CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Theoretical Framework.

2.1.1 Mathematical Problem Solving Ability
Problems arise because of the gap between what is expected to reality, between what
belongs to what we do, between what is already known that relate to a particular problem with
what is not yet known. This is in line with the opinion of Hayet and Mayer (in Suhendri 2006) we
face a problem when there is a discrepancy between where we are now to where we want but do
not know how to bridge that gap. Likewise Posamenteir and Steplmen (in Suhendri 2006) Argues
the same, said the issue is a situation in which there is something we want to go or want, but we
do not know how to get it or in order to achieve the goal or desire.
Discrepancy must be overcome. The process on how to address this discrepancy is referred
to as the problem solving process. According to Sternberg and Ben Zeev (1996: 31) solving the
problem arises when problem solving consider how to solve the problem, the problem solving to
understand how to use the circumstances that are used to achieve the goal. So to solve problems,
someone knows how to solve the problem of a given situation to achieve a state as the solution of
the problem. In principle, the problem solving is the process of achieving a goal from the existing
problems. This is in line with the opinion of Sumarno (in kadir, 2008) that problem solving is a
process to overcome the difficulties encountered to achieve a desired aim.
According Ruseffendi (1991: 341) problem solving purposes given to students are: (a) may
lead to curiosity and motivation, foster the nature of creativity, (b) in addition have the knowledge
and skills (numeracy and others) required their ability to skillfully reading and making the
statement is true, (c) can give rise to answer the original, new, distinctive and diverse, and can add
new knowledge or can improve the application of science that has been obtained, (d) invites
students to have a problem solving procedures, capable of making analysis and synthesis, and are
required to make an evaluation of the results of the solution.
According by Hudojo (2001: 170) argues problem solving is essential in learning
mathematics because: (1) Skilled student selects relevant information, then analyzed and finally
examine the results, (2) The decision intellectual arising from within an intrinsic reward for the
students, (3) The potential for improved student intellect (4) Students learn how to perform the
invention through the process of performing the invention.
According Polya (1985) there are two kinds of mathematical problems, namely: (a)
problem to find, can be either theoretical or practical, abstract or concrete and (b) problem to prove,
is to show that a statement is true or one (not both). While Swander (1985) suggests there are four
types of problems or problems in mathematics, namely: (a) the symbolic, such as x 2 + x 6 = 0
(b) such as word problems related to real life, (c) the geometric, with regard to elements of
geometry, and (d) others, such as using a formula.
To be a good problem solvers, students need many opportunities to create and solve
problems in mathematics and in the context of real life. According Sumarno (2003), the activity
included in the problem solving activities include: identifying the elements that are known, asked,
as well as the adequacy of the elements necessary, formulate the problem situations and
mathematics, implement strategies to solve a variety of problems (similar and new problems)
within or outside mathematics, describes the results as the issue of origin, construct mathematical
models and real resolve to issue and use mathematics significantly.Some experts recommend steps
in solving the problem. Orlich (in Marzuki: 2006) argues stages in solving the problem items,
namely: (1) Be aware of the situation or circumstances be regarded as a problem, (2) Identify the
problem in exact terms, (3) Can determine the meaning of all terms related, (4) View limitation
problems, (5) Makes analysis may need to divide the problem into subproblems miraculous, (6)
Collect all relevant data, (7) Evaluate the correctness of the data, (8) Makes of data into meaningful
relationships, (9) Makes generalizations and propose alternative solutions to problems, (10)
Suggested the results
Dewey (in Sujono: 1988) suggests five stages in solving the problem, namely; (1) know
that there is a problem, an awareness of their hardship, despair astonishment, or doubt; (2)
recognize the problem, classification, definition and tagging of the objectives to be sought; (3)
using pengelaman ago; (4) test several hypotheses, evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of
the hypothesis; (5) selecting the best hypothesis and drawing conclusions based on the evidence
the evidence is there, Krulik (1996: 18) suggests solving the problem as follows: (1) Read and
Think, (2) Explore and Plan; (3) Select a strategy; (4) Find and answer; (5) Reflect and extend.
Hudoyo (in marzuki: 2006) put forward his views on the problem solving steps, namely:
(1) Understand / knowing the problem, let formulate and answer any questions that were asked or
evidenced, (2) plan settlement include collecting information relating to the requirements
determined, analyze information using the analogy of the problem, (3) executing a settlement with
rechecking every lankah elapsed, (4) looking back to see if the results match other results or other
means different settlement result is the same.
Problem solving can improve the ability to think critically, logically, creatively and
systematically. Polya (Ruseffendi, 1991) provides an alternative to problem solving can be reached
through four stages, namely: (1) understand the problem; (2) planning the solution; (3) solve the
problem in accordance with the plan; (4) to reexamine the procedures and the results of the
settlement. The process should the students of the four stages in detail can be described as follows:
a. Understanding the problem, the activities that can be done at this stage is: what (data) is
known, what is not yet known (asked), whether the information sufficient, condition
(condition) must be met, to restate the original problem in a more operational ( can be solved).
b. Make a plan of solving activities being carried out at this stage is: trying to find or remember
ever solved a problem that has similarities with the problem to be solved, look for patterns or
rules, draw up resolution procedures.
c. Resolving the problem according to plan, activities to do in this step is: running a procedure
that was created in the previous step to the settlement.
d. Re examine the procedures and results of the settlement, the activities to do in this step is: to
analyze and evaluate whether other procedures more effective, whether procedures have
created can be used to solve similar problems, or whether the procedure can be made
generalizations.
Four stages of Polya problem solving is a unity that is essential for development. Students
are expected to learn to solve problems used to be developed. Students are expected to learn to
solve problems used to work on the problems that do not just rely on a good memory teapi student
should be able to associate with the real situation ever experienced or ever thought. Then the
students to explore with concrete objects, then students will learn mathematical ideas informally,
then formally study mathematics. Similarly, the teacher will give a score that corresponds to the
solution offered Polya solving problems. The assessment rubric mathematical problem solving test
students on the research plan is adopted from scoring solving the problem raised by Schoen and
Ochmke (in Utari 1993: 16)

