HSC Physics by Beth Mitchell

Motors and Generators: Study Notes

(From Syllabus Dot Points)

Contextual Outline

Modern industrialised society is geared to using electricity. Electricity has

characteristics that have made it uniquely appropriate for powering a highly
technological society. There are many energy sources that can be readily converted
into electricity. In Australia, most power plants burn a fuel, such as coal, or use the
energy of falling water to generate electricity on a large scale. Electricity is also
relatively easy to distribute. Electricity authorities use high-voltage transmission lines
and transformers to distribute electricity to homes and industries around each state.
Voltages can be as high as 5 x 105 volts from power stations but by the time this
reaches homes, the electricity has been transformed to 240 volts. While it is relatively
economical to generate electric power at a steady rate, there are both financial and
environmental issues that should be considered when assessing the long-term
impact of supplying commercial and household power.

The design of a motor for an electrical appliance requires consideration of whether it

will run at a set speed, how much power it must supply, whether it will be powered by
AC or DC and what reliability is required. The essentials of an electric motor are the
supply of electrical energy to a coil in a magnetic field causing it to rotate.
The generation of electrical power requires relative motion between a magnetic field
and a conductor. In a generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy while the opposite occurs in an electric motor.

The electricity produced by most generators is in the form of alternating current. In

general AC generators, motors and other electrical equipment are simpler, cheaper
and more reliable than their DC counterparts. AC electricity can be easily
transformed into higher or lower voltages making it more versatile than DC electricity.

This module increases students understanding of the applications and uses of

physics and the implications of physics for society and the environment.

1. Motors use the effect of forces on current-carrying conductors in

magnetic fields.

Discuss the effect on the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying

conductor of variations in:

the strength of the magnetic field in which it is located.

The greater the strength of the magnetic in which the current carrying wire is located,
the greater the force it experiences.

the magnitude of the current in the conductor

The greater the current, the greater the force experienced.

the length of the conductor in the external magnetic field
The greater the length of the wire in the external magnetic field, the greater the
current.

the angle between the direction of the external magnetic field and the direction
of the length of the conductor

The force experienced by the wire is directly proportional to the sine of the angle
between the direction of the external magnetic field and the direction of the length of
the conductor.

These relationships can be combined to produce the formula for the force
experienced by a current carrying wire in an external magnetic field:

= sin
Where:

F = Force on wire (N)

B = Magnetic field strength (Teslas)
I = Current in wire (Amps)
L = Length of wire (m)
= Angle between magnetic field and wire

Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the force between long parallel current-
carrying conductors.

1 2
=

Where:

F/L = Force per unit length (N/m)

I1 I2 = The currents in the two wires (A)
d = Distance between the wires (m)
k = Magnetic Force Constant (2.0 x 10 -7)

For wires carrying current in the same direction, the force will be attractive. Currents
in the opposite direction, force will be repulsive.

Define torque as the turning moment of a force.

Torque is the name for a twisting force (it is also sometimes called the turning
moment of the force.)

=
Where:

= Torque (Nm-1)
F = Force (N)
d = Distance from the edge of the coil to the center (m)

The torque on a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field can also be defined as

= .
Where:

N = Number of turns in the loop

B = Strength of the magnetic field (Teslas)
I = Current flowing through the loop (Amps)
A = Area of the loop
= The angle between the plane of the loop and the magnetic field lines.

Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.

The motor effect is the name given to the turning motion a current carrying loop
experience in a magnetic field as a result of the torque caused by the force acting
upon it. When current moves through a wire, the wire experiences a force, which, in
turn, converts electrical energy into kinetic energy. This is the motor effect.

Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a magnetic

field and describe the net result of the forces.

The mechanics of the motor effect can be shown in the following way.

As a current in passed through the loop each side of the loop has current flowing in
the opposite way. This means that the forces they experience from the magnetic field
act in opposite directions. One side experiences and upwards force and the other
experiences a downwards force. If the coil is allowed to pivot on its axis, these
forces cause it to rotate.
Describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each
feature/identify that the required magnetic fields in DC motors can be
produced either by current-carrying coils or permanent magnets.
 Stator
Rotor

Conventional
Current Flow

Brushes
Source of DC Current
Commutator

The Rotor: The part that rotates. It is a coil of wire, or several wires, mounted onto
an axle to allow rotation.

The Stator: The part that remains stationary. It may a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet (current-carrying coils).

Often the magnetic poles are shaped to create a Radial Magnetic Field, in which
the field lines are like the spokes of a bicycle. This means that as the plane of the coil
rotates it is always flat in the field ( = 0o). Since cos0 = 1, the result is maximum
torque at almost all positions.

The Brushes: Fine, flexible metal wires, or a spring-loaded stick of graphite. The
brushes maintain electrical contact onto the rotating metal ring (the commutator).

