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Continuity:
Reproduction
and Inheritance
in Living Systems
10 Reproduction in Humans and Other Organisms
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11 Continuity of Information through Inheritance

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12 Gene Action

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What do the items and organisms shown in this collage have in common?
Consider how each can store or transfer information, or do both. Though each thing
stores or transfers information, how it does that varies a great deal. In this unit, you

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will explore the idea of continuity. You will examine the complex mechanisms that
make the storage and transfer of genetic information possible in living organisms.

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By the end of this unit, you will be able to
explain that the continuity of a species depends on the transfer of genetic
information,
compare different strategies for how information is transferred and preserved

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through reproduction,
describe the structure of genetic material,

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explain how genetic information is expressed,

illustrate how sexual reproduction and mutation increase genetic variation and
why this is important for the evolution of a species,
realize that human reproduction takes place within a cultural setting and
involves ethical issues, and
appreciate the current and potential impact that genetic engineering
technology has on our lives.

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:31 AM Page 400

If a single cell, under appropriate conditions, becomes a man

in the space of a few years, there can surely be no difficulty in
understanding how, under appropriate conditions, a cell may,
in the course of untold millions of years, give origin to the

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human race.

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Herbert Spencer, 18201903, English philosopher

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 401

Reproduction
in Humans and
Other Organisms

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This photograph captures the moment of fertilization as a human sperm makes

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its way into an ovum. While technology has made new fertilization methods
possible, all human development begins with the union of genetic information from
two individuals. Not all organisms begin this way, however. Among the diversity of

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organisms, there are several ways to make more offspring. Certain organisms are even
capable of reproducing by themselves, without another organism contributing. In this
chapter, you will explore concepts about reproduction in general and about human

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reproduction, specifically. As you do so, you will consider how reproduction
contributes to both the continuation of life on earth and the continuity of species.

ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES

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Engage A Zillion Ways to Make More

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Explore Making Sense of Reproductive Strategies

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Explain Making Sense of Human Reproduction

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Elaborate Observing Reproductive Behavior in
Nonhuman Animals

Elaborate Cultural Influences on Human Mating

Behavior

Evaluate A Reproductive Strategy for Your Critter

Unit 4: Chapter 10 401

KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 402

Engage A Zillion Ways to Make More

You probably know how humans reproduce. But have you considered how squid
or seaweed reproduce? Humans are just one of millions of organisms on earth that
reproduce. Lets see what you really know about reproduction. This activity will
introduce you to several of the reproductive strategies that exist.

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Materials

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DVD and player

PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

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1. How does a small cluster of trees become a forest? To begin thinking about
that question, read The Aspen Story.

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2. What other ways are there to make more? To give you some idea of the range of
reproductive strategies and behaviors that exist, watch the DVD segment
Whats Going on Here? Think about what is happening in each of the images.

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Analysis

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Now that you have begun to think about how organisms reproduce, create a concept
map in your journal that shows what the term biological continuity means to you at this
point in your study of biology. Begin your map as shown in Figure 10.1. Add other

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factors that represent your current understanding of biological continuity. Leave room
to add more concepts and to make changes to your map later in the chapter. Be sure to
include descriptors on the links between concepts that explain how the ideas are related.
This concept map is a way for you to record your early ideas on the subject. You will refer back

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to it and reflect on how your view changes as you work through this chapter and unit.

biological

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continuity

unifying
principles of reproduction
biology species

Figure 10.1 Biological continuity. In your journal, begin your concept map with
the elements pictured here. Add other factors that represent your understanding of
what biological continuity means at this point. You will build on this map throughout
the unit. Be sure to include descriptors on the links between concepts that explain how
the ideas are related.

402 Unit 4: Chapter 10 ENGAGE: A Zillion Ways to Make More

KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 403

The Aspen Story

The pleasant fragrance of evergreen trees surrounded Look at this cluster of trees with the heart-shaped

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the small group of students and their teacher. They had leaves, the teacher said. Does anyone know what they
stopped by a stream for a rest before continuing their are? asked the teacher.
field trip. Aspens, several students said simultaneously.

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How tall is that tree? Kim Well, heres a puzzle: If
asked, pointing at a ponderosa I tell you this aspen is even
pine. bigger than the sequoia,
Oh, Id say around 100 feet how could that be true?

