D R I L L I N G A N D
NEW GAS-HYDRATE INHIBITORS FOR
DEEPWATER DRILLING FLUIDS
Numerous technical challenges face oper-
ators venturing into deep water. Drilling-
fluid design must address traditional engi-
neering issues of hole cleaning, hole sta-
bility, and drill-cuttings stability as well as
possible gas-hydrate formation. In deeper
sections of the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), the
pressure differential between pore pres-
sure and fracture gradient may be
extremely small. Fracture pressures on
land are a function of the overburden pres-
sure exerted by the formation. In offshore
applications on the other hand, seawater
reduces the overburden-pressure gradient.
In deepwater drilling, a substantial
amount of hole must be drilled riserless
with returns to the seafloor before a suit-
able casing shoe can be established for the
drilling fluid to be pumped from the bot-
tom of the hole to the rig floor approxi-
mately 80 to 100 ft above sea level. As
operators move into deeper water, drilling
fluid must be designed both for these
lower fracture gradients and potential gas-
hydrate formation.
GA S HYDRATES
Gas hydrates are clathrates that are formed
under certain temperature and pressure
conditions and can exist at temperatures
greater than the freezing point of water at
high pressures. Clathrates are complexes
formed between two chemicals when one
type of molecule completely encloses the
other molecule in a crystal lattice. In the
case of gas hydrates, hydrogen-bonded
water molecules form a cage-like structure
around gas molecules, forming a solid
substance. Agglomeration of these cage
structures can plug drilling-equipment
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
39316, “New Gas-Hydrate Inhibitors
for Deepwater Drilling Fluids,” by
William Halliday, SPE, Dennis K.
Clapper, SPE, and Mark Smalling, SPE,
Baker Hughes Inteq, originally present-
ed at the 1998 IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Dallas, 3–6 March.
52
C O M P L E T I O N F L U I D S
lines and valves. Large volumes of gas can
be released if gas hydrates dissociate near
the surface.
As drilling operations have entered water
depths greater than 1,000 ft, seafloor tem-
peratures as low as 39°F in the GOM and
30°F in some sections of the North Sea are
possible. These conditions are favorable for
gas-hydrate formation. Salts or combina-
tions of salts with water-soluble organic
compounds are used in drilling fluids to
decrease the likelihood of gas-hydrate for-
mation. Sodium chloride (NaCl) concen-
trations of 20 wt% or greater have been
used for drilling deep offshore GOM wells
for several years. More recently, fluids
incorporating NaCl and glycerol or poly-
glycerol to inhibit gas-hydrate formation
have been formulated. This combination of
gas-hydrate inhibitors often is used as a
specialized spotting fluid to prevent
gas-hydrate formation in subsea well-con-
trol equipment during kill procedures.
L ABORATORY TESTING
Temperature and pressure conditions for
formation of gas hydrates are simulated by
use of a gas-hydrate generator capable of
operating at pressures as great as 11,000
psi and temperatures as low as 16°F. The
gas-hydrate generator consists of a high-
pressure reactor, glycol bath with immer-
sion heaters and cooler to vary system tem-
perature, gas booster system to vary initial
pressure, and a data-acquisition system. At
the beginning of a test, a mud sample is
placed in the reactor vessel and pressurized
with simulated Green Canyon gas. The
reactor vessel is cooled while reactor pres-
sure is monitored. When hydrate forma-
tion is detected, bath temperature is held
constant and the hydrate is allowed to
soak. After soaking for several hours, the
bath temperature is raised, resulting in
release of gas from the hydrate and a pres-
sure increase. When all the gas is released
from the hydrate and the pressure returns
to normal, dissociation is achieved. Three
hydrate-generation tests are required to
generate three dissociation points and
form a gas-hydrate-equilibrium line.
Hydrates will form at conditions to the left
side of the equilibrium line. Addition of 20
wt% NaCl to fresh water causes the
hydrate-equilibrium line to move approxi-
mately 28°F to the left. Gas hydrates will
form at 75°F and 2,800 psi in fresh water
but will not form in the 20-wt%-NaCl fluid
at the same pressure until the temperature
falls to 47°F. Although 20 wt% NaCl, by
itself or combined with polyglycerol, pro-
vides a high level of hydrate suppression,
densities less than 10 lbm/gal cannot be
achieved in these systems.
NEW FLUID DESIGN FOR
DEEP WATER
An improved gas-hydrate inhibitor for
drilling-fluid applications should have the
following characteristics.
• The lowest density possible with maxi-
mum hydrate suppression.
• Compatibility with most common
drilling-fluid components.
• Compatibility with most salts to bal-
ance hydrate suppression and fluid density.
• Provide shale inhibition for adequate
borehole and drill-cuttings stability.
Salts or water-soluble organic compounds
have been used as additives for thermody-
namic gas-hydrate control in water-based
muds. Organic compounds, such as alco-
hols and glycols, have been used in produc-
tion applications for gas-hydrate control.
Unacceptable physical properties, such as
low flash point and undesirable environ-
mental or occupational health effects, have
prevented the use of organic compounds in
drilling fluids. Although glycerol and polyg-
lycerol have acceptable physical and envi-
ronmental characteristics, their high density
prevents their use in the low-density formu-
las required by deepwater formation-frac-
ture gradients.
Two new water-soluble compounds,
GHP1 and GHP2, were selected that met
the design requirements. These additives
are compatible with most common
drilling-fluid additives, including NaCl
and other salts. Fig. 1 shows the results of
tests on a drilling fluid containing 23 wt%
NaCl with 10 vol% GHP2 and drilling flu-
ids containing only NaCl. Points to the
right of these lines represent conditions
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 Pressure, psi
Temperature, °F
Fig. 1—Gas-hydrate phase-equilibrium plot.
where no gas hydrates would form. No
hydrates formed in tests with a drilling
fluid containing 23 wt% NaCl and 30 vol%
GHP1. Both these drilling fluids have a
9.6-lbm/gal density. Table 5 in the full-
length paper details a recommended fluid
formula containing GHP1 for use when
low density and high gas-hydrate suppres-
sion are required. Both GHP1 and GHP2
meet current environmental regulations
for the GOM. GHP1 has been approved for
use in the North Sea. Additional testing
will be required for North Sea approval
of GHP2.
These new inhibitors can be used to for-
mulate gas-hydrate pills, concentrated high-
ly inhibitive formulas that can be placed in
the blowout-preventer stack and the choke
and kill lines. Pills are used when a gas kick
is encountered during drilling operations or
when the drilling location is temporarily
abandoned because of severe weather. A
common practice in deepwater drilling
operations is to add 30 vol% GHP1 or GHP2
to the base fluid used to drill the well.
FIELD APPLIC ATIONS
Offshore Norway. The first application of
GHP1 was in a drilling-fluid system on a
semisubmersible offshore Norway. The
operator wanted a drilling fluid that would
inhibit gas-hydrate formation at 32°F in
2,900 ft of water. The fluid for this well was
designed with NaCl and GHP1 as the pri-
mary gas-hydrate inhibitors. A small
amount of potassium chloride and a cloud-
point glycol were used for enhanced shale
stability. This formula resulted in gas-
hydrate suppression of 40°F compared with
fresh water. Gas-hydrate suppression is the
difference between the hydrate-equilibrium
54
Fresh Water
10 wt% NaCl
20 wt% NaCl
23 wt% NaCl
23 wt% NaCl/10 vol% GHP
2
temperature caused by addition of
inhibitors and the hydrate-equilibrium
temperature in deionized water. The well
was drilled without fluid-related problems,
and drilling-fluid properties remained very
stable, with little increase in viscosity
despite decreasing temperature.
Offshore GOM. The second use of GHP1
in a drilling-fluid system was in the GOM
for a drillship application in 5,800 ft of
water with a seafloor temperature of 38°F.
Approximately 23 wt% NaCl was the pri-
mary gas-hydrate inhibitor, with 10 vol%
GHP1 providing additional hydrate sup-
pression. Shale stability and cutting encap-
sulation were provided by partially
hydrolyzed polyacrylamide while polyan-
ionic cellulose and derivatized polysac-
charide provided fluid-loss control. This
formula resulted in a gas-hydrate suppres-
sion of 42°F. The well was drilled with no
fluid-related problems, and the fluid prop-
erties remained stable.
CONCLUSIONS
1. A new type of water-soluble, organic
gas-hydrate inhibitor was developed.
2. The new additives allow the design of
relatively-low-density fluids with a high
level of gas-hydrate suppression.
3. The new additives are compatible
with most common water-based drilling-
fluid additives.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
ANAEROBIC BIODEGRADABILITY
OF OIL-BASED FLUID FOR
INVERT-EMULSION DRILLING FLUIDS
Oil-based muds have practical and economic
advantages over water-based muds for deep
and directionally drilled wells where torque-
and-drag problems exist. In 1997, the maxi-
mum allowable oil content on cuttings for
North Sea locations was reduced from 10 to 1
wt%. Nontoxic substitute fluids were designed
to comply with environmental legislation.
Different synthetic-based muds were pro-
posed. These fluids use low-toxicity mineral
oils, poly- or mono-α-olefins, acetals, or esters
to replace oil as the base fluid. Controversial
data exist about the biodegradability of these
fluids under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Determination of potential hazards associated
with the discharge of chemicals into subter-
ranean or marine environments requires reli-
able methods for predicting the biodegradabil-
ity of these chemicals.