The Commutator: Is a metal cylinder, split into two pieces. As it rotates, the
direction of current in the coil is reversed every half-rotation. This way, the torque is
always in the same rotational direction, even though the coil has turned over.

Identify data sources, gather and process information to qualitatively describe

the application of the motor effect in:

The Galvanometer
The galvanometer (the device driving most electrical meters) works because of the
motor effect. The more current flowing through its coil, the more torque on the coil
and the greater the deflection of the meter needle, working against a small spring.
The meter then points to a calibrated scale, giving a reading.

The Loudspeaker

In a loud speaker, a solenoid is immersed in a magnetic field. The solenoid is free to

move forwards and backwards. As current is passed through the solenoid, it
experiences a force. This force moves the solenoid in motion that corresponds to the
current being fed into it. If the current being fed in corresponds to an audio wave, the
solenoid will oscillate in the same way as the audio wave. Because the solenoid is
connected to a large cone, the solenoid causes the cone to vibrate as it moves.
These vibrations result in the formation of pressure waves in the air, which are heard
as sound. So the operation of a loudspeaker depends on the motor eect to move
the solenoid, converting electrical energy into sound energy.

2. The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field is used to

generate an electrical voltage.

Outline Michael Faradays discovery of the generation of an electric current

by a moving magnet.
In the early 1800s, it had already been established that an electric current could
produce a magnetic field (an electromagnet). The next step was to investigate
whether a reverse effect could be produced, that is, a magnetic field could produce
an electric current. Faraday began experiments in this field in 1824, but was initially
unable to detect any current when he put a bar magnet near or inside a coil of wire.
In 1831, he had his first successful experiment, using an electromagnet instead of a
bar magnet. Two coils were wrapped around a block of wood, one connected to a
battery and the other to a galvanometer. When the coil was connected to the battery,
a sudden and slight effect appeared in the galvanometer, as when the battery was
disconnected. Faraday then extended his experiments to: moving coils towards each
other, with a current flowing in one, placing iron cores within the coils, winding the
coils around an iron ring, and moving a bar magnet in and out of the coil. Faraday
then used the idea of magnetic field lines to generalize his results. He concluded that
a current is induced in a conductor only while the conductor is in relative motion
across lines of the magnetic field lines.
Define magnetic field strength B as magnetic flux density.

Magnetic field strength B is defined as magnetic flux density. The mathematical

symbol used for magnetic flux density is . Magnetic flux density is measured in
Teslas.

Describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density and
surface area.

Magnetic flux is the name given to describe the amount of magnetic field passing
through a specific area. Magnetic flux can be defined as the magnetic flux density of
the magnetic field (B) multiplied by the area (A) being investigated, when the area is
perpendicular to the field.

B = Magnetic Flux
B = Magnetic Flux Density
A = Area being investigated
= Perpendicular

Magnetic flux can be altered by:

- Changing the magnetic field strength, by changing the strength of the magnet
or the distance from the magnet.
- Changing the area of the coil.
- Changing the orientation of the coil relative to the field.

Describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of

magnetic flux through a circuit.

As Faraday showed in his earlier experiments, the induced voltage he

achieved between a magnetic field and a coil of wire was only present when
there was a changing magnetic field not a stationary one. From this he
developed his law of induction:
The induced emf in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the rate at which the
magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time.

= Change in Magnetic Flux

t = Change in Time
= Induced emf
When looking at an induced current in a single loop of wire, the size of the
magnetic flux depends on the strength of the magnetic field and the size of
the area enclosed by a loop. However, if using more than one loop of wire, the
number of turns must also be taken into account in the following way:

This adjustment was made by Neumann, and is sometimes referred to as

Neumanns law.

Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand

investigation to predict and verify the effect on a generated electric
current when:
- the distance between the coil and magnet is varied
- the strength of the magnet is varied
- the relative motion between the coil and the magnet is varied.

1. The
distance
between the
coil and the magnet:

When the distance is greater, the induced emf is lower.

2. The strength of the magnet:

When the strength of the magnet is greater, the emf is greater.

3. The relative motion between the coil and the magnet:

When the magnet is moving faster, the induced emf is greater.

Account for Lenzs Law in terms of conservation of energy and relate it to

the production of back emf in motors.

Lenzs Law states

The induced current must be in a direction as to ensure that its own

magnetic field will oppose the original action which produced the induced
current.

Put simply, the induced current flows in a direction so as to oppose the

change producing it.

Faradays Law can be adjusted accordingly:

If Lenzs Law were not true, the induced current in the coil would continue to
increase in magnitude, fed by its own changing flux, violating the
conservation of energy. To create energy in a coil, work must be done.
Energy is required to move a magnet towards or away from a coil and some
of this energy is transformed into electrical energy in the coil, conserving the
overall energy in the system.

