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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Andrew Cox is Professor and Director of the Centre for Business Strategy and
Procurement at Birmingham Business School, University of Birmingham in the UK. He
is also Chairman and CEO of Robertson Cox Ltd a UK and US based consultancy.
Andrew can be contacted at: ac@robcox.com
Paul Ireland is a research fellow in the Centre for Business Strategy and
Procurement at Birmingham Business School, University of Birmingham in the UK.
Paul can be contacted at: P.N.Ireland@bham.ac.uk
v
Contents
List of figures ix
List of tables x
Preface xi
vii
Contents
viii
Figures
ix
Tables
x
Preface
The work that has supported the production of this short practitioner volume has
been underway for a number of years. It began in the mid-1990s with the publication
of a book that challenged much of the received orthodoxy in procurement and supply
management in particular and business thinking in general.
Since the publication of that book Business Success (1997) the work of the
Centre for Business Strategy and Procurement in Birmingham Business School at the
University of Birmingham has been devoted to testing empirically the theoretical
arguments first outlined in that volume, and then latterly in two companion
volumes Power Regimes (2000) and Supply Chains, Markets and Power (2002).
The latter two volumes were based on work that was generously supported by a
research grant from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)
(Project No: GR/L86395). This latest volume has been based on work into
Competitive Advantage through Supply Chain Management that has also been
generously supported by the EPSRC (Project No: GR/N34161/01). We would like to
express our gratitude to the EPSRC and also to the collaborating public and private
sector organizations involved in these two research projects. This is because many of
the findings outlined here could not have been made without the generous support
both financial and time that has been provided to the research team.
There will be a companion volume to this particular offering in the near future
exploring the link between types of buyer and supplier power structures and
alternative forms of relationship management. When this is completed we will
have finished the current empirical testing of our original hypotheses about the
ways practitioners can manage business-to-business relationships whether they
are buyers or suppliers.
We hope that, if nothing else, this body of work will challenge our readers to
think logically about how to manage their business relationships and, hopefully,
provide them with some clues as to how they might maximize whatever valued
outcomes they desire from their business interactions with others.
xi
Contents
List of figures ix
List of tables x
Preface xi
vii
Contents
viii
2
Is supply chain
management the best
strategic sourcing option?
Introduction 17
Conclusions 34
References 35
15
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
INTRODUCTION
5. Improve supplier and supply chain performance through proactive supply chain
development activities.
As we noted in the preceding chapter, however, any firm has a choice of four
generic supply strategies and not one. The strategic choice that a company has to
make, therefore, is whether or not SCM (as summarized in the 5-step model in
Figure 2.1) is the most strategically relevant approach, rather than supplier
selection, supply chain sourcing or supplier development.
Deciding on which of these approaches makes sense for any company depends
on two major variables. First, practitioners must understand the constraints to be
overcome when trying to implement any strategy. It makes little sense to develop
a plan of action that has almost no hope of garnering support from either internal
stakeholders or external suppliers. Consequently, a detailed account of the
operational constraints facing managers follows in the next chapter.
Second, prior to consideration of operational issues, it is necessary to understand
whether there is a strategic case for the adoption of a SCM approach. Whether this
approach should be developed depends largely on the strategic economic and
commercial case that can be made.
This is because sourcing decisions like business management decisions more
generally require companies to pick the option that offers the greatest possible
17
Supply Chain Management
pay-off (and/or imposes the smallest possible costs). This chapter is therefore divided
into four sections that allow practitioners to understand whether a supply chain
management approach offers a strategically viable choice for their company:
section 1 describes the basic principles behind makebuy selection and provides
a decision-making framework;
section 2 explains when a firm should insource particular supply chain resources
as a core competence;
section 3 outlines how SCM approaches are more ambitious investment decisions
for the firm than the other three sourcing options because of the demands they
make on managerial time;
section 4 concludes by showing how this basic framework can be operationalized
through the use of three strategic sourcing decision-making templates.
Management decisions are investments because they carry with them costs that
are expected to yield returns. This is true even if the cost is the time that it takes
to perform a task. Time, like everything else, is a scarce resource. If companies
spend it pursuing unprofitable activities, then they lose the opportunity to do
something more profitable.
The return that a company receives from any investment is highly variable. It
depends upon what the action is intended to achieve. The yield may take the form
of the firm getting the right man for the job in the case of a human resource
manager properly chasing up references. Alternatively, it may take the form of
reduced production downtime in the case of an operations manager putting in
place a rigorous programme of repair and maintenance.
For the sourcing manager adding-value means receiving the right products or
services from vendors on time, or streamlining operational and logistical processes,
or obtaining simple cost savings. It could also, of course, be a combination of all
three of these potentially beneficial outcomes.
As with all investments, however, the attainment of any of these goals is
speculative because risk is involved in their achievement. Time spent trying to
develop a supplier may take weeks or even months of effort but offer very little by
way of tangible return. Consequently, strategic sourcing competence specifically
requires that sourcing managers take the options that offer the firm the best
investment return ratio after risk has been factored into the equation.
18
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
Does the firms enhanced internal resources lead to the creation of new (or
enhanced) products and services for which there is a demand that leads to
acceptable returns? Business history is replete with examples of new products
that failed to find favour with the public, and up to 80 per cent of all new
product offerings fail to either capture sufficient market share or sustain
profitability over time.
Does the firms investment provoke a competitive reaction that squeezes margins?
When new products and services come to market, if they are successful, the
normal response by competitors is to develop copycat items. When this occurs the
margins achieved by the first mover will be squeezed by competition.
19
Supply Chain Management
The motives behind these initiatives can be highly varied. Three key drivers
behind the outsourcing phenomena have, however, been isolated (Lonsdale and
Cox, 1998):
The first two drivers outlined often make short-term commercial sense for
companies, assuming that they understand the contractual risks in outsourcing
non-core activities. The third driver is more problematic because it touches on
issues that go to the very heart of a companys revenue-generating capabilities.
Companies need to be concerned not just with the costs of ownership but also
with the risks of non-ownership of key supply chain resources. Some resources are
essential to wealth creation. Transferring ownership of these resources to a
supplier not only threatens to de-skill the company but also imposes substantial
sourcing costs on the firm in the long term. The scale of these risks can be
illustrated by considering the case of IBM and Microsoft, quite possibly the
biggest outsourcing mistake in contemporary business history (Case study 2:1).
20
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
This forced IBM, who was taking considerable time to develop a customer-focused
operating system, to find a quick-fix for its own products so that it could compete with Apple,
who was winning large market shares. IBM believed that the operating system that it was
perfecting (and that would become known as OS2) would eventually be superior to anything
that currently existed in the marketplace and that it needed to find a competent supplier
with a reasonable operating system until its own system was perfected. IBM firmly believed
that once its operating system was available it would be state of the art and that everyone
would switch to it.
IBM then sourced its initial operating system from a small fledgling company called
Microsoft but used a short-term royalty-based contract, under which Microsoft retained the
intellectual property rights in the software, because IBM assumed that it would purchase a
maximum of 100 000 units. The contract was not exclusive to IBM and Microsoft was
allowed to sell the operating system to anybody else.
Eventually, when IBMs operating system was available, it discovered that nobody wanted
to switch to its new OS2 system from the now industrial standard operating system owned
by Microsoft. In effect IBM had outsourced the critical asset in the supply chain the
operating system to one of its suppliers.
The problem for IBM was that when it came to market, nobody would pay the switching
costs of retraining their staff to the new OS2 system. This was because they were all
standardized on the original IBM operating system that, unfortunately for IBM, did not belong
to them but to one of their suppliers Microsoft. The rest is history. Microsoft is now a much
more profitable and successful company than IBM, which no longer makes double-digit
returns, unlike its supplier Microsoft.
The point of this case study is to demonstrate that companies must be very careful
when they pursue SCM approaches that require them to focus on their core
competencies. One key requirement is that they do not outsource the critical
assets in their supply chains to their suppliers (Cox, 1997).
Deciding what should be insourced and what can be safely outsourced is,
therefore, no simple matter. This is a key strategic decision that requires a
company to consider the following issues relating to the external commercial
environment as it thinks about what its core competencies should be:
Is there a demand for the products and services that the firm is trying to develop?
Is the product capable of satisfying a value proposition that customers want or
need?
Is demand effective? Is there a constituency that will not only like the product
but will also be prepared to pay for it (and in sufficient numbers and at the right
price)?
Do other firms already offer similar, better or cheaper products? Is there a gap
in the market that the firm can profitably fill or is the marketplace saturated
with too many competitors?
21
Supply Chain Management
The answer to this question depends on what is the basic strategy of a company.
Traditionally there has been a view that companies have only two basic choices
about business strategy (Porter, 1985). We believe, however, that there are in fact
three basic strategic options available that companies can attempt to pursue:
The problem with this latter approach is that the company may win market share
but with only relatively low profit margins. This problem also exists for those
pursuing cost leadership strategies. It is only those able to differentiate that can
normally achieve higher than normal profits because they are able to provide
some mechanism by which competitors are not able to replicate their activities.
It is interesting to note, however, that it is those companies that have historically
pursued the strategy of passing value to the customers, and those that have to pursue
cost leadership, that have been the most active in outsourcing and SCM approaches.
Product differentiating companies do not necessarily have to pursue these
strategies, although they may a still seek to maximize their profitability by
retaining all the cost reductions that they can generate from their supply chains.
Cisco is a company that has been able to achieve product differentiation while at
22
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
the same time pursuing SCM approaches, especially, in their case, by using the
latest Internet and e-business technology.
Regardless of whether a company is pursuing product differentiation, cost
leadership or the passing of value to the customer it must at all costs retain in-house
all those activities that set it apart from the competition. If a companys advantage
lies in R&D and marketing, then it may be safe to outsource manufacturing. If the
firms advantage lies in the internal efficiency of its production capability, then it
would not be safe to outsource this competence.
Finally, when considering what is core or non-core to its business, a company
must understand whether its differentiator(s) can be defended. Critical resources
and capabilities should be sustainable. It is necessary, therefore, to consider the
barriers to competitive imitation (Rumelt, 1997):
23
Supply Chain Management
24
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
normally seek to pursue their own corporate interests, an element of conflict must
exist in any relationship, with each side attempting to maximize its potential gain.
This insight leads us to conclude that power must impact on this process,
because the relative power resources of the buyer and supplier will determine
which side (if any) assumes the majority of the risk in any relationship and which
side (if any) will obtain the majority of the subsequent gains.
Generally speaking, in an ideal world, it is better to be powerful (in a position
to assign risk and appropriate the maximum share of value) than to be weak and
dependent in any sourcing exchange relationship.
The basic framework that informs the strategic choice about sourcing strategies
is outlined below:
1 Firms need to understand the cost-reward ratios associated with each strategic
option if they are to make the right choice. The best strategy is the one that
offers the greatest gain for the smallest investment.
2 In this context, the basic rule of thumb is that proactive strategies are more
resource intensive than reactive strategies.
3 This is because they require not only administrative investments but may also
require direct financial contributions in order to realize any prospective gains.
4 The potential gains may or may not be greater for proactive sourcing, it
depends upon the particular case. However, the gains tend to be wider in their
scope. They involve product development and process improvement as well as
basic price reduction.
5 Complicating the decision-making process is the concept of risk. It may make
more sense to pursue a low-cost strategy that has a high probability of
delivering modest gains than to pursue a high-cost strategy that offers a
potentially big pay-back, but with only a small probability of success.
6 Complicating the decision-making process is the question of power. This is
because power determines which party will assume the risk and which party
will appropriate the benefits. For example, an advantageous power position
may enable a buyer to pass the risks to the supplier while disproportionately
appropriating the benefits.
A simple hypothetical example can be used to illustrate this decision frame (see
case study 2.2).
25
Supply Chain Management
In the case of Option A, the buyer is operating in a weak power relationship with its supplier.
In the case of Option B, the buyer starts from the same power position but understands that,
as a result of investments that both parties must make in the relationship, both parties will
move to a situation of interdependence.
In Option A the firm believes that its supplier is padding costs. For this reason the
company wishes to increase competition by bidding the business to force the incumbent
supplier to reduce their costs. This approach requires an investment in management time
costing 1000. Given the volume of business that the firm has with the supplier, it has been
calculated that there is a reasonable probability that, through this initiative, the firm can
save 4000. The expected pay-off for the firm can be calculated easily enough by
multiplying the expected return and then subtracting the up-front cost. In this instance the
expected pay-off would be 4000 less 1000 = 3000.
Supplier selection is not, however, the only option available to the buyer because it can
also pursue Option B (Supplier Development) with the incumbent supplier. What the firm
needs to know is which of the two strategies offers the better return.
Supplier Development is a more expensive alternative because it will require not only the
administrative costs of 1000 but also an additional investment to augment the suppliers
manufacturing capability. This cost of dedicated investments in the relationship is estimated
at 4000. It has been calculated that the subsequent gain will, however, generate savings
of the order of 24 000.