While information on toxicity and aerobic
biodegradation is obtained easily, anaerobic
biodegradation is more difficult to deter-
mine. The most direct approach for
biodegradability studies consists of measure-
ment of substrate disappearance as a func-
tion of time. While this approach requires
analytical techniques, it deals only with pri-
mary biodegradation. It needs to be associat-
ed with a method for measuring ultimate
biodegradation because contaminants ini-
tially transformed under anaerobic condi-
tions may not be metabolized further. Until
recently, no standard test was available to
determine the ultimate anaerobic biodegrad-
ability of organic compounds. One test
method described by the European Center
for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of
Chemicals (ECETOC) was used in several
studies.1 This screening test uses an anaero-
bic inoculum from a sewage-treatment plant
and evaluates the ultimate biodegradation of
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
39386, “Anaerobic Biodegradability of
Oil-Base Fluid for Invert-Emulsion
Drilling Fluids,” by D. Blanchet, A.
Audibert, SPE, and J-F. Argillier, SPE,
Inst. Français du Pétrole, originally pre-
sented at the 1998 IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Dallas, 3–5 March.
56
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
chemicals on the basis of measurement of
the end products of methanogenic fermenta-
tion, methane (CH4) and CO2.
Anaerobic degradation of organic sub-
stances also can be studied by conversion to
volatile fatty acids (acidogenesis) that is anal-
ogous to methanogenic fermentation. Short-
chain organic acids ultimately are degraded
by different bacterial groups. If a compound
is degraded into volatile fatty acids, it should
be considered as biodegradable because
volatile fatty acids are easily biodegradable.
Monitoring intermediate-fatty-acid produc-
tion can be important for determination of
fatty-acid oxidation efficiency. Acidogenic
fermentation has been considered a good
alternative to methanogenic fermentation on
the basis of studies applied to polymeric
materials, such as polyhydroxybutyrate.
Procedures used to determine degradation
in other reduction/oxidation (redox) condi-
tions (sulfate- and nitrate-reducing condi-
tions) involve consumption of stoichiomet-
ric amounts of sulfate or nitrate from the
same type of incubation conditions as for
methanogenesis. These redox conditions are
found in different anoxic environments.
Extrapolation of potential biodegradation
from one environment to another has not
been examined in detail. Because marine
sediment usually contains sulfate, evaluation
of biodegradation potential in a marine envi-
ronment probably is more reliable when a
method based on sulfate reduction is used. A
study of potential biodegradation of different
inocula originating from different environ-
ments, including marine sediments, suggest-
ed that biodegradation potential may be
extrapolated from one environment to
another if an active methanogenic microbial
community is present in the environment.
EXPERIMENTAL
The test procedure is based on ECETOC’s test
method1 and determines the biodegradability
of products under aqueous anaerobic condi-
tions in batch fermentation. Biogas produc-
tion resulting from degradation of chemical
substrates in anaerobic conditions is quanti-
fied by measuring the pressure increase.
F L U I D S
Anaerobically digested sludge was col-
lected from a wastewater-treatment plant.
Exposure to oxygen was minimized during
collection, handling, and storage. Samples
were collected in 250-mL penicillin vials
previously flushed with nitrogen. Four dif-
ferent batches of inoculum were used. The
samples were enclosed in an air-tight con-
tainer and incubated at 30°C for 7 days to
convert the organic carbon. Dissolved inor-
ganic carbon from decomposition of organ-
ic carbon was eliminated by centrifugation.
These samples were used for Series 3 and 4
tests. For Series 1 and 2 tests, the inoculum
was washed before use with an oxygen-free,
salted minimum medium and separated by
centrifugation to eliminate the remaining
dissolved inorganic carbon further. Series 1
and 2 preparation corresponds to ECETOC
Technical Report No. 28 specified proce-
dures. All test phases were performed in an
anaerobic chamber. Nine mL of anaerobic
centrifuged sludge was added to 89 mL of
oxygen-free, salted minimum medium. A
precise amount of the test component was
added before the vials were sealed. Controls
(without inoculum) and reference com-
pound (fructose) were prepared in the same
manner. Sufficient head space was available
for produced gases. Compounds tested were
15 mg oleic acid ester, 15 mg α-olefin, and
20 mg fructose. The vials were shaken gen-
tly once a week to enhance the contact
between flocculent-forming bacteria and
insoluble substrate. Dried-suspended-solids
concentration (flocculent-forming bacteria)
in the test vials was 3.2 g/L. Head-space
pressure was measured once a week by use
of a differential-pressure transducer.
Gas-Phase Analysis. CO2, CH4, and N2 were
quantified by use of a chromatograph
equipped with a thermal-conductivity detector.
Ester Analysis. Residual ester was extract-
ed from the sample by toluene containing
arachidic acid as an internal standard.
Fatty-acid composition of the oleic acid
ester or the residual ester was analyzed by
use of gas chromatography.
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
RESULTS
Head-Space Evolution. Figs. 3 to 6 in the
full-length paper show evolution of degra-
dation in percentage of conversion to CH4
and CO2. The amount of tested compound
transformed into gaseous one-carbon
products was determined from the increase
in pressure in the vials. Comparison of
Series 3 and 4 tests with Series 1 and 2 tests
shows the effect of the washing step on the
potential of the inoculum for mineraliza-
tion. More degradation of fructose and
oleic acid ester was observed when the
inoculum was used without washing.
Head-Space Composition. The amount of
CO2 and CH4 produced by biodegradation
of carbon sources tested is determined from
pressure and gas-phase composition in
both the control and chemical tests. Table 1
in the full-length paper shows the percent-
ages of CO2 and CH4 in the gas phase of the
test vials at the end of the biodegradation
test. CH4 is the main degradation product.
Carbon Conversion. The maximum CH4
and CO2 production theoretically obtain-
able from an organic chemical can be cal-
culated from the carbon and oxygen con-
• NOVEMBER 1998
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
tent of the compound tested. Ultimate
biodegradation percentage for the oleic acid
ester on the basis of net CO2 and CH4 pro-
duction was 45, 100, and 82% for Series 1,
3, and 4, respectively.
DISCUSSION
CH4 is the main product of biodegradation
of the ester, and complete biodegradation of
the ester was observed. The corresponding
fatty acids of the initial esters disappear,
and no short-chain fatty acids were detect-
ed. This result is consistent with the anaer-
obic biodegradability of natural fats and
lipids. The ester bond of those molecules is
split easily by hydrolytic enzymes (hydro-
lases) during the first step of the anaerobic-
degradation process. The resulting primary
degradation products, fatty acids and alco-
hol, correspond to an excellent substrate
for the consecutive fermentation by
acidogenic and acetogenic microorganisms.
The easy biodegradation of short-chain
fatty acids is well documented in the litera-
ture. It has been demonstrated that several
methyl carboxylates were completely min-
eralized by aquifer microorganisms under
methanogenic conditions, presumably
through the initial hydrolytic cleavage of
F L U I D S
the parent molecules. Methyl ester
hydrolytic activity can occur in acetogens
such as Acetobacterium woodi and
Eubacterium limosum.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The inoculum pretreatment strongly
affects its potential for the final mineralization.
2. The gas-composition change for the
oleic acid ester corresponded to an 80 to
100% biodegradation for the untreated
inoculum. Total primary biodegradation was
achieved with no accumulation of fatty acids.
3. The α-olefin had low pressure evolu-
tion and low CH4 production, confirming
the poor anaerobic biodegradability of this
type of compound.
REFERENCE
1. Evaluation of Anaerobic Biodegradation,
Technical Report No. 28, ECETOC, Brussels,
Belgium, (June 1988).
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
57
 D R I L L I N G
INVESTIGATION OF
FORMATION-DAMAGE CONTROL
OF METHYLGLUCOSIDE FLUIDS
Invasion of mud solids and filtrate into the
formation during drilling can impair rock
permeability around the wellbore. Control
of formation damage caused by drilling flu-
ids is recognized as good drilling practice.
Use of muds with improved filtration-con-
trol characteristics provides an efficient
method of limiting the extent of damage.
Drilling muds should form an impermeable
mudcake quickly to reduce spurt loss and
cake thickness. If the filtrate is compatible
with formation rocks and fluids, the filtrate
is backflushed easily and the extent of for-
mation damage is reduced effectively.
Methylglucoside (MEG) fluid is a recently
developed, environmentally acceptable
water-based mud (WBM) whose perfor-
mance approaches that of oil-based muds.
Previous investigations have shown that
fluids containing MEG stabilize shale and
have superior lubrication and filtration-
control properties.
PHYSIC AL AND CHEMIC AL
PROPERTIES
MEG is a chemical derivative of glucose
and is manufactured from corn starch.
MEG has a two-tiered cyclic structure con-
taining four hydroxyl groups and one
methyl unit (Fig. 1). The presence of the
methyl unit imparts temperature stability,
low viscosity, and resistance to bacteria.
The hydroxyl groups may account for the
unique ability to form a semipermeable
membrane on shale surfaces. MEG fluid
used in this study is an aqueous solution
containing 60 to 70 wt% MEG. It includes
approximately equal portions of the alpha
and beta forms of MEG monomers. The
specific gravity of the base fluid is 1.2, and
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
39442, “Investigation on Formation-
Damage Control of the Methylglucoside
Fluids,” by Yan Zhang, SPE, Zhu Chen,
and Jienian Yan, SPE, U. of Petroleum,
Beijing, originally presented at the
1998 SPE International Symposium on
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette,
Louisiana, 18–19 February.