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tall, estimated the teacher. Is I know! I read about
that the largest tree you see that in a magazine,
here? Meagan said. All these

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Yeah, but its not all aspen trees are really like
that big, observed another branches coming off
student, Paul. Last summer one giant tree trunk
I went to Yosemite Park in underground. Some parts

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California, and theyve got die, but others grow up
huge trees there, called from the underground part
sequoias. Theyre much taller that connects them all. So

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than this. this whole group of aspens
How do you know? the is really just one big tree.
teacher asked Paul. Then how do you

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Well, there were pine trees like this nearby, and the
sequoia just towered over them. And the trunk was
much thicker, like five or 10 of these other pines put
together. And the big sequoias are old. I read that some
are close to 2,000 years old, Paul replied.
explain that lone one over there? Kim asked, pointing
to a tree on a slope far beyond the stream.
Aspens can also grow new individuals from seeds
in the same way that oaks and pines reproduce,
explained the teacher. That one probably is a separate

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Wow! Think of how many cones and new trees tree, not part of the cluster here.
it must have made during that length of time, said So if that lone tree grows some more tree-looking
Maria. Its amazing the whole forest wasnt just sprouts from its roots, has it reproduced? Paul asked.

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sequoias! What do you think? his teacher asked in return.

Making Sense of Explore

Reproductive Strategies
Reproduction, the making of offspring, is an essential process for the
continuation of a species. But is it essential for an individual? In humans,
reproduction requires the genetic information from a male and a female. Is that true
of all species? To begin to answer these questions and to develop your understanding
of reproduction, you will look at similarities and differences in the reproductive
strategies of a number of species.

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 404

Materials (per team of 2)

2 reproduction cards
felt-tipped marking pen
large sheet of paper or poster board

PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

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1. To begin studying the variety of reproductive strategies, choose

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2 reproduction cards with your partner. Read through the material on each
one.
Your teacher will provide these cards. The glossary on page 705 will help with

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unfamiliar terms.
2. With your partner, look for similarities and differences in the reproductive
strategies described on your cards. Record this information in your journal.

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3. Prepare a short (3- to 5-minute) presentation that compares and contrasts the
reproductive strategies of the 2 organisms that you and your partner studied.
In your presentation, answer the following questions:

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Figure 10.2 Make a. What are some characteristics of each organisms reproductive strategies?
your presentation
interesting and You might include these characteristics:
informative. Before

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Number of offspring produced during each reproductive cycle
you present, practice
pronouncing the Frequency of the reproductive cycle
names of your Structures that are involved in reproduction

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organisms and the
terms used to describe Age of sexual maturity
their reproductive Length of gestation
strategies. If either
of your organisms is Length of the period of offspring dependency

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unusual, be prepared Life span of individuals
to describe it for your
classmates. Mating behaviors
b. How are the reproductive strategies similar? How are they different?

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c. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the reproductive strategies
of your 2 organisms?
For example, consider the amount of time and energy each strategy requires and
the survival rate for the offspring.
d. How does each strategy ensure survival of the species?
The essay Continuity through Reproduction on page 474 has important
background information to help you with this task. Your teacher may
PAGE 474
have other resources available for you as well.
4. Create a visual diagram to use with your presentation.
Make your presentation interesting and informative. Practice pronouncing the
names of your organisms and the terms used to describe their reproductive strategies

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 405

before you present. If either of your organisms is unusual, be prepared to describe it

so that your classmates have an idea of what it is like.
5. Make your presentation to the rest of your classmates.
As you listen to the other presentations, take notes in your journal. Record the
similarities, differences, and patterns in reproductive strategies.
6. When the presentations are finished, participate in a class discussion of
the patterns that are emerging.

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7. Read the essay Cloning on page 476 for background information about
laboratory cloning techniques. In your journal, explain the difference

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between somatic cell nuclear transfer and fertilization. PAGE 476

8. In your journal, make a list of 3 concepts related to reproduction and

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continuity that you think are important to the study of biology.
Consider general ideas about reproduction rather than reproductive structures. For
example, you might list the idea that reproduction can be a sexual or an asexual

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process.
9. Add your 3 concepts from step 8 to the concept map on biological continuity
that you started in the previous activity. Include appropriate descriptions for

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how the concepts are related.
10. Compare your concept map with your partners. Discuss any differences or
similarities that you see. Make any additions to your concept map that reflect

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your current understanding of biological continuity.

Analysis

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Complete the first item as a class. Then complete the two remaining items
individually.

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1. Participate in a class discussion and construction of a biological continuity
concept map.
Contribute ideas and explanations from your own concept map.