2.1.2 Mathematical Communications Abilitiy

In problem based learning, in addition to problem solving ability is the main focus, the
capabilities that are implied in the learning process is the ability to communicate ideas issue
findings, and the results of a series of problem solving phase. Importance of mathematical
communication in mathematics, as proposed NCTM (1996) which states that we need a
communication if it wanted to achieve full social objectives such as mathematics literacy, and
math learning stews life for everyone.
The term communication stems from the Latin word communis, which means make or
build togetherness between two people or more. Communication is also derived from the Latin
word which means dividing communico (Cangara, 1998: 18). Rogers (in Cangara, 1998) stated
that communication is a process whereby an idea is transferred from a source to a receiver or more,
with a view to changing their behavior. Lawrence Kincaid (in Cangara, 1998: 69) describes the
communication is a process in which two or more persons to form or exchange information with
each other, which in turn would arrive at a deeper understanding. Tubs and Moss (in Cangara,
1998: 69) describes the process of establishing the meaning of the communication is between two
or more people.
Berelson and Steiner (in Mulyana, 2003: 62) describes the communication is the
transmission of information, ideas, emotions, ability, and so on. By using symbols,words, picture
figures, graphs and so on. Action and the transmission process is usually called communication.
Raymond (in Mulyana, 2003: 62) said communication is a process of sorting, selecting, and
sending a symbol of a way that helps the listener evoke meaning or response of similar thoughts
that are intended primarily communicator. Miller (in Mulyana, 2003: 62) said communication
occurs when a source to delive a message to the recipient with the intention of which is based on
influencing the behavior of the recipient.
Based on the understanding of communication can be concluded that communication is a
form of human interaction interplay between two or more people to gain a sense of the same or
similar purposes, supported by who is talking (communicant), what was said (message /
information) , media (tools messenger from the source to the recipient), who is listening (receiver
/ messages), and the effects (changes in thoughts, feelings and attitudes that occurred after
receiving the message).
Communication is very important in human life Scheidel (in Mulyana, 2005: 4) says
communicate to represent and support selfidentity, build social contact with people in our lives
and influence others to think, feel, or behave. Lasswell (in Cangara, 1998: 2) says there are three
basic functions of the human need to communicate that cause human desire to control the
environment. Human efforts to adapt to its environment, and efforts to transform the legacy of
socialization. From the quote above it can be concluded that communication is essential to build
self concept, self actualization, cultivates relationships with others for survival.
Mulyana (2005: 237) states verbal communication or language can be defined as vebal set
of symbols and rules for combining these symbols used and understood by a community. Verbal
language is a means to express thoughts, feelings and intentions of a person. Not infrequently the
human difficulty in conveying messages in verbal language that can be understood by both parties,
but the communication can still be done with body movements, show a certain attitude example
frowning, smiling, or bowed their heads. This way is called the language of communication with
non - verbal.
Muhammad (in Widjaja, 2001: 95) certify verbal communication is communication that
uses symbols or words , whether expressed orally or verbally or in writing, judging from the
manifold, verbal communication consists of oral and written communication. Oral communication
is a voice communication using the activity as including speaking and listening. So verbal
communication is communication that use sound to convey a message to the message recipient
with the intention of influencing the behavior of the message recipient. Verbal communication can
be: instructions, oral reports, talks for approval wisdom. A successful oral communication must
consider the following factors: the selection of subjects or themes of talks, set goals, analyze the
audience, collecting materials and assemble and practice speaking in front of others.
Written communication is the delivery of information through symbols written on paper or
other places that can be read. Written communication can be: letters, memos, user guide, bacaaan
books, newspapers, magazines, drawings, and reports. Written communication is communication
by means of writing that can represent verbal communication including writing and reading.
Writing is a process of delivering a message to the other party in writing. The writing process
consists of prewriting, writing and postwriting. Reading is the process of delivering a message in
writing from the other party. The process of reading the meaning continuous activities based on
what is in the text composition and the knowledge by the reader. The advantage of written
communication are: that communication has been prepared that communication has been prepared
well in advance, can be read over and over again, according to certain procedures, reduce costs,
and others. Disadvantages include the written communication requires considerable
documentation, sometimes not clear, feedback prompted the arrival long enough (bureaucracy).
To resolve this in a written communication should be sought: (a) use the simple words; (b) use the
short words common; (c) provide illustrations, charts, floor plans and sketches for explanation; (d)
prioritizing logic and direct; (e) understand the working of an active and positive; (f) avoid the
word that is less necessary.
Mulyana (2005: 70) the classification of communication based on the number of
participants involved are (1) intrapersonal communication is communication with yourself,
whether consciously or unconsciously; (2) inter-personal communication is communication
between people those with a face to face, allowing each participant capture reactions of others