58
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
the MEG monomers in the base fluid are all
dissolved in the water. MEG is nontoxic
and readily biodegradable. Thermographic
analysis showed that a 70-wt% solution of
MEG is stable at 177° C.
EXPERIMENTAL
Core-flow tests were conducted with an
improved apparatus manufactured at Beijing
U. of Petroleum that can measure the
amount of fluids that invade the core as well
as measuring permeability. Other experi-
mental equipment included the following.
• Rotational viscometer.
• American Petroleum Inst. (API) filter
press.
• NP-01 swellmeter.
• Coulter LS130 particle-size-distribu-
tion analyzer.
• Scanning electron microscope (SEM).
• Surface and interfacial tensionmeters.
Core Samples. High- and low-permeability
sandstone cores cut from two sandstone
blocks with approximately the same clay
content were used to evaluate formation-
damage characteristics of MEG fluids and
Fig. 1—MEG structures.
F L U I D S
three other drilling fluids. These cores were
2.54 cm in diameter and 5 cm long.
Fluids. Clear brine (CB), mixed-metal
hydroxide (MMH), and amphionic poly-
mer (AP) fluids were used for comparison.
One kind of bridging material was used.
Both the MEG fluid and CB are clay-free,
and their rheological properties were con-
trolled by use of xanthan gum. Both the
MMH and AP fluids contain 40 g of ben-
tonite in 1 L of water. Table 2 in the full-
length paper gives the composition of the
four drilling fluids, while Table 4 in the full-
length paper shows their rheological and
filtration-control properties.
Permeability-Recovery Tests. High-
Permeability Cores. Permeability-recovery
tests for high-permeability cores were per-
formed according to conventional core-flow-
test procedures. Core samples were dried in
an oven at 66°C for 24 hours, then their per-
meability to nitrogen was measured. Core
samples with approximately the same perme-
ability were selected for further tests. After the
cores were vacuum saturated with brine for
24 hours, permeability to brine was deter-
mined. The brine in the cores was displaced
with 10 pore volumes of kerosene, and their
initial effective permeability to kerosene was
measured. The cores were exposed to mud
under a differential pressure of 3.5 MPa for 4
hours. During the contamination process, fil-
trate displaced from the cores was measured
by use of an electronic mass balance, which
allowed the depth of filtrate invasion to be cal-
culated. To determine return permeability, the
cores were removed from the Hassler holder
and the mudcake removed and then they
were backflushed with kerosene until the per-
meability did not change. Approximately 1
cm was cut from the contaminated sides, and
sectional return permeability of the core
remainders was determined.
Low-Permeability Cores. After the cores
were vacuum saturated with brine for 24
hours, the nitrogen permeability of the
cores was measured. The cores were
exposed to mud under a 3.5-MPa differen-
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
Percentage of return permeability (%)
High-permeability core
Low-permeability core
Fig. 2—Permeability-recovery-test results.
tial pressure for 4 hours. The return perme-
ability as well as segment return permeabil-
ity of core remainders was measured with
nitrogen. Procedures for the low-perme-
ability cores were designed to simulate gas-
reservoir conditions.
Mechanism Investigation. Filtrate
Immersion Tests. Filtrate immersion tests
were performed on both high- and low-per-
meability cores with four fluid filtrates to
determine whether the filtrate that invades
the formation can be backflushed easily
from formation pores. Filtrate retention in
pores is a potential source of formation
damage, especially in a low-permeability
formation with a low pore pressure. The
cores were immersed for 10 minutes, then
backflushed with nitrogen until the return
permeability changed very little.
Differential pressure was 0.05 MPa for
high-permeability cores and 1.5 MPa for
low-permeability cores during backflush.
Surface- and Interfacial-Tension Measure-
ments. Interfacial tension between kerosene
and fluid filtrates was measured by use of the
drop-weight method. All measurements were
performed at ambient temperature.
Particle-Size Distribution. A laser-scat-
tering particle-size-distribution analyzer
was used to determine particle-size distrib-
ution. The MEG base fluid was diluted, agi-
tated, and circulated continuously through
the measuring cell until the particle-size
distribution was measured. Sample volume
was approximately 1 to 2 L.
Cake-Texture Imaging. Cake texture of
the muds was studied by use of an SEM.
Surface and cross-sectional area of the
mudcake were imaged with the pretreated
cake samples.
Shale Rolling Tests. Shale inhibitive
properties of MEG fluid were evaluated
by hot-rolling dispersion tests with
shales. Tests began by adding 50 g of dried
shale cuttings to the four fluids. Samples
then were hot-rolled at 66°C for 16 hours,
• NOVEMBER 1998
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
Percentage of return permeability (%)
Fig. 3—Filtrate-immersion-test results.
then the cuttings were recovered on a 40-
mesh screen.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Permeability Recovery. Fig. 2 shows the
results of the permeability-recovery tests
for high- and low-permeability cores. MEG
fluid caused less formation damage with an
88.7% permeability recovery. Results indi-
cate that mudcake formed by MEG fluid is
tight and has a very low permeability,
enabling it to resist filtrate invasion effec-
tively. The sectional-return-permeability
results showed that the depth of invasion of
solid particles into the core is less than 1 cm
for MEG fluid. Fig. 2 also shows that return
permeability of low-permeability cores was
generally lower than that for high-perme-
ability cores, indicating that damage caused
by filtrate retention is more serious for low-
permeability cores.
Mechanism of Formation-Damage
Control. Filtrate Immersion Tests. Fig. 3
shows the results of filtrate immersion tests
for high- and low-permeability cores.
Damage caused by filtrate retention in
pores is much greater in low-permeability
cores. MEG fluid caused the least filtrate-
retention damage. Damage caused by
MEG-fluid filtrate is minimized because of
its molecular structure. The hydrated MEG
monomer seems to penetrate the exposed
pore spaces where the hydroxyls adsorb
onto the clay surfaces. In the process of
adsorption, water is displaced from the sur-
face and ordered structures of MEG are
formed while the water solvent remains free
to move. The adsorption of hydroxyls not
only reduces filtrate retention in formation
pores but also prevents wetting and clay-
particle migration.
Particle-Size Distribution. Particle
diameters range from 0.1 to 40 µm. Mean
particle diameter is 9.3 µm, and median
diameter is 7.4 µm. According to common
practice, bridging material should be one-
F L U I D S
High-permeability core
Low-permeability core
third of the median pore size of the forma-
tion. Because of its particle-size distribu-
tion, MEG can function as a bridging
material for most formations. Because of
the presence of the hydroxyl groups, the
particles can be adsorbed onto the bore-
hole surfaces and seal the pore so that a
tight mudcake can build up on the bore-
hole surfaces.
Cake-Texture Imaging. MEG fluid has
excellent filtration control as indicated by
the lowest API filtration rate and spurt
loss. A study of cake textures confirms
that a less permeable filter cake is formed
quickly by MEG fluids. SEM imaging of
the surface and cross-sectional area of
mudcakes demonstrates its unique mud-
cake structure. The images show a tight
mudcake, possibly attributable to the
strong linkage between the cyclic struc-
ture of MEG caused by the hydrogen-
bond attraction.
CONCLUSIONS
1. MEG fluid is superior in formation-
damage control for both high- and low-per-
meability cores and has better filtration-
control properties compared with conven-
tional WBM’s.
2. MEG fluid forms a low-permeability,
consolidated filter cake rapidly without
addition of a bridging agent.
3. Particle-size-distribution analysis on
MEG base fluid shows that insoluble parti-
cles in MEG fluid can function as a bridg-
ing material.
4. MEG fluid’s low surface and interfacial
tension reduces damage caused by filtrate
retention in formation pores.
5. MEG fluid is an excellent shale
inhibitor.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
59
 D R I L L I N G
PREVENTING FORMATION
DAMAGE CAUSED BY HIGH-DENSITY
COMPLETION-FLUID/CRUDE-OIL EMULSIONS
Recent laboratory work and field case his-
tories identified emulsions that reduced
well productivity after gravel packing cer-
tain oil-producing wells in the Gulf of
Mexico (GOM). Laboratory investigation
identified the emulsifying agent as the cal-
cium chloride (CaCl2)/calcium bromide
(CaBr2) completion fluid used in the grav-
el-pack pumping procedure. Remedial pro-
cedures were performed to remove the
damage. Succeeding oil wells were evaluat-
ed for completion-fluid/crude-oil compati-
bility before performing a gravel pack. A
nonemulsifier surfactant from the pumping
company’s acid-additive product line was
effective in preventing emulsions when
added at high concentrations in combina-
tion with a mutual solvent. The recom-
mended additive package was used in a
gravel-pack operation in the Eugene Island
field, but because of the high concentration
of surfactant and mutual solvent in the
CaCl2/CaBr2 completion fluid, the fluid
could not be reused. Disposal was neces-
sary because the completion-fluid company
believed that the treated brine could not be
reconditioned economically. In addition,
rig personnel reported that the fluid was
difficult to handle on the platform because
of strong fumes from the return pits. These
issues led to a search for an additive system
that met the following performance criteria.