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2. Think about the following questions. Record your responses in your journal.
a. Is reproduction necessary for the survival of an individual? Explain.
b. Is reproduction necessary for the survival of a species? Explain.
c. Explain the relationship between changes in a species environment and the
effectiveness of that species reproductive strategies.
Consider whether a species reproductive strategies might change over time. How
might fast or slow changes in the environment affect those changes?
3. Explain the connection between natural selection and reproduction in a way
that describes their importance to biological continuity.

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 406
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Topic: sexual and asexual
reproduction
Go to: www.scilinks.org
Code: human3E406
a reproduction. The result is one nucleus in a zygote.
b
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Figure 10.3
Two examples
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of asexual
reproduction in a
plant and an animal.
(a) The sprout on the
potato grew from a
bud that can produce
an entirely new potato
plant. (b) If cells from
the central body
remain on a severed
arm, the sea star can
regenerate a new body
from the one arm.
406 Unit 4: Chapter 10 EXPLORE: Making Sense of Reproductive Strategies
Background Information:
A Glossary of Reproduction Terms
Asexual reproduction involves the growth of a new organism without the
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fusion of nuclei (which occurs in sexual reproduction). Asexual reproduction usually
involves one parent and leads to offspring that are genetically identical to each
other. Growing a new plant from a cutting is an example of asexual reproduction.
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Binary fission is the division of a cell into two cells of equivalent size. It
involves a replication of genetic material (DNA) in the parent cell before the cell
divides. Binary fission is asexual. It is the chief means of asexual reproduction in
prokaryotic cells.
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Budding is a type of asexual reproduction. Here new individuals begin as
outgrowths on the body of a single parent. The offspring eventually separates from
the parent and becomes independent.
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Cloning is another type of asexual reproduction. Here new individuals receive
genetic information from a single parent cell. The resulting offspring is genetically
identical to the parent.
Fertilization is the fusion of nuclei from two gametes during sexual
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Fragmentation is a type of asexual reproduction. Here a piece broken from a
parent organism grows into a new individual.
Gametes are special reproductive cells. They are produced in eukaryotes
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through a type of cell division called meiosis. Each gamete contains only one set of
unpaired chromosomes. This is half as much genetic information as a body cell.
During sexual reproduction, the nuclei of gametes fuse and become the first cell of
the offspring (called a zygote).
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Gestation is the internal incubation of embryos or the carrying of young,
usually in a uterus, from conception until delivery.
Meiosis is a special process of cell division in eukaryotes. It produces
reproductive cells known as gametes. Each gamete contains only one set of
unpaired chromosomes. This is half as much genetic information as a body cell.
Mitosis is the production of two identical nuclei in one cell. This is usually
followed by the cell dividing into two cells. Each new cell that results from a mitotic
division has the same genetic makeup as the original cell. Asexual reproduction in
most unicellular protists occurs by mitosis. Cell growth in multicellular organisms
also takes place by mitosis.
Ova (singular: ovum) are the gametes that females produce. Also known as
eggs, ova are larger than sperm. They contain substances that influence the
zygotes early development. Eggs also contain organelles that pass on to the
offspring and nutrients needed to sustain the earliest stages of a developing
organism.
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes.
Most often, the gametes are produced from two parents. Because each parent
contributes information, the offspring of sexual reproduction are not genetically
identical to either parent.
Sperm are the gametes that males produce. They consist of a compact nucleus
surrounded by a membrane, a flagellum for propulsion, mitochondria that provide
energy, and a small sac at the tip containing enzymes that help them penetrate
the ovum.
KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 407

Spores are asexual reproductive cells that can develop directly into a complete
organism. By contrast, most gametes must join with another gamete before
development can take place.
Sporulation is the process of reproducing asexually by producing spores that
grow directly into new individuals.
Vegetative reproduction involves parts of an organism that are not specialized
for sexual reproduction. Examples include fragmentation, budding, and sprouting

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from roots as aspen trees do or sprouting from runners as strawberries do.
Zygotes are the cells that result from the fusion of gamete nuclei. A zygote is
produced when an ovum and a sperm unite to form a fertilized egg. Zygotes contain

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a full set of genetic information. They receive half from each parents gamete.

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Making Sense of Human Explain

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Reproduction

Family Planning: A Historical Perspective

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Since ancient times, people have is ready to conceive and abstains from
attempted to regulate the size of their intercourse at that time.) It was not

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families. Their reasons were as varied
as the families themselves. These
reasons included cultural, social, physical,
emotional, and economic considerations.
A 4,000-year-old papyrus (a written scroll)
effective, however, because little was
known about the menstrual cycle. Based
on observing other mammals, it was
thought that women were most likely to
conceive during menstruation. It was not

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found near the Nile River delta
documents the first known use of artificial
birth control. It prescribed a recipe for a
substance that would block the cervix,
until the late 1920s that Carl Hartman, a
reproductive biologist, established that
ovulation in humans occurs midway
between menstrual cycles.