directly, either verbally or nonverbally; (3) Communication groups: communication between a
group of people who share the same goal, which interact with one another to achieve a common
goal; (4) the public communication is communication between a speaker with a large amount; (5)
organizational communication is communication that occurs in an organization; (6) Mass
communication is communication that uses the mass media.
In the event of a learning process of communication between teachers and students, and
students with students to achieve the objectives in the form of an indepth understanding of the
subject matter. In mathematics the message delivered in the form of concept a mathematical
concept presented both orally and in writing. Upon ability critical communications when the
discussion among the students do, where students are expected to proclaim, explain, describe, hear,
declare and work can bring students to a deep understanding of mathematics Within (in Saragih,
2007: 35) the ability of students to communicate mathematics he learned as the content of the
message that must be delivered is also called the communication ability of the students.
Sumarno (in Saragih, 2007: 35) argues that one of the essence of mathematics is a language
of symbols which implies that mathematics is universal and can be understood by everyone. Esty
and Topo (in saragih, 2007: 36) suggests a symbolic language is a tool for communicating and
presenting the concepts, structures and relationships in mathematics, both statements show
mathematics as a language of symbols that depict the process of symbolization and formulations
which transform a statement into the form of a formula, symbol or image.
Greenes and Schulman (in ansari, 2009: 4) argues mathematics communication can occur
when the student (1) states mathematical ideas through speech, writing, demonstrations, and
describe it visually in a different type; (2) to understand, interpret and assess the ideas presented
in writing, orally, or in visual form; (3) construct, interpret and connect a variety of ideas and
relationships.
Sumarni (2004: 15) expresses some characteristic of mathematical communication skills to be
trained in learning is that students can (1) connects the physical material or tangible objects,
drawings, and diagrams into mathematical ideas; (2) explain the ideas, situations and relationships
mathematical orally or in writing with real objects, pictures, graphics, and ajabar; (3) declare a day
of events in the language or mathematical symbols; (4) listening, discussing and writing about
mathematics; (5) read with understanding a written mathematical presentation; (6) make a
conjecture, make the argument, formulate definitions and generalizations; (7) explain and made
inquiries about the math they have learned.
Baroody (in Sulastri: 20) divides the communications aspect into five parts, namely
a. Understanding the mathematical concept, explain the link between concepts and apply
concepts or algorithms in a flexible, accurate, efficient, and precise in problem solving,
b. Using the reasoning in the patterns and nature, perform mathematical manipulation in making
generalizations, compile evidence or explain mathematical ideas and questions,
c. Solve problems that include the ability to understand the problem, devised a mathematical
model, complete the mathematical model and interpret the obtained solution,
d. Communicate ideas with symbols, tables, diagrams or other media to clarify the situation
or problem,
e. Having respect for the usefulness of mathematics in life is curiosity, concern and interest
in studying mathematics, as well as the resilient nature and confidence in mathematical
communication.
National Council for Teachers of Mathematics (in Ansari 2009: 1) argues, mathematics as
a means of communication (mathematics as a communication) is a development language and
symbols to communicate ideas mathematics, so that students can: (1) disclose and explain their
thinking about mathematical ideas and relationship, (2) formulating the definition of mathematical
and give depth to the generalization that was obtained through the (invention), (3) expresses
mathematical ideas orally and in writing, (4) read the interview mathematics with understanding,
(5) describe and propose and expand the question to mathematics he had learned, (6) appreciate
the beauty and power of mathematical notation
If a student obtaining a mathematical concept of information through a teacher or get
yourself through the reading of the real time transfer of information that is going out of the
communicator to the communicant. Furthermore, the response by the communicant communicant
form of interpretation of information math concepts earlier. In mathematics, the quality of
interpretation and the response was often a special problem. It is as a result of the characteristics
of the mathematics itself is loaded with terms and symbols, so there is rarely a student is able to
solve a math problem well, but did not understand what he was doing. This occurs as a result of
very jarangya students are required to provide an explanation in math, so that foreign sanga for
them to talk about mathematics. To reduce the occurrence of such cases, students need to get used
to communicate ideas orally and in writing to another person according to his own interpretation.
So that other people can rate and provide feedback on the interpretation. Through these activities
students will gain a more meaningful understanding him about what he was doing. Therefore, the
ability to communicate in mathematics became an important point to note.
The importance of communication in the learning of mathematics is also proposed NCTM
(in Setiawan, 2008: 17) that recommends communication ability must be built within the students
so that they can:
1. Modeling the situation with verbal, written, images, graphs and algebraic
2. Reflection and classify in thinking about ideas of mathematics in a variety of situations.
3. Develop an understanding of the ideas of mathematics including the role definitions in
mathematics.
4. Uses reading abilities. Hearing and seeing to interpret and evaluate mathematical idea
5. Assessing mathematical ideas through conjecture with convincing reasons.