• Effective in preventing crude-oil/com-
pletion-fluid emulsions in the wellbore
and formation.
• Effective in high-density brines.
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
39444, “Eliminate Formation Damage
Caused by High-Density Completion-
Fluid/Crude-Oil Emulsion,” by William E.
Foxenberg, SPE, Osca Inc.; Syed A. Ali,
SPE, Chevron U.S.A. Production Co.;
Minglie Ke, SPE, Osca Inc.; David C.
Shelby, SPE, Chevron U.S.A. Production
Co.; and J.W. Burman, SPE, Newfield
Exploration Co., originally presented at
the 1998 SPE International Symposium
on Formation Damage Control,
Lafayette, Louisiana, 18–19 February.
60
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
• Efficiently removed from the brine by
the reclamation process.
• Effective at low concentration and with
minimal need for mutual solvent.
• Easily handled on the rig without envi-
ronmental or health and safety concerns.
DEVELOPMENT OF
SURFACTANT FORMUL A
A nonemulsifier effective in preventing emul-
sions in a wide variety of oils is necessarily a
heterogeneous mixture comprising nonionic
and ionic, oil- and water-soluble surface-
active agents. Combining surfactants with dif-
ferent solubility characteristics requires
blending them in a hydrotropic solvent or
cosolvent base. Development of a nonemulsi-
fier for high-density completion fluids is com-
plicated by the salt saturation of the brines
and the highly structured nature of the diva-
lent-cation/water-hydration complex. Many
surface-active agents normally used in non-
emulsifier or demulsifier formulas are insolu-
ble in saturated salt brines and precipitate out
immediately after addition. If the nonemulsi-
fier is not highly soluble in the brine, it will be
unable to prevent emulsion at every point of
contact between the brine and the crude oil. If
it is only minimally soluble or dispersible, it is
likely to adsorb onto the surface of the forma-
tion and be unable to prevent emulsions from
forming as the brine is recovered.
Typical surface-active products are more
soluble in lower-density and noncalcium-
based brines. Very few are miscible in high-
density two- and three-salt brines. A number
of solvent and cosolvent packages thought
suitable as a carrying base for the complete
nonemulsifier package were screened. After
identifying several brine-soluble solvent/
cosolvent base fluids, surface-active agents
were added to the solvent packages and
screened for solubility in high-density brine.
The high-density brines included saturated
or nearly saturated solutions of pure CaCl2;
mixtures of CaCl2 and CaBr2; pure CaBr2;
and a mixture of CaCl2, CaBr2, and zinc bro-
mide (ZnBr2). A number of solvent/surfac-
tant combinations were found to be miscible
in some high-density brines but precipitated
F L U I D S
out of others. Some solvent/surfactant com-
binations were miscible at ambient tempera-
ture but precipitated out at elevated temper-
atures. Through trial and error, solvent/sur-
factant combinations were identified as solu-
ble or highly dispersible in all brines tested.
As these formulas were identified, these sim-
ple ingredients were blended into more com-
plex combinations and tested as emulsion
preventers on various GOM crude oils.
Several compounds were found to be effec-
tive in preventing emulsions in some oils but
were only partially effective or completely
ineffective in others. After a series of labora-
tory tests, compounds were formulated that
were highly soluble in all brines and effective
in preventing emulsions in most oils tested.
Brines treated with these compounds then
were filtered through a sandpack and tested
for emulsion tendency. Several of the com-
pounds adsorbed onto the surface of the
sandpack material and were not effective in
emulsion prevention after filtering. The
ingredients in the compounds that did not
adsorb were recombined into new formulas
and tested until finished products were pro-
duced. Two different formulas were required.
One combination of solvents/surfactants was
effective in CaCl2 and CaCl2/CaBr2 brines,
and a different combination was required for
brines containing ZnBr2.
TESTING
Surfactant Solubility. During nonemulsion
testing, it became apparent that the surfactants
must be formulated for solubility in the brines
as well as for nonemulsion effectiveness. To
determine solubility of the surfactant blends,
the surfactants were added to the brine at
room temperature, allowed to stand overnight,
and then heated to 150 to 190°F for an addi-
tional 24 hours. The solutions were inspected
for homogeneity after the 24-hour period. In
some cases, the effect of surfactant on surface
tension of the brine was tested before and after
filtration through the sandpack (Fig. 1).
Fluid Compatibility. Representative sam-
ples of crude oil were collected from pro-
ducing wells in the GOM. Brines composed
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
Fig. 1—Effect of sandpack filtration
CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2.
of simple salts, such as KCl, NaCl, and
potassium formate (KHCO2), were tested in
addition to the high-density brines of CaCl2,
CaBr2, and ZnBr2. Standard nonemulsion
tests were performed first with a procedure
used routinely to test compatibility between
acidizing solutions and crude oils. Equal vol-
umes of crude oil and high-density brine are
mixed under low-shear conditions in a glass
jar and allowed to stand at bottomhole tem-
perature. Compatibility between crude oil
and completion fluid is defined by a 95%
phase separation within 30 minutes. In addi-
tion, wettability of the brine was evaluated.
Filtration Test. The standard nonemulsion
test was followed by a sandpack filtration
test in which brine containing surfactant
was filtered through a sand/clay filter pack,
then tested for compatibility with the crude
oil. This filtration procedure was designed
to simulate the stripping of the surfactant as
the brine penetrates the formation. Brine
was added to the pack material in a beaker
and mixed with a stirring rod for 1 minute.
The brine system was filtered under vacuum
and the filtrate collected. The filtrate then
was tested for compatibility with crude oil.
Results. Several GOM crude oils are incom-
patible with completion fluids with densi-
ties greater than approximately 12 lbm/gal.
Brines containing Na or K salts did not
show significant evidence of emulsification
potential, nor did the low-density CaCl2
brines. The test results indicate that not all
brines or crude oils are susceptible to emul-
sion formation and that compatibility test-
ing should be performed whenever possible.
C A SE HISTORIES
South Timbalier. A 13.8-lbm/gal
CaCl2/CaBr2 brine was scheduled as the
completion fluid for a gravel-pack operation.
Laboratory compatibility tests with repre-
sentative crude-oil and completion-fluid
• NOVEMBER 1998
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
on surface tension, 15.6-lbm/gal
samples indicated a tight water-in-oil emul-
sion. Timing of the operation precluded use
of a surfactant blend specifically designed for
the calcium-based high-density brine. On
the basis of previous laboratory work and
field application, a combination of mutual
solvent, ethylene glycol monobutylether
(EGMBE), and Surfactant B was tested in the
laboratory. A mixture of 1 vol% EGMBE and
1 vol% Surfactant B was required to pass the
sandpack filtration test. Although this high
concentration of solvent and surfactant
might preclude reclamation of the brine and
require disposal, the decision was made that
compatibility of the oil and brine was the
most important consideration. The 13.8-
lbm/gal completion fluid was treated with
the surfactant and mutual solvent, and the
job was performed successfully. No indica-
tion of emulsion damage was observed dur-
ing the operation or on flowing the well.
After the successful gravel-pack opera-
tion, a new solvent/surfactant package was
formulated that was much more effective
than the one with 2 vol% additives. In labo-
ratory tests, the new system produced short-
er emulsion breakout times and better phase
distinction. The next high-density brine
gravel pack was treated with this new sys-
tem, and results indicated that the new sys-
tem was as effective as the earlier system,
and returned fluid was reclaimed easily.
Vermilion Block 398. An oil-producing well
in Vermilion Block 398 was scheduled for a
gravel-pack completion. A 16.2-lbm/gal
CaCl2/CaBr2 fluid was required to control for-
mation pressure. The completion fluid was
tested for compatibility with the formation
oil. The Vermilion oil produced an emulsion
that brokeout from surfactant-treated comple-
tion fluid very slowly even before filtration
through the sandpack. The emulsion never
completely broke out after filtration with as
much as 1.5 vol% Surfactant F and 1.25 vol%
EGMBE. During the completion, the 16.2-
F L U I D S
lbm/gal completion fluid was treated with 1
vol% of Surfactant F. After perforating the
well, the 16.2-lbm/gal fluid was unable to
control formation pressure. During the next 3
days, the well was circulated and the inflow of
oil into the wellbore continued. The fluid
density was increased to 16.4 lbm/gal, and the
wellbore was circulated clean and contami-
nated returns were isolated. A total of 800 bbl
of completion fluid was commingled with
crude oil under high-shear conditions down-
hole and was emulsified when it reached the
surface. After addition of a small amount of
surfactant, approximately 70% of the brine
broke out of the emulsion and was recovered
and returned to the active system.
DISCUSSION
Solubility of the solvent/surfactant blend in
brine was a critical factor for ensuring that it
is still in solution after the brine is slurried
with the sandpack material and then fil-
tered. Some surfactant blends that separated
out of solution with time or temperature
would redisperse on stirring. Other surfac-
tant blends were soluble and effective in the
brine before filtration but were completely
or partially stripped from solution by filtra-
tion. Surfactants that were soluble and effec-
tive in CaCl2 and CaBr2 were not soluble or
effective in zinc-based brine. Surfactant sys-
tems effective in ZnBr2 brines were not
effective in calcium-based brines. Solubility
characteristics of typical nonemulsifiers
were found to be quite different when these
surfactants were added to a high-density
brine. Although surfactants can prevent
crude-oil/brine emulsions, solubility in the
brine is required for the surfactant to be
effective after the brine has penetrated some
distance into the formation.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Surfactant systems are available that
prevent crude oil and brines from forming
emulsions.