What is the pay-off in this instance? Under conditions of interdependence, buyers and
sellers can be expected to share the risks and rewards of any initiative. Since the buyers
administrative costs are 1000 and its share of the dedicated investments are 2000 (50
per cent of 4000), its exposure totals 3000. The costs for the supplier are the same at
3000 for administrative costs and dedicated investments.
If the initiative works, it will deliver gains of 24 000 but the buyer and supplier will each
have to find 3000 (= 6000) and share the net gains (24 000 less 6000). This leaves
both parties with a half share of 18 000 = 9000 each. Consequently, the case for a
strategy of Supplier Development appears, in this situation, much stronger than that for
Supplier Selection.
26
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
Administrative
Dedicated
Other
27
Supply Chain Management
administrative tasks that the firm must perform, plus data on any dedicated
investments that the initiative requires. The table calls for cash figures whenever
possible. Consequently, if the initiative will take one full-administrators time for
two months and the administrators salary is 2000 a month, then a figure of
4000 would be entered into the column. Similarly, if the initiative requires one
or either of the two parties to invest in specialized investments in support of the
relationship, then this combined total should also be recorded.
28
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
Firms have to be particularly careful because proactive strategies can expose them
to significant contractual risk (what some analysts refer to as moral hazard).
Sustaining the commitment of a supplier depends upon a firms ability to motivate
them. Motivation can take the form of a carrot (bonuses for good performance) or
a stick (the cancellation of the initiative or the whole contract if the performance
is poor).
In order for the incentive structure to work it must be credible. This means
being able to monitor the supplier to see if they are complying with the terms of
the deal and having the ability to punish the supplier (by invoking penalties or by
threatening exit) if they are not.
The buyer must, therefore, be able to spot those areas where there is significant
scope for opportunism by the supplier (in this case in the form of trying to
renegotiate the riskreward allocation) and be able to craft safeguards against the
risk. Where contractual safeguards cannot properly be introduced, then the firm
is probably better to retain the competence within the organization rather than to
outsource it.
Moral hazard is frequently a problem in supply management because effective
monitoring is always an issue. However, sometimes the risks are particularly
acute. Contracting that takes place in a highly volatile or uncertain environment
is difficult because it raises the issue of renegotiation. Buyers attempt to draft
contracts in as complete a fashion as possible, but when an environment is
particularly volatile, specifying all the terms of an agreement in advance is likely
29
Supply Chain Management
to prove next to impossible. This in itself need not present a difficulty unless the
firm becomes locked-in to its outsourced provider. If this happens, the supplier
may choose to renegotiate on terms that benefit it rather than its customer.
Contractual lock-in occurs if the contract requires the buyer to make some form
of highly specialized investment in the relationship. The investment might take the
form of time. An organization that has spent months negotiating and implementing
an outsourced relationship might be reluctant to write-off all of this hard work
especially if re-sourcing means repeating the effort with no greater chance of
success next time around. Alternatively, firms might have made substantial and
non-fungible investments in specialized training or equipment (otherwise known as
asset specific investments).
Less creditably, though, firms are often reluctant to call time on a poorly
performing supplier if the managers who negotiated the contract have a significant
reputational investment in the deal. Calling a halt to the affair means admitting that
they got it wrong, and nobody likes doing that. Whatever the form of the lock-in,
the effect is the same: the firm loses its capacity to impose costs on the supplier and
thus its ability to impose discipline.
Of course, just because a contract presents the firm with a risk, it does not
follow that the risk cannot be managed. For example, one strategy often pursued
by buyers involves unbundling a contract. This means separating out those
elements that pose a risk from those that do not. The highly risky elements are
retained in-house and only the less risky elements are outsourced. The supplier
may even be asked to post a bond, or share the costs of the dedicated investments,
as a sign of its good faith (i.e. to show that its word of honour and commitment
to the relationship is credible).
The purpose of Figure 2.3 is to record and analyze the risks described above by
dividing the issues into four broad phases of analysis.
30
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
31
Supply Chain Management
allocate this exposure between the buyer and supplier. If it is likely that the
initiative will lead to the company being locked into a relationship, and the cost
figures are also considered soft, it may well be that the strategy does not make
commercial sense. If the gains from the investment justify the initiative, it may
make more sense to internalize (insource) the activity within the firm.
Figure 2.4 allows companies to think about the returns from any investment. How
some of these gains may be calculated operationally is covered in Chapter 4, which
deals with the operationalization of SCM techniques. Figure 2.4 is restricted to
recording projected gains and losses.
Reactive
Price and/or
functionality
change
Proactive
Price and/or
functionality
change
Proactive
Efficiency
(total costs
of ownership
change
Proactive
Revenue
generating
opportunities
This is not straightforward because the concept of Value for Money (VFM) must
be understood by linking functionality with cost options. Improving VFM can be
achieved in the following obvious ways:
32
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
It is not, therefore, necessary for all the elements of a deal to improve in order for
the deal itself to improve. Figure 2.4 attempts to capture this through three phases
of analysis.
Positive. The initiative either results in value for money benefits for the buyer
such as reduced prices and margins from the supplier; improved efficiency;
improved functionality, or delivers exploitable new technologies.
Negative. The initiative provides value for money benefits for the supplier and
undermines the current value received by the buyer.
Neutral. There is no discernible change in value for money for the buyer.
33
Supply Chain Management
CONCLUSIONS
Having completed each of the figures for a specific category of sourcing requirement,
and for each of the four sourcing options available, it should now be possible for
companies to make a judgement about which of the four sourcing options available
for this category of spend appears to be the most strategically beneficial.
It is clear that this approach to sourcing strategy selection may well result in an
answer that says a proactive SCM approach is simply not the most optimal
solution for the buying company. In such circumstances our view is that the
sensible company should opt to undertake the sourcing approach that is most
conducive for its commercial success. Obviously, if the analysis leads to the
conclusion that SCM is optimal, then the buying company should pursue this
option vigorously.
There is one additional caveat that must be addressed before such an approach
is adopted. Identifying what may be the most commercially profitable sourcing
option is not the same thing as identifying a strategy that will work operationally.
Before embarking on any sourcing strategy it is necessary to understand, first,
whether there are any major internal and external constraints that will so affect
implementation that the strategy cannot be made to work in practice, despite the
clear commercial benefits that may be achieved strategically. These issues are
discussed in the next chapter in relation to SCM strategies only.
34
Is SCM the best strategic sourcing option?
REFERENCES
35
1
Supply chain management and
best practice sourcing
Introduction 3
Conclusions 12
References 13
1
Supply chain management and best practice sourcing
INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been considerable debate amongst consultants, practitioners
and academics about what constitutes best practice for those involved in sourcing.
For many this debate has led to the conclusion that supply chain management (SCM)
constitutes best practice in the search for improved value for money relationships
with suppliers.
The evidence for this viewpoint is the increasing frequency with which old
purchasing, procurement and logistics departments have begun to re-brand
themselves as supply chain management functions. We have also witnessed the
development of SCM practices in all the major consultancy companies and the
creation of dedicated MBA and undergraduate degree programmes, as well as
departments of SCM within major American and European Universities.
Over recent years we have taken something of a contrary view about the
appropriateness of this view of best practice (Cox, 1997a, 1997b, 1998; Cox et
al., 2000a). Much of our criticism of the SCM bandwagon has in the past been
based on deductive reasoning about the logical approaches to sourcing that must
be made under different circumstances of power between buyers and suppliers. At
the same time we have undertaken research into how power regimes create
opportunities, as well as problems, for buyers and suppliers as they seek to
implement particular sourcing approaches in changing circumstances of power
(Cox et al., 2000b, 2001).
Despite this general conclusion it is clear that SCM practices when properly
conceived and implemented can provide one of the most powerful mechanisms
currently available for buyers to transform the supply offerings they receive from
their supply chains.
This short volume has, therefore, four major tasks:
3
Supply Chain Management
It is important for the reader to understand at the outset, however, that the general
argument of this book is that while SCM can be regarded as a best practice
approach for organizations under some circumstances, it is rarely best practice for
companies in most or all of their external sourcing circumstances. Given this, the
first issue to be addressed is not what is the most effective way to undertake supply
chain management, but if it is not always appropriate, what sourcing choices do
managers have?
The best way to address this issue is by first understanding, logically, the ways in
which buyers can work with any supplier and the scope of their activities within a
supply chain. By doing this it is possible to define four basic sourcing approaches
that are always available for buyers to select from when they seek to manage their
supply relationships.
As Figure 1.1 demonstrates, buyers have two basic choices about the ways they
can work with suppliers. These are as follows.
4
Supply chain management and best practice sourcing
Figure 1.1 also demonstrates that to achieve improved leverage of supply inputs,
buyers also have to make decisions about the scope of their involvement within the
supply chain that must be created for the delivery of particular goods and services.
5
Supply Chain Management
Figure 1.1 further demonstrates that putting these four basic variables together
provides the buyer with four basic sourcing options. These are differentiated on
the basis of the level of external complexity and internal resource intensity that
must be managed by the buyer.
Supplier selection
This option is the one most commonly used by buyers in all types of organization.
Supplier selection implies that the buyers role is confined primarily to reactive
sourcing at the first-tier. This means that the buyer normally selects products and
/or services from the supply offerings made by suppliers currently operating in the
market, with analysis of the power and leverage opportunities between the buyer
and supplier confined only to the proximate supplier of the finished product or
service being sourced.
It is the supplier who designs and specifies requirements, with the buyers role
confined to market analysis of supplier offerings and, using robust supplier
selection procedures, the sourcing of the best value for money supplier(s). This
approach also normally requires robust performance measurement in order that
the buyer can determine whether the supplier has delivered what was expected. If
it has been, then the supplier may expect to receive further orders from the buyer,
assuming no other suppliers can offer a better value proposition to the buyer
when contracts are reviewed.
Of all of the four options available to a buyer, supplier selection makes the least
demands on internal resources and requires the least commitment to long-term
collaborative external sourcing relationships.
6
Supply chain management and best practice sourcing
Supplier development
Supplier development refers to a process by which, having undertaken the same
initial type of analysis and selection as that outlined under Supplier selection
above, the buyer works on a continuous basis with the supplier to transform the
current trade-off between product or service functionality and the overall cost of
ownership. The key difference with supplier selection is that the buyer is now
heavily involved, not only in selection and assessment but also in the fundamental
design and specification of the product and service offering that the supplier will
provide now and in the future. Clearly, depending on the respective resources and
capabilities of the buyer and the supplier, this will either be determined by the
buyer or it will have to be a joint effort.
It is clear that this approach makes much greater demands on the internal
resources, as well as upon the external relationship management skills, of the buyer
than the two more reactive options outlined above. In this approach the buyer has
to commit considerable internal resources to the design and specification process,
as well as to external relationship management.
Furthermore, this approach requires that buyers and suppliers must normally
develop longer-term relationships. This is because, if both parties have to make
dedicated investments in the relationship to make it work, neither side is likely to do
this without some longer-term commitment. It is also essential that the power structure
is favourable to the buyer since it is unlikely that dominant suppliers will be willing to
respond positively to the design and specification requirements of buyers.
7
Supply Chain Management
now assesses the scope to undertake proactive supplier development linking together
all the buyers and suppliers in the chain. The aim of this network relationship
management is to encourage the players in the chain to dedicate their business
strategies to the delivery of improved functionality and lower costs of ownership for
the ultimate customers in the chain.
It is self-evident that this approach, which incorporates the same selection and
performance measurement tools and techniques as outlined under the reactive
approaches provided earlier, is the most difficult for buyers to implement. The reason
being that two major enablers must be in place before any buying organization can
implement this approach. First, the buying company must have the internal
capabilities to shape the stretch design and specification requirements for the chain
as a whole and have the internal resources to embark on the complex and time
consuming role of developing all the buyers and suppliers within the chain.
Second, there must be a power structure that is conducive to buyer-led supply
chain improvement. Obviously, depending on the power relationships within the
chain, it may be necessary for the buyer to work jointly with the buyers and
suppliers within the chain or, if the buyer has sufficient internal resources and
power over the players in the chain (or a substantial proportion of them), it may
be possible for the buyer to dictate what they will do.
Our research and consulting activities over the last ten years have continually
reinforced one conclusion: whatever the hype, most buying organizations do not
in practice do very much SCM (Cox et al., 2001; Cox et al. 2002).
The reason for this is self-evident. Few buying organizations have either the
internal resources or the external power circumstances that are conducive to long-
term and continuous collaborative buyer and supplier relationship management.
This implies that, whatever proselytizers of SCM argue about it being best
practice, for the bulk of their spend, most practitioners will never be in a position
to implement it because the achievable gains are not worth the internal and
external efforts required.
This is not to deny that SCM is a most effective and appropriate thing to do if
the buyer is in circumstances conducive for its implementation. Unfortunately,
however, the empirical evidence seems to confirm that most buyers will only ever
have the internal resources and external power opportunities to undertake reactive
sourcing options.
It is imperative, therefore, that managers recognize this fact and that organizations
begin to analyze the objective circumstances they are in, so that they can properly
8
Supply chain management and best practice sourcing
understand whether they have proactive and/or reactive sourcing opportunities and
which of the four options outlined here is likely to be the most efficacious for
improved leverage in the future for any particular category of spend.
