.
Urination times in the stall for women aver-
100 350 10 262 13.36 1060 3.3
aged between 71 and 90 seconds, a 2:1 ratio
Averages 10 12.5 3.02 between men and women.
Fixture Units 10 13 3 Because of these differences between
mens and womens usage of the toilet fix-
ture, the variables can be combined in terms
ity is a separate event from the toilet and the probability depending on the frequency of the probability function. For toilets used
lavatory use. A T value of 30 minutes (1,800 of use required by the building type. as urinals, take 50 percent of the probability
seconds) is considered an average time after With respect to the T values for a transit/ term t/T, which is assigned 4/90 (to reflect
shower use before another user enters. Such transportation application, there are two the average time for women). For toilets
successive use of a bathroom is typical of a considerations. One is potty parity, and the used for defecation, take 50 percent of the
one-bath apartment dwelling with multiple other is the percentage of toilets used as uri- probability term t/T, which is assigned 4/300
occupants per apartment. nals in the womens toilet room. To resolve (the average time for both men and women).
A brief explanation is needed to clarify potty parity, the model codes typically Combining these two terms derives 4/139,
the reason for reducing the probability in require a greater number of toilet fixtures in which is the value in Table 3.
Table 2 by 50 percent. This is basically the the womens restroom. The obvious reason Lastly, the lavatory T value assumes
bathroom group concept introduced by is to accommodate the needs of women multiple lavatories in a public restroom,
Dr. Hunter in Methods of Estimating Loads who require prolonged times of fixture each used alternately on the average with a
in Plumbing Systems and is still retained in usage. Also, there is the consideration that a lapsed time of one minute between uses. (I
plumbing codes. It was derived from the percentage of toilets will be used by women do not wish to belabor the justification for
fact that no more than 75 percent of bath- for only urination and not defecation. Thus, the values assigned to the terms of prob-
rooms in apartment houses will be occu- based on the ratios in the model codes, out ability. Obviously the T value will depend
pied at any one time and that out of those of the combined total of mens and womens largely on statistical assessment, while not
bathrooms, no more than two out of the toilets, approximately 50 percent will be ruling out valid assumptions of the fre-
three bathroom fixtures will be in use at the used as urinals and 50 percent will be used quency of use the fixtures will have in any
same time. Therefore, no more than two- for defecation. particular type of building.)
thirds of 75 percent, or 50 percent, of the (Note: For transit assembly classification, Accepting the above assigned values as
total number of fixtures in bathrooms will the Uniform Plumbing Code [UPC] has givens, we may now proceed to generate
be in use at one time. Whereas Dr. Hunter a 2:1 ratio between womens fixtures and probable flow curves for each HE fixture.
reduced the fixture units for a bathroom mens. The NSPC has a 2:1 ratio above 200 Again, the probability terms must be deter-
group by 50 percent, this exercise reduces occupants of each sex; for lesser occupants mined by fixture performance standards,
the probability by 50 percent to generate a the ratio is 1:1. The International Plumbing statistical data, and valid assumptions before
separate curve for an apartment building Code [IPC] has a 1:1 ratio. For a discussion you can evaluate fixture unit values.
group. Other curves may be generated in of the development of the ratios, see the Figure 1 demonstrates the probable flow
similar fashion by increasing or decreasing Code Update column in the January/ rate for any given number of the same kind

16 Plumbing Systems & Design JULY/AUGUST 2011 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

 500

400
Flush Valve - 1.28gpf
Urinal .5gpf
Lavatory .5gpm

300
GPM

200

100

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Fixture Units

Figure 2 Relation of demand to fixture units relative to 1.28-gpf flush valve toilet (transit application)

of fixture. For example, for a total of 50

urinals, the probable flow rate is 91 gpm.
The probability function determines that
approximately nine out of the 50 urinals
will operate simultaneously during peak
demand; therefore, the flow rate is based on
nine urinals rather than 50. With 100 show-
ers, the probable flow rate is 45 gpm based
on the probability of 22 out of the 100 show-
ers operating simultaneously.
It may seem that this is as far as we need to
go. All that is needed is the sum of the prob-
able flows of each individual fixture, and that
will render the demand estimate. However,
summing the probable flows without consid-
ering the chance occurrence of simultane-
ous operations of different kinds of fixtures
installed in one system will yield higher
estimates (see Dr. Hunters discussion on
this matter in Methods of Estimating Loads
in Plumbing Systems, pp. 1213, 1920). For
example, the probable flow rate sum of 20
urinals, 40 FV toilets, and 16 lavatories is 139
gpm. Based on fixture units, as shown next,
the estimation is 113 gpm.