Collins (1995) states that one of the objectives to be achieved in the learning of
mathematics is to provide an opportunity as possible for the students to develop and integrate
communication ability through oral or written, modeling, speaking, writing, talking, drawing, and
presented what they have learned , With good oral and written communication can take students
on solving the problem well.
Written communication is limited to communications activities models Cai, lane and
jakabein (in setiawan 2008: 38) that includes:
1. Writing math; the ability to write mathematics students are required to write an explanation
of the answers to the problem mathematically, reasonable, and clear and structured logically
and systematically.
2. Drawing mathematics; the ability to draw math, students are able to describe pictures,
diagrams, and tables are complete and correct
3. Mathematical expressions; the ability of mathematical expressions, the student is able to
model the math correctly, then perform calculations or get a solution is complete and correct.
The role of teachers in learning as mentors, guides, information, or as a facilitator. NCTM
(in Dhitya, 2008: 2) reveal about the activities of teachers in developing students mathematical
communication abilities, which are as follows:
1. Investigate the questions and tasks assigned, interesting and challenging eachs student to
think.
2. Ask students to clarify and assess their ideas orally and in writing.
3. The value in understanding or ideas put forward students in discussions
4. Deciding when and how to present mathematical notation in the language of mathematics to
the students.
5. Deciding when to give information, when classifying a problem, and when to let the students
wrestle with the thinking and reasoning to solve a problem.
Therefore, to foster communication abilities in mathematics learning, the teacher must seek
learning by using a model of learning that can provide opportunities and encourage students to
practice communication abilities and problem solving skills in mathematics. The learning process
is still seen as a process of transfer of knowledge, based solely on the interests of teachers from
the students interests, it needs to be changed. Teachers not only to transfer knowledge, but also
encourage the development of students understanding of the value of mathematics so grows the
power of reason, logical thinking, critical, creative, open and curious and able to communicate the
results of mathematical problem solving has done students.
 Mathematics communication is written communication that includes writing mathematics
and mathematical drawing. Writing math in question is a way students communicate, express and
reflect the thoughts, ideas, and mathematical knowledge to others in its own language in written
form. Preaching mathematical referred to in this research plan is a way students communicate,
express and reflect its mathematics to others to make it in the picture (table or graph)
Evaluation standard for measuring the ability of communication of mathematics are: (1)
express mathematical ideas by talking, writing, demonstrations, and describe it in visual, (2) to
understand, interpret, and assess the idea of mathematical presented in written, oral or visual form,
( 3) use the vocabulary / language, notation and mathematical structures to express ideas, describe
relationships, and modeling. This means the mathematical communication is the integration
between understanding and doing mathematics (to knowing and doing mathematics).