2. Surfactants must be formulated specif-
ically for solubility and efficacy in the brine
system for which they are intended.
3. High-density brines should be tested by
use of the slurry/sandpack filtration method
for compatibility with formation crude oils
before application in the field.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
61
 D R I L L I N G
EVOLUTIONARY ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT OF DRILLING DISCHARGES
In most areas of the North Sea, drilling with
invert-emulsion drilling fluids has dramati-
cally improved drilling efficiency. Un-
fortunately, the discharge of drilled cuttings
coated with invert fluids has had detri-
mental environmental effects on the seabed.
Over the last 20 years, invert drilling fluids
have evolved from diesel- to synthetic-based
fluids, and discharge of cuttings-associated
fluids has been reduced significantly. Invert
drilling fluids used today are synthetic-
based fluids that have a very low toxicity in
the marine environment, are biodegradable,
and provide a good working environment.
Cuttings discharged into the sea today aver-
age less than 5 g synthetic fluid/100 g dry
cuttings compared with greater than 15 g
diesel-based fluid/100 g dry cuttings in ear-
lier days. Cuttings piles associated with
these earlier discharges contained large
quantities of hydrocarbons. The reduction
in fluid discharged with cuttings and in tox-
icity and the absence of cuttings beds were
accomplished without significant increase
in related costs.
Legislation was a major driver in the reduc-
tion in oil-contaminated cuttings discharged
into the sea. When legislation limited oil on
cuttings to 1 g/100 g dry cuttings, alternatives
to conventional wash and discharge had to be
found. Cuttings injection, transportation and
discharge of cuttings, and use of synthetic
drilling fluids all played a role in compliance
with this requirement. Low-toxicity base oils
replaced diesel and, in turn, were replaced by
low-toxicity, biodegradable synthetic fluids.
Improvements in solids-separation equip-
ment decreased oil on cuttings. Innovative
new techniques, such as cuttings injection
and cuttings processing, reduced the total
amount of cuttings discharged. Each piece of
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
46617, “Evolutionary Environmental
Management of Drilling Discharges:
Results Without Cost Penalty,” by G.
Hanni, SPE, J. Hartley, R. Munro, and
A. Skullerud, Amoco, originally pre-
sented at the 1998 SPE International
Conference on Health, Safety and
Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration
and Production, Caracas, 7–10 June.
62
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
technology contributed to better environmen-
tal performance.
EVOLUTION
Invert-Emulsion Mud. The introduction
and widespread use of invert-emulsion
muds in the North Sea was driven by cost.
In many applications, available water-based
muds (WBM’s) did not perform satisfactori-
ly, causing higher-than-anticipated drilling
costs and long delays in bringing on pro-
duction. As early as 1977, the spud-to-com-
pletion time of wells on one platform was
reduced by more than one-half by intro-
duction of invert-emulsion drilling fluid. In
1988, a study in Norway indicated that
wells drilled with WBM cost 30% more
than equivalent wells drilled with invert-
emulsion fluids. The need for the drilling-
performance characteristics of oil-based
muds (OBM’s) caused improvements in the
environmental performance of discharges
of these fluids. Drilling discharges were
reduced not by a revolution of technology
or philosophy but by a gradual evolution of
techniques and best practices.
Cuttings Injection. One of the earliest suc-
cesses was injection of drilled cuttings at the
Valhall platform in Norway. To meet the
strict Norwegian discharge requirements
and an announced ban of OBM, a range of
alternative solutions was investigated,
including alternative mud systems, onboard
processing by use of a rotary kiln, and trans-
portation of cuttings to shore. The method
selected to meet discharge requirements was
slurrification of cuttings and injection into a
disposal well. This method had the advan-
tages of lowest overall energy consumption;
no sulfur or combustible-gas emissions;
lowest cost, liability, and safety hazard; and
best reliability. The cuttings-injection sys-
tem has been in regular use for cuttings and
other oil-contaminated wastes since fall
1991. Halting discharges of oil-contaminat-
ed cuttings has resulted in significant recov-
ery of the seabed fauna around the platform.
When surveyed in 1996, the area that shows
even a very minor disturbance of the benth-
ic community was reduced to approximate-
ly 25% of the 1991 area.
F L U I D S
Mud Volume. Use of biodegradable syn-
thetics in drilling fluids was introduced in
the North Sea in an attempt to overcome
problems inherent in the discharge of oil-
contaminated cuttings. The cost of the
synthetics was much higher than that of
oil, and the unit cost focused attention
quickly on the volume of mud discharged.
Personnel were added to the offshore team
to track and identify mud volumes lost at
different phases of the operation. This led
to a better understanding of the impor-
tance and impact of various equipment on
the rig. Analysis centered attention on
reducing the losses attributable to the
solids-control equipment. Well plans were
reviewed and modified to reduce the
volume and amount of hole drilled
while still ensuring technical success.
Modifications to the well plan included
the following.
• Set the 20-in. shoe deeper than normal.
• Drill a 16-in. hole instead of a 171/2-in.
hole.
• Redesign casing strings so that a
171/2-in. hole is not necessary.
• Use sacrificial mud to recover mud
that otherwise would have been left
behind the casing.
These efforts significantly reduced total
mud consumption and mud cost for syn-
thetic fluid to a level comparable with
that for OBM’s.
Cuttings Dispersion. On one well drilled
in an environmentally sensitive area in
West of Shetland field, it was agreed (after
consulting with appropriate government
agencies) that synthetic-based drilling flu-
ids would be used and the cuttings slurried
before discharge overboard. Slurrying the
cuttings promotes their dispersion, pre-
vents formation of a cuttings pile, and pro-
motes faster degradation of the synthetic
fluid. A remotely operated vehicle from the
rig and a time-lapse camera placed down-
stream of the rig monitored the seabed
before, during, and after drilling. These
inspections and subsequent seabed sam-
pling confirmed the absence of cuttings
accumulation at the seabed and no dis-
cernible biological effects.
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
Mud-Recovery Unit. In 1996, a new con-
cept to reduce the amount of oil or syn-
thetic fluid retained on the cuttings was
tested. A mud-recovery unit based on
equipment from the coal industry was
installed downstream of the shakers. This
unit was used on a subsea-development
project in the central North Sea with a 400-
ft/hr drilling rate. This resulted in another
incremental improvement in reduction of
mud discharged with cuttings.
Material Balance/Inventory Control. Oil
on cuttings is measured as required by law,
but experience has shown that this is not a
quantitative measurement. Accurate inven-
tory control is an essential part of invoicing,
and a balanced material reconciliation is a
required part of the audit process. Amoco
and their fluid alliance partner adopted a
system of material balance and inventory
control to establish the quantity and final
disposition of various chemicals, including
synthetic fluids used in drilling operations.
The amount of fluid purchased minus the
amount returned is equal to the amount
lost; fluid that cannot be accounted for as
having been disposed elsewhere is assumed
• NOVEMBER 1998
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
to have gone into the sea. This approach ties
discharges to the sea to cost and has result-
ed in an improvement in performance.
Transportation to Shore. In 1997, a well
was drilled in the environmentally sensitive
Haltenbanken area offshore Norway.
Discharges of drilled cuttings with OBM or
synthetics were prohibited by the authori-
ties, limiting drilling-fluid options for this
well to water-based systems or drilling with
an oil-based system and transporting cut-
tings to shore for processing. The decision
was made to use an OBM and a system with
specially made closed containers for cuttings
transportation. A supply vessel was kept
alongside the rig to manage the containers
while drilling the 121/4-in. hole section.
Cuttings handling caused no restrictions
on drilling speed, and the entire hole sec-
tion was drilled in 5 days. Approximately
120 containers, each containing 7 tons,
were collected, and no spillage occurred in
either transportation or handling.
Although the cuttings transportation and
disposal costs were high, the cost of
drilling the well was much less than would
have been possible with a WBM.
F L U I D S
CONCLUSIONS
A multidisciplinary team environment is
critical to successful environmental man-
agement. Team members included a
drilling-operations team leader, a drilling-
fluids specialist, and environmental special-
ists to provide support and direction to the
drilling group. Drilling-fluids and equip-
ment suppliers as well as drilling contrac-
tors were involved in the planning process.
A formal, balanced decision-making process
is another key element of success. Costs,
technical requirements, and environmental
effects were all considered in mud selection
and waste disposal, and the best acceptable
risk-weighted option was chosen. Suc-
cessful environmental performance would
not have been achieved without commit-
ment to continuous improvement. Environ-
mental management was integrated into the
overall management system.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
63
 D R I L L I N G
WELLBORE-STABILITY PREDICTIONS
USING A MODIFIED LADE CRITERION
The two most commonly used rock-failure
criteria in wellbore-stability analyses are the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion and the Drucker-
Prager criterion.1,2 The literature gives
many examples that demonstrate the appli-
cation of these two criteria to wellbore-sta-
bility computations. These two failure cri-
teria represent two extreme treatments of
the intermediate principal stress, σ2. The
Mohr-Coulomb criterion assumes that σ2
has zero influence on rock strength.