JULY/AUGUST 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 17

 500
100
GPM
50
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Part 2: Fixture Unit as a
Weighted Unit of Measure
Lets go back to the first part of the fixture
unit definition where it is a weighted unit of
measure. This was Dr. Hunters ingenious
simplified solution to resolve the chance
occurrences of simultaneous operations of
different kinds of fixtures on one system.
Instead of summing the individual prob-
able flow rates of each fixture, the weighted
sum of the total numbers of fixtures of all
kinds is to be applied to a single load curve
to obtain the estimated demand load.
How is a fixture weighted? Looking at
Figure 1 displaying the probable flow, notice
a black line running horizontally where the
flow rate is a constant 80 gpm. The number
of fixtures should be where the horizontal
line intersects the curves. This tells us that
the probable flow rate at 80 gpm for 35 FV
toilets is the same probable flow rate for 42
urinals and, in turn, for 413 lavatories (at 0.5
gpm), 267 FT toilets, 201 showers, and 822
lavatories (at 1.5 gpm).
Taking the first three fixtures as most
common among transit/transportation
applications, you can use the toilet as the
base fixture by which the other two fixtures
are weighted. What value shall you give the
toilet? You may choose any scale, but you
must remain consistent. Dr. Hunter first
chose a scale of six when weighting fixtures
based on the 6:1 ratio of drainage flow rates
between the toilet and lavatory. Later, under
18 Plumbing Systems & Design JULY/AUGUST 2011
Fixture Units
the influence of the prevailing International
System of Units, Dr. Hunter chose the metric
scale of 10, which was adopted for the water
supply fixture unit (hence the scaling dis-
crepancy between the drainage fixture unit
and the water supply fixture unit).
If you choose 10 as the scale for the load
value of each FV toilet, then how do you
determine the load value for the urinal and
lavatory? At the probable flow rate of 80 gpm,
35 FV toilets are equivalent to 42 urinals. If
each FV toilet has a load value of 10, then the
equivalent load value for the urinals is 8.33
as determined by 35/42 = 8.33/10, and 35 x
10 = 42 x 8.33 proves the equivalency.
This is called weighting, which is a propor-
tional equivalent. Each plumbing fixture is
thus weighted relative to the toilet as the base
fixture to determine the fixture unit value of
all other fixtures. The effect of weighting each
fixture relative to the toilet results in applying
the weights of different kinds of fixtures to a
single basic probability curve.
Lets weight the HE fixtures in our
example. It is useful to determine the
range between which the fixtures are to be
weighted to determine an average weight.
Dr. Hunter chose the range of 150 to 300
gpm to weight the fixtures, a range in which
he considered the estimates would have
their greatest application and usefulness.
However, with reduced flow rates this range
must be reconsidered. This exercise uses a
range between 80 and 260 gpm for the tran-
Flush Tank - 1.28gpf
Shower 2.0gpm
Lavatory 1.5gpm
Figure 3 Relation of
demand to fixture units
relative to 1.28-gpf flush
tank toilet (apartment
application)
sit/transportation application, and a range
between 10 and 100 gpm for the apartment
house application. The majority of each
curve lies within these respective ranges and
will yield the best averages, as will be shown.
Tables 4 and 5 reflect the relative weights
of fixtures within the ranges specified at
increments of 60 gpm for transit/transpor-
tation and 30 gpm for apartment house
applications. The fixture units are the aver-
ages of the incremental values within the
range. These are the new fixture units for
the selected HE fixtures in our example. The
unit values are higher than what is currently
seen in the plumbing codes. This is because
we have chosen to weight the fixtures on the
scale of 10.
However, as you shall see, coincidental
to these higher weighted units will be a
new load curve reflecting a true relation of
demand to fixture units. The base fixture will
always have the constant value of 10. Notice
that the fixture unit value for the shower is
13, which exceeds the base fixture, but you
would expect this by what the probable flow
curves in Figure 1 indicate. This is based on
the terms of the probability function and
because the probable flow of the shower
exceeds the toilet even though the flow rate
of the toilet is greater than that of the shower.
Remember, the fixture unit represents the
probable load by considering the duration
of flow and the intervals of time between
