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SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
11.1. PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT Freely draining solids may be filtered by gravity with horizontal
screens, but often filtration requires a substantial pressure
Much equipment for the separation of liquids and finely divided difference across a filtering surface. An indication of the kind of
solids was invented independently in a number of industries and is equipment that may be suitable can be obtained by observations of
of diverse character. These developments have occurred without sedimentation behavior or of rates of filtration in laboratory vacuum
benefit of any but the most general theoretical considerations. Even equipment. Figure 11.1 illustrates typical progress of sedimentation.
at present, the selection of equipment for specific solid-liquid Such tests are particularly used to evaluate possible flocculating
separation applications is largely a process of scale-up based on processes or agents. Table 11.2 is a classification of equipment
direct experimentation with the process material. based on laboratory tests; test rates of cake formation range from
The nature and sizing of equipment depends on the economic several cm/sec to fractions of a cm/hr.
values and proportions of the phases as well as certain physical Characteristics of the performance of the main types of
properties that influence relative movements of liquids and commercial SLS equipment are summarized in Table 11.3. The
particles. Pressure often is the main operating variable so its effect completeness of the removal of liquid from the solid and of solid
on physical properties should be known. Table 11.1 is a broad from the liquid may be important factors. In some kinds of
classification of mechanical processes of solid-liquid separation. equipment residual liquid can be removed by blowing air or other
Clarification is the removal of small contents of worthless solids gas through the cake. When the liquid contains dissolved substances
from a valuable liquid. Filtration is applied to the recovery of that are undesirable in the filter cake, the slurry may be followed by
valuable solids from slurries. Expression is the removal of relatively
small contents of liquids from compressible sludges by mechanical
means. I--.
Whenever feasible, solids are settled out by gravity or with the
aid of centrifugation. In dense media separation, an essentially
homogeneous liquid phase is made by mixing in finely divided solids
(less than 100mesh) of high density; specific gravity of 2.5 can be
attained with magnetite and 3.3 with ferrosilicon. Valuable ores and
coal are floated away from gangue by such means. In flotation,
surface active agents induce valuable solids to adhere to gas bubbles ___---
which are skimmed off. Magnetic separation also is practiced when
feasible. Thickeners are vessels that provide sufficient residence ** ___-- Zone 4
time for settling to take place. Classifiers incorporate a mild raking Time
action to prevent the entrapment of fine particles by the coarser
ones that are to be settled out. Classification also is accomplished in
hydrocyclones with moderate centrifugal action.
~~~~~ .:,.:.:.... ..
i ..,. ..._ :.:.:.:.:.:.:.
1. Settling
a. by gravi
I. in thizeners
ii. in classifiers
b. by centrifugal force
c. by air flotation
d. by dense media flotation
e. by magnetic properties
2. Filtration
a. on screens, by gravity
b. on filters
I. byvacuum
ii. by pressure
iii. by centrifugation
3. Expression
a. with batch presses I I
b. with continuous presses Time
I. screw presses
ii. rolls F
igu
re 11.1. Sedimentation behavior of a slurry, showing loose and
iii. discs compacted zones (Osborne, 1981).
306 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
TABLE 11.2. Equipment Selection on the Basis of Rate of The resistance R is made up of those of the filter cloth Rf and that
Cake Buildup of the cake R, which may be assumed proportional to the weight of
the cake. Accordingly,
Rate of
Process Type Cake Buildup Suitable Equipment
e - -dV- - A AP
(11.2)
Rapid 0.1-10 cm/sec gravity pans; horizontal belt or dt p(Rf + R,) - p ( R f + a c V / A ) '
filtering top feed drum; continuous
a = specific resistance of the cake (m/kg),
pusher type centrifuge
Medium 0.1-10 cm/min vacuum d r u m or disk or pan or c = wt of solids/volume of liquid (kg/m3),
filtering belt; peeler type centrifuge p = viscosity (N sec/m')
Slow 0.1-lOcm/hr pressure filters; disc and tubular
filtering
P = pressure difference (N/m2)
centrifuges; sedimenting
centrifuges A = filtering surface (m2)
Clarification negligible cartridges; precoat drums; filter V = volume of filtrate (m')
cake aid systems; sand deep bed
Q = rate of filtrate accumulation (m'/sec).
filters
(Tiller and Crump, 1977; Flood, Parker, and Rennie, 1966). R, and a are constants of the equipment and slurry and must be
evaluated from experimental data. The simplest data to analyze are
those obtained from constant pressure or constant rate tests for
which the equations will be developed. At constant pressure Eq.
pure water to displace the residual filtrate. Qualitative cost (11.2) is integrated as
comparisons also are shown in this table. Similar comparisons of
filtering and sedimentation types of centrifuges are in Table 11.19. ALPt
v
= RfV +-
LYC
2A
V2 (11.3)
Final selection of filtering equipment is inadvisable without
some testing in the laboratory and pilot plant. A few details of such
work are mentioned later in this chapter. Figure 11.2 is an outline and is recast into linear form as
of a procedure for the selection of filter types on the basis of
appropriate test work. Vendors need a certain amount of in- t =_
__ R +--2pac v (11.4)
formation before they can specify and price equipment; typical V I A AP I APA
inquiry forms are in Appendix C. Briefly, the desirable information
includes the following. The constants Rf and a are derivable from the intercept and slope
of the plot of t / V against V . Example 11.1 does this. If the constant
1. Flowsketch of the process of which the filtration is a part, with pressure period sets in when t = to and V = V,, Eq. (11.4) becomes
the expected qualities and quantities of the filtrate and cake.
2. Properties of the feed: amounts, size distribution, densities and (11.5)
chemical analyses.
3. Laboratory observations of sedimentation and leaf filtering rates.
4. Pretreatment options that may be used. A plot of the left hand side against V + V, should be linear.
5. Washing and blowing requirements. At constant rate of filtration, Eq. (11.2) can be written
6. Materials of construction.
lube centrifuge
test
Sedimentat ion
test
I .Hydracyclone test
I
I
1 I
Mognet test . Mognetic seporotor
r
another medium l Qs clarity sotislactory?
Batch disc bowl.
self -opening
Plot total f l o w
1s f i l t e r aid required?