Conversely, the Drucker-Prager criterion
(sometimes referred to as a linear extended
von Mises criterion) gives as much weight
to σ2 as it does to the major and minor prin-
cipal stresses, σ1 and σ3, respectively. If the
criteria are both fit to the same set of triax-
ial-compression-strength data (σ1>σ2=σ3),
the Drucker-Prager criterion predicts
greater rock strength than the Mohr-
Coulomb criterion for all stress states other
than triaxial compression.
While it is true that σ2 has a strengthen-
ing effect (which is ignored by the Mohr-
Coulomb criterion), it is not as profound as
that predicted by the Drucker-Prager crite-
rion. The Mohr-Coulomb criterion under-
estimates rock strength for general stress
situations (σ1≠σ2≠σ3), but the Drucker-
Prager criterion overestimates rock strength
for these general stress states and is in error
especially under triaxial-extension
(σ1=σ2>σ3) conditions. When applied to
the wellbore situation (a very general stress
state), the Mohr-Coulomb criterion is too
conservative because it neglects the
strengthening effect of σ2. The Drucker-
Prager criterion can be unconservative and
can give unreliable stability predictions
because it overestimates the intermediate-
stress effect.
Several researchers have proposed three-
dimensional (3D) rock-failure criteria that
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
47251, “Wellbore-Stability Predictions
Using a Modified Lade Criterion,” by
R.T. Ewy, SPE, Chevron Petroleum
Technology Co., originally presented at
the 1998 SPE/ISRM Eurock, Trondheim,
Norway, 8–10 July.
64
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
predict the effect of σ2 much more accu-
rately than either the Mohr-Coulomb or the
Drucker-Prager criterion. However, it is
usually difficult to apply these complex cri-
teria to the wellbore-stability problem. This
is especially true when analyzing the gener-
al deviated-well problem (a well not aligned
with any principal-stress axis) and when
trying to solve for critical mud weight that
will prevent instability.
The full-length paper presents a 3D rock-
failure criterion that is a modification of a
criterion originally developed by Lade.3
The criterion proposed has the following
desirable qualities: (1) it correctly describes
the influence of σ2 on rock strength and
therefore on wellbore stability; (2) it can be
rearranged to give a closed-form solution
for critical mud weight for any wellbore ori-
entation; and (3) only two rock-strength
parameters, such as cohesion and friction
angle, are required.
MODIFIED L ADE CRITERION
The Lade criterion for failure of frictional
materials is given by
(I13/I3−27)(I1/pa)m=η1, . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
where
I 1=σ1+σ2+σ3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
and I 3=(σ1)(σ2)(σ3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
In Eqs. 1 through 3, σ1, σ2, σ3=the three
principal stresses, pa=atmospheric pres-
sure, and η1 and m=material constants.
To obtain a criterion that predicts linear
shear-strength increase with increasing I1,
m is set equal to 0. In this form, the crite-
rion is similar to that originally proposed
for cohesionless sands. To handle materials
with cohesion or a nonzero tensile
strength, Lade proposed that the stress
axes be shifted into the tensile region by a
dimensionless constant multiplied by pa.
For the author’s purposes, a shift constant
with units of cohesion is more applicable
and is defined as S1. In addition, pore pres-
sure, pp, must be subtracted to handle
effective stresses. Performing these
F L U I D S
changes, and defining appropriate stress
invariants I1′ and I3′, we obtain the follow-
ing failure criterion.
(I1′)3/I3′ =27+η, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
where
I1′=(σ1+S1−pp)+(σ2+S1−pp)+(σ3+S1−pp)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
and
I3′=(σ1+S1−pp)(σ2+S1−pp)(σ3+S1−pp),
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
where S1 and η=material constants and
pp=pore pressure. The full-length paper
contains equations for the invariants I1′ and
I3′ for a wellbore coordinate system. The
parameter S1 is related to the cohesion of
the rock, while the parameter η represents
the internal friction. Calculations show that
these parameters can be derived directly
from the Mohr-Coulomb cohesion, S0, and
friction angle, φ, by
S1=S0/tan φ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
and η=4tan2φ(9−7sin φ)/(1−sin φ), . . (8)
where S0 and φ are determined from triaxi-
al-compression tests.
Fig. 1 shows the relationship between
the modified Lade, Mohr-Coulomb, and
Drucker-Prager criteria under triaxial-com-
pression and -extension conditions for
S0=500 psi and φ=30°. For triaxial-com-
pression conditions, the three criteria are
the same because they are fit to the same
triaxial-compression test data. However,
Fig. 1 shows that the three criteria predict
different strength under triaxial-extension
conditions. The Drucker-Prager criterion
predicts that shear strength is the same in
triaxial extension as in triaxial compres-
sion. Both the modified Lade and Mohr-
Coulomb criteria predict that shear
strength in triaxial extension is less than in
triaxial compression.
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
Shear strength, psi
Mean Effective Stress, psi
Fig. 1—Strength predictions under triaxial-compression and -ex-
tension conditions.
VALIDATION OF CRITERION
Intermediate-Stress-Effect Experiments.
Under general stress conditions, the modi-
fied Lade criterion (as well as the original
Lade criterion) has the desirable property
that it first predicts a strengthening effect
from increasing σ2, followed by a slight
reduction in strength once σ2 becomes “too
high.” This is explained best through the
illustration in Fig. 2. This figure shows the
predicted value of σ1 at failure as a function
of σ2 for a constant value of σ3 equal to
zero, where S0=500 psi and φ=30°.
All three criteria predict the same uncon-
fined compressive strength of 1,732 psi. The
Mohr-Coulomb criterion predicts that the
rock fails at σ1=1,732 psi regardless of the
magnitude of σ2. The Drucker-Prager criteri-
on predicts that σ1 at failure increases dra-
matically with increasing σ2, and it predicts a
triaxial-extension strength of σ1=σ2=5,196
psi. The modified Lade criterion predicts that
σ1 at failure first increases with increasing σ2
up to a maximum strength of σ1=2,525 psi.
With further increases in σ2, it predicts that
Major stress, psi
Intermediate Stress, psi
Fig. 3—Predicted strength.
65
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
Major stress, psi
Fig. 2—Predicted strength.
σ1 at failure decreases and predicts a triaxial-
extension strength of σ1=σ2=2,150 psi. For
nonzero values of σ3, the predicted influence
of σ2 on strength is very similar. Fig. 3, which
compares the three criteria with S0=500 psi
and φ=30°, shows this. In Fig. 3, the mag-
nitude of σ3 is set equal to 866 psi, which is
exactly one-half the unconfined compressive
strength of this example rock.
Several researchers conducted laboratory
experiments to measure the influence of σ2 on
rock strength directly; they all found that
increasing σ2 increases the value of σ1 at fail-
ure, but only up to a point. With further
increase in σ2, the value of σ1 at failure
decreases slightly, especially as one approach-
es triaxial-extension conditions. The observed
effect of σ2 on rock strength is matched very
closely by the modified Lade criterion. The
shape illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 is a very
good fit to the experimental observations.
Hollow-Cylinder and Block Experiments.
Many researchers have performed hole-fail-
ure experiments using thick-walled hollow
(I1′)3/ I3′
Fig. 4—Stability vs. mud weight.
F L U I D S
Intermediate Stress, psi
cylinders of rock. Usually, the samples are
jacketed and subjected to a hydrostatic con-
fining pressure that acts both on the outside
diameter of the sample and axially on the
ends of the sample. Sometimes a support
pressure is applied in the model hole, but
the hole usually is left empty. In either case,
the magnitude of confining pressure that
results in failure at the hole wall inevitably
is several times greater than that predicted
by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion (in con-
junction with the stress concentration pre-
dicted by linear elasticity). When blocks of
rock are used to apply nonaxisymmetric
stresses around the hole, similarly high
apparent strengths are observed.
Many explanations have been proposed
for this apparent strengthening around
model holes, including size effects, nonlin-
ear rock behavior, plasticity, nonconstant
moduli, and the strengthening effect of the
intermediate principal stress. While the
intermediate stress cannot account for all the
apparent strengthening commonly ob-
served, it is most likely a major contributor
Mud Weight, lbm/gal
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
to the high strengths observed around model
holes. For example, when hollow cylinders
are subjected to hydrostatic confining pres-
sure, the magnitude of stress acting along the
axis of the hole wall is about one-half the
magnitude of the stress acting tangentially
around the hole wall. This is a situation
where σ2 is approximately one-half σ1. It is
apparent from Figs. 2 and 3 that significant
strengthening, relative to the Mohr-
Coulomb criterion, occurs under such a
stress state. Examination of Figs. 2 and 3
shows that, once σ2 exceeds approximately
one-half of σ1, any further increase in σ2 will
result either in no strength increase or in a
small strength decrease. The strengthening
effects of the intermediate principal stress
predicted by the modified Lade criterion are
in agreement with observations made on
model holes. Therefore, this failure criterion
can be applied to wellbore-stability problems
with confidence.
APPLIC ATION TO
WELLBORE STABILITY
Closed-Form Solution for Critical Mud
Weight. The first step in calculating the mud
weight required to prevent hole instability is
to transform the in-situ stresses to the well-
bore coordinate system. The equations can
be found in available references.2 The full-
length paper presents an equation for critical
wellbore pressure that can be converted easi-
ly to drilling-fluid density, or mud weight.