2.2 Problem Based Learning

Problem based learning, a learning which focuses on problem solving activities, where the
problem is not routine problems faced by students so that the students are challenged do the right
thinking. In the process of problem based learning, the knowledge students built a series of
activities through solving problems faced by students. Through a review of the right to problem
faced, students explore the concepts and principles based on prior knowledge they already have.
Ratnaningsih (2003) stated that the problem based learning is a teaching that was witnessed
at the beginning of learning. Sinaga (2007: 58) begins with a problem based learning to solve
problems, and problems posed to students must provide information (knowledge) so that new
students gain new knowledge before they solve the problem. Learning is done to give students the
opportunity to be active in learning, by searching for the information provided, process
information, solve problems and then draw conclusions from these problems.
Kattering (1997) stated that the problem based learning curriculum is a model that is
characterized by problems of daily life the day that is structured is a matter that has not been
identified and it will be building a confusing and complex situation for students. Students will
strive to build and connect foreknowledge that are interconnected in the process of solving the
problem.
Based on the opinion of experts, the problem based learning is an instructional use of
learning problems as a starting point, the problem comes from the real world or daily life of the
students (contextual). Not a matter of routine normally done students and ambiguous problems or
have a mystery that poses a challenge for students to solve. Provide opportunities for students to
explore potential through activities seek, solve and find something, eventually going through this
problem students find knowledge concepts and ideas the most fundamental ideas of the subject
matter and make it into the cognitive structure.
According to the theory which states that "learning model Problem Based Learning has two
core stages, namely the analysis of collaborative problem solving and selflearning" (Paulina,
2001). As the definition of Problem Based Learning proposed by Ronnis (2000), namely,
Problem Based Learning is a curriculum development and instructional system that
simultaneously both problem solving strategies and diciplinary knowledge bases and skills by
placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problrm
that mirros real word problems
On learning with Problem Based Learning model of the communication process is still
waiting for direction and guidance of the lecturer. Individual attitude of the students are still
dominant, because students are not accustomed to expressing their opinions and the opinions of
friends and tend to persist though not necessarily the right answer.
This has been revealed by (Paulina, 2001) as one of the weaknesses of Problem Based
Learning that "so far, each student assumes that they are just passive recipients of information
from their teachers. This assumption is based on the experience of learning to grow their
experience in the levels of previous education. When they participate in Problem Based Learning,
a role that is required is different. Often this is an obstacle for beginner students ". So we can say
that the above is the cause of the learning outcomes for students who are taught communication
skills Problem Based Learning model is no better than the usual learning.
The implementation process of learning with Problem Based Learning, namely: Phase 1,
students discuss in the group to define existing problems on a worksheet, Phase 2 students write
their own problems with the language. Stage 3 students identify information by conducting an
experiment or read a book that is relevant to the issue, Stage 4 students seeking additional
information on learning through a variety of sources, Stage 5 students develop a possible solution
of the problem through the discovery activities in groups and refers to readings associated with
completing problem. Stage 6 eachs group to review the obtained solution and reporting solution.
Stage 7 teacher asks the group to present its report to the class. Another group may give an opinion
and communicating the findings of each group.
Each learning Problem Based Learning is always preceded by the problem. Stages of the
troubleshooting process is used as a template or guide in the learning process of Problem Based
Learning (Paulina, 2001). On the Problem Based Learning, students are trained to solve problems,
according to the theory "exercise plays an important role, more practice and repetition it will be
much longer experience and knowledge that living within one's consciousness and memory"
(Oemar Hamalik, 1995)
On the Problem Based Learning students solve problems by trial and investigation through
reading. This is in line with the "implementation of the four pillars of education UNESCO in
mathematics seen in the learning and assessment that are learning to know (facts, skills, concepts,
and principles), learning to do (doing mathematics), learning to be (enjoy mathematics), and
learning to live together (cooperative learning in mathematics) "(Depdiknas, 2007).

2.2.1 Characteristics of Problem Based Learning

According Arends (2008: 42) Problem Based Learning characteristics are as follows:
Submission of a question or problem
Learning is based on the problem of organizing the teaching around questions and issues that
both socially important and personally meaningful to students.
Focus on interdisciplinary related
Although the problem based learning focused on specific learning (science, math, and social).

Produce and flaunt.

Problem based learning requires students to produce certain products in the form of work and
demonstrations that explain or represent the shape of the settlement of the problem raised
Collaboration
Problem based learning is characterized by students who cooperate with each other, most
often in pairs or in small groups.