Perforated basket
centrifuge test
. Batch centrifugal filters -
t
Vacuum Ieof test -Continuous r o t a r y
vacuum f i l t e r
Complete the
I s pickup satisfactory? .Centrifugal filters
investigation Continuous pusher
Continuous worm discharge
Continuous oscillating screer
- Helical conveyor decanter -
I Thicken
the s l u r r y
I
-
centrifuge
Continuous table f i l t e r -
- Various pressure filters -
Continuous arum
Botch leaf
B a t c h plate
B a l c h tubular element
B a t c h cartridge
B a t c h piate and f r a m e
Figure 11.2. Experimental routine for aiding the selection of solid-liquid separation equipment (Dauies, 1965).
TABLE 11.4. Action and Effects of Slurry Pretreatments
1 . Liquid 1. heating
1
4. Solid/liquid 1 . heat treatment, e.g.,
interaction Porteus process
involving pressure physical methods which condition sludge
cooking and induce coagulation and/or
2. freeze/thaw flocculation
3. ultrasonics
4. ionized radiation
5. addition of wetting reduces the interfacial surface tension,
agents improves the draining characteristics of
the cake, and decreases the residual
moisture content
(Purchas, 1981).
Alum AIZ(SO,),.XH2O electrolytic and water treatment 5-10 15 PPm 2e inorganic chemical
coagulation manufacturers
Ferric Fe,(SO,)XH,O electrolytic water treatment any 5-100 ppm 2e inorganic chemical
sulfate coagulation and chemical manufacturers
processing
Sodium sodium carboxy- coagulation and mineral 3-9 0.03-0.5 Ib/ton 5Oe Hercules, DuPont
CMC methylcellulose bridging processing
Kelgin W algins coagulation and water treatment 4-1 1 up to 5 ppm $1.50 Kelco Co.
bridging
Separan acrylamide bridging chemical 2-10 0.2-1 0 ppm $1 .OO-$2.00 Dow Chemical Co.
polymer processing
Fibrefloc animal glue electrolytic waste treatment 1-9 5-30 ppm 1W Armour and Co.
Corn corn starch bridging mineral 2-10 10 Ib/ton 7e -
starch processing
Polynox polyethylene bridging chemical 2-10 1-50 ppm $2.00 Union Carbide
oxide processing
Silica sol activated electrolytic waste treatment 4-6 1-20 ppm 1.5q as inorganic chemical
silica sol coagulation sodium manufacturers
silicate
Sodium sodium coagulation water treatment 3-12 2-10 ppm 1 oe National Aluminate
aluminate aluminate
Guar gum guar gum bridging mineral 2-12 0.02-0.3 Ib/ton 35e General Mills
processing
Sulfuric HZSO4 electrolytic waste treatment 1-5 highly variable le inorganic chemical
acid manufacturers
--
W/A)- AP
t
'
dt p(Rf + (YCV/A)'
Q 11...
whose integral may be written >
4.2 5 0 0 p
R,+----( Y C V t
AP/p 2(AP/p)A - V/A
Intercepts and slopes are read off the linear plots. At 0.5 bar,
1 1 I 1 I ]
AP/p = O.5(lO5)/0.00l = 0.5(108), 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
R, = 600AP/p = 3.O(1O1O) m-', VIA-
Basic filtration Eq. (11.2) is solved for the amount of filtrate, 30-85% of the retained filtrate has been found removed by
one-displacement wash. Figure 11.3(b) is the result of one such test.
A AAP A detailed review of the washing problem has been made by
V=- --pR . (11.10)
PC"( Q f > Wakeman (1981, pp. 408-451).
The equations of this section are applied in Example 11.3 to
Equations (11.8) and (11.10) are solved simultaneously for A P and the sizing of a continuous rotary vacuum filter that employs a
Q at specified values of V and the results tabulated so: washing operation.
V AP 0 l/Q t
COMPRESSIBLE CAKES
0 - - - 0
- - - - - Resistivity of filter cakes depends on the conditions of formation of
Vmai - - - tfinal which the pressure is the major one that has been investigated at
length. The background of this topic is discussed in Section 11.3,
Integration is accomplished numerically with the Simpson or but here the pressure dependence will be incorporated in the
trapezoidal rules. This method is applied in Example 11.2. filtration equations. Either of two forms of pressure usually is
When the filtrate contains dissolved substances that should not taken,
remain in the filter cake, the occluded filtrate is blown out; then the
cake is washed by pumping water through it. Theoretically, an CY = a0P" (11.11)
amount of wash equal to the volume of the pores should be or
sufficient, even without blowing with air. In practice, however, only LY = ao(l + kP)". (11.12)
11.2. THEORY OF FILTRATION 311
Gn
~ 8 1 8 . 1--0.0036 .
0
Equations (1) and (2) are solved simultaneously to obtain the
tabulated data. The time is found by integration with the t-
The first of these does not extrapolate properly to resistivity at low which integrates at constant pressure into
pressures, but often it is as adequate as the more complex one over
practical ranges of pressure.
Since the drag pressure acting on the particles of the cake (11.16)
varies from zero at the face to the full hydraulic pressure at the filter
cloth, the resistivity as a function of pressure likewise varies along The four unknown parameters are a,,,k, n, and Rf.The left-hand
the cake. A mean value is defined by side should vary linearly with VIA. Data obtained with at least
three different pressures are needed for evaluation of the
parameters, but the solution is not direct because the first three
(11.13) parameters are involved nonlinearly in the coefficient of VIA. The
analysis of constant rate data likewise is not simple.
The mean resistivity at a particular pressure difference can be
where AP, is the pressure drop through the cake alone. In view of evaluated from a constant pressure run. From three such
the roughness of the usual correlations, it is adequate to use the runs-AP,, AP2, and AP,--three values of the mean resistivity-
overall pressure drop as the upper limit instead of the drop through &,, iu2, and Li3--can be determined with Eq. (11.2) and used to find
the cake alone. the three constants of the expression for an overall mean value,
With Eq. (11.12) the mean value becomes
iu = m0(l +/CAP)", (11.17)
&=
a o k ( l - n)AP which is not the same as Eq. (11.12) but often is as satisfactory a
(11.14)
(1 + kAP)'-" - 1 ' representation of resistivity under practical filtration conditions.
Substituting Eq. (11.17) into Eq. (11.2), the result is
The constants q,, k, and n are determined most simply in
compression-permeability cells as explained in Section 11.4, but
those found from filtration data may be more appropriate because (11.18)
the mode of formation of a cake also affects its resistivity.