These equations use stresses at the wellbore
wall predicted by linear elasticity and can be
altered to account for nonlinear rock behav-
ior. They also assume no communication
between wellbore pressure and formation
pore pressure. A derivation is provided in the
Appendix of the full-length paper. The solu-
tion for critical wellbore pressure is the lesser
of the two roots of a quadratic equation. Fig.
4 shows the behavior of the dimensionless
term (I1′)3/I3′ as a function of mud weight.The
calculations were performed for a wellbore
deviated 30° from vertical, and the stresses
were analyzed at the point of highest tangen-
tial stress around the circumference (the
sides of the hole). Fig. 4 shows that, for a
mud weight less than approximately 10
lbm/gal, (I1′)3/I3′ exceeds the quantity η+27
(the stress is greater than the rock strength)
and the hole is unstable. For mud weight
greater than 10 lbm/gal, the stress is less
than the strength and the hole is stable. It is
apparent from Fig. 4 that a second, higher
mud-weight value exists that satisfies Eq. 4.
Once mud weight exceeds this upper limit,
the wellbore again is theoretically unstable.
A mud weight greater than 14.4 lbm/gal is
not likely to be used in this case because of
• NOVEMBER 1998
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
the risk of lost returns. Under certain con-
ditions, there is no solution for a mud
weight that will stabilize the hole complete-
ly. This occurs when the minimum point of
the (I1′)3/I3′ vs. mud-weight curve lies above
the value of η+27. The full-length paper
presents example calculations of critical
mud weight as a function of hole angle,
rock strength, and in-situ stress.
Application Issues. The closed-form solu-
tion for critical mud weight does have limita-
tions. Similar to the Mohr-Coulomb and
Drucker-Prager criteria, the modified Lade
criterion predicts linearly increasing shear
strength with increasing mean effective
stress. The Lade criterion was linearized to
make the equations more tractable for the
general wellbore problem. The linear nature
of the criterion is not considered to be a prob-
lem as long as care is used in its application.
The range of mean effective-stress values that
is relevant to a wellbore problem is usually
quite small. Rock-strength data usually can
be fit quite accurately by a straight line over a
reasonable stress range. The linear form of
the modified Lade criterion therefore pre-
sents no loss of accuracy as long as the cohe-
sion and friction angle represent the strength
over the appropriate stress range.
Because it has no tension cutoff, the
modified Lade criterion tends to overesti-
mate tensile strengths and is not accurate
when tensile stresses are present. This is
not a problem in wellbore-stability calcula-
tions because the locations around the well-
bore that require mud weight for support
are not subject to tension.
The equations are not appropriate for sit-
uations where there is communication
between wellbore pressure and formation
pore pressure, such as underbalanced
drilling and overbalanced drilling without
the presence of a filter cake on the hole
wall. Chemical effects in shales also require
special mathematical treatment.
The critical-mud-weight solution is based
on the stress concentration at the wellbore pre-
dicted by linear elasticity. In some situations,
the wellbore stresses may not be quite as high
as predicted by linear elasticity; this results in
predicted mud weights that are higher than
actually necessary. Alternative methods of pre-
dicting the stress concentration at the wellbore
could be used in conjunction with the modi-
fied Lade criterion to obtain less conservative
mud-weight predictions.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Neither the Mohr-Coulomb nor
Drucker-Prager criterion correctly accounts
for the influence of σ2 on rock strength.
F L U I D S
Under general stress states, the Mohr-
Coulomb criterion underestimates strength
while the Drucker-Prager criterion overesti-
mates it.
2. The Lade and modified Lade criteria
correctly account for the influence of σ2
on rock strength and therefore on
wellbore stability.
3. A correct 3D failure criterion, such as
the modified Lade criterion, explains some
of the apparent strengthening that is com-
monly observed around model holes in
the laboratory.
4. The modified Lade criterion can be
rearranged to obtain a closed-form solution
for critical mud weight that is applicable to
all wellbore orientations and in-situ
stress states.
5. The modified Lade criterion predicts
critical-mud-weight values that are less
conservative than those predicted by the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion but not as uncon-
servative as those predicted by the Drucker-
Prager criterion.
6. When the correct influence of σ2 is
accounted for, it is found that the required
increase in mud weight when going from
low hole angle to high hole angle is not as
great as that predicted by either the Mohr-
Coulomb or Drucker-Prager criterion.
NOMENCL ATURE
I1′= modified first stress invariant,
m/Lt2, psi
I3′ = modified third stress invariant,
m/Lt2, psi
η= material parameter related to friction
σ3= minor principal stress, m/Lt2, psi
REFERENCES
1. McLean, M.R. and Addis, M.A.: “Wellbore
Stability Analysis: A Review of Current
Methods of Analysis and Their Field
Application,” paper SPE 19941 presented at
the 1990 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference,
Houston, 27 February–2 March.
2. McLean, M.R. and Addis, M.A.: “Wellbore
Stability: The Effect of Strength Criteria on
Mud Weight Recommendations,” paper SPE
20405 presented at the 1990 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Houston, 23–26 September.
3. Lade, P.V.: “Failure Criterion for Frictional
Materials,” Mechanics of Engineering Materials,
C.S. Desai and R.H. Galager (eds.), John Wiley
& Sons, New York City (1984) 385.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
66
 D R I L L I N G
DENSITY BEHAVIOR OF DRILLING FLUIDS
DURING HP/HT DRILLING
Although a number of high-pressure/high-
temperature (HP/HT) wells have been
drilled in Norway in the past 25 years, these
wells still present a drilling challenge. A
considerable amount of time and cost is
related to setting the production casing and
drilling and testing the reservoir. Operating
margins are very small. Borehole stability,
well control, and interpretation of well sig-
nals are key issues. Measurement-while-
drilling tools measure pressure and temper-
ature at bottom and show more variation in
both parameters than thought previously.
Mud temperature is always in a transient
state, strongly affected by flow rate.
Determination of effective mud density
(EMD) is critical to analysis of drilling and
completion operations. Without knowl-
edge of actual system pressures, preventing
a gas kick or circulation losses in fractured
formations is difficult. EMD is affected
directly by downhole variations in pressure
and temperature.
COMPARISON WITH
EMPIRIC AL MODELS
In the past, models that predicted down-
hole densities have assumed a linear tem-
perature distribution. However, during
drilling and completion, this is seldom the
case. In earlier models that present an equa-
tion of state (EOS) for the downhole densi-
ty in static drilling fluids, the equations
were obtained from curve-fitting methods.
The full-length paper presents the mathe-
matical development and derivation of an
analytical model for the density/pressure/
temperature dependence of drilling fluids.
This generalized EOS is valid for oil- and
water-based drilling fluids and also for
completion fluids. The analytical model
couples a model for predicting downhole
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
47806, “Density Behavior of Drilling
Fluids During High-Pressure/High-
Temperature Drilling,” by Eirik
Kårstad, SPE, and Bernt S. Aadnøy,
SPE, Stavanger College, originally pre-
sented at the 1998 IADC/SPE Asia
Pacific Drilling Technology Conference,
Jakarta, 7–9 September.
• NOVEMBER 1998
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
density with a transient-temperature model
for circulation-fluid temperatures. This
enables the model to predict the density
profile of the well during drilling,
workover, and well-control operations.
Appendix A of the full-length paper gives
mathematical details of the procedure to
evaluate density as a function of pressure
and temperature. Models that earlier were
considered pure empirical correlations can
be derived from this analytical solution by
expanding the EOS in a Taylor series and
neglecting second-order and higher terms.
PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
As the temperature and pressure of the
mud column increase with depth, the mud
experiences two opposing effects.
Increases in temperature cause the mud
density to decrease because of thermal
expansion, while increases in pressure
cause the mud density to increase because
of compressibility. For a particular temper-
ature profile, these two opposing effects
cancel each other out. This is defined as
the constant-density temperature profile
(CDTP) that results in a constant density
through the depth interval. If the real mud
temperature is greater than the CDTP, the
mud density is less than the surface densi-
ty and thermal expansion is predominant.
If the temperature is less than the CDTP,
the mud density would be greater than that
at surface and the compressibility effect is
predominant. If the CDTP is known, it can
be compared with the real temperature
profile in the well, immediately indicating
whether thermal expansion or compress-
ibility is predominant.
PIT GAINS AND LOSSES
Return-mud volume varies during drilling,
having either a too-low or -high return rate.
This effect often is called ballooning.
Because mud density is very temperature
dependent, mud-volume gains or losses
caused by thermal effects may be substan-
tial. In contrast to pressure effects, which
occur over a short time period, thermal
effects may take hours. Because the volume
of the well is constant at a given time, the
F L U I D S
process is defined as a constant-volume
process. Therefore, any pit gains or losses
are the result of a gain or loss of mass to the
mud in the well. The full-length paper con-
tains equations for mud volume, mud-sys-
tem mass, and change of mass in surface-
volume units.