2.2.2 Principles of Problem Based Learning

 Problem based learning involves students working in small groups of five people with the
help of a teacher. Problem is prepared as a new learning context. Analysis and solution to the
problem that resulted in the acquisition of knowledge and problem solving abilities. The problem
is given before all the relevant knowledge acquired and not only after reading the text or hear a
lecture on the subject matter underlying the problem. It is the difference between problem based
learning and other issues oriented method.
Teachers serve as coaches group that provides assistance in order to be productive student
interaction and help students identify knowledge needed to solve the problem. The results of the
process of solving the problem is, students constructed questions (learning issues) about what
kind of knowledge needed to resolve the problem? The next student doing research on the issue of
learning has been identified using a variety of sources. Furthermore, students are given enough
time to learn to be independent. In the next meeting students reported on the research (what is
learned). The first focus of this exposure to show the relationship between the new knowledge
gained with the existing problems in the hands of students. The second focus is to move at a more
general level of understanding, making possible the transfer of new knowledge. After completing
the cycle of problem solving, students will begin to analyze a new problem, then followed again
by procedures: (analysis - research report)

2.2.3 Problem Based Learning Objectives

According Arends (2008: 43) problem based learning is not designed to help teachers
convey information much to the students. Problem based learning is designed fatherly (1) help
students develop thinking ability, problem solving ability, and abilities to promote knowledge
(intellectual), (2) study the roles of adults through their inclusion in the experience real or
simulated, (3) be learners independent
Thinking and problem solving skills. In a simple thought is defined as a process that
involves mental operations such as reasoning. But it is also defined as the ability to analyze, and
reach conclusions based on inference or careful consideration.
Problem based learning gives encouragement to students to not only think in that is
concrete, but more than that thought to the idea of abstract and complex. In other words, problem
based learning to train students to have higher level thinking abilities.
2.3 Learning Theory Support Of Problem Based Learning
Noting the definition and characteristics of problemnbased learning, there are at least three
theories of learning that underlie this learning approach. The third theory that learning is
studying Piagets Theory and Constructivism Opinion, Discovery Learning Theory and
Vigotskys Theory.

Piagets Theory and Constructivism Opinion

Santroct (in Fatade,2005) stated that Piaget also views the teacher as the facilitator and guide,
teacher is not a director who provides support for children to explore their world and discover
knowledge. This means that teacher is as facilitator and guide the students to make their
knowledge musch useful to applied in the world in real life. The educational implication from
Piagets work and its use in PBL classroom is that children learn best from concrete activities
(Fatade,2012). The educational implication of Piagets theory in PBL mathematics classroom
is students learning well in making discovery, construct knowledge, reflecting on them and
discussing them than blindly imitating the mathematics teacher or doig thing by rote which
blocks meaningful learning. The relation in constructivism learning, Piaget explained that
knowledge is not got passively by the students, but how far the student is active manipulate
and intract with their environment. Thus Piagets theory and constructivism is done in learning
mathematics to interact with their environment.

Discovery Learning Theory

Jerome Bruner (In Dahar, 1996: 103) argues that students should learn by active classroom by
organizing the material learned in a final form. Learning by discovery reflects the quest for
knowledge actively by humans, by itself gives good results, trying Sendir to find solutions to
problems and supported by the accompanying knowledge, generate knowledge that really
meaningful.
Learning mathematics through problem giving an opportunity as possible for the students to
be able to build a discovery activities to rediscover knowledge. Ideally, the organization of
learning material in its final form is done after students actively the stage of discovery of the
problem, investigation, presentation, reflection / evaluation and justification. By learning in
 small groups of students with low skill levels will be helped fatherly stay as good an active
role construct his own knowledge than student ability level above.

Vigotskys Theory
Vygotsky emphasized that children construct their knowledge and understanding. In vigotsky
theory are more often describe as social being than Piagets theory. Children develop their
ways of thingking and understanding primarily through social interaksion. In Problem Based
Learning classroom, learner engaged in social interaction and discourse and mathematics as
an object of learning is made more meaningful when learner given minimum level and
guidance. The Vigotsks thory sees learners as a social being while Piagers theory focuses on
learner as a cognitive.
2.4 The Steps of Problem Based Learning Model
Ibrahim and Nur (2000: 13) argues that: an outline of learning based on the problem of the
consists of five major steps that begin with the teacher introducing students with problem
situations, organizing students to learn, guiding the investigations conducted by the students of the
problem situation presented both individuals and groups, helping students to develop and present
their work, then analyze and evaluate the problem solving process that has been done. Stages are
presented in the following table:

Table 2.1 Syntax of Problem Based Learning

Phase Teachers Activity
Phase 1: Teacher goes over the objectives of the lesson,
Orient students to the problem. describes important logistical requirements, and
motivates students to engage in problem solving
activity.
Phase 2: Teacher helps students define and organize study
Organize students for study. tasks related to the problem.
Phase 3: Teacher encourages students to gather
Assist independent and group appropriate information, conduct experiments,
investigation and search for explanations and solutions.
 Phase 4: Teacher assists students in planning and
Develop and present artifacts preparing appropriate artifacts such as report, 2.5
and exhibits. videos, and models, and helps them share their The
work with others. learning
Phase 5: Teacher helps students to reflect on their model of
Analyze and evaluate the investigations and the process they used. Problem
problem solving process. Based
Learning
According Kamdi (2007: 77) Problem Based Learning is defined as a model of learning in
which involves the students to try to solve the problem through several stages of the scientific
method so that students are expected to learn the knowledge relating to the matter and at the same
time students are expected to have skills in solving problems , Problem Based Learning becomes
a learning approach that seeks to apply the problems that occur in the real world as a context for
students to work out how to solve problems and communicate wis good in problem solving ability,
as well as unforgettable to gain knowledge as well as the important concept of teaching materials
discussed.
Problem Based Learning Model generally can be identified by its sixth characteristic, while
the sixth traits are::
1. Learning activities of Problem Based Learning model by administering a problem.
2. Problems are presented relating to the lives of the students.
3. Organize a discussion around issues and not discuss about discipline.
4. Students are given responsibility in shaping and running the learning process directly.
5. Students are formed into small groups.
6. Students are required to demonstrate the performance they have learned.

2.5.1 Application of Problem Based Learning model

Before starting the process of teaching and learning in the classroom, students are first
asked to observe the material in advance. Then the students were asked noted problems emerging
problems. After that the teachers task to stimulate learners to be able to solve problems and
communicate them to the existing problems, then the task of the teacher also directs learners to
inquire, to prove the assumption, and listen to the different opinions of them.
2.5.2 Learning Examples of Linear Equations of two Variables
1. Completion of the system of equations 3x 2y= 12 and 5x + y = 7 is x = p dan y = q.
Value of 4p + 3q is . . . .
Solution :
3x 2y = 12..........................( 1)
5x + y = 7y = 7 5x .................(2 )
Substitution equation (2) to equation (1)
3x 2y = 12
3x 2 (7 5x) = 12
3x 14 + 10 x = 12
13x = 12 + 14
x = 2................p = 2
Subtitution value of x = 2 to equation (2)
y = 7 5x
y = 7 5(2)
y = 7 10 = -3 ..................q = -3
then :
Value of 4p + 3q = 4( 2) + 3(-3)
=89
= -1
2. If 2x + 5y = 11 and 4x 3y = -17,
Then value of 2x y = . . . .
Solution:
Use the elimination method :
Eliminate x and the multiply to coefficient x
2x + 5y = 11 x 2 a 4x +10y = 22
4x - 3y = -17 x 1 a 4x 3y = -17
13y = -39
y=3 Solution:
Use the elimination method:
 Eliminate x and the multiply to coefficient x
2x + 5y = 11 x 3 a 6x +15y = 33
4x - 3y = -17 x 5 a 20x -15y = -85
26x = -52; x = -2
The value is : 2x y = 2(-2) 3 = - 7

2.6 The Advantages and The Disadvantages of Problem Based Learning

Widyastuti (in Siregar: 2008) stating problem-based learning has advantages and
disadvantages in the process of teaching and learning activities
Advantages of problem-based learning are as follows:
1. Realistic to student life
2. The concept according to the needs of students
3. Nurturing nature unquiry students
4. Retention of concept to be strong
5. Cultivate the ability of problem solving
Furthermore, the Disadvantages of problem-based learning as follows:
1. Preparation of complex learning in the form of tools, problems and concepts
2. Difficult search for relevant problems
3. It often happens miss conception
4. It should be a fairly long time.