operations. Because of the greater duration,
WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
 500
400
300
GPM
200
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
the shower has a greater load-producing
effect than the toilet.
Since the shower has the greater load-
producing effect, then why isnt the shower
the base fixture rather than the toilet? It
could be. You could change the order, and
the estimate values wouldnt alter because
the fixture units represent proportional
equivalency. If the order of the weighting
is rearranged, then the load curve changes
correspondingly. The two fit together. The
load curve should always correspond to the
fixture units, and the fixture units should
always be relative to the load curve.
Lets continue to produce the load curve
for Tables 4 and 5. Once you weight the
fixtures, you can apply this unit value to the
number of fixtures and scale the x axis by a
multiple of 10 (our chosen scale). As you do
so, the probable flow curves collapse around
the base fixture as seen in Figures 2 and 3.
Again, the fixtures used with the flush valve
toilet in transit applications and those used
with the flush tank toilet in apartment house
applications are separated.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate that the relative
weights are approximately correct within
the range selected. In both applications, the
toilet curve will serve as the load estimate
curve for design purposes.
Previously it was stated that the fixture
unit method yields a lower estimate than the
sum of the probable flows of each fixture.
Using the same example of 20 urinals, 40 FV
Fixture Units
toilets, and 16 lavatories, you have 596 fixture
units according to Table 4. According to
Figure 2, the estimated demand is 113 gpm,
which is lower than summing the probable
flow rates (139 gpm).
What happens when the fixture units do
not correspond correctly to the load curve?
What happens if you take the new fixture
units from Table 4 and apply them to the
existing Hunters Curve? Hunters Curve esti-
mates 596 fixture units at 153 gpm, which is a
significant overestimate. The load curve does
not correspond to the new fixture units.
In summary, you can see that fixture units
are really derived from a complex system
of probability and weighting. Their values
are not independent; they depend on the
probability function having time variables of
fixture flow duration and successive usage.
To determine new fixture unit values, the
probability function first must be revised
to generate new probable flow curves from
individual fixtures. From these curves, the
fixture demand loads are weighted relative to
the toilet on a given scale (the metric scale of
10 being the preferred scale). As a result, the
individual probable fixture curves collapse
into a new single design curve. Hence, the
new fixture unit values for HE fixtures reflect
the weighted values along the new estimat-
ing curve and cannot be used with the older
(Hunters) curve.
This exercise has generated a family of
two curves for estimating demand with HE
Hunters Curve
Transit Group
Apartment Group
Figure 4 Estimate curve
for high-efficiency fixtures
fixtures (Figure 4). Hunters Curve is super-
imposed to display how the revision of the
probability terms has altered the demand
curves. You could continue generating addi-
tional curves once you assess the terms of
probability for other building classifications.
Admittedly, the curves generated in this
article are mainly for illustrative purposes
and not purported as recommendations for
code proposals, even though IAPMOs Pipe
Sizing Task Group for the Green Plumbing
and Mechanical Code Supplement is looking
seriously into these revisions. That said, I
welcome readership response to this ongo-
ing revision effort toward a new fixture unit
standardization that has been demonstrated
in this article.
REFERENCES
1. Wistort, Robert A., A New Look at Deter-
mining Water Demand in Buildings:
ASPE Direct Analytic Method, ASPE 1994
Convention.
2. Ibid.
3. Liao, Cheng, He, and Wu, Investigation of
Public Toilet Facility in MRT Station, CIB
W062, 2010.
Daniel P. Cole is the Technical Services
Supervisor for IAPMO. He is a licensed
Journeyman Plumber in the state
of Illinois and is a member of ASPE,
the Illinois Plumbing Inspectors
Association, and the International
Code Council. He is currently the
Chair of the Pipe Sizing Task Group for
IAPMOs Green Plumbing and Mechanical Code Supplement.
He can be reached at dan.cole@iapmo.org. To comment on
this article, e-mail articles@psdmagazine.org.
JULY/AUGUST 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 19