DENSITY PROFILES
A field example demonstrates the effect of
compressibility and transient temperature
on mud density. Assuming a surface densi-
ty of 2.04 g/cm3, the EMD at geothermal
conditions is 1.98 g/cm3. Immediately after
circulation starts, EMD increases to 1.99
g/cm3 and continues to increase to 2.06
g/cm3 after 12 hours of circulation. EMD
changes more rapidly for high circulation
rates and tends to stabilize at a higher
value. EMD usually stabilizes within 12
hours’ circulation time
Mud density increases as circulation con-
tinues because of continuous cooling of the
well. For very-high-temperature wells,
changes in EMD caused by temperature
changes are significant. This effect has been
observed in HP/HT wells that are shut in
after a well-control incident. Changes in
shut-in pressures have been interpreted as a
direct measurement of the reservoir pore
pressure. In reality, density variation caused
by temperature changes may change shut-
in pressure significantly.
CONCLUSIONS
1. This paper describes a mud-density
model that couples a transient-temperature
model with a fluid-density model.
2. Fluid density calculated by this model
includes the effects of compression and
thermal expansion.
3. Measurement of volume variations in
the return mud can provide an estimate of
the effective bottomhole pressure.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
67
 D R I L L I N G
MODELING EFFECTS OF DRILLING-FLUID
TEMPERATURE ON WELLBORE STABILITY
Stresses, pore pressure, wellbore pressure,
drilling-fluid design, and formation proper-
ties are among the primary considerations for
wellbore-stability assessment and develop-
ment of recommendations to manage insta-
bility. Drilling-fluid temperature is often dif-
ferent from formation temperature, which
results in heat transfer between the two
media. Changes in volume of the rock matrix
and pore fluid induced by changes in tem-
perature depend on the thermal-expansion
properties of the rock matrix and pore fluid.
These volume changes result in changes in
effective stresses and pore pressure in low-
permeability formations, such as shales, and
can lead to borehole failure. Thermal effects
need to be included in prediction of time-
dependent wellbore instability and in mud
programs to prevent wellbore instability.
A numerical thermoporoelasticity model
has been developed that can model the
effects of time-dependent changes in stress-
es and pore-fluid pressure on wellbore sta-
bility in shale formations. The thermoporo-
elasticity model has been validated by com-
paring model results with analytical solu-
tions and by simple numerical experiments
that use a single finite element to simulate
a fully saturated cube.
THEORETIC AL BA SIS
Governing Equations. Because of the low
permeability of shales, the coefficient of
thermal diffusivity is several orders of mag-
nitude greater than the coefficient of fluid
diffusivity; therefore, heat transfer will be
dominated by diffusion, and convective
transport by pore fluid can be ignored. The
full-length paper presents equations for
conductive heat transfer in the shale, effects
of temperature change on pore-fluid pres-
sure, and changes in effective stresses that
result from mechanical deformation and
changes in pore pressure and temperature.
This article is a synopsis of paper SPE
47304, “Modeling of Effects of Drilling-
Fluid Temperature on Wellbore
Stability,” by S.K. Choi, SPE, and C.P.
Tan, SPE, CSIRO Petroleum, originally
presented at the 1998 SPE/ISRM
Eurock, Trondheim, Norway, 8–10 July.
68
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
If a transient temperature field exists in the
saturated rock, the difference between the coef-
ficients of thermal expansion of the pore fluid
and the rock matrix induces changes in pore
pressure and stresses. This can cause thermal-
induced pore-fluid flow and deformation of
rock around the borehole. Because of its low
permeability, when a shale formation is heated,
the volume expansion of the pore fluid causes
an increase in pore pressure. Thermal expan-
sion of the rock matrix under constrained con-
ditions results in generation of thermal stress in
the tangential direction. The reduction of effec-
tive mud support associated with the increase
in pore pressure combined with the increase in
thermal stress results in a less stable wellbore.
Formation cooling decreases the pore pressure
and tangential stress and causes a more stable
wellbore. However, reduction of the tangential
stress leads to a lower hydraulic-fracture gradi-
ent, and, in extreme cases, the tangential stress
can become tensile and initiate a hydraulic
fracture. The model was integrated with poro-
elasticity and drilling-fluid/shale interaction
models to form the time-dependent wellbore-
stability-analysis software.
POROEL ASTIC-MODEL VALIDATION
Analytical solutions for the case of instanta-
neous injection in a cylindrical borehole
have been derived. The coupled fluid/stress
diffusion equations were uncoupled to solve
for pore pressure independently of the dis-
placement field. Loading conditions were
decomposed into three simple modes, and
solutions to more general cases were
obtained by superimposing the solutions for
the three modes. Comparison of numerical
results with analytical solutions validated the
poroelasticity component of the model.
Model Description. The outer boundary of
the mesh was set at 10 wellbore diameters
to minimize any boundary effects. A con-
stant fluid pressure was defined at the well-
bore wall, with zero initial stress and pore-
fluid pressure in the formation. Stresses and
pore-fluid pressure calculated are the
changes from the initial undisturbed state.
Model Results. Induced changes in pore
pressure and tangential stress near the bore-
F L U I D S
hole wall were determined by the model
and analytical solutions for different times.
There was good agreement between the
numerical and analytical solutions.
THERMOPOROEL A STICITY-MODEL
VALIDATION
Analytical solutions of coupled, linear
heat/fluid/stress diffusion equations for
some specific boundary or initial-value
problems have been derived by various
researchers. However, analytical solutions
for general initial-value problems of defor-
mation of poroelastic materials under non-
isothermal conditions are unavailable. To
validate the model, simple numerical
experiments were performed to determine
whether the induced changes in effective
stresses, strains, and pore pressure for fully
constrained and completely free unit cubes
satisfy the equations.
Model Description. A unit cube composed of
a finite element was used in the analyses. In
the fully constrained case, all six faces of the
cube are fixed. A step change in temperature
was assigned to the cube, and the changes in
effective stresses and pore pressure were com-
puted. The constraints on all the faces were
removed later and the cube allowed to deform
freely. Changes in stresses, strains, and pore
pressure at equilibrium were computed.
Model Results. For a step change of 50°C,
the induced change in principal stresses
was 5.5 MPa (compressive) and the
induced change in pore pressure was 29.8
MPa. When the constraints were removed,
the cube expanded and the principal stress-
es and pore pressure at the new equilibrium
state were 11.8 MPa (tensile) and 29.7
MPa, respectively. These values agreed with
those determined by use of equations found
in the full-length paper. For the case of a
step change of −50°C, the induced changes
in stress and pore pressure were of the same
magnitude as the heating case but opposite
in sign, as expected.
PARAMETRIC ANALYSES
The formation was assumed to be saturated
initially with pore fluid, and the pore pressure
NOVEMBER 1998 •
 D R I L L I N G
and temperature were assumed to be uniform
in the formation. Wellbore diameter was 81/2
in., and the mesh boundary was set at 10 well-
bore diameters from the center. A constant
temperature representing the difference in
temperature between the drilling fluid and the
formation was defined at the wellbore wall.
Drilling fluids 50°C hotter and colder than the
formation were analyzed. Principal horizontal
stresses were isotropic. A fully permeable and
an impermeable wellbore wall were studied.
70
A N D C O M P L E T I O N
Discussion. As thermal and induced pore-
fluid diffusion proceeded, effective stress
and pore-pressure distributions changed
with time. For the permeable-wall condi-
tion, cooling resulted in a sharp decrease in
pore pressure near the wellbore wall after a
short time. With time, the peak of the pore-
pressure decrease moves away from the
wellbore wall and the shape becomes flat-
ter, indicating that the thermal effect has
spread out. Heating resulted in the pore
F L U I D S
pressure increasing to slightly more than
the wellbore pressure. Cooling improves
the stability of the wellbore, while heating
reduces the safety factor of plastic yielding
and can induce wellbore instability. Because
of the boundary condition at the wellbore
wall, effective radial stresses are very simi-
lar for both cooling and heating. After less
than 690 seconds, the difference in effective
tangential stress is approximately 6 MPa.
Such changes in effective stresses can lead
to shear or tensile failure of the rock,
depending on the stress state in the region
around the wellbore wall. In general,
drilling fluid that is cooler than the forma-
tion tends to improve the stability of the
wellbore while drilling fluid that is warmer
than the formation can induce rock failure
because of thermoporoelasticity effects.
Cooling the drilling fluid can be an effective
option to manage wellbore instability when
the use of high mud weight is not feasible.
Thermal-Diffusivity Effects. A higher
thermal diffusivity implies that heat is
going to diffuse faster into the rock forma-
tion, reducing the time for induced pore
pressure to dissipate. As a result, the mag-
nitude of induced pore-pressure and stress
changes is higher for shales of a given fluid
diffusivity with higher thermal diffusivity. A
higher thermal diffusivity increased the
safety factor for cooling and decreased it
for heating.
CONCLUSIONS
1. A numerical thermoporoelasticity
model that can model time-dependent
changes in stresses and pore-fluid pressure
induced by thermal and fluid diffusion has
been developed.
2. Results of the model-validation analy-
ses agree well with analytical solutions for
instantaneous fluid injection of a poroelas-
tic medium.
3. Results of the simple numerical exper-
iment show that the computed changes in
effective stresses and pore pressure satisfy
the equations for the thermoporoelastic
medium used in the model.
4. Temperature differences between
drilling fluid and the formation can in-
duce significant changes in pore-fluid
pressure and effective stresses around the
wellbore wall.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and ref-
erences. The paper from which the syn-
opsis has been taken has not been peer
reviewed.
NOVEMBER 1998 •