Equations (11.14) and (11.2) together become
Integration at constant pressure gives the result
'
(11.15) (11.19)
312 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
IO IO0 so J I
1
3 80
-
I ~ 1 . 110
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 EFFICIEYCV !
1 1 I I
Time, minutes @
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
WASU RATIO
(a) (b)
32 -. 0
--
I I
10 - , I ! I I
0
e
e
- E 30 -- -
I-
s
I
I-
E -
t; 28--
0
W
- a
Gp 26.- -
- W
U
0 0
1 24 + I I
(C) (d)
Figure 11.3. Laboratory test data with a vacuum leaf filter. (a) Rates of formation of dry cake and filtrate. (b) Washing efficiency. (c) Air flow
rate vs. drying time. (d) Correlation of moisture content with the air rate, pressure difference AP, cake amount W Ib/sqft, drying time
Od min and viscosity of liquid (Dahlstrom and Silverblatt, 1977).
EXAMPLE
ll.3-(continued) it, 568.3APb (8)
The integral at constant pressure is
Comparing (5) and (8), it appears that an rph to meet the
filtering requirements is 68.3117.94 = 3.8 times that for washing and
8O(vf/A)' + & / A = 36Apb$. (3)
is the controlling speed.
With a peripheral speed of 60 m/hr
With % / A = 0.0854,
60 = nDn,
APbtf = 0.01858,
tf = 0.01858/APb = 1/3nf
D = 6 0 / m= 19.1/n. (9)
= 17.94hPb, The parameters at several pressures are
where tif is the rph speed needed to make the 1cm thick cake.
AP, (bar) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
From Eq. (2) the washing rate is
i,(rph) 3.59 7.18 10.76 14.35
D (rn) 5.3 2.66 1.78 1.33
36Apb = 2.455APb.
rw = 1 + 160(0.0854) If the peripheral speed were made 1.22m/min, a drum
Washing time: 1.0 m dia would meet the requirements with AP = 0.8 bar. Another
controllable feature is the extent of immersion which can be made
I, =
0.006 = -0.00244
2 -1 greater or less than 113. Sketches of a rotary vacuum filter are in
~
Eq. (11.19) could be written in terms of d from Eq. (11.17) and reported rather than the resistivity that has been discussed here. It
would then have the same form as Eq. (11.2), but with only Rf as a is defined by the equation
parameter to be found from a single run at constant pressure. In
Example 11.1, the mean resistivity is found from the simpler QIA = KpAP/pL, (11.21)
equation
where L is the thickness. The relation to the resistivity is
ii. = w0(AP).. (1 1.20)
Rf = L/Kp. (11.22)
Analysis of the filtration of a compressible material is treated in
Example 11.4. Thus the filtration resistivity of the medium includes its thickness.
Typical measured values of Rf are of the order of 10"m-'; for
11.3. RESISTANCE TO FILTRATION comparison, the fine filter sheet of Table 1.6, assuming it to be
The filtration equation 1 mm thick, has LIK, = 0.001/0.15(10-'2) = O.7(1O1O)m-'.
-Q_- AP
(11.2) CAKE RESISTIVITY
A p(Rf + cucV/A)
A fundamental relation for the flow resistance of a bed of particles
considers the overall resistance to flow of filtrate to be made up of is due to Kozeny (Ber. Wien. Akud. 1351, 1927, 271-278):
contributions from the filter medium Rf, and from the cake with
specific resistance a. (Y = KS;( 1 - (11.23)
FILTER MEDIUM
K = approximately 5 at low porosities,
so = specific surface of the particles,
In practice, a measured Rf includes the effects of all factors that are p , = density of the particles,
independent of the amount of the cake; in a plate-and-frame press,
E = porosity, volume voids/volume of cake.
for instance, piping and entrance and exit losses will be included,
although most of the resistance usually is due to the medium itself.
Aging and the resulting increase in resistance is a recognized Because the structure of a cake is highly dependent on operating
behavior, particularly of media made of fibers. Particles are conditions and its history, the Kozeny equation is only of qualitative
gradually occluded in the media so thoroughly that periodic value to filtration theory by giving directional effects.
cleaning cannot restore the original condition. The degree of At increasing pressures, the particles or aggregates may be
penetration of the medium depends on the porosity, the pore sizes, distorted and brought closer together. The rate of flow also may
particles sizes, and velocity. Normally Rf is found to depend on the affect the structure of a cake: at low rates a loose structure is
operating pressure; on plots like those of Example 11.1, the two formed, at higher ones fine particles are dragged into the previously
intercepts may correspond to different values of Rf at the two formed bed. The drag pressure at a point in a cake is the difference
pressures. between the pressure at the filter medium and the pressure loss due
Data for some filter media are shown in Table 11.6. Although to friction up to that point. As the drag pressure at a distance from
these porosities and permeabilities are of unused materials, the the filter cloth increases, even at constant filtering pressure, the
relative values may be useful for comparing behaviors under porosity and resistance adjust themselves continuously. Figure
filtration conditions. Permeability Kp normally is the property 11.4(a) shows such effects of slurry concentration and filtering rates
314 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
The filtration equation (11.2) is wash rate = filtering rate at the conclusion of the filtration
dv- AAP - AP -
- AP - 8(10)
m3/hr,
dt - p ( R f + (YCV/A)- (0.001/3600)[1010+ 2.015(102)(200)V] p(Rf +
a c 5 ) - 2 7 8 0 + 1.12(108)5
- AP t, =wash time =
0.7095[2780 1.12(108)Vf]+
2780 + 1.12(108)V 8(10)
+
= 5(0.000246 9.926vf),
The rate when f = 0.2% and AP = 8(105) Pa, 24Vf
R, =
l+++t,
8(10) 8(105)
- 24Vf
=2780+ 1.12(10s)Qt=2780 + O.28(lO8)Q -
[1+ 0.0035(V - 0.0423) + 7010(V; - 0.0018)
= 0.1691 m3/m2hr.
+
5(0.000246 9.9265)). +
The amount of filtrate at this time is
The optimum operation is found by trial:
V, = Qr = 0.1691(0.25) = 0.0423 m3.
Vf = 0.105,
The integral of the rate equation at constant P is tf= 1.0805,
2780(vf - 0.0423) + O.56(lO8)(V~- (0.00423)2] t, = 0.1095,
= 8(10)(+ - 0.25). R, = 1.1507 (max), daily production rate.