This is because our work with many companies over the last ten years has indicated
clearly that, while SCM may be possible and desirable in some industries like
automotive, food retailing, process construction, personal computer manufacturing,
chemical refining and aluminium (to mention just a few) this does not mean that
this approach is the most appropriate for buyers to adopt in all circumstances.
Indeed our research has demonstrated quite clearly that not only is it impossible
for the majority of organizations to adopt SCM approaches but also, and perhaps
more to the point, companies pursuing SCM approaches in their direct, revenue-
generating supply chains often find it impossible to do so in their indirect,
non-production areas of spend. In these circumstances even SCM-focused
companies are often forced to adopt supplier development, supplier selection and
supply chain sourcing options for some of their categories of spend.
Best practice cannot be about the development of any one particular sourcing
approach.
Rather best practice must be the ability to understand which of the four
sourcing options available is the most appropriate in any given circumstance.
Our work has led us to conclude, therefore, that there must be circumstances
when SCM strategies can work and there must be circumstances when they are
unlikely to do so.
It is interesting that most SCM strategies seem to operate well in circumstances
in which the buyer has high volume and fairly regular and constant demand
relative to a supply market in which there are many suppliers, all of whom have
similar capabilities, and who are normally highly dependent on the buyer in one
form or another.
It is worth noting that many of the industries in which SCM strategies have been
pioneered the automotive, the aluminium, the chemical refining, process
manufacturing and process construction have these demand and supply
characteristics. But there are also circumstances where SCM strategies based on
longer-term collaborative relationship management approaches do not work well.
9
Supply Chain Management
High Buyer
Inter-dependence
dominance
Relative utility and
scarcity of buyers
resources for supplier
Supplier
Low Independence
dominance
Low High
10
Supply chain management and best practice sourcing
As Figure 1.2 indicates there are four objective power situations that buyers and
suppliers can find themselves in:
Buyer dominance means that the buyer can control the relationship with the
supplier and can fix the price and quality trade-offs in the buyer and supplier
relationship.
Interdependence means that the buyer and the supplier are both heavily
dependent on one another and they must work together and jointly decide on
price and quality trade-offs in the relationship.
Independence means that neither the buyer nor the supplier have any resources
to determine and shape the specific relationship and both receive price and
quality on the basis of market competition and contestation.
Supplier dominance means that the buyer is in no position at all to shape the
relationship with the supplier and must receive quality and price decisions that
are dictated by the supplier.
The significance of external power relationships for the effective implementation
of SCM strategies is outlined in far more detail in Chapter 3 where the second
major operational enabler is also discussed. This enabler is the issue of internal
capability. As Figure 1.3 demonstrates, there are always power circumstances at
play within organizations, as well as externally with suppliers. Our research has
led us to conclude that effective SCM strategies cannot be undertaken unless there
is clear support within an organization to make them work.
Understand
what SCM is Enemies Confirmed allies
Dont
understand Zombies Potential allies
what SCM is
Once again we discuss these issues in more detail in Chapter 3. It is worth stressing,
however, that unless there are more confirmed allies and potential allies than
enemies and zombies internally within an organization, it is unlikely that such
SCM approaches can ever be made to work successfully however conducive the
11
Supply Chain Management
external power relationships with suppliers. Attention to internal buy-in for SCM
strategies by those managing external resources is clearly a critical success factor.
There are two major enablers of successful supply chain management strategies:
CONCLUSIONS
SCM strategies can be highly successful mechanisms for the leverage of improved
value for money from suppliers. But it is also necessary for successful implementation
that buying organizations do not fall into serious errors of judgement when they
consider which of their resources and capabilities they should manage using longer-
term collaborative relationships.
This is another way of saying that it will not always be appropriate for buyers
to use SCM strategies for all their supply requirements. On many occasions
supplier selection, supply chain sourcing and supplier development approaches
may be far more appropriate mechanisms by which to leverage value for money
than SCM strategies, and for most buyers these three approaches may well be
their most frequently used sourcing tools.
Having said that, it is also worth stressing again that when SCM strategies can
be used they are an extremely powerful mechanism for leveraging improved value
for money from suppliers and their supply chains. Nevertheless, even when there
is a supportive internal and external environment for the successful
implementation of SCM approaches (as described in Chapter 3) sometimes these
strategies are not adopted successfully. The major reasons for this are threefold
and will be discussed later in some detail.
12
Supply chain management and best practice sourcing
REFERENCES
13
Supply Chain Management
Cox, A., Ireland, P., Lonsdale, C., Sanderson, J. and Watson, G. (2002) Supply
Chains, Markets and Power: Mapping Buyer and Supplier Power Regimes.
London: Routledge.
Cox, A., Sanderson, J. and Watson, G. (2000a) Wielding influence, Supply
Management, 6 April, pp. 303.
Cox, A., Sanderson, J. and Watson, G. (2000b) Power Regimes: Mapping the
DNA of Business and Supply Chain Relationships. Helpston: Earlsgate Press.
14
3
Is supply chain management
feasible operationally?
Introduction 39
Conclusions 62
References 63
37
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
INTRODUCTION
39
Supply Chain Management
There are two basic success factors for successful SCM strategies, both of
which must be present in the buying company and in the supply organizations
in the extended supply chain to be managed. These are:
40
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
41
Supply Chain Management
Transaction costs. These are the costs incurred by a supplier in drawing up,
managing and monitoring its contract with the customer, in particular the costs
of invoicing and ensuring that payment is made. The fewer invoices that a
supplier is required to send out and the more prompt are a customers payments,
the lower these transaction costs will be.
42
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
Production costs. These are the costs incurred by a supplier in the production
of goods or services to meet the buyers requirements. The less standardized/the
more bespoke or unique are the buyers requirements, the higher these costs are
likely to be because the product or production process will have to be
redesigned. Equally, if the buyer requires a supplier to produce a product or
service at short notice, these costs are likely to rise because the supplier will be
forced to make unplanned demands on its own production processes and to
acquire material inputs from its suppliers without a significant lead time.
Development Key
High customer customer
Ease of
(win more business) (aim to please)
servicing
buyers
business Nuisance Leverage
Low customer customer
(ignore) (take advantage)
Low High
Value of buyers
business to supplier
Clearly, all else being equal, a supplier is likely to prefer a customer that is relatively
easy and therefore inexpensive to service, because its profit margin is likely to be
more substantial. It is possible that customers that are difficult/expensive to service
will see any additional costs being passed on in the price that they pay. Market
competition dictates, however, that this is not always possible.
The second main factor is the value of your business to the supplier. The issue
of value can be understood in a number of ways:
the size of buyer expenditure with the supplier relative to their overall turnover;
the regularity and predictability of buyer expenditure;
the prestige/marketing value of the suppliers association with the buyer;
the suppliers association with the buyer leads to product innovations that they
can sell to other customers, or process innovations that reduce their costs/improve
their profitability.
43
Supply Chain Management
Putting these two factors together (ease of servicing and value of business) creates
four basic types of customer as shown in Figure 3.1. As the figure suggests, the
most attractive, or key customer, is one which is relatively easy to service and
whose business is highly valuable to the supplier. This type of customer is likely
have substantial power or influence over its supplier. Consequently, a key customer
should expect its supplier to be willing to invest and participate in SCM initiatives.
At the other end of the spectrum of attractiveness lies the nuisance customer.
This is a customer whose demands make it difficult/costly to service and whose
business is not particularly valuable to the supplier. Consequently, a nuisance
customer is unlikely to receive support from its supplier for costly SCM initiatives.
The remaining two types of customer, the development customer and the
leverage customer are in intermediate positions. It seems likely, however, that a
development customer would receive greater support from its supplier for SCM
initiatives given the suppliers desire to increase the volume and regularity of
business that it receives from such a customer. A supplier servicing a leverage
customer will not have to pursue such initiatives, but it may if it feels there is some
benefit for itself from going along with the customers wishes.
It is clearly vital, therefore, to understand how suppliers view the buyer before
embarking upon SCM initiatives.
The matrix shown in Figure 3.1 allows a buyer to locate each of its suppliers
by asking two key questions:
There are five main potential problems to be considered when thinking about the
way in which the buyer manages the demand for everything that it buys from
external third parties. These are shown below in Table 3.3 with a brief explanation
of the impact they might have on the buyers attractiveness as a customer.
As can be seen from Table 3.3, each of the five demand management problems
can have a serious negative impact on the buyers attractiveness as a customer
and, by extension, the willingness of suppliers to support SCM initiatives.
The key question that arises, therefore, is what are the primary causes of these
problems, and what, if anything, can you do about them? At least some of these
44
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
This section explores the idea that organizations are a political battleground. This
is because individual functions within an organization have a tendency to pursue
their own interests and objectives and to interpret the overall goals of the
organization in light of those interests and objectives. It is the pursuit of these
individual agendas by different functions that often causes the demand
management problems discussed above.
One of the key internal challenges facing anyone in trying to implement SCM
initiatives is to persuade those functions causing these problems that they should
change their behaviour and support the initiative.
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Supply Chain Management
The ability to persuade other functions to support SCM initiatives, or any other
sourcing initiative for that matter, is largely determined by the power of one
function relative to that of other functions. With this in mind a simple predictive
model of intra-organizational power is provided based on three factors in the
sourcing process:
Uncertainty
Uncertainty means that decisions are taken about suppliers and their products and
services where there is limited information about future outcomes. In other words,
supply alternatives and their possible outcomes in terms of value for money can
often be highly unpredictable.
This problem of supply uncertainty is particularly acute in the outsourcing of
complex IT services (Lonsdale and Cox, 1998; Audit Commission, 2001). There
is evidence that there are significant cost overruns and operational delays
associated with buying such services. Moreover, these problems can often become
much more than an irritation for the buying organization, because information
processing is now fundamental to so many activities.
Uncertainty might contribute to such difficulties in one of two main ways.
The buying organization might suffer from needs uncertainty. This means that
the buyer is unable to provide the supplier with a full and detailed statement of
requirements, because it is uncertain as to how its needs might change over the
life of the contract. Consequently, even if the supplier acts in good faith, it
46
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
It is clear that these different types of uncertainty can have an enormous impact
upon the value for money that buyers are able to achieve. Consequently, those
functions within a buying organization that are best equipped to help the
organization cope with or manage such uncertainty will have a critical power
resource in the sourcing process.
Coping with uncertainty in the sourcing process could mean:
Centrality
Centrality refers to the importance and closeness of a particular function to the
sourcing process.
There are two key variables that can affect the centrality of a function to any
sourcing decisions.
The first variable is the extent to which a particular function performs activities
in the sourcing process that impact directly upon the sourcing activities or
decisions of other functions.
For example, in many manufacturing organizations it could be said that the
production and R&D departments enjoy a high degree of centrality in the
sourcing process, because they are key players in recognizing and defining the
organizations need and in drawing up the original specification. These decisions
are fundamental in driving the activities of all other actors involved in sourcing.
In contrast, we might argue that the sales and marketing function has a high
degree of centrality in the sourcing process of a service sector organization,
47
Supply Chain Management
because it defines the market offering and thereby determines the organizations
input requirements. Finally, it might be argued that in all types of organizations
the finance function enjoys a high degree of centrality by virtue of its capacity to
veto or approve major items of expenditure.
The second variable that determines a functions centrality to the sourcing
process is the extent to which the function performs activities that are deemed
essential to the successful completion of the process.
In other words, if an organization were unable to buy any products or services
without an input from a particular function, then that function would be deemed
to possess a high degree of centrality. Conversely, a function would have a lower
degree of centrality if it only had an involvement with the buying of certain
categories of goods or services, or if it was only active when certain types of buying
decisions were being taken (i.e. buying a new item from a new supplier).
This is an important point, because it emphasizes that the centrality of a particular
function to the sourcing process is likely to be variable and context specific. Indeed,
on many occasions the procurement function itself might have no involvement in the
buying process. For example, it is not unusual for an organizations procurement
department to have no involvement in capital expenditure, with these items being
handled instead by Business Units or production functions.
Substitutability
Substitutability is the third factor that determines the power of a particular
function in the sourcing process. This refers to the ease with which the activities
performed by that function can be performed equally well by other actors, either
inside or outside the organization.
If a function has no substitute in the process because it is a repository of tacit
and therefore non-transferable skills and understanding, it has a critical power
resource. For example, certain engineers in the oil industry gain a power resource
from the fact that they are part of a select band that understand the way in which
the drilling equipment interacts with different geological environments.
As a consequence of this knowledge these engineers are non-substitutable actors
when an oil companys requirements for equipment and maintenance services are
being specified. Conversely, if one or more other actors, either internal or
external, can perform a functions activities equally well, then its power resources
in this dimension are limited.
This issue of substitutability has become particularly topical in recent years with
the increased use of outsourcing. The outsourcing trend has inevitably caused
those functions faced by the threat of transfer to a third party to argue that they
are non-substitutable, because they understand the historical legacy and
idiosyncrasies of the organization.