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to be applied in the vagina before
intercourse. Egyptian illustrations of a
condom, drawn 3,000 years ago, provide
the earliest evidence for condom use.
In the 1800s, the rhythm method
was a common practice. (Using this
method, one calculates when a woman
Today, scientists have developed a
variety of effective birth control methods
that can be used by men and women to
prevent pregnancies. As we continue to
learn more about the human body, birth
control devices and methods continue
to become safer and more reliable.

In most mammals, females and males are drawn to mate by powerful instincts that
happen only when the females body is ready to conceive. In humans and some other
primates, however, the female may be receptive to sexual activity at any time. Her body,
however, can conceive only for a short time during each menstrual cycle. Humans differ
from other mammals in that we understand that intercourse can lead to conception.

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:32 AM Page 408

As scientists better understood the biology of the human reproductive system,

that knowledge led to improved birth control methods through new technologies.
Your task in this activity is to explain the biological basis for birth control methods.
In other words, you will explain how birth control technologies work and why they
differ in their degree of effectiveness. You also will explain how the chances for
conception might be improved for couples hoping to conceive. To complete this task,
you will have a variety of resources.

Materials (per person)

art supplies (colored paper, markers, etc.)

DVD and player (watch as a class)

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PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

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As you work, use the following resources, as well as others that you have available,
to help you complete this activity:
The NOVA video Miracle of Life (The first half shows events related to

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fertilization.)
PAGE 477 PAGE 481 The essays Making More People on page 477, Hormones and Sexual Reproduction
on page 481, and Sexual Activity and Health Hazards on page 484

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The DVD segments Human Menstrual Cycle and Conception
PAGE 484 Additional materials (Your teacher may supply these, or you may find them on

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your own.)
1. Classify the birth control
methods from the examples
in the need to know box.

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Place them into the
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following categories: physical
Topic: birth control
barriers, chemical methods,

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Go to: www.scilinks.org
Code: human3E408 and behavioral methods.
In your journal, record the birth
control methods and the way that
you classified them. Remember
that you have a variety of resources
to help you decide how to
categorize these methods. Figure 10.4 Categorize the birth control
methods listed in the need to know box into
2. Using the available resources, three categories: physical barriers, chemical
prepare a brochure about 1 methods, and behavioral methods.
contraceptive method from
each category in step 1. Your brochure should give the biological explanation
for how the contraceptive methods work.

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EXAMPLES OF BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

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Device/method Description Failure rate* (pregnancies
per 100 women per year)
Abstinence Abstaining from sexual contact. (Completely 0

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prevents sexual transmission of AIDS.)
Cervical cap Small dome-shaped rubber cap that is inserted 22.0
through the vagina to closely cover the opening
entrance to uterus (cervix).

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Condom Thin sheath made of latex or animal skin that is 7.3
placed over the penis. Often coated with spermicide. (if spermicide is not used) ***
Only latex will help protect against AIDS. **

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Diaphragm Flexible wire circle covered with latex that is placed 10.0
over entrance to uterus (cervix). Generally used with (if spermicide is not used) ***
spermicide.
Douche Vagina is rinsed after sexual activity. 40.0

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Injectable progesterone-like An injection for females that lasts up to 3 months. 1.0
substance May cause menstrual irregularities.
Implant devices Capsules containing synthetic progesterone that are 1.0

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inserted surgically under a females skin.
They slowly release hormones for 35 years.
Intrauterine device Small plastic or copper device placed (by a physician) 1.0
(IUD) inside the uterus. Effective for 10 years. Probably

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causes mild inflammation of uterine wall.
Natural family planning Systematic monitoring and recording of data to 26.0
(rhythm method) determine time of ovulation. Then abstaining
from sexual intercourse for several days around
the time of ovulation.

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Oral contraceptives Synthetic estrogen and synthetic progesterone 0.3
(birth control pills) (or progesterone only) that a female takes in tablet
form throughout menstrual cycle.