Explain that, in electric motors, back emf opposes the supply emf.

When a current moves through the coil in a DC motor it starts to spin. This
results in a constantly changing magnetic flux in the coil, and thus, an induced
emf. In accordance with Lenzs Law, this induced current will flow in a
direction as to oppose the change producing it. This means the induced
current will work against the original current turning the coil.

The resultant emf is the emf being supplied to the coil minus the emf being
induced in the coil.

Total Current = (EA EB) / R

Once a motor has started turning, the speed of the coil will increase until the
back emf is equal to the supply emf. This will result in no net voltage across
the coil and no current. There will no longer be a force acting on the coil and it
will stop turning. This effect can be overcome by putting a load on the
motor. When a motor is under load, the coil rotates more slowly, reducing
back emf and increasing net current in the coil. However, if the motor is
overloaded it will spin too slowly, reducing the back emf enough that the
supply voltage is high enough to burn the motor out.
 Explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenzs Law.

An emf is induced in a conductor whenever it is placed in a region of changing

magnetic flux. In the case of a solid conductor (e.g. a metal sheet), circular
eddy currents are induced. Eddy current can result from moving a conductor
through a magnetic field, or having the conductor in the presence of changing
magnetic flux. When there is a change in flux, emf is produced. According to
Lenzs Law this emf must act in a direction so as to counter the change
producing it. This means that the charge experiencing the field produces a
force that opposes the original movement of the conductor. As the charge
moves it forms into a circular flow of electrons; an eddy current.

Gather, analyse and present information to explain how induction is used

in cooktops in electric ranges/ gather secondary information to identify
how eddy currents have been utilised in electromagnetic braking.

Induction Cooktops

An induction cooktop uses a

rapidly changing magnetic flux to
induce eddy currents in the
bottom of the pan, causing it to
heat up due to resistance.

Electromagnetic Braking

Electromagnetic brakes work by utilising eddy currents produced by the

changing magnetic field between the vehicle (usually a rollercoaster or train)
and the track. One way this can be done is by mounting a conductor to the
vehicle and having magnets embedded in the tracks. When the conductor
passes through the magnetic field eddy currents are produced and the kinetic
energy of the vehicle is dispersed into heat energy, slowing the vehicle down.
However this is a negligible effect when the vehicle if moving with
considerable force. The other method is by having a conducting wheel
mounted between two electromagnets (a circular brake). In this case the
magnets only need to be turned on, and an eddy current is produced in the
wheel opposing the change producing it stopping the wheel.

3. Generators are used to provide large-scale power production.

Describe the main components of a generator.

A generator transforms kinetic energy into electrical energy. It does this by

rotating a coil in a magnetic field.

Part Description Function

Magnets - Located To
in the produce a
stator magnetic
(usually field
multiple). strength
- Permane B.
nt or (Magnetic
electrom Flux)
agnets.
- Curved
around
 either side of the
rotor.
Iron Core - Cylinder of iron Con
mounted to the exte
axle. by r
- Rotor coils cur
wound around
the core.
- Laminated to
reduce eddy
currents.
Rotor Coils - Coils of wire To
wrapped around and
the iron core. ind
- Each end of the (Fa
wire attached to
the commutator.
Split-Ring Commutator - Two metal half- The
(DC Generators) rings. dire
- Provide electrical cur
contact between eve
the rotor coils cau
and the brushes. cur
Slip-Ring Commutator - Two full metal Pro
(AC Generators) rings. cur
- Provide electrical
contact between
the coils and the
brushes.
Brushes - Graphite blocks Pro
connected to the con
commutator. com
exte
free
with
Axle - Cylindrical bar of Pro
hardened steel the
passing through ma
the iron core.

Compare the structure and function of a generator to an electric motor.

In structure, a generator and an electric motor are almost identical, both

having: a rotor, coil, stator, brushes, commutator and an iron core. In function
they are opposites. Motors convert electrical energy into kinetic energy, while
generators convert kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Describe the differences between AC and DC generators.

AC Generators DC Generators

- Produces AC Current - Produces DC current

- Slip Rings
- The graph of its produced
current is sinusoidal.
- Split ring commutator changes
the direction of the produced
current every half-rotation,
creating a current that is
always positive.

Gather secondary information to discuss advantages/disadvantages of

AC and DC generators and relate these to their use.

Type of Generator Advantages Disadvantages

 AC Generator - Can use multiple - AC current
coils to produce a cannot be used
more continuous by all appliances.
flow of current. - EMR emitted.
- Can transmit - More dangerous.
voltages over - Higher back
greater EMF.
distances.
- Can create 3-
phase power.
- Can be
transformed to
higher voltages
for transfer over
longer distances.
- Slip rings result in
less sparking and
less wear on the
commutator
less
maintenance.
DC Generator - Can use multiple - Less efficient.
coils to produce a - Require more
more continuous maintenance as
flow of current. brushes and
- DC current works commutator wear
best for many out quickly and
appliances. spark more
- Minimal back regularly.
EMF. - Cannot be easily
transferred over
long distances.