48
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
On occasion such arguments win out, but more often the pressure for headcount
reduction and cost efficiencies takes precedence. It might be argued therefore that
non-substitutability has been significantly eroded as a basis of internal power by
the increased willingness of organizations to shift their external boundaries.
Table 3.4 presents in summary form the relationship between different combinations
of these variables and the commensurate degree of intra-organizational power. This
table can be used as a quick checklist to rate the relative power of different functions
within any organization.
Table 3.4 Rating the power of the different functions involved in the
sourcing process
The power of different functions within the sourcing process is a necessary but not
sufficient factor in any decision as to whether the internal environment of a company
is conducive to SCM initiatives. The insights that are gleaned from the above analysis
49
Supply Chain Management
must also now be combined with information on the historical attitude of different
functions in an organization to sourcing initiatives. It is necessary to ascertain
whether a particular function has tended to be co-operative in the past or whether
they have had a tendency to act as a brake on new SCM initiatives.
The reason for doing this, as can be seen in Figure 3.2, is to create a
categorization that differentiates between a powerful and co-operative function
and one which has power but is unco-operative. Figure 3.2 also brings back into
the picture the managerial competence issues discussed earlier.
We argued that each of the functions involved in the sourcing process must have
two different competencies if SCM initiatives are to be successful. These are an
operational understanding of the tools and techniques used in SCM initiatives and
an understanding of how internal demand should be configured to make the
organization attractive to its suppliers.
Categorizing functions
The basic categorization shown in Figure 3.2 divides functions into those with a
high level of competence and those with a low level of competence. The former
are those functions with a solid grasp of both the operational and the demand
management requirements of SCM. The latter are those functions that have
neither of these competencies or where they are significantly under-developed.
Co-operative Unco-operative
Competence
of function
Potential
Low Potential ally Irritant Loose cannon
key ally
50
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
they need to follow to build a coalition of support for SCM initiatives. This point
is illustrated in the following exercise.
Use the above matrix to categorize the various functions involved in sourcing
in the organization and then answer the following questions:
What type of managerial style should be adopted with each function based
on its position in the matrix conciliatory, confrontational, mentoring,
avoidance?
How might each type of function fit into a strategy to build support for
SCM initiatives?
The success of SCM initiatives has both an internal and an external dimension.
The remainder of the chapter discusses the key external factors that must be
present if SCM is to be successfully implemented. These key external factors are
an exact mirror image of those discussed about the internal context: a high level
of managerial competence and understanding in the organizations in the supply
chains to be managed; and, an appropriate alignment of inter-organizational
power and incentives.
We can summarize these two factors by asking whether the organizations in the
supply chain that you want to manage are both competent and congruent (Cox,
1999). We turn first to the issue of competence.
When managers ask questions about the competence of their suppliers, they are
usually interested in whether they can deliver effectively on specified quality, cost
and delivery (QCD) requirements. Indeed, it is these three factors, in combination
with the financial stability of a supplier, that form the basis of the vast majority
of supplier assessment and selection procedures.
This definition of supplier competence is, however, far too narrow if the aim is
to select suppliers to be part of SCM initiatives. To achieve proper alignment with
suppliers in SCM initiatives it is necessary to consider whether a supplier is also
competent in the two spheres that we discussed earlier in the internal context.
51
Supply Chain Management
Clearly, the checklist shown in Exercise 3.3 provides only a fairly basic insight into
the competence of the organizations in the supply chain that has to be managed.
52
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
That said, this analysis should enable managers to take a view on whether a
particular supply chain organization already understands what is required and how
to do SCM, or whether it needs to be educated.
Moreover, if a supplier is deemed not to be competent, a judgement must also
be made about whether it can be persuaded to commit the time and resources
needed to bring its competence up to the required level. This issue is important
because it is illogical and impractical to suggest that a supplier could ever be
forced to develop its competence. A supply chain organization must be willing to
learn what is necessary to participate in any SCM initiative.
This question of persuading other actors to support the initiatives of the buyer
requires a consideration of power and incentives. This requires consideration of
the inter-organizational power circumstances in which a supplier might be
expected either to improve its competence or, if already competent, to use what it
knows in support of a buyers SCM initiative. Equally, those power circumstances
in which a supplier is unlikely to be willing either to improve or to deploy its SCM
competence must be considered.
The first type of investment relates to developing and improving the required
operational and demand management competencies. The focus here is primarily
on management education to promote knowledge and understanding of SCM
tools and techniques and the commercial implications of poor buying behaviour.
The second type of investment relates to the organizational change process that
might be necessary to make SCM initiatives effective. For example, a supply
chain organization might be required to redesign its internal production process,
alter its capacity planning/allocation, introduce a new management information
(ERP) system, or reorganize its in-bound and out-bound logistics to create a
synergy with any SCM initiative. All these organizational innovations will carry
a substantial cost in terms of managerial and financial resources.
The key question is, therefore, under what inter-organizational power circumstances
would a supply chain organization be willing to make such substantial up-front
investments?
Before this question can be answered the range of power circumstances that
might exist between a buyer and any supplier must be identified. These issues were
53
Supply Chain Management
discussed in Chapter 1 but, as Figure 3.3 shows, the four basic buyersupplier
power circumstances have key attributes for buyers and suppliers.
This model provides a simple checklist of criteria that you can use to assess your
power relative to particular suppliers (Cox et al., 2000; Cox et al., 2001). The
same criteria can also be used to assess the relative power positions of buying and
selling organizations further upstream in the supply chain that the buyer is seeking
to manage.
Low High
54
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
interdependence, represented by an equal sign (=), occurs when both buyer and
supplier are highly dependent on the other;
independence, represented by a zero (0), the level of dependence is low on both
sides.
The Figure 3.3 also shows that relative dependency can be understood as a
function of three important attributes:
Scarcity. How many comparable suppliers/customers are there for each side to
do business with?
Utility. How important/attractive is a particular supplier/customer in the
context of an organizations overall business objectives?
Switching and information costs. How difficult/costly is it for a supplier/customer
to find and switch to an alternative source of revenue/supply?
Use the checklist of criteria shown in Figure 3.3 to assess your power position
relative to a number of your suppliers and answer the following questions:
Clearly, the incentives necessary for a supplier to make the investments necessary
to support SCM initiatives will be strong both where there is a position of buyer
dominance and where the interdependence occurs between the buyer and the
supplier.
In each case the supplier is highly dependent upon the buyer for business, it has
few comparable alternative customers, the buyers account is highly attractive,
and the costs of finding and switching to alternative customers are prohibitive.
In combination these factors suggest that the supplier would be willing to make
sacrifices and investments in order to maintain a good working relationship with
the buyer. This is what can be described as a highly congruent supplier.
There is, however, an important difference between these two power
circumstances in terms of the way in which the buyer can manage the relationship
with the supplier to ensure that the necessary investments are forthcoming.
55
Supply Chain Management
In the case of buyer dominance, there is room for the buyer to direct and to
provide leadership for the suppliers activities.
In the case of interdependence, however, a more negotiated, bilateral style of
management is appropriate, because this is a relationship of equals.
The two other power circumstances illustrated in Figure 3.3, supplier dominance and
independence, provide little or no incentive for a supplier to support SCM initiatives.
Supplier dominance is a situation in which the buyer is only one of many
alternative customers, whose account is not particularly attractive, where the
costs of finding and switching to alternative customers are negligible. The buyer,
on the other hand, is highly dependent upon the supplier and would find it
difficult and costly to switch to an alternative.
Consequently, it is highly unlikely that such a supplier would be willing to
support any SCM initiative that a buyer might suggest. It is possible that such a
supplier might launch SCM initiatives of its own, requiring its customers to fund
all the up-front investment while it retains the bulk of the benefits in the form of
a higher profit margin.
In the case of independence the supplier lacks an incentive to support any SCM
initiatives, because it has little or no dependence on and therefore commitment to
the buyers business. The buyer is one of many easily interchangeable customers
and their business is not particularly attractive. The buyers level of dependence on
the supplier is equally low, however, which suggests that this power circumstance
is too unstable for either party to undertake the substantial dedicated investments
required by SCM initiatives. Given the ease of switching, neither the buyer nor the
supplier can be sure that the relationship will last long enough for the initiative to
bear fruit.
In this case and in the case of supplier dominance, therefore, the level of supplier
congruence is relatively low.
56
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
Competent Ideal
High supplier supplier
(Improve congruence) (Select)
Supplier
competence
Worst Congruent
Low case supplier
(Avoid) (Develop competence)
Low High
(0/<) (=/>)
Supplier congruence
Figure 3.4 also illustrates the three other possible combinations of competence and
congruence and suggests how the buyer should proceed in each of these situations.
Clearly, the second most attractive type of supplier in the matrix would be one
exhibiting a high degree of congruence, but a low degree of competence. The
reason for this is that such a supplier would have a very strong incentive to
improve its level of competence and would be much easier to manage than a
supplier with a lower level of congruence.
A buyer might consider selecting a supplier that is highly competent, but not
highly congruent, with the objective of improving over time the power position
relative to this supplier. This represents a high-risk strategy, however, and
should be pursued only if a more congruent supplier cannot be found.
Finally, those suppliers that are neither competent nor congruent should be
avoided at all costs.
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Supply Chain Management
The concepts of power, and relational competence and congruence, can be applied
not only to dyadic buyer and supplier exchange relationships but also to the
extended network of exchange relationships within the total supply chain (Cox,
1999; Cox et al., 2000). When this is done it sometimes becomes apparent that
companies attempting to implement SCM initiatives will not always be operating
within a commercial environment that is conducive.
The best way to explain this point is for us to consider how the analysis of
power can be applied to simple supply chain circumstances. Let us assume that a
company is seeking to manage a simple supply chain. This supply chain has four
participants that are arranged in a sequential physical flow. Let us then apply all
four of the power relationships to this chain in an idealized manner. This can be
seen in Figure 3.5.
What might be expected to happen in each of these four situations commercially
and operationally if the focal company was attempting to implement SCM
initiatives?
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Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
Scenario 1:
> > >
Buyer dominant
power regime
A B C D
Scenario 2:
= = =
Interdependent
power regime
A B C D
Scenario 3:
0 0 0
Independence
power regime
A B C D
Scenario 4:
< < <
Supplier dominant
power regime
A B C D
59
Supply Chain Management
for the buyer is of low value and it has many other potential sources of supply. The
sale for the supplier is also of low value and it has many other customers. Under
these circumstances there is little incentive for any of the companies to put in the
resources necessary to create successful collaborative relationships such an
investment would not be justified by the importance of the transaction. Each of the
relationships will be characterized by market behaviour, where each is looking for
short-term tactical advantage. This type of supply chain will not, therefore, be
conducive for highly collaborative and integrated forms of SCM.
There are in practice few, if any, supply chains in the real world that conform in their
entirety to this ideal alignment of power. What tends to happen instead is that
supply chains are made up of a combination of zones or sub-regimes, some of which
are conducive to SCM initiatives and some that do not support its implementation
at all (Watson, 2001).
As a consequence, the majority of supply chains contain what might be called
management breakpoints or sub-regimes of power. The existence of these suggests
that the best that can be achieved is partial SCM. The case example given below
illustrates the existence of a management breakpoint in an aerospace supply chain
and the impact that this had on the attempted implementation of one SCM initiative
(Cox et al., 2002).
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Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
discussion, attention is focused on the power structures that exist between the tanker
converter (A), the equipment assembler (B) and the supplier of sub-assemblies (C).
B>D
C0E
B0E
It is immediately obvious that the interdependent power structure between A and B might
be expected to provide these firms with a basis on which they can successfully co-ordinate
their relationship. This interdependence is essentially a function of the fact that, for various
cost and technological reasons, the markets on either side of this exchange relationship are
highly restricted.
It might also be expected, however, that any efforts by A and B to co-ordinate the supply
network beyond their own relationship are likely to fail. The problem is that B has a
combination of dependence and independence in its relationship with C, depending on
which particular sub-assembly is being supplied.
The equipment assembler is dependent upon its supplier for those sub-assemblies that
exhibit a high degree of asset specificity (Williamson, 1985). An independent relationship
exists between B and C for those sub-assemblies that are generic and that are bought by a
wide range of customers from other industries. Moreover, even if C could be persuaded to
participate in SCM initiatives, its dependent and independent relationships with D and E
make it unlikely that these firms could be brought into the initiative.
The operation of this supply network is intimately linked to the price sensitivity of the
military end customer. The commercial problem for the tanker converter and, by extension,
the equipment assembler is that their revenues from in-flight re-fuelling equipment are at
61
Supply Chain Management
present restricted by the relatively high price of this product as compared with the ground-
based alternative.
An obvious solution to this problem, and one that has been championed by the Supply
Chain Relationships in Aerospace (SCRIA) initiative, is for the members of this supply network
to work more closely together to reduce costs and improve lead times. Logically, if such an
initiative was successful one might expect all, or at least most, members of the network to
benefit from a greater demand for their products.
Despite this seemingly flawless logic, however, the SCM efforts of both the tanker
converter and the equipment assembler have been focused solely on their own relationship.