TABLE 11.6. Porosities and Permeabilitiesof Some Filter the formation and stability of loose cake structures; such behavior
Media normally is not reproducible.
(a)
10
0.9
08
- 9
-Y
$ 07
II)
e
a
06
V
05
04
03
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 1 10
Compressive pressure 1 P, 1, psia
Compressive pressure IF', 1, psia
(b)
Figure 11.4. Data of compressibilities and porosities of filter cakes. (a) Parameters of the correlation a = ao(A.P)" for resistivity of CaSiO,
filter cakes at two rates and two concentrations (Rushton and Kutsoulus, 1984). (b) Resistivity as a function of pressure measured in a
compressibility-permeability (CP) cell [Grace, Chem. Eng. Prog. 49, 303, 367, 427 (1953)l. (c) Porosity as a function of pressure for the
same six materials (Grace, Zoc. cit.).
11.5. LABORATORY TESTING AND SCALE-UP 317
3. Cake drying is critical. to test washing rates and efficiencies and rates of moisture removal
4. Cake removal may be a problem. with air blowing. Typical data of these kinds are shown in Figure
5. Precoating may be needed. 11.3. Detailed laboratory procedures are explained by Bosley
(1977) and Dahlstrom and Silverblatt (1977). Test and scale-up
procedures for all kinds of SLS equipment are treated in the book
11.5. LABORATORY TESTING AND SCALE-UP
edited by Purchas (1977).
Laboratory filtration investigations are of three main kinds: Before any SLS equipment of substantial size is finally selected,
it is essential to use the results of pilot plant tests for guidance.
1. observation of sedimentation rates; Although many vendors are in a position to do such work, pilot
2. with small vacuum or pressure leaf filters; equipment should be used at the plant site where the slurry is made.
3. with pilot plant equipment of the types expected to be suitable Because slurries often are unstable, tests on shipments of slurry to
for the plant. the vendors pilot plant may give misleading results. It may be
possible to condition a test slurry to have a maximum possible
Sedimentation tests are of value particularly for rapid evaluation of resistivity, but a plant design based on such data will have an
the effects of aging, flocculants, vibration, and any other variables unknown safety factor and may prove uneconomical.
that conceivably could affect a rate of filtration. The results may
suggest what kinds of equipment to exclude from further con- COMPRESSION-PERMEABILITY CELL
sideration and what kind is likely to be worth investigating. For
Such equipment consists of a hollow cylinder fitted with a
instance, if sedimentation is very rapid, vertical leaves are excluded,
and top feed drums or horizontal belts are indicated; or it may be permeable bottom and a permeable piston under controlled
indicated that the slurry should be preconcentrated in a thickener pressure. Slurry is charged to the slurry, cake is formed with gentle
before going to filtration. If the settling is very slow, the use of filter suction, and the piston is lowered to the cake level. The rate of flow
of filtrate at low head through the compressed cake is measured at a
aids may be required, etc. Figure 11.1 illustrates typical
sedimentation behavior. Figure 11.2 summarizes an experimental series of pressures on the piston. From the results the resistivity of
routine. the cake becomes known as a function of pressure. The data of
Vacuum and pressure laboratory filtration assemblies are Figures 11.4(b) and (c) were obtained this way; those of Figure
11.4(a) by filtration tests.
shown in Figure 11.7. Mild agitation with air sometimes may be
preferable to the mechanical stirrer shown, but it is important that There is much evidence, however, that the resistivity behavior
any agglomerates of particles be kept merely in suspension and not of a cake under filtration conditions may be different from that
measured in a CP cell. The literature is reviewed by Wakeman
broken up. The test record sheet of Figure 11.8 shows the kind of
(1978). CP cell data are easily obtained and may be of value in a
data that normally are of interest. Besides measurements of filtrate
and cake amounts as functions of time and pressure, it is desirable qualitative sense as an indication of the sensitivity of resistivity to
pressure, but apparently are not of acceptable engineering accuracy
for the design of filtration equipment. The deduction of resistivities
from filtration tests is illustrated in Example 11.1.
TABLE 11.7. Specific Resistances of Some Filter
Cakes THE SCFT CONCEPT
Filtration Resistance No serious attempt has yet been made to standardize filtration tests
Pressure SI Units, and to categorize filtration behavior in generally accepted terms. A
Material psi m/kg
~ ~~
possibly useful measure of filterability, however, has been proposed
High grade kieselguhr - 1.64X 10 by Purchas (1977; 1981). The time in minutes required to form a
Ordinary kieselguhr 25 1.15 x 10 cake 1cm thick when the cell is operated with a differential of
100 1.31 x 10 500 Torr (0.67 bar) is called the Standard Cake Formation Time
Carboraffin charcoal 1.4 3 . 1 4 ~10 (SCFT), t,. The pressure of 5ooTorr is selected because it is
10 5.84 x 10 obtained easily with common laboratory equipment. The procedure
Calcium carbonate 25 2.21 x 10 suggested is to make a series of tests at several cake thicknesses and
(precipitated) 100 2.68 x 10 to obtain the SCFT by interpolation, rather than to interrupt a
Ferric oxide (pigment) 25 8 . 0 4 ~10
single test to make observations of cake thickness. A direct relation
100 14.12 X 10
Mica clay 25 4.81 x 10 exists, of course, between the SCFT and resistivity cr; some
100 8.63 x 10 examples are
Colloidal clay 25 5.10 X 10
100 6.47 X 10l2 Material a (m/kg) SCFT tF(min)
Magnesium hydroxide 25 3.24X 10l2 Filter aid 1.64(E9) 0.26
(gelatinous) 100 6.97 x 10 CaCO, 2.21(Ell) 34.6
Aluminium hydroxide 25 2.16 x 1013 Colloidal clay 5.10(E12) 798
(gelatinous) 100 4.02 x 1013
Ferric hydroxide 25 1.47 x 1 0 ~ Full scale filtration equipment requirements can be estimated
(gelatinous) 100 4.51 x 1 0 ~
Thixotropic mud
quickly in terms of t,. For instance, when the resistance of the filter
80 6.77 x 1014
Theoretical figures for medium is neglected, the constant pressure Eq. (11.3) may be
rigid spheres: written as
d=lOpm 6.37 x 10
d=lpn 6.37 x 10 (11.27)
d = 0.1 prn 6.37 x 1013
(Carman, 1938). where L is the thickness of the cake in meters. Upon rationing in
318 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
10
09
08
07
o*ol
0 85 I I I I I I I
X
I I
06
\ 05
-J
OL
03
02
01
Ot
(
I
01 02
I 1
03
1
OL 05
(a)
1
X/L -
I
06
I
07
I
08
I
09
X/L -
Figure 11.5. Axial distribution of pressure and porosity of an ignition-plug clay measured in a CP cell. (a) Normalized pressure distribution as
a function of normalized distance [(- - -) experimental filtration data; theoretical curves: ( X ) AP = 98 kN m-2; (0)AP = 294 kN mP2; ( A )
AP = 883 kN m-'I. (b) Porosity distributions at three pressures. The curves are by Wakeman (1978).
the SCFT data for 0.01 m, advice of experienced vendors should be sought, as well as that of
expert consultants.