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Spermicide Foam, cream, jelly, or suppository preparations that 15.0
contain chemicals that kill sperm. Spermicides (if used alone)
are placed in the vagina prior to sexual activity.
Tubal ligation Oviducts in female are surgically severed and tied off. 0.5
(sterilization)
Vasectomy Vas deferens in male is surgically severed and tied off. 0.6
(sterilization)
*Failure rate can be much higher if the method is not used properly. For example, if the condom is used after sexual intercourse has begun,
some sperm already may have been released.

**Natural membrane condoms, as compared with latex condoms, have larger micropores. These condoms may permit passage of pathogens such
as HIV.

***Combined use of spermicide with condom or diaphragm is more effective than either of these methods used alone.

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You will know you have developed a good brochure if you do each of the
following:
Describe how each birth control method interferes with reproduction.

Explain how each method affects the reproductive systems of males or females.
(For example, does the method alter the hormonal levels of the male? the
female?)

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Explain why each method needs to be used at a particular time.

Explain the differences in the effectiveness of the methods that you chose in

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each category.
You can develop 1 brochure that describes all of the methods, or 1 brochure for each
method. Remember, your goal is to show that you understand the biology behind

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these methods. For example, you will discuss how birth control pills influence the
hormone cycles during the menstrual cycle.

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Analysis
Join the class in a discussion of the following:

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1. The word progesterone means to promote gestation. Estrogen means to
generate estrus. Explain why these are appropriate names. What do you think
the prefix contra-, as in contraception, means?

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2. Explain the role that gametes play in sexual reproduction. How do they ensure
the continuity of information that must take place for a species to survive?
3. Consider the rhythm method of birth control. Explain how a couple that

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desires children could modify and use it to increase the chances of
conception.

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a b

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Figure 10.5 The human reproductive system. (a) Female (b) Male

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:33 AM Page 411

4. Imagine that a couple wants to have children. But tests show that the man has
a low sperm count and the female has blocked oviducts. Read the short essay
Infertility on page 486 for background information. In your journal, explain PAGE 486
whether the use of pharmaceutical drugs alone will improve their chances for
beginning a pregnancy.

Further Challenges

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1. Research and report on current progress in developing oral contraceptives

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for men.
2. Research and report on current technological methods that are being used
to assist couples who are having difficulties conceiving a child.

Observing Reproductive
Behavior in Nonhuman Animals
CO Elaborate
Elabotate

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Throughout the animal kingdom, the males and females of many species put on
a show of behavior aimed at attracting a mate. When a peacock wants to attract a
peahen, he displays his extravagant plumage, he struts, and he shakes his colorful tail.

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Similarly, a male elk (bull elk) calls out loudly (bugles) during mating season. The
bugling of a bull elk has at least two effects. It attracts potential mates, and it
announces his presence to other bulls with the goal of steering them away. Such

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animal displays often are showy and complicated. Ethologists are biologists who
develop and test hypotheses about animal behavior. They are interested in learning
more about the connections between various behaviors and mating. In this activity,
you will observe some animals mating behaviors and explore the costs and benefits

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these behaviors have for individuals and populations.

Materials

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DVD and player

PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

1. Study the mating behavior of the animals in the DVD segment Animal
Mating Behaviors. In your journal, record your observations.
2. Read the essay Mating Behaviors of Nonhuman Animals on page 486. Take brief
notes about the advantages and disadvantages of showy mating behavior. PAGE 486

Analysis
Work individually to answer the following questions. Record your responses in
your journal.

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:33 AM Page 412

1. List three showy mating behaviors in nonhuman animals that were not used as
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examples in the essay Mating Behaviors of Nonhuman Animals.
Topic: mating behaviors
2. For each of the mating behavior examples listed above, explain one benefit and
Go to: www.scilinks.org one cost each behavior brings to the individual organisms or populations who
Code: human3E412
exhibit the behavior.
Refer specifically to the behaviors that you have chosen. Explain whether the costs

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and benefits affect the individual, the population, or both.

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Elaborate Cultural Influences on Human
Mating Behavior

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In the activity Making Sense of Human Reproduction, you explained the physical

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aspects of human reproduction and how it is regulated. In this activity, you will
extend that understanding to include cultural behaviors that are associated with
human reproduction.

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Materials (per team of 4)

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scissors
poster board or large sheets of paper
materials collected earlier

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tape or glue

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Figure 10.6 A Hmong couple. The traditional marital union of Hmong families
includes rituals that resolve any existing conflicts between clans and sets rules for the
future. (Clans are families that share the same paternal ancestry.) Traditional Hmong
marriages are arranged according to customary patterns of authority and respect.