In recent years there has been a number of joint initiatives aimed at reducing both costs
and lead times. These have focused both on the internal operations of the equipment
assembler and on the assemblers relationship with the tanker converter.
There is a limit, however, to the impact that these efforts can have on the total cost of
the equipment, because approximately 70 per cent of the unit cost lies in the sub-
assemblies and their constituent parts. Repeated efforts have been made by both the
assembler and the converter to involve the suppliers of various sub-assemblies in these
initiatives, but these appeals have fallen largely on deaf ears.
From the perspective of most of these sub-assemblers the expenditure of the equipment
assembler is of relatively little importance. Sales of these sub-assemblies to this particular
supply network are just a small portion of the business activities of what are generally very
large multinational engineering and electronics companies. Moreover, as we have noted, the
equipment assemblers demand for these sub-assemblies is relatively low and very irregular.
Consequently, the equipment assembler is considered by the sub-assemblers to be a
nuisance customer. According to the standard marketing literature a firm should give such
customers a low priority, even at the risk of losing their business.
The evidence presented here shows that several of the sub-assemblers in this supply
network have taken this advice to heart. A senior manager from the equipment assembler
reported that the sub-assemblers are very difficult to negotiate with, that they show little
interests in becoming involved in supply chain management initiatives and that, in some
cases, they insist on having lead times that are four or five times longer than those for which
the assembler has been asking.
CONCLUSIONS
internally within both the buying and supplying organizations in the chain
there must be managerial competence and understanding of SCM tools and
62
Is supply chain management feasible operationally?
Having outlined the salient factors that provide for the successful initiation of any
SCM initiative it is now necessary to explain how to make them work in practice, so
that the anticipated benefits in terms of sustained cost reductions and improvements
in functionality can be achieved. This is the subject matter of the final two chapters.
REFERENCES
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Supply Chain Management
64
4
Implementing supply chain
management initiatives
Introduction 67
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
INTRODUCTION
Supply chain management refers to a situation where the buyer (or the buyer and
its suppliers jointly) proactively seeks to drive performance improvement in value
for money throughout the totality of a supply chain. This co-ordination is
achieved through the development of longer-term and highly collaborative
working relationships between buyers and suppliers within the chain.
One of the key problems in successfully implementing SCM initiatives like this
is understanding exactly what the focus of activity is that all players in the supply
chain must be driving towards. Our research has demonstrated that there is often
significant misunderstanding during the implementation stage of SCM initiatives
about what the players in the chain should be focusing on, as well as how to do
so effectively.
It is clear, therefore, that one of the critical success factors in implementing SCM
initiatives is clarity about the competitive market and supply chain strategy being
pursued, and then the development of the requisite operational tools to implement
the strategy effectively.
In this chapter we address these issues in detail by first explaining the three
major competitive market and supply chain choices available to practitioners
involved in implementing SCM initiatives, and then outlining the major tools and
techniques available for effective implementation.
In the implementation phase, assuming that the strategic and operational enablers
discussed in Chapters 2 and 3 are already in place, SCM initiatives are normally
directed towards three major competitive market and supply chain strategic
objectives. These are outlined in Figure 4.1.
As the figure demonstrates, the three basic market and supply chain strategies
that can be pursued are as follows.
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Supply Chain Management
that customers receive from its market offerings and, by so doing, it expects to
close the market to its competitors and achieve higher than normal returns.
Obviously the speed with which competitors can replicate the innovations that are
made will determine the frequency and regularity with which these types of
innovation will have to recur.
Fig. 4.1 The three competitive market and supply chain strategy options
It is clear under this approach that cost reduction through the removal of
unnecessary waste and inefficiency in operational processes is not a key determinant
of competitive success. The reason for this is normally because the profit margins
that can be made from these types of products/services are relatively high, even
though they may (or may not) be short-lived, depending on the speed of competitive
imitation in both the market and the supply chain.
Market cost leadership, with supply chain process efficiency. This is sometimes
referred to in the literature as the functional or lean SCM approach (Womack and
Jones, 1996; Fisher, 1997). This approach implies that the competitive market
strategy of the focal company driving SCM initiatives is directed towards cost
leadership rather than differentiation. This normally suggests that technological
innovation for product or service differentiation is difficult to achieve and/or that
any innovations that can be made will be quickly replicated. This is because the
product or service is already well understood and many alternative companies can
provide it to the end customer.
In such circumstances the focal company must compete by providing the same
products or services but now at a lower cost than its competitors. The focal
company must now direct its efforts internally to the removal of all unnecessary
waste and inefficiency in its own internal processes.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
Market differentiation and cost leadership, with supply chain innovation and
process efficiency. In this final approach the focal company is directing the most
ambitious approach to competitive market and SCM strategy. This approach
focuses on both differentiation and cost leadership relative to competitors and, at
the same time, seeks to drive product/service innovation through the supply chain,
as well as internal and external process efficiency.
There is little doubt that this approach, which requires the fusion of two very
different ways of thinking about market and supply chain management strategy,
is rarely adopted in practice. The reason for this is because those companies
having the opportunity to differentiate their market offerings normally do not
need to pursue process efficiency strategies to generate above normal returns.
Thus, even though they could generate even more profit if they also developed
internal and external process efficiency strategies, most successful differentiating
companies do not see the need to do so.
It is interesting to note although much of the lean literature has focused
primarily on process efficiency improvements internally and externally within
supply chains that the original focus of Toyota (from which the lean ideas on
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Supply Chain Management
SCM have been developed) has always been focused on the development of both
differentiation and process improvement. The major problem for Toyota (and any
other car manufacturer for that matter) is that product differentiation is difficult
to sustain against competitive imitation in this industry, forcing the potential
innovator to fall back on to lean and efficient process efficiency in its supply
chains as the only mechanism by which to compete effectively.
It is interesting to remark on this because the basic approach of Toyota as a
company strategically has been to continuously pursue innovation and cost
reduction at the same time. This approach which we refer to as the customer-
focused market and SCM approach is not in our view the same as the lean
approach. This is because lean implies that the basic strategy of the focal company
will always be on process efficiency, internally and externally. There is some
debate about this because proponents of lean argue, quite correctly, that process
efficiency may also require difficult to replicate innovations in supply chain
processes, if not in the ultimate products or services being delivered.
Nevertheless, companies that seek to operate so that they pass all the value from
product/service innovations and from process efficiencies to the customer must learn
to develop a bifurcated approach to SCM. This is because they have to fuse process
efficiency and innovation strategies together, and this can be quite confusing for
suppliers as well as mangers to manage.
Whatever one thinks about these issues, it is transparently obvious that the
major problem facing any company that wishes to adopt SCM initiatives must be
to understand exactly which type of strategic and operational focus process
efficiency and/or innovation, or a combination of both it should be driving
through its supply chain relationships, as well as how to do so effectively.
This latter point is also of major significance because the ways in which suppliers
will need to be managed will also be a function of the power structures (regimes
and sub-regimes of power) that exist within particular supply chains. As a result,
there may well be circumstances when firms will need to operate a different
strategy in different parts of the same supply chain.
Managers must understand that there are three very different ways of developing
market and supply chain strategy. These can be defined as:
Continued
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
Managers must not only understand which of these three market and supply
chain strategies is the most appropriate to pursue, but also the specific tools
and techniques needed to implement any of these strategies effectively.
One of the most common mistakes managers make is to believe that their problems
are so unique that they require a unique solution. While any management solution
must be tailored to the firm(s) concerned, it is also the case that across firms and
industries there are many common sources of problems to which generic frameworks
can be applied. This is undoubtedly the case in the development of SCM strategies.
In order to understand whether an innovation or process efficiency approach is
to be adopted, it is first necessary to understand the structure of demand that drives
customer requirements (Fisher, 1997). There are three factors that practitioners
will need to consider once they have already ascertained that SCM initiatives are
strategically and operationally practical:
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Supply Chain Management
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Fisher, T. (1997) What is the right supply
chain for your product, Harvard Business Review, MarchApril, p. 107.
1997 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved.
Having identified the nature of demand for a product/service, the next task is to
consider the nature of supply chains. Supply chains fulfil two distinct functions:
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Fisher, T. (1997) What is the right supply
chain for your product, Harvard Business Review, MarchApril, p. 108.
1997 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved.
the costs associated with the physical function are the costs of production, the
costs of distribution and the costs of storage;
the costs associated with the market mediation function are what can be called
marketability costs. These are the costs of not being able to meet demand
stock out costs and the costs of holding obsolete stock (Harrison and van
Hoek, 2002).
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Supply Chain Management
A fuller description of the features of these two types of supply chain can be seen
in Figure 4.3. When the objective is physical efficiency, managers can work with
customers and suppliers on lean SCM strategies to remove waste from the supply
chain like excessive inventory or process duplication.
When the objective is market responsiveness, managers can work with customers
and suppliers on agile or responsive SCM strategies like reducing the time it takes
for the supply chain to get a new product or service into the marketplace by using
time compression tools and techniques.
The final part of this approach is to match products/services with supply chain
types. It can be argued that functional products should be produced through a
physically efficient and lean supply chain because the nature of the product/services
will normally mean a highly competitive end-market. Innovative products, on the
other hand, should be produced through an innovative or market-responsive
supply chain. In this type of market it will normally be possible to pass on to the
end-customer the costs associated with ensuring market-responsiveness as the
product will, initially, have no direct competition (Fisher, 1997).
The framework in Figure 4.4 allows managers to answer one of the key questions
that they must address for successful implementation of SCM initiatives, namely:
Does the product or service concerned require a supply chain management
strategy that is based on efficiency (lean) or responsiveness (innovation)?
Having answered this question, the next step is to understand more fully what
is required to develop these two types of supply chain effectively. To achieve this,
first the tools and techniques that have been developed to create physically
efficient supply chains will be outlined. These tools are aimed at reducing waste
in supply chains and are, perhaps, better known as lean supply tools and
techniques. Second, the tools and techniques that have been developed to create
market-responsive supply chains will be described. These tools are known as agile
supply tools and techniques.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
Functional Innovative
products products
Physically efficient
supply chain Match Mismatch
Market-responsive
supply chain Mismatch Match
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Fisher, T. (1997) What is the right supply
chain for your product, Harvard Business Review, MarchApril, p. 109.
1997 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved.
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Supply Chain Management
Over the past two decades, the level of competition in many business sectors has
increased significantly due to advancing technology and domestic and global
deregulation. For those working in the public sector, financial pressures have also
increased as governments around the world have sought to reduce government
expenditure. One response to such circumstances is an attempt to reduce internal
sources of waste in order to increase the efficiency of existing management processes.
When seeking to reduce waste in processes most organizations focus their
attention on their internal operations. However, although this internal focus is
necessary, it has been recognized that it may not be sufficient for success. Rather,
it has become clear that waste reduction initiatives must also focus on the supply
chain as whole.
This should not be surprising because IBM, for example, has 70 per cent of the
cost of the goods it sells outsourced to its suppliers. This means that IBM spends
around $40 billion with external suppliers (Fletcher, 2000). This is not untypical
in manufacturing firms, especially after a decade in which many firms have
pursued an aggressive outsourcing policy.
As a result, many practitioners have turned to waste reduction tools and techniques
in order to improve both internal and external process efficiency. The starting point
in understanding how to improve supply chain process efficiency is to understand the
different types of waste that need to be removed.
The Japanese word for waste is muda. Toyota identified seven different types of
muda in its production processes (Ohno, 1988; Hines et al., 2000):
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
high storage costs and inhibits the rapid identification of problems within the
chain. Holding high levels of inventory only serves to put off the day when the
chains problems are properly addressed.
Unnecessary motion. This waste is essentially related to the ergonomics of the
production process. Unnecessary motions can affect both the productivity and
the health of the worker and lead to quality problems.
Defects. This waste leads to additional costs through the need to undertake
remedial action or discard the defective products.
Having identified the different types of waste that can exist within production
processes and supply chains, it is now necessary to design a strategy to eliminate
it. This strategy can be based upon the principles of lean thinking, as follows
(Womack and Jones, 1996):
specify value from the customer perspective, not the perspective of any of the
supply chain participants;
identify the value stream that delivers the value proposition to the customer;
identify those activities within the value stream that add-value, are non-value-
adding but necessary or are non-value-adding;
make those actions that create value flow without interruptions or impediments;
only make what is pulled by the customer. The value stream should be operating
a just-in-time pull system, rather than a producer-focused push system;
create transparency of strategies and costs within the supply chain. The issue of
competitive advantage must be understood at a supply chain level rather than
at the individual firm level;
constantly pursue perfection the process of reducing waste never ends.
In the rest of this section each of these principles is explained in more detail to
show how waste reduction can be achieved in practice. The place to start is with
the customer.
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Supply Chain Management
In the case of the manufacturing function, targets are often focused on machine
and employee utilization. As a result, many firms manufacture goods that, at that
time, are not demanded by any customer. Although the manufacturing manager
will not be simply making products at random, the result may still be a stock of
finished goods or components that may never be sold.