2.7 Relevant research

Rambe (2013) has made a research which aims to determine whether learning through PBL
approach can enhance problem solving abilities of students Grade VIII of MTs Cerdas Murni
Medan Academic Year 2012/2013. Based on the analysis of data obtained after giving of actions
in cycle I there are 20 students (71,43%), which obtained the category of problem solving abilities
are minimal or achieve mastery learning with an average grade 21. In cycle II, obtained by 25
students (89,29%) who gained problem solving abilities category minimal medium (reach mastery
learning) with an average grade 24.29. From cycle I to cycle II obtained an enhancement of the
number of students who achieve a passing grade as many as 5 people (17.86%) and the average
value enhanced by 3.29. Because it has fulfilled completeness criteria and student learning has
improve from cycle I to cycle II, it can be concluded that the approach PBL improve problem
solving abilities in the material SPLDV.
Nanci (2012) was to determine the improve in communication abilities in the subject of
Mathematics through the application of PBL model. Subjects in this stydy amounted to 28 people.
The data collected in this study is the data on the ability of communicayion mathematical problems
with the method of observation and tests. These result indicate that the application of PBL can
improve the communication capabilities of the first cycle to the second cycle of 16.42% of the
criteria were to be high. The result showed that the learning model of PBL can improve
communication abilities in the subject of mathematics.
Based on the research results Fitri (2013) concluded that there is improved in students
ability in solving mathematical problems seen from the classical completeness percentage of
67.5% with an average value of 69.9 and the second cycle an enhance in the percentage of classical
completeness of 87.75% with an average of 83.9. It can also be seen from the results of tests given
to students in terms of the problem solving aspect of cycle 1 was obtained 28 students (70%) were
able to understanding the problem, obtained by 28 students (70%) who can devising a plan,
obtained by 25 students (62.5%) were able to carrying out the plan, and obtained 16 students (40%)
were able to looking back. In the second cycle an increase of 37 students (92.50%) were able to
understanding the problem, 37 students (92.50%) who can devising a plan, 36 students (90%) that
can carrying out the problem, 30 students (75%) were able to looking back.
Based on the results of the research can be concluded that there was an Problem Based
Learning (PBL) can be used as one of the learning alternative to improve the students problem
solving and communication ability.

2.8 Conceptual Framework

2.8.1 Application of Problem Based Learning can Improve Mathematical Problem Solving
Problem solving is a process by which students discover the rules that have been studied
previously that can be used to solve problems encountered. A problem is said to be in trouble if;
(1) The problem is not yet known how the procedure completion. (2) In accordance with the level
of students thinking and the prerequisite knowledge of students that is a matter not too easy and
not too hard. (3) Raising a fatherly interest in students willing to seek a solution to the problem.
The ability of students to solve a problem is different. A question to a student with the possibility
of a problem but the other students are probably not a problem. This can occur because of different
intellectual levels. High level thinking abilities can be developed through problem solving.
Therefore the students ability to solve problems should be improved.
Problem solving is a key objective in mathematics learning and high level thinking abilities
can be developed through solving the problem of the. Therefore, a teacher must be able to plan
and implement learning models, theories, strategy, methods and techniques in learning
mathematics that can attract the attention of students to engage active in the learning process.
One effort to improve students ability to solve the problem is to change the pattern of
teacher centered learning becomes centered on the students. Problem based learning is an
instructional model that adopts constructivism which has the objective to enable students to have
the ability to think critically, problem solving abilities and intellectual, learning how to share the
role of the learning through the involvement of students in the experience of a real or simulated,
and become learners autonomous and self-reliant through problems designed.
Problem based learning requires students to produce the form of the resolution of problems
and results of problem should be presented to the other groups. This led to the concept that they
can remain firmly in cognition students. Therefore, it can be said that the problem based learning
can enhance problem solving abilities.

2.8.2 Application of Problem Based Learning Can Improve Mathematical Communication

One of the abilities that are expected to be achieved after the implementation of
mathematics learning is communication ability. Mathematical communication abilities need to be
considered because it is related to the learning objectives of formal mathematics is increasing their
own potential and the formation of the personality of students. Mathematical communication
ability are often over looked in the process of teaching and learning that occurs at the moment of
formal education. Learning math is abstract implemented generally not be applied in daily life the
day, resulting in passive students to convey information, ideas, ask questions and want to respond
to questions or opinions of others.
Mathematical communication ability is the ability of students to express their ideas in
spoken or written language. Through communication, students can submit the idea to teachers and
to other students with pictures, graphs, tables and is able to model mathematical problems and
problems in daily life day and resolve the issue properly.
 A reader understand the text is said to be substantially if he can put forward the idea in the
text is completely in their own language. A teacher to check if students have the ability to read
mathematical texts significantly, it can be estimated through the ability of the students expressed
orally or write returned mathematical ideas with language and understanding. Communication
abilities of mathematics in this study is a mathematical ability in writing which can be seen from:
(1) states the problem in daily life days into symbols or language of mathematics, (2) to interpret
the image into a mathematical model, (3) write down the information on the statement into the
language of mathematics.

2.9 Hypothesis Action

Based on the descriptions of theoretical and conceptual framework, so that the action
hypothesis in this research is The implementation of Problem Based Learning Model can
improve the students mathematical problem solving and mathematical communication ability of
grade VIII SMP Negeri 30 Medan.