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:33 AM Page 413

PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

1. Use the materials that you have collected to create a display that demonstrates
various cultural behaviors associated with human reproduction. You may focus
on either American (USA) culture or another culture that you know something
about. Include characteristics of human behavior that you think are similar to
those of other animals and those that you think are distinctive.

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Include at least 5 different types of cultural influences on your poster. Consider both
modern influences, like the subtle messages included in television commercials, and

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long-standing influences that have been in our culture for many generations.
Read and use the 2 essays Human Mating Behaviors (page 489) and Cultures and
Mating Patterns (page 489), and any other valid resource to support your claims. PAGE 489 PAGE 489

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Reading about cultures other than your own helps you realize the variety of patterns
that exist. This often helps you observe your own culture more objectively.
2. Set up your display in your classroom.

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3. Study the displays of other teams. Look for patterns in the cultural influences
that lead to human mating behaviors.
Remember that you are looking for patterns about behaviors that might lead to

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mating, not about the mechanisms of mating.

Analysis

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Work in your team to respond to the following. Record your responses in your
journal, and be prepared to discuss your responses with the class.

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1. List the various aspects of American culture that you think most influence
human mating behaviors today. For example, you may think American music
has an important influence.

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2. Compare and contrast human mate selection in the United States 200 years
ago with mate selection today. Explain three specific examples of changes in
American culture that contributed to differences in mate selection now and then.

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Figure 10.7
What might these
images convey about
mate selection in
American culture?

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KH4119_Chapter 10_398-415 03/16/05 10:33 AM Page 414

Further Challenges
1. An ongoing debate in the scientific community is whether or not most human
sexual behavior is biologically based. Research the scientific literature to learn
about this debate. Report the conclusions that your evidence supports.
2. In the United States, families historically use the surname of the father.
Perhaps for this reason, Americans may think automatically of the male as the

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head of the household. That view, however, is changing as most women now
work outside the home. Males do not play the same role in all cultures. For

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instance, among some Native American tribes in the Pacific Northwest, each
tribe is composed of clans that are linked through the mothers lines.
Consider the following observations. Then discuss how societies draw

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their conclusions about the importance of men and women.
A human embryo automatically develops with female characteristics unless

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it receives male hormones such as testosterone very soon after conception.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that the female is a
defective male because she does not have a penis.

Evaluate A Reproductive Strategy

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for Your Critter

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When one egg sac of a spider hatches, swarms of tiny spiders emerge. Although
there are huge numbers of spiders born, each one lives a relatively short time. In contrast,
an elephant gives birth to one baby. But this young elephant has the potential to live for
almost a century. In both cases, mechanisms exist that provide for a continuation of the

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species, even though the individual organisms eventually will die. In this activity, you will
demonstrate and evaluate what you have learned about reproduction.

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Figure 10.8 Many spiders are born at one time, but each spider has a short life span.

414 Unit 4: Chapter 10 EVALUATE: A Reproductive Strategy for Your Critter

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Materials (per person)

your critter
blank paper

PROCESS AND PROCEDURES

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1. Revisit the critter that you discovered earlier this year. Think about how it
might reproduce. To give you sufficient opportunities to show everything that

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you have learned from this chapter, your critter must reproduce, either sexually
or asexually.
Consider the habitat where it lives and the factors that likely would lead to a

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successful reproductive strategy. Use your journal notes, the essays, and DVD
segments to help you develop complete ideas.
2. Obtain a critter rubric from your teacher, and study the criteria. Participate in

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a class discussion about the criteria for this project.
3. Write a detailed description of your critters reproduction method. You may
be creative and invent new reproductive strategies for your critter. However,

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you must be able to logically explain the biological basis for the strategy and
demonstrate your knowledge. Be sure to address the following:
The reproductive structures involved

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A description of the role that hormones and other factors play in regulating
reproduction
An explanation of the mating behaviors it uses to ensure the production of

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offspring
An analysis of the advantages and disadvantages for the number of
offspring produced, their approximate life span, and the nurturing they

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receive
How the organisms overall method of reproduction compares and contrasts
with human reproduction

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You may want to include a drawing or diagram with your description.

Analysis
Return to the concept map for biological continuity that you started at the
beginning of this chapter. Study the ideas and relationships that it represents. Think
about how your understanding has increased, and add three or four more ideas or
relationships to your map. Make any necessary changes so that your concept map
accurately shows your current understanding of biological continuity. Either add
these ideas and changes to your existing diagram or create a new one that your
teacher can read and evaluate easily.

EVALUATE: A Reproductive Strategy for Your Critter Unit 4: Chapter 10 415