This approach is anathema to lean thinking. In a lean manufacturing environment
business decisions are customer driven, not undertaken for the convenience of
manufacturing or any other business unit within the business or supply chain. The
whole of the supply chain responds to the requirements of the customer and tries to
satisfy that end customer demand in the most efficient manner possible.
Having identified the customers value proposition, the supply chain participants
can then focus on how to deliver that value proposition most efficiently. The
starting point for this is to understand what is happening at the moment the
current state. A useful way of doing this is to map all the processes necessary to
deliver the product or service to the customer. It is recommended that this be done
in two stages.
First, managers need to map the supply chain (or value stream) descriptively. This
overview is meant to highlight, at a high level, the main areas that require attention.
This type of mapping is often called big picture mapping (Rother and Shook, 1998).
The second stage is much more detailed. Here individual processes identified within
the value stream are broken down to a level that records each individual activity.
These activities are mapped as a process flow. This more detailed form of mapping
is often called process activity mapping (Hines and Rich, 1997).
In Figure 4.5 an example is given of big picture mapping that contains:
to help managers visualize the overall flow of the chain from raw materials
to finished goods;
to help managers identify the main areas of waste that require attention;
to allow managers to agree a way forward, both in terms of what to do and
who should be involved.
78
Fig. 4.5 An example of big picture mapping
Long-term 26 3 20 Long-term
forecast hours hours hours forecast Customer
Supplier
Weekly
schedule
Box size = Weekly order Variable
Material Manufacture Customer (daily call-off) quantity
800
Daily planning planning schedule
expedites 2 days stock
Shortages
x2
weekly
Q Daily priorities x 5 daily
shop floor supervision shipments
Shortages Rework
loops
Rejects
?
Q Q Q Q Q Q
I I I 100% I I 100% I I 100% I 100% I
Variable 3 Days Variable Variable Variable Managed Variable Variable
Material Material Vacqua Wash and Honing and Pack and
Pollard Assembly Test
receipt inspect blast lubrite wash despatch
Random Supplier 160/hour Trolley=160 Bin size=4000 Trolley=240 Trolley=240 3 min cycle 4.30 daily
arrival confidence
low Plan to Rate=160/90min Target rate= Target Target Rate=180/hour Own transport
eliminate? 120/hour rate=160/hour rate=122/hour
45min/batch 10% retest Returnable
Variable batch Variable batch Variable batch packaging
Up-time 80% 3% rejects
Up-time 85% Up-time 95% Up-time 95% Multiples of
pack quantity
1 shift 3 shifts
3 shifts 3 shifts 3 shifts
Having identified the main problem areas in the big picture mapping exercise,
managers have to resolve them. Some of the problems in the value stream will be
of a macro nature. There may be obvious flaws in the operations layout, for
example. Other problems, however, will require more detailed attention. This is
where process activity mapping comes into play. When using this tool, managers
select a process in the value stream that appears to be weak and map the
individual activities in the process in detail.
An example of the level of detail required is shown in Figure 4.6. The focus here
has changed to individual parts of the value stream and the minutiae of activities
involved therein. There are five stages to process activity mapping from the initial
identification of activities to their reconfiguration (Hines and Rich, 1997):
the study of the flow of activities there are four types of activity: operation,
transport, inspection and storage;
the identification of waste the activities are divided into value-adding (in terms
of the customer value proposition), non-value-adding and non-value adding but
necessary for operational sustainability;
a consideration of whether the process can be rearranged into a more efficient
sequence;
a consideration of a better flow pattern involving different flow layout or
transportation routing;
a consideration of whether everything that is being done at each process is
really necessary and what would happen if superfluous tasks were removed.
Taken together, these two mapping tools allow managers to understand where
there is waste and inefficiency in their value stream or supply chain. However,
there are other tools that can be used that also focus in more detail on the
identification of the seven supply chain wastes (Hines et al., 2000). These are:
The supply chain response matrix. This tool provides a diagrammatic representation
of the cumulative lead-time required for a particular process, as well as how much
cumulative inventory is held in the process.
The production variety funnel. This tool provides mangers with a descriptive flow
map of the production supply chain from raw materials to end product presented
in a way that allows them to understand the similarities and dissimilarities
between different types of production process and supply chain. Some have
limited raw materials with many products (V plants); some have the same raw
materials and same products (I plants); some have a wide range of products
manufactured from a restricted range of sub-components (T plants); and, others
have many raw materials with limited products (A plants).
80
Fig. 4.6 An example of process activity mapping
Quality filter mapping. This tool enables managers to identify whether they have
any of three different types of quality problem in their supply chains and production
processes. These are: product defects; service defects; and internal scrap.
Demand amplification mapping. This tool allows the manager to understand the
mismatch between actual demand (often sales) against the orders placed within
the supply chain between buyers and suppliers and the actual production of goods
and services that is either held as inventory or unconsummated demand. This tool
allows mangers to identify what is called the Forrester Effect so that the gap
between actual and planned activities can be understood to see if anything can be
done to eradicate excess or inadequate orders or excess or inadequate stocks.
Decision point analysis. This tool allows mangers to understand the point within
the production process or supply chain that actual demand-pull gives way to
forecast driven push. In other words it explains where products are being made,
not against actual sales but on the basis of forecasts about potential sales.
Knowing this is important, because it allows managers to develop future scenario
plans about moving the decision point to see if a more efficient and effective
supply chain can be constructed with less waste.
Physical structure mapping. This tool is used to analyze and describe the structure
of the industry in which a firm is operating. It normally involves description of
two structural elements: cost and volume. The aim is to determine whether there
may be ways of restructuring the industry in such a way that unnecessary waste
and inefficiencies can be eradicated.
It is worth stressing that all the tools outlined here may be of useful
heuristic value for managers in understanding what is happening in an
industry, in a supply chain and/or in a company.
But while it is one thing to understand what causes waste and inefficiency,
it is altogether another thing to be in a position to restructure buyer and
supplier relationships within an industry and supply chain so that
unnecessary waste and inefficiency can be eradicated.
That is why attention to the structures of internal and external power in
business relationships is always of equal, if not more, importance in first
defining and, then, effectively implementing market and SCM strategies.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
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Supply Chain Management
The ultimate aim of a JIT system is single piece flow. This refers to a situation
when the production process is so efficient and flexible that it is able to pull
through from production a customers demand for a single item. This is an ideal
but the identification of an ideal provides direction to managerial efforts to create
a more lean production system.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
Pursue perfection
The struggle to reduce waste never ends. As new technology emerges, new
efficiencies and new ways of organizing processes become possible. A lean system
is based therefore on the principle of never-ending continuous improvement.
For a physically efficient supply chain to be created it requires that the participants
in that chain work together. In particular, there is a requirement that supply chain
participants should share the same objectives. In this section the nature of
collaborative relationships is explored from a lean perspective directed towards the
creation of a physically efficient supply chain.
First, we look at how a buyer and a supplier can collaborate to create a system
of vendor-managed inventory. Second, we look at how a number of supply chain
participants can come together to form a supplier association.
There are many interpretations of what constitutes a collaborative relationship.
Perhaps the most helpful contribution has come from Cannon and Perrault
(1999). They argue that buyersupplier relationships consist of four elements:
Operational linkages. The second element refers to a situation where the systems,
procedures and routines of the buyer and supplier are, to a lesser or greater extent,
linked to facilitate the flow of goods, services or information. These linkages can
operate across many participants within the chain.
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Supply Chain Management
Co-operative norms. The third element refers to the terms of engagement that are
developed by a buyer and a supplier. It is important in a collaborative relationship
for the two parties to work out an agreed set of expectations about how each of
the two parties should behave in the relationship. The two (or more) parties can
also establish rules and systems for dealing with any problems that might arise
during the relationship.
Having the supplier take the decision on replenishment aims to minimize the
impact of demand amplification. This critical problem erodes customer
service, loses sales and increases costs. The ability to dampen demand
amplification caused by infrequent, large orders from customers is key to the
success of VMI. The surplus capacity and excess finished goods held by
suppliers to counteract such variation can then be reduced.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
When working upon specific projects, the supplier association will use lean tools and
techniques. Therefore, a supplier association could undertake big picture mapping,
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Supply Chain Management
or focus on a specific process using the process activity-mapping tool. Other meetings
will commonly concern quality problems or other pressing concerns of the time.
When the demand for a product is relatively stable, firms within the supply chain are
at a relatively low risk of incurring high marketability costs those costs associated
with missing fleeting sales opportunities and being left with obsolete or cut-price
stock. As a result, firms in such supply chains can focus on reducing the physical costs
being incurred within the chain i.e. production, distribution and storage.
To achieve these cost reducing and physical process improvements the principles
of lean thinking would normally be utilized. These principles start with customer
need and, through the development of a pull production system, point the way to
the gradual reduction of the seven supply chain wastes.
Being successful in reducing waste is obviously critical in those markets and
supply chains where excess costs cannot be passed onto the end-customer because
of the intensity of competition. In such circumstances cost leadership strategies
may dictate the need, not only for internal cost reduction and process efficiency
initiatives but also for their extension throughout the supply chains that support
the focal companys activities.
It goes without saying that, as we discussed in some detail in Chapters 2 and 3,
these initiatives cannot be undertaken unless there is an internal and external power
structure conducive to successful implementation. Even though it may be necessary
in practice to pursue cost leadership through process efficiency in the supply chain,
when there is a non-supportive internal and external power environment then it may
be wisest for practitioners not to bother at all.
If the internal and external power structures are conducive, then cost leadership
and process efficiency initiatives may provide some temporary advantage to a first
mover and we would recommend that practitioners pursue such opportunities
aggressively whenever they exist.
For many practitioners it may also be necessary, when the internal and external
power structures are conducive, to pursue such a strategy even when they are
playing catch-up with the current innovator in process efficiency and cost
reduction. This is because if they do not, they may find that they are not able to
compete at all. Many car companies have found themselves playing catch-up to
Toyota in this regard in the past.
However, not all supply chains are characterized by the type of stable demand
that is normally found when functional products are being produced in normally
highly contested markets with many potential customers and suppliers. Demand in
some supply chains is volatile and there are sometimes opportunities for suppliers
to innovate in ways that provide for significant short-term competitive advantages.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
On some occasions, even when firms are managing innovative goods, addressing
both of these two costs will not be in conflict. However, on some occasions there
will be a very real conflict. This is because any efforts made to reduce the physical
costs in the chain (for example, by reducing inventory) might significantly reduce
the responsiveness of the chain to market demand. In this way the strategy might
increase the marketability costs incurred by the chain.
When firms are managing innovative products, the main risks lie with
marketability costs. If the customers demand is volatile and provides the supply
chain with only a small window of opportunity to sell a certain product, or
version of a product, all the efforts of the supply chain need to be focused on
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Supply Chain Management
ensuring that the window of opportunity is not missed. This is not least because
of the high profit margins that are often only temporarily available.
It needs to be remembered that the reason why the reduction of physical costs
is so important to the management of functional products is that the end markets
for such products are usually highly competitive. This means that profits in such
markets will tend towards zero. Firms cannot pass additional cost on to the
end-customer because the end-customer is price-sensitive.
The markets for innovative products are very different. By their very nature,
innovative products do not have competitors and so are able to command a
premium. But, given the volatility of demand, the strategic window of opportunity
is small. In such circumstances it could, therefore, be beneficial to incur extra
physical costs in order to avoid incurring potentially punitive marketability costs.
The ability to create a supply chain that is innovative and able to respond quickly to
volatile customer demand has become known as agility. Agility has been described as
a business-wide capability that embraces organizational structures, information
systems, logistics processes and, in particular, mindsets. (Christopher, 2000, p. 37).
The concept originally emerged out of work undertaken into flexible manufacturing
systems. In this section the way in which an innovative, market-responsive (agile) SCM
approach can be created is outlined.
uncertainty reduction;
uncertainty avoidance;
hedging against uncertainty.
Uncertainty reduction
Managers can reduce uncertainty by finding new sources of information about
customer demand. The more the supply chain can operate on the basis of actual
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
demand rather than forecasts, the greater the scope for creating agility. The key
here is that the demand information is shared with the whole supply chain and
pushed up the supply chain as far as possible. This will allow the inventory in the
chain to be held in a generic form rather than in the form of finished goods.
To understand how this works we need to consider the concept of the de-coupling
point. The de-coupling point is the point at which real demand penetrates upstream
in a supply chain (Christopher, 2000).
If demand information penetrates right up to the point of manufacture, then
inventory can be held in the form of generic components or raw materials. If, on
the other hand, demand is only visible at the end of the chain, close to the end-
customer, then the inventory will have to be held in the form of finished goods.
As one proponent of agile has noted: The aim of the agile supply chain should
be to carry inventory in a generic form that is, standard semi-finished products
awaiting final assembly or localization. (Christopher, 2000).
The practice of holding inventory in this form, only undertaking final assembly
when the specific customer demand is known, is referred to as postponement.
The practice of postponement also requires a second uncertainty reduction tactic.
This is a product design strategy based upon simplification and modularization.
Firms can reduce uncertainty if they design products so that they share common
components, thus making the demand for those products more predictable.