A Pt
~- - (1ooL)2, (1 1.28)
0.67tF 11.6. ILLUSTRATIONS OF EQUIPMENT
with AP in bar. From this relation the filtering time can be found at Equipment for solid-liquid separation is available commercially
a specified pressure and cake thickness and when tF is known. from many sources. About 150 names and addresses of suppliers in
the United States and abroad are listed by Purchas (1981).
SCALE-UP Classifications of vendors with respect to the kind of equipment are
given, for instance, in Chemical Engineering Catalog (Reinhold,
Sizing of full scale equipment on the basis of small scale tests New York, annual) and in Chemical Engineering Equipment Buyers
requires a consideration of possible ranges of at least the following Guide (McGraw-Hill, New York, annual).
variables: The variety of solid-liquid separation equipment is so great
that only a brief selection can be presented here. The most
1. filterability as measured by cake and medium resistivity; extensive modern picture gallery is in the book of Purchas (1981).
2. feed rate and concentration; The older encyclopedia of Kieser (Spamer-Springer, Berlin, 1937,
3. operating conditions, particularly pressure and high initial rates; Vol. 2) has 250 illustrations in 130 pages of descriptions; the
4. behavior of the filter cloth with time. pictures do not appear to have aged particularly. Illustrations in
manufacturers catalogs are definitive and often reveal the
Safety factors for scale up from laboratory leaf tests are difficult to functioning as well as aspect of the equipment. The selected figures
generalize. On the basis of pilot plant work, adjustments of 11-21% of this chapter are primarily line drawings that best reveal the
are made to plate-and-frame filter areas or rates, and 14-20% to functioning modes of the equipment.
continuous rotary filters, according to Table 1.4. Figure 11.9 shows two models of sand filters whose purpose is
The performance of solid-liquid separation equipment is to remove small contents of solids from large quantities of liquids.
difficult to predict by the engineer without some specific experience The solids deposit both on the surface of the bed and throughout
in this area. Unfortunately, it must be again recommended that the the bed. They are removed intermittently by shutting off the main
11.6. ILLUSTRATIONS OF EQUIPMENT 319
(Y = a0(1 + z)
(1 -E ) = ( l - Eol(l+~)p*
Pressure
range, Pa. a,.
Material kPa kPa m ka- X lo- n (1 - E n ) B
CaCO, (ref. 7) 3-480 1 11 0.15 0.209 0.06
CaCO, (ref. 8) 7-550 7 5.1 0.2 0.225 0.06
550-7000 790 8.1 0.9 0.263 0.22
Darco-B (ref. 8) 7-275 1.7 1.1 0.4 0.129 0.08
275-7000 520 4.7 1.8 0.180 0.18
Kaolin-AI,SO, (ref. 8) 7-41 5 7 43 0.3 0.417 0.04
415-7000 345 87 0.7 0.460 0.12
Solka-Floc (ref. 8) 7-275 2.75 0.00058 1.0 0.132 0.16
275-7000 260 0.13 2.0 0.237 0.26
Talc-C (ref. 8) 7-1400 5.5 4.7 0.55 0.155 0.16
1400-7000 1400 35 1.8 0.339 0.25
TiO, (ref. 8) 7-7000 7 18 0.35 0.214 0.1
Tungsten (ref. 8) 7-480 7 0.39 0.15 0.182 0.05
480-7000 520 0.38 0.9 0.207 0.22
Hong Kong 1-15 1 42 0.35 0.275 0.09
pink kaolin (ref. 9) 15-1000 12 70 0.55 0.335 0.1
Gairome clav (ref. 10) 4- 1000 3.4 370 0.55 0.309 0.09
flow and backwashing with liquid. The concentrated sludge then smaller sizes under, 2ft dia or so; the plates are lifted out of the
must be disposed of in some way. Beds of charcoal are employed casing for cake removal. The other units all have fixed spacings
similarly for clarification of some organic liquids; they combine between the leaves. From them the cakes may be blown back with
adsorption and mechanical separation. air or flushed back or scraped off manually. The Vallez unit of
Clarification of a large variety of liquids is accomplished with Figure 11.1O(f) ordinarily does not require the case to be opened for
cartridge filters which come in a large variety of designs. Usually the cleaning.
cartridges are small, but liquid rates in excess of 5000gpm have Figure 11.11 is of continuous horizontal filtering equipment
been designed for. The filtering surface may be a fine metal screen that operate primarily with vacuum, although they could be housed
or an assembly of closely spaced disks whose edge face functions as in pressure-tight casings for operation at superatmospheric pressure
the filtering surface, or woven or matted fibers. The operation is or with volatile liquids. Both the belt and the rotary units are well
intermittent, with either flushing back of the accumulated solids or suited to rapidly settling and free draining slurries. In comparison
replacement of the filtering elements in the body of the cartridge, or with rotary drum vacuum filters, the horizontal equipment of Figure
in some instances the solids are scraped off the filtering surface with l l . l l ( c ) has the merit of more readily accessible piping, a real
a built-in mechanism and then flushed out in concentrated form. advantage from a servicing point of view.
The variety of cartridge filters are described in detail in books by Figure 11.12 represents the main kinds of rotary drum filters.