Analyse secondary information on the competition between

Westinghouse and Edison to supply electricity to cities.

In the late 1800s large-scale electrical power was beginning to become

available all across the developed world. However, it was still unclear whether
AC current or DC current was the most effective in this context. Thomas
Edison headed the Edison General Electrical Company and used DC
current for all his power supply. Westinghouse was an advocate for AC
power, purchasing Nikola Teslas patent for the AC generator for $1,000,000
after Edison betrayed Tesla. Edison tried many tactics to discredit AC power
including live animal electrocutions using AC power, and the use of AC
current in the first electric chair. However, in the end, the superior transmitting
ability of AC power was undeniable. At the International Electrical Exhibition of
1891, power was transmitted 180km across Germany using AC systems with
only 23% of the power lost. After this Westinghouse won the contract to
produce power from the Niagara Falls and went on to power the Chicago
World Fair, setting AC power as the international standard.

Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through

transmission lines from the generator to the consumer.

When electrical energy is transmitted over long distances through a

conductor, energy losses are inevitable. This energy is lost into the
surroundings as heat. This is due to electrical resistance in the conductor. The
power lost as heat over a conductor is given by:

Power Lost = I2R

So in order to reduce resistance we need to reduce I, R or both. Using a less

resistive conductor in the wires can reduce resistance. Since

Power = Voltage x Current

We can reduce the current by using a higher voltage, resulting in the same
amount of power. However, large voltages can be dangerous in domestic and
industrial settings. This is why transformers are used in large scale power
transportation.

Assess the effects of the development of AC generators on society and

the environment.

The development of AC generators has had great positive impacts on society

as it provides for almost every aspect of daily life e.g. lighting, heating,
transport and powering devices and machines all of which greatly improve
standard of living. However it has also lead to a more city-centered society,
longer working hours and in the early days of electricity, worse conditions. AC
generators have also had considerable negative impacts on the environment
as they have long been powered by fossil fuels and other limited natural
resources which produce greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Gather and analyse information to identify how transmission lines are
insulated from supporting structures and protected from lightning strikes.

Overhead earth wires direct lightning straight into the earth.

Insulators between the power line and the pylon prevent the pylon form
becoming active.

Describe the purpose of transformers in electrical circuits.

The purpose of a transformer in an electrical circuit is to increase or decrease
AC voltage. A transformer consists of:

- A soft iron core

- A primary coil, wound around part of the iron core
- A secondary coil, wound around part of the iron core

Compare step-up
and step-down transformers.

Step up:
- Secondary coil has more coils
- Output voltage is greater than input voltage

Step down:
- Primary coil has more turns
- Output voltage is less than input voltage

Identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils and the ratio of primary to secondary
voltage.

=

Where:

Vp = Primary voltage
Vs = Secondary voltage
Np = Number of turns in primary coil
Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil

Gather, analyse and use available evidence to discuss how difficulties of

heating caused by eddy currents in transformers may be overcome.

Eddy currents in transformers may be over come in a variety of ways, the two
most common being:

- Laminations: Splitting up the iron core into layers with insulating

sheet, or laminations, in between reduce the size of eddy currents.
- Ferrites: Making the core out of a ferrite reduces electrical currents
incl. eddy currents. Ferrites are ceramic materials, formed with iron
oxide with one or more additional metal, which are good conductors of
magnetic flux but not electricity.

Explain why voltage transformations are related to conservation of

energy.

In a voltage transformation, total power must be conserved, in order not to

violate the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Since P = V x I

If voltage is increased across a transformer, current must be decreased and

vice versa.

Explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-stations.

During the transmission of power over long distances through power lines,
power loss inevitably occurs due to resistance in the wires causing heat. The
power lost during transmission in a power line can be calculated by

Ploss = I2R
In order to reduce power loss we need to reduce current, to reduce current
while maintaining the same power being transferred we need to increase the
voltage of transmission. This is done using transformers. The voltage can be
stepped up as the power leaves the generator and then stepped down moving
into populated areas and down again into individual homes (240v) or to
industrial sites (415v).

Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are connected
to the mains domestic power supply use a transformer.

Most devices used in the home are not designed to run on the 240v supplied
from the mains.

Step-up transformers are used in devices that run on more than 240v, e.g.
microwaves, televisions.

Step-down transformers are used in devices that run on low, often DC

voltages, e.g. phone/camera chargers,

Discuss the impact of the development of transformers on society.

The development of transformers allows for electricity to be generated closer

to the fuel source (coal, hydroelectricity, natural gas, etc.) and transmitted into
populated areas with little power loss. This reduces city pollution.