Given the importance of information for uncertainty reduction, it goes without
saying that information technology plays a critical role in this supply chain
integration strategy. Whilst firms have for some time used EDI, the advent of the
Internet in the 1990s has potentially reduced the costs of linking firms in the
supply chain. It is now possible, therefore, for firms within the supply chain to
obtain information like Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS) data.
Uncertainty avoidance
A second strategy for responding to uncertainty is avoidance. The supply chain
can avoid uncertainty by reducing lead times and increasing flexibility. This will
lead to avoidance as reduced lead times and increased flexibility will allow the
supply chain to produce to order or, at the very least, produce at a time when
demand can be forecast more accurately (Fisher, 1997). Mason-Jones and Towill
(1999) have identified four ways in which lead times can be reduced. These are
shown in Figure 4.7.
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Supply Chain Management
means the holding of inventory. Where the inventory will be held will depend on
the quality of the demand information that is held by the supply chain (see above).
The holding of inventory will act as a buffer against the remaining unpredictability.
Source: Reprinted from Mason-Jones, R. and Towill, D. (1999) Total cycle time compression and the agile
supply chain, International Journal of Production Economics (62) p. 65.
Another way in which the agile supply chain can hedge against uncertainty is by
holding excess capacity. Firms within the supply chain, rather than placing orders,
will reserve capacity with suppliers within the chain. How this capacity is utilized
will depend on the demand information that is received at a later date.
It can be seen from the discussion of the three factors outlined previously that an
innovative and market responsive SCM approach will largely be dictated by the
scale and frequency of the demand signals emanating from customers. Often the
agile approach is required operationally because the supplier, and the supply chain
supporting this focal company, is unable to predict demand signals with sufficient
scale and volume to be able to engineer a continuous process for supply chain cost
reduction and efficiency. In such circumstances operational reality imposes agility
on the players in the supply chain.
But there is another dimension altogether when one thinks about a market
responsive supply chain. This is the strategic dimension associated with innovation
around the utility functions that customers use when deciding to purchase any
good or service. To be truly successful strategically, companies must innovate in
terms of the functionality (quality and service levels) of the goods and services they
provide to customers, as well as the costs of delivery.
The agile approach outlined above explains how SCM strategies can be
constructed in an environment where there is significant uncertainty about when,
and in what form, any goods and services will be required by the customer. In this
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As we discussed earlier most SCM literature focuses primarily on the debate between
lean and agile approaches. It is our view, however, that there is an ideal situation that
all companies should aspire to, but which few appear to even understand.
This ideal state is the ability to differentiate and to pursue cost leadership
simultaneously in the marketplace. In seeking to achieve this it is also essential for
the focal company to seek whenever internal and external power structures
permit to achieve innovation, well as process efficiency, in their supply chains.
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This is because even a company able to sustain differentiation and achieve higher
than normal returns would make higher profits if it were able to continuously
reduce its costs of ownership through process efficiencies.
Given that few companies appear to be able to understand when, and how, to
adopt either lean or agile SCM strategies, it is no surprise that there are even fewer
companies that have the capability to undertake the complex task of managing
these very different SCM approaches simultaneously.
It is worth stressing, however, that when Toyota initially developed its production
and supply management system it did so in an attempt to undertake both tasks.
Indeed, the Toyota model was always based on the idea that its products should be:
The Car in Front to quote one of their famous advertising slogans.
This implies that Toyotas business model was based on passing value to the
customer by focusing on innovation in product and service functionality. In this
way Toyotas competitive market positioning strategy was always to provide the
customer with more value for money (quality and service), while at the same time
reducing cost on a continuous basis. To achieve this given that it was heavily
outsourced for the delivery of the product Toyota also had to drive this twin-
track approach of product and process innovation down its supply chains on a
continuous basis.
This is not the same as saying that Toyota simply tries to take cost out if its
processes, which is the somewhat mistaken impression that has been developed
about both the Toyota model and its approach to SCM by the proponents of the
lean school. By choosing the concept lean to describe the Toyota model, we
believe that Womack and Jones have led far too many practitioners to believe that
SCM is focused on nothing more than operational efficiency and that reducing
process costs is the be all and end all of supply chain management thinking.
Clearly, as we have argued here, this is far from the case. It is due to Toyota that
most of us drive better cars than we ever did in the past, and at a lower cost of
ownership. This could not have been achieved merely by focusing on process
innovations directed at efficiency and cost reduction. On the contrary, Toyota and
their emulators in the car industry have been competing not just on cost
leadership but also on improvements in the functionality (higher quality and
service levels) of the finished product.
In other words the functionality experienced by the end-customer has been
increased as a result of product and service innovation, while the total cost of
ownership has been reduced as well by process innovation. This demonstrates clearly
that Toyota has always pursued a bifurcated competitive market and SCM strategy.
The problem for Toyota has been, however, that its ability to create sustainable
differentiation has been limited due to the ease with which its direct competitors
have been able to replicate both its product and service, as well as its process,
innovations. This does not mean that Toyota has been wrong to pursue a combined
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The true test of competence in SCM is the ability to understand the difference
between cost leadership and process efficiency strategies, and those focused
on differentiation through innovation and market responsiveness.
Beyond this distinction competence also requires that the manager is able to
understand when either approach is necessary and how to implement each
one effectively.
The most capable managers and companies are those who are able to manage
both types of strategy at the same time.
A simple operational example can illustrate how there is often a need for a
bifurcated approach even within the same supply chain. To understand this we
need to recognize that within supply chains there is often a de-coupling point.
Before that point production will be based upon forecasts about anticipated
demand. After that point it will be based upon real or effective demand.
The further effective demand information penetrates up the supply chain
towards raw materials, the more it is possible for players at each stage in the chain
to hold inventory in the form of generic components because they have certainty
about demand signals. For the production of these generic components it is
obvious that a lean approach can be adopted. For the tasks after the de-coupling
point, when players have to rely on anticipated demand, it is likely that a more
agile approach may be necessary. This is because there is far less certainty about
demand signals for the players at this point in the chain.
This bifurcated strategy has been adopted by Hewlett-Packard to customize its
products as late as possible. For example, its basic printer is made in a generic
form using lean methods. The customization of this basic model is then undertaken
using agile methods, once the actual demand for the specific product has been
received from the customer (Harrison and van Hoek, 2002).
There are two other ways by which managers can combine these two SCM
strategies. The first method is through the adoption of the Pareto Curve Approach.
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Implementing supply chain management initiatives
The product range within many firms will obey the Pareto 80:20 rule that is 20
per cent of the products account for 80 per cent of the firms turnover. Under these
circumstances, managers may wish to manage the high volume products using a
lean approach and the low volume products using an agile approach.
The second method is the Base and Surge Approach. Under this approach the two
strategies can be used operationally to cope with surges in demand. The base demand
that is steady throughout the year is dealt with using the lean approach; whereas the
surge demand is dealt with using agile methods (Harrison and van Hoek, 2002).
97
Fig. 4.8 Understanding the scope for successful implementation of market and SCM strategies
REFERENCES
99
5
Software and Internet tools
for effective supply chain
management
Introduction 103
References 120
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Software and Internet tools for effective SCM
INTRODUCTION
In this final chapter the scope for software and Internet-based tools to assist with
the effective implementation of SCM initiatives is discussed. The chapter provides
an initial theoretical discussion of the ways in which software and Internet tools
can impact upon SCM initiatives, as well as providing a summary overview of
some of the major software and Internet-based tools available. A final section
provides a decision-making framework to allow managers to understand whether
software and Internet-based applications will be beneficial in implementing
particular types of SCM initiatives.
The discussion demonstrates that, while there are some tools that may assist
SCM initiatives, many of the current tools available are not necessarily directly
relevant. Furthermore, those that are relevant tend to assist primarily with process
efficiency initiatives associated with the eradication of waste resulting from poor
information flow.
The first question that a practitioner must ask when considering the relative utility of
any software or Internet tool for SCM initiatives concerns the purpose of the SCM
initiative itself. This is an important question because there has been tremendous
hype in recent years (not least from potential application providers) about how the
Internet and software applications will enable companies to optimize the efficiency
of their supply chains.
At the outset, therefore, it is imperative that we understand theoretically and
practically what any SCM initiative is seeking to achieve, and only then consider
the ways in which any software and Internet based tools can assist with such
initiatives. As we saw earlier, SCM initiatives can be focused on three very different
(if sometimes inter-related) areas:
1 Process efficiency to reduce costs in the delivery of existing goods and services.
2 Innovations to change the functionality of the goods and services produced.
3 Achievement of both these desired outcomes at the same time.
It is clear, therefore, that at the outset practitioners must be sure about the real
purpose of any SCM initiative and fundamentally understand how any particular
software or Internet-based tool will, or will not, assist with the delivery of any
specifically desired outcome.
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A few theoretical examples may serve to explain this point. We look at two
hypothetical examples here: a process efficiency case study and a product/service
innovation case study.
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The buyer of software and Internet-based tools must, therefore, think carefully
about exit from existing applications over the long term and not just focus on the
immediate short-term benefits that can be achieved from the initial optimisation
of SCM process efficiencies. If they do not, then they may find later that they are
in a sub-optimal supply chain relationship. The problem of power must be
considered carefully here and must always be factored into any specific supply
chain software and Internet-based sourcing decision.
Nevertheless there definitely appear to be some circumstances in process-
efficiency SCM initiatives when software and Internet-based tools will provide
significant benefits. The benefits from types of these applications are perhaps less
apparent when one considers product/service innovation SCM initiatives.
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It follows from this discussion that all that glitters is not gold when it comes to
the relative utility of software and Internet-based tools and techniques. Sometimes
the tools will help and sometimes they will not. The task for managers is to know
which tools are available and to understand whether they can assist them with
their SCM initiatives. In the next section we describe and analyze some of the
major SCM and e-sourcing tools currently available on the market.
There are essentially four major elements in the e-sourcing software industry.
ERP software
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procurement of inputs (the supply-side). It is also the ultimate tool for allocating
scarce resources. Using ERP, a company can create a new information foundation
(that is organized, consistent, codified and standardized) by replacing the existing
diverse legacy systems.
ERP software tools took the concepts of MRP (Materials Requirement
Planning) and attempted to integrate other departments and functions that were
outside the manufacturing-planning arena but were still related. Essentially, ERP
systems are the software infrastructure that facilitates the flow of information
between all functions in a company (e.g., manufacturing, finance, HR, sales and
marketing, logistics and procurement).
When combined with Internet-based technology, the companys internal
information infrastructure can also be extended into the external environment.
The internal and external processes that require the efficient flow of information
within the supply chain are shown in Figure 5.1.
ERP systems can be visualized as huge database applications for storing transaction
data driven by software that connects the components of the company. When data
becomes available at one point in the business, it courses its way through the
software, which automatically calculates the effect of the transaction on other
areas such as manufacturing, inventory, logistics, procurement, invoicing and
booking the sale to the financial ledger.
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For example, when the sales department receives an order, it enters the order into
a computer. This should then generate either an order in the shipping department (if
there are stocks) or in the manufacturing department so that it can be produced.
This may require the ordering of specific inputs from suppliers through the
procurement department. Additionally, each step to the receipt of revenues from the
customer has accounting implications (e.g., debit the accounts receivable account).
ERP deals with a highly complex problem organizing and executing the millions
of transactions that are required to efficiently operate a modern business. ERP
software companies see sourcing as a data processing and database management
problem, not as a mathematical modelling and supply chain optimization problem.
However, while these systems are not oriented towards problem solving, ERP
vendors have purchased vendors in the other markets to provide modelling/solving
capabilities.
ERP software companies are very well known. The industry is led by SAP AG and
Oracle two of the worlds largest software companies and also includes Baan,
PeopleSoft and JD Edwards. This market plays host to about 60 other suppliers.
Despite the power of the leading players, the intensity of competition is forcing ERP
software companies to rethink their products role within the organization. They are
seeking ways to broaden functionality by incorporating front-end technology, to
create trading communities through portals and to forge collaborative associations
with Internet-based technology and other suppliers.
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internal and external supply chain operations. As a result of the growing market,
the leading ERP software suppliers have developed SCM tools to add functionality
to their well-established offerings.
Optimization tools
Analysis tools
The final set of tools have very few interactions with the tools discussed previously.
They are used largely for analysis and understanding of system dynamics, or as
strategic design tools. Like optimization tools, they rely on complex mathematical
techniques.
Conclusion
The previous discussion has demonstrated that while there are four distinct types
of e-sourcing software that all claim to do supply chain analysis and optimization,
it is clear that the companies operating in these different categories and their tools
do remarkably different things. This same logic applies when we consider the
major tools developed as Internet-based solutions.
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co-ordination expand the operational and strategic options available to firms in the
area of sourcing in general and SCM specifically.
Even with the caveats introduced in our earlier discussion, the benefits of the use
of e-applications in the field of sourcing and SCM can be multi-dimensional. In
addition to improving the quality of information flows and speeding up
communication between buyers and their suppliers at all stages of the supply
chain, their use may also lead to lower transaction costs, lower purchase prices,
increased levels of service, enhanced asset productivity, reduced logistics costs and
increased operational flexibility in terms of delivery and response time.