Warring (1981), Purchas (1981), and Cheremisinoff and Azbel Commercial sizes are listed in Table 11.14. The flowsketch of Figure
(1983). Table 11.10 is a selected list of some of their applications 11.12(a) identifies the main auxiliaries required for this kind of
and the minimum sizes of particles that are removed. filtration process. Feed to the drum may be dip-type as in Figure
Figure 11.6 is of two types of sedimentation equipment, and 11.12(b), but top feed designs also are widely used. The unit with
Figure 12.2(e) of another. They are used for clarifying a valuable internal filtering surface of Figure 11.12(c) is suited particularly to
liquid or for preparing a concentrated slurry for subsequent rapidly settling solids and has been adapted to pressure operation.
filtration. They depend on gravitational sedimentation. Removal is Cake removal usually is with a scraper into a screw or belt
assisted by rake action, or by the conical sides of the vessel of conveyor, but Figure 11.12(d) depicts the use of a drum with a
Figure 11.6(b). filtering belt that is subject to a continual cleaning process. Some
Figure 11.10 is of the main kinds of filters that can be operated filters have a multi parallel string discharge assembly whose path
at superatmospheric pressures which may be necessary with follows that of the belt shown.
otherwise slow filtering slurries. Commercial sizes are listed in The double drum filter of Figure 11.12(e) has obvious merit
Table 11.11. They all operate on intermittent cycles of cake particularly when top feeding is desirable but it is not used widely
formation, washing, dewatering with air blowing and cake removal. nowadays. Disk filters of the type of Figure 11.12(f) are the most
The plate-and-frame design of Figure 11.10(a) is the most widely widely used rotary type when washing of the cake is not necessary.
recognized type. In it, cake removal is effected after separating the Figure 11.13 is of a variety of devices that utilize centrifugal
plates. The horizontal plate design of Figure 11.10(b) is popular in force to aid in the separation of solid and liquid mixtures. Figure
320 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
(b) Clarifiers
Depth expelled before the bulk of the cake is deposited. Moreover, when
Sulticlent the cake is finally deposited from a thickened slurry, it does so with
To Mold Slurry
VoI. For One Test an open structure that allows rapid filtration. A similar factor is
operative in belt or top feed drum filters in which the coarse
particles drop out first and thus form the desirable open structure.
A review of such methods of enhancement of filtration rates is by
Svarovsky (1981).
The relative suitability of the common kinds of solid-liquid
ReguI at i0 n separation equipment is summarized in Table 11.3. Filtration is the
most frequently used operation, but sedimentation as a method of
pretreatment and centrifugation for difficulty filterable materials has
many applications. Table 11.15 gives more detail about the kinds of
filters appropriate to particular services.
Representative commercial sizes of some types of pressure
filters for operation in batch modes are reported in Table 11.11.
Some of these data are quite old, and not all of the equipment is
currently popular; thus manufacturers should be consulted for the
latest information. Commercially available size ranges of continuous
Gas or air belt, rotary drum, rotary disk, and horizontal rotary filters are listed
pressure
in Table 11.12. For the most part these devices operate with vacua
of 500 Torr or less.
Sedimentation equipment is employed on a large scale for
"I
mineral and ore processing. These and other applications are listed
in Table 11.9(a). The clarification operations of Table 11.9(b) are
Jacket of water cleaning and sewage treatment. The sludges that are
""""k- formed often are concentrated further by filtration. Such
applications are listed in Table 11.16 along with other common
applications of plate-and-frame filter presses. Sludge filter cakes are
compressible and have high resistivity so that the elevated pressures
at which presses can be operated are necessary for them. Among
the kinds of data given here are modes of conditioning the slurries,
slurry concentrations, cake characteristics, and cycle times.
Clarification of a great variety of industrial liquids is
accomplished on smaller scales than in tank clarifiers by application
of cartridge filters; some of these applications are listed in Table
1 11.10.
Cycle times, air rates, and minimum cake thicknesses in
operation of rotary drum filters are stated in Table 11.13. A few
special applications of horizontal belt filters are given in Table 11.14,
but in recent times this kind of equipment is taking over many of
the traditional functions of rotary drum filters. Belt filters are
favored particularly for freely filtering slurries with wide range of
% 'Filler cake particle sizes.
The applications listed in Table 11.17 and 11.18 are a few of
Jacket inlet those of rotary drum, rotary disk, and tipping or tilting pan filters.
Dram t The last type employs a number of vacuum pans on a rotating
circular track; after the cake is formed, the pans are blown back
Figure 11.7. Two types of laboratory filter arrangements. (a) with air and then tipped to discharge the cake. The data of these
Vacuum test filter arrangement; standard sizes are 0.1, 0.05, or tables include particle size range, moisture content of the cake,
0.025 sqft (DahLrtrorn and Silverblan, 1977). (b) Laboratory filtering rate, solids handling rate, vacuum pump load and degree of
pressure filter with a vertical filtering surface and a mechanical vacuum. Clearly a wide range of some of these variables occurs in
agitator; mild air agitation may be preferred (Bosley, 1977).
practice.
Characteristics of centrifugal filters and sedimentation centri-
manufacturers' literature. Representative data are collected in this fuges are in Table 11.19. The filtering types are made to handle
section and summarized in tabular form. One of the reasons why from less than 5 tons/hr to more than 100 tons/hr of solids, with
more performance data have not been published is the difficulty of g-levels ranging from 30 to 3000. For sedimentation types, the
describing each system concisely in adequate detail. Nevertheless, g-levels listed range up to 18,000, but high values can be used only
the limited listings here should afford some perspective of the with small diameter equipment because of metal strength
nature and magnitude of some actual and possibly potential limitations. Capacity of sedimentation types is measured in terms of
applications. liquid rates, the maximum listed here being 100,000L/hr. An
Performance often is improved by appropriate pretreatment of outstanding feature of centrifugal separators is the small sizes of
the slurry with flocculants or other means. An operating practice particles that can be handled satisfactorily; the values in the table
that is finding increasing acceptance is the delaying of cake cover the range 1-400pm. Short retention time is a feature of
deposition by some mechanical means such as scraping, brushing, centrifuge operation that may be of interest when unstable materials
severe agitation, or vibration. In these ways most of the filtrate is need to be processed.
322 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
Analysis 81
Liquid: 9 Location
Filter Type- Leof Size FI.~ Analysis
Used Shim: No Yes Procoot Forming Liquid Temp. "FPC
Figure 11.8. A filtration leaf test data sheet (Duhlstrom and Silverblutt, 1977).
I INLET
OUTLET
c _
5
(a)
Figure 11.9. Deep bed sand filters for removal of small contents of solids from large quantities of liquids. Accumulations from the
top and within the bed are removed by intermittent backwashing. Charcoal may be used instead of sand for clarifying organic
liquids. (a) Gravity operation. (b) Pressure operation.