Until the advent of the Internet, the ability of firms to achieve these goals was
limited, since the communication and knowledge links in the existing supply chains
did not bring together all the key databases. Also, there was, and in some cases still
is, justifiable reluctance on the part of firms in the supply chain to share data with
each other. This hesitancy is due to a variety of factors, including the perceived
threat of giving away competitive advantage to other firms, the sharing of sensitive
information such as inventory levels and production schedules with other channel
members and the potential of losing customers to other competitors.
Figure 5.2 shows the impact that e-applications and the Internet can have on the
key internal and external information and process flows within the organization,
but only when a company has decided that the benefits of e-Enablement far
outweigh the risks that may occur from implementation.
Fig. 5.2 The e-enabled internal and external enterprise process flows
Customer forecast Planning processes (including demand and supply forecasting) Forecast requirements
Order capture
Customer orders process
Procurement and Procurement
sourcing process requirements
CRM and
eCommerce eProcurement
After sales and
Returns and repairs support process ePurchasing eContracting
eDesign
Design Design
requirements requirements
Support processes
(including design, finance, etc.)
Invoices and
Invoices and payments payments
ERP system
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To understand how the Internet provides additional sourcing and SCM tools, we
discuss potential applications in five major areas:
procurement;
inventory management;
transportation planning;
customer services;
production scheduling.
The use of the Internet for purchasing has developed rapidly over the last ten years.
It has fundamentally streamlined the function and is now used for a variety of key
purchasing activities including communication with suppliers, checking and
comparing supplier price quotes and making purchases from suppliers catalogues.
General Electric, for example, has reduced its purchasing staff by more than 50 per
cent and permits on-line purchasing from supplier catalogues by each department.
The paperwork flows have been reduced, and order-cycle times the time from when
the order is purchased to the time it is delivered to the company has decreased by
40 per cent.
Arguably the most popular use of the Internet within the procurement department
is in e-applications that facilitate order placement, approval and order status.
Indeed, e-Requisitioning has dramatically reduced the costs of order processing,
which before the Internet accounted for approximately 1820 per cent of the total
cost of managing a supplier relationship. A major component of this cost saving is
the reduction of paperwork involved in traditional order processing systems.
Another advantage of the Internet in order processing is the speed and accuracy
at which orders can be processed. The reduction in order-cycle time has been
reduced by as much as 50 per cent. Errors can now be detected more easily (e.g.,
through out-of-stock notifications) and corrected more quickly (e.g., through the
efficient handling of returned goods).
The Internet has also proven itself to be an important tool for communicating
and negotiating with suppliers. Face-to-face negotiations are not used as
frequently because the negotiations can be effectively conducted through the
Internet. E-Procurement, e-Contracting and e-Auction applications have all been
found to be beneficial in aspects of the buyersupplier bargaining process.
Another important factor in supplier relations is the ability of a buyer to rate and
compare the performance of its suppliers, based on the key elements agreed to in
their negotiated contracts. Inherent within many e-Procurement applications, the
benefits of these evaluating systems improve the overall quality of supplier
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Much of the confusion amongst practitioners about the strengths and weaknesses of
these applications stems from the fact that few of the companies offering solutions
categorize themselves so neatly. For example, e-Marketplace makers frequently sell
themselves as providers of hosted e-Procurement software. Another source of
confusion is that some application providers may have started operations in one
segment of the market and have now moved into another with some becoming
more precisely focused, and others becoming less so.
The primary task for managers is to understand in detail what the strengths and
weaknesses are of these particular applications (which tend to deal primarily with
the dyadic buyersupplier exchange relationship rather than with the total supply
chain that may need to be managed) and how (given this) any of them can assist
with the development of a particular type of SCM initiative. We discuss how
practitioners may begin to think about this issue in a structured way for all of
their potential applications in the final section of this chapter.
One of the most costly aspects within supply chains is the management of inventory.
These costs can potentially be reduced by the effective use of the Internet to inform
relevant parties when problems with stock availability may arise. Through the use
of e-fulfilment applications, firms are able to inform their suppliers that raw
material inventory levels are low, or inform their customers that finished product
inventory levels are low.
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The Internet has also enabled companies to institute EDI programs with their
customers more quickly. Prior to the development of the Internet, EDI took
considerable time to implement in a supply chain. In addition, each player had to
invest heavily in IT, software and training before EDI systems could be made
operational. Since the introduction of the Internet, EDI systems (and their JIT
counterparts) can be developed and put into operation more quickly.
The Internet potentially provides mangers with the opportunity to improve the
quality and speed of information available for inventory management so that
inventory levels are kept low, overall holding costs are reduced, while still
providing high levels of customer service.
General Electric, in its appliance division, uses the Internet to schedule shipments
out of centrally located warehouses in metropolitan areas. The goal is to allow
the company to deliver its products on time and more cost effectively. The
numbers of deliveries per hour has increased significantly while transportation
costs per order have dropped dramatically.
The Ford Motor Company uses the Internet to track small quantities of spare
parts shipped to customers on a daily basis.
PPG Industries, Inc. utilizes the Internet to monitor the weekly route performance
of carriers from its main production plants. The company also uses the Internet
to track long-haul deliveries across the country.
Air Products and Chemicals Inc. uses the Internet in its global sourcing process.
The Internet informs the firm of which delivery terminal and which plant is the
best for servicing the customer.
Weyerhauser uses the Internet to monitor vessel-shipping while taking into
consideration the stop-off costs for the sites.
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An important function that the Internet can offer a firm is the creation and
maintenance of excellent relationships with its customers. The Internet has provided
customers with another way to contact the firm regarding service issues. Companies
may use the Internet to receive customer complaints, emergency notifications and
provide customers with 24-hour access to a companys service department, enabling
customers to notify companies immediately of any service issues or problems that
may arise. The overall effect can be reduced response times and rapid resolution of
customer service problems.
The Internet can also improve the two-way flow of communication between firms
and their customers. Companies are using the Internet not only for service issues but
also for selling their products and services as well. This two-way communication
capability can have a profound effect on cementing customerfirm relationships.
Experience with Internet service systems shows that those customers whose service
issues are dealt with quickly, and to their satisfaction, are more likely to purchase
the firms products again. The Internet can build strong product and service loyalty
if used appropriately in the customer service area.
Production scheduling has traditionally been one of the most difficult problems in
SCM initiatives. The reasons for this include:
The Internet can help firms to minimize these difficulties in their production
scheduling by improving the information flow and communication between
suppliers and buyers at all stages of the supply chain. Indeed, firms may use the
Internet to co-ordinate their JIT programmes and co-ordinate their production
schedules with their suppliers.
While the issue of customer demand analysis using the Internet is not discussed
directly here, the application of the Internet to order processing (by linking EPOS
data with production scheduling) provides firms with real-time information on the
sales of their products and services. This can result in more accurate sales forecasting,
which in turn can significantly improve production and inventory scheduling.
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Clearly, there is tremendous noise (or lack of clarity about means and ends) in
the sourcing area around software and Internet-based tools. The reason for this
noise is simple enough to understand. Many practitioners are operating with
bounded rationality. This simply means that they do not fully understand the
utility of particular applications for the specific sourcing and SCM initiatives that
they are attempting to implement, nor do they understand the technology and its
implications for their own legacy-based IT systems and processes. In addition they
do not understand the change management costs over the long term that will need
to be incurred to implement many of the software and Internet solutions being
offered to them (Cox et al., 2001).
Despite this, as we have shown above, there is considerable evidence that the
judicious use of software and Internet-based applications can have a significant
impact on some sourcing and SCM initiatives. The key task for practitioners,
therefore, must be to understand whether any particular applications will materially
assist the development of their sourcing and SCM initiatives.
To assist practitioners in their task of understanding the costs and benefits of
particular software and Internet-based applications for their SCM initiatives we
provide a decision-making framework in Figure 5.3. We have found this framework
to be of value when working with companies that have had to understand whether
particular applications can provide them with significant benefits.
B D
A C
High
Impact on process
efficiency and
reduction in
transaction costs
Low
F H High
t/
uc
E G Low p rod tion
n va
t o no
Low High p ac e in
Im rvic
Impact on reliability and quality of se
information flow
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Software and Internet tools for effective SCM
As can be seen from Figure 5.3, when thinking about the utility of particular
software and Internet-based applications, it is essential for companies to understand
the impact of an application on three major variables:
Clearly any application may have a high or low impact on any of these variables,
but the way these three variables interact will provide an early indication for which
type of sourcing and SCM initiatives the application may be best suited. This is
indicated below with reference to the eight scenarios AH outlined in Figure 5.3.
Scenario B. In this scenario there is high impact in both the process efficiency/cost
reduction and in the product/service innovation areas but low impact on the quality
of information flow. This implies that applications in this area may be of some value
for differentiation/innovation strategies, as well as for cost leadership/ process
efficiency strategies, but they will not be as potentially valuable as those applications
in Scenario D (for all strategies) or in Scenario C (for cost leadership/ process
efficiency strategies) or Scenario H (for differentiation/ innovation strategies).
Scenario C. In this scenario there is a high impact on process efficiency and cost
reduction opportunities and a high impact on the quality and reliability of
information flow, but a low impact on product and service innovation. This
implies that this type of application will be of significant benefit for a cost
leadership/process efficiency initiative, and it may also be of value for a market
responsive differentiation strategy. It is, however, unlikely to be of much value for
an R&D product/service innovation strategy.
Scenario D. In this scenario an application has a high impact in all three areas.
This implies that it must be the most valuable application whether for cost
leadership/process efficiency or for differentiation/innovation SCM initiatives, as
well as for bifurcated strategies.
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Scenario E. In this scenario the impact is low in all areas of potential benefit. This
would imply that the application is of little value for any type of SCM initiative.
Scenario F. In this scenario there is a low impact in both the process efficiency and
the information areas, but high impact in the product/service innovation areas.
This implies that an application in this area would have some value for a
differentiation/product and service innovation strategy, but perhaps not on an
innovation strategy focused on market responsiveness and certainly not for cost
leadership/process efficiency strategies.
Scenario H. In this scenario it is clear that the impact on cost leadership and
process efficiency is very low, but that there is high impact for both information
flow and product and service innovation. This means that applications in this area
would be of high value for differentiation strategies based on both product/service
innovation and market responsiveness.
As the analysis above demonstrates, there are clearly some applications that will
have more value than others for particular sourcing and SCM initiatives.
Applications in Scenario D are the ideal solution for all types of initiative,
and especially for bifurcated SCM strategies.
Applications in Scenarios A, B and C will be of most value for cost
leadership/process efficiency strategies.
Applications in Scenarios C, G and H will be of most value for differentiation
strategies based on market responsiveness.
Applications in Scenarios B, F and H will be of most value for differentiation
strategies based on product/service innovation.
Applications in Scenario E are of little value at all.
It is important to recognize here one final issue when applying this logic to SCM
initiatives. The analysis above can be applied to software and Internet-based tools
that impact on simple dyadic exchange relationships between buyers and suppliers,
and this may be of significant value in any sourcing relationship. The point to keep
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Software and Internet tools for effective SCM
in mind when considering SCM strategies is that applications must also be assessed
on the basis of their capability to provide improvement within the total supply
chain of buyer and supplier relationships, not just at the first-tier.
It follows, therefore, that when considering the value of particular applications
sensible companies, especially those pursuing SCM initiatives that involve more
than first-tier buyer and supplier relationships, must assess the capability of
applications to provide benefits within the supply chain as a whole.
CONCLUSIONS
Although there are many potential benefits from the application of software and
Internet-based tools to buyer and supplier, as well as supply chain, relationships,
it is imperative that buyers do not simply accept the marketing hype of application
providers. There has been far too much of this in the past, and it is clear that
companies must become more sophisticated about the relative costs and benefits
of particular applications for specific types of SCM strategy.
This is, however, a conclusion that needs to be made and this refers not only to
the sourcing of SCM software and Internet-based applications. Our final
conclusion is that there is a need for companies and their managers to become
smarter at understanding the answers to five basic questions listed in Key learning
point 5.3 that this volume has tried to address.
1 Does the company understand what supply chain management is, and
how it differs from other sourcing approaches that the company might
consider for the leverage of improved value for money?
2 Is supply chain management the best strategic option available when
compared with other sourcing approaches that might be adopted by the
company?
3 Is supply chain management operationally feasible both internally and
externally?
4 Does the company understand what type of supply chain management
strategy it is adopting, and is it fully aware of the tools and techniques that
will be necessary to implement such a strategy effectively?
5 Does the company fully understand the full costs and benefits of any
software or Internet-based tools that might be used to assist with the
implementation of its supply chain management strategy?
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REFERENCES
Cox, A., Chicksand, L. and Ireland, P. (2001) The E-Business Report. Helpston:
Earlsgate Press.
Lonsdale, C. (2001) Locked-in to supplier dominance: on the dangers of asset
specificity for the outsourcing decision, Journal of Supply Chain Management,
(37) 2, 227.
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