11.7. APPLICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF EQUIPMENT 323
TABLE 11.10. Application of Cartridge Filters in Industry and TABLE 11.11. Sizes of Commercial Discontinuous Pressure
Typical Particle Size Ranges Removed Filters
(a) Approximate Area and Cake Capacity for Various Sizes of Plate and
Industry and Liquid Typical Filtration Range Frame Filters
Cake-Holding Capacity per
Chcmical Industry Size of Effective Filtration p e a Chamber per 25 mm of
Alum 6 0 mcsh-60 p m filter per Chamber (m ) Chamber Thickness I
Brinc 100-400 mcsh plate
(mm) Cast Iron Wood Cast Iron Wood
E t h y l Alcohol 5-10pm
Fcrric Chloride 30-250 mcsh 250 0.096 0.054 1.2 0.6
Herbicidcs/Pcsticides 100-700mcsh 360 0.2 0.123 2.5 1.43
Hydrochloric Acid 100 mesh to 5-10 urn 470 0.35 0.21 4.4 2.5
400 mesh 630 0.66 0.45 8.3 5.4
Mineral O i l 800 1.1 0.765 13.7 9.3
Nitric Acid 40 mesh to 5-10 pm 1000 1.74 1.2 21.62 14.6
Phosphoric Acid 100 mesh t o 5-10 pm 1200 2.5 1.76 31.4 21.36
Sodium liydroxidc 1-3 to 5-10pm 1450 3.7 2.46 46.24 30.2
Sodium Hypochlorite 1-3 t o 5-10 pm ~
>
Scovenger
manifold
Figure 11.10. Pressure filters for primarily discontinuous operation. (a) Classic plate-and-frame filter press and details; the plates are
separated for manual removal of the cake ( T . Shriver Co.). (b) Horizontal plate filter; for cleaning, the head is removed and the plates are
lifted out of the vessel (Sparkler Mfg. Co.). (c) Pressure leaf filter; the leaf assembly is removed from the shell and the cake is scraped off
without separating the leaves (Ametek Znc.). (d) The Kelly filter has longitudinal leaves mounted on a carriage; for cleaning, the assembly is
slid out of the shell (Oliver United Filters). (e) The Sweetland filter has circular leaves and a split casing; the lower half of the casing is
dropped to allow access for removal of the cake (Oliver United Filters). (f) The Vallez filter has circular leaves rotating at about 1rpm to
promote cake uniformity when the solids have a wide size range; removal of blown-back or washed back cake is accomplished with a built-in
screw conveyor without requiring the shell to be opened (Goslin-Birmingham Co.).
,Sproy pipe Inspection door,
Figure 11.10.-
rew
arge
drive -gem
, '\ Coke
for filter
'Cloth" printing
Grooves A Perforated meto/ clofh -support' 'Cfoths in place
- Upper PlY (C)
325
326 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
Air connection
Continuous ro/ary fi//er
seal
(a)
Cake s a t u r a t e d h >stirring
with filtrate Cake forming device
Figure 1 1 3 . Continuous rotary drum filters. (a) Flowsketch of continuous vacuum filtration with a rotary drum filter. The solids
are taken away with a screw or belt conveyor (McCabe and Smith, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1956). (b) Cross section of a dip-type rotary drum filter showing the sequence of cake formation, washing, dewatering and
cake removal; units also are made with top feed (Oliver United Filters). (c) Cross section of a rotary drum filter with internal
filtering surface, suited particularly to free settling slurries (Oliver United Filters). (d) Rotary filter with a filtering belt that is
discharged and cleaned away from the drum; in the similarly functioning string discharge filters, the filtering cloth remains on the
drum but the string assembly follows the path shown here for the belt. (e) Double drum filter, particularly suited to rapidly
settling slurries, and may be adapted to cake washing which is not shown in this unit (System Gerlach, Nordhauren, E.
Germany). ( f ) Vacuum disk filter , the main kind in use when cake washing is not required (Dorr-Oliver Znc.).
11.7. APPLICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF EQUIPMENT 327
2600 10-45
4600 45-200
6900 150-700
9600 130-500
13,600 600-1200
(Eimco).
Drum'
Diam
(ft) Length (ft)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
~~
Number of disks
Min. 2 3 4 5 6 7
(e) Max. 8 9 10 11 12 13
Filtering area perdiskkqft) 47 67 90 117 147 180
area
Horizontal Filters
Dia(ft)' 6 8 10 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24
Area (sqft)
Nom 28 50 78 133 177 201 227 254 283 314 380 452
Liquid
Eff 25 45 65 120 165 191 217 244 273 304 372 444
in pan
a Filtrate 10-1600 Ib/(hr)(sqft).
Filtrate bAdaptable to knife, wire, string, belt, or roll discharge.
"All-plastic construction filters also available in 3 and 4 ft drum dia,
providing filter areas of 9 to 100 sqft.
All disks are composed of 10 sectors. Disk spacing is 16 in.
Scraper and blow back 'The American filter, a similar disk filter, also available in 4ft
for solids discharge diameter, with 20 sqft disk.
'Also available in 3, 4, and 11.5fI diameter.
(Dorr-Oliver Inc.).
Figure ll.U--(continued)
b)
Basket Screen
Reciprocating piston rod
'
-
Aajuslab/e
unlooder
knife
T SOIld.5
discharge
Removable
volve p/ale
- Solids discharge
(a)
Liquor discharge 'Wash discharge
(C)
Mechanism for
DRIVIW MECHANISM
I discharge
-~
Figure 11.W. Filtering centrifuges. (a) Top suspended batch centrifugal filter; the cake is scraped off the screen intermittently at lowered
rotation speeds of 50 rpm or so, cake thicknesses of 2-6 in., cycle time per load 2-3 min (McCube and Smith, Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, McCruw-Hill, New York, 1956). (b) A solid bowl centrifugal filter with continuous helical screw discharge of the cake (Bird
Machine Co.). (c) Pusher type of centrifuge in which the cake is discharged with a reciprocating pusher mechanism that operates while the
machine is at full speed (Baker-Perkim Co.). (d) Horizontal centrifugal with automatic controls for shutting off the feed, washing the cake
and scraping it off, all without slowing down the rotation (Baker-Perkin Co.). (e) Supercentrifuge for removing small contents of solids from
liquids; dimensions 3-6 in. by 5 ft, speed 1000 rps, acceleration 50,OOO g, 50-500 gal/hr, cleaned after shutdown. ( f ) Pattern of flow in a
hydrocyclone. (g) The shape of hydrocyclone adapted to the kind of service. (h) Centrifugal action of a cyclone assisted by a high speed
impeller (Voight Gmbh).
328
11.7. APPLICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF EQUIPMENT 329
CENTRIFUGAL
OUT
Concen t ra t i n g
Classifying
U
Thickening
(f)
Figure ll.U-(continued)
sEquiprnent type: (A) filter press; (B) leaf pressure filters, such as Kelly, Sweetland, etc.; (C) continuous vacuum filter; (D) batch rotary
filter; (E) continuous rotary filter.
330 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
TABLE 11.14. Design and Operating Factors for Continuous Vacuum Filters
% of Cycle
Submergence' Total
underb Max' Max ford Required
Effective Active Vac for Dewatering for Cake
Filter type Apparent Maximum or Pressure Washing Only Discharge
Drum
Standard scraper 35 30 80 29 50-60 20
Roll discharge 35 30 80 29 50-60 20
Belt 35 30 75 29 45-50 25
Coil or string 35 30 75 29 45-50 25
Precoat 35, 55, 85 35, 55, 85 93 30 10 5
Horizontal belt as req'd as req'd lengthen as req'd as reqd 0
as req'd
Horizontal table as req'd as req'd 80 as req'd as req'd 20
Tilting pan as req'd as req'd 75 as req'd as req'd 25
Disc 35 28 75 none 45-50 25
~~ ~~
(b) Typical Air Flow Rates (c) Minimum Cake Thickness for Effective Discharge
Dewatering
metallic
concentrates 8 40 - 20 - - 7
Brine
precipitate
sludge 25 12 - 1 8 90 50
Calcine leach 60 45 10 78 1 99.7 14
Uranium leach
Pulp 120 50 1-2 300 0.4 99.3 18
Cyanide leach
gold pulp 120 50 10-11 80 0.6 99.6 20
TABLE 11.16. Examples of Filter Press Performancefor Dewatering of Wastes in Municipal, Potable Water
and Industrial Effluents
Primary sewage sludge 5-25% lime with 5-15% copperas, 5-25% 3-7 4-7 40-55 25-32
lime and 3 4 % ferric chloride 1.5-2 3-6 35-50 25-32
Digested sewage sludge or 1.2% ACH(AIzO3I 2-3
Mixed sewage sludge Up to 3% aluminium chlaohydratr 3-6 upto4 30-45 32 Proportion of surplus
including surplus ( A l l 0 3 basic) activ. sludge is 40%
activated or 30% lime with 30% copperas 2-4 upto4 3040 25 b y waight
or 3-8% FECI,
Paper Mill pool effluent 10% lime, 10% copperas of 1%FECI 3 1-3 1-1.5 40-55 25
sludge
Pickling and plating sludge Up t o 10% lime i f required 1.5-3 2-3 30-45 25-32
Potable water treatment In come instances no conditioning is 3-8 0.5-3 25-35 19-25
sludge required 0.2-15% polyelectrolyte (Fre-
quently it i s possible to d e e n t large
quantities of clarified weter efter
amditioning and before filtration).
Chemicah
Alumina hydrate Top feed drum 40 450-750 I5 90 12s
Barium nitrate Top feed drum 80 1250 5 450 250
Barium sulphate Drum 40 50 30 18 Hw)
Bicarbonate of soda Drum 50 1750 12 540 300
Calcium carbonate Drum 50 I25 22 36 xx)
Calcium carbonate (precipitated) Drum 30 I50 40 36 550
Calcium sulphate Tipping pan 35 M)o 30 90 450
Caustic lime mud Drum 30 750 50 108 37s
Sodium hypochlorite Belt discharge drum 12 I50 30 54 500
Titanium dioxide Drum 30 I25 40 36 500
Zinc stearate Drum 5 25 65 54 SO0
Minerals
Frothed coal (coarse) Top feed drum 30 750 18 72 300
Frothed coal (fine) Drum or disc 35 400 22 54 375
Frothed coal tailings Drum 40 200 30 36 550
Copper concentrates Drum 50 300 10 36 525
Lead concentrates Drum 70 lo00 I2 54 550
Zinc concentrates Drum 70 750 IO 36 500
Flue dust (blast furnace) ,Drum 40 150 20 54 500
Fluorspar Drum so lo00 I2 90 375
~ ~
Notes:
The information given should only be used as a general guide, for slight differences in the nature, size range and concentration of solids. and in the nature and
temperature of liquor in which they are suspended, can significantly affect the performance of any filter.
I t should not be assumed that the type of filter stated is the only suitable unit for each application. Other types may be suitable, and the ultimate selection will
normally be a compromise based on consideration of many factors regarding the process and the design features of the filter.
The handling rate (in kg h-' m-*) generally refers to dry solids except where specifically referred to as filtrate.
The air volumes stated are measured at the operating vacuum (i.e. they refer to attenuated air).
(Osborne, 1981)
TABLE 11.18. Typical Performance Data of Rotary Vacuum Filters
DIU f l b r
Flotation coal 3343%-200 mesh 22-26 300-600 1.5 500
Copper concentrates 90%-200 mesh 60-70 250450 05 500
Magnetic concentrates 80-95%-325 mesh 55-65 1000-2000 2.5-30 6OD-650
Coal refuse 3550%250 mesh 35-40 100-125 0.6 500
Magnesium hydroxide 15 microns av. size 1(r-15 40-60 06 500
Drum flW
Sugar cane mud Limed tor flocculation 7-18 by vol. 25-75 02 500
CaCO, mud recausticisina
- - 35-40 5oo-600 18-2 250380
Corn i a r c h 15-18 microns, av. size 3242 110-150 0 9-1 560
Sewage sludge
Primary Flocculated 5-9 15-30 05 500
Primary digested Flocculated 4-7 10-20 05 509
Leached uranium ore 50-60%-200 mesh 50-60 150-220 05- 500
Flocculated
Kraft pulp Long fibre 1-li 220-300 Barometric leg
Kaolin clay 98-75%-2 micron 25-35 30-75 05 600
Belt drum filter
Sugar cane mud Seperan flocculated 7-18 by VOI. 90-250 02 500
Sewage sludge
Primary Flocculated 5-8 30-50 05 500
Primary digested Flocculated 4-7 1535 05 500
Corn gluten Self flocculating 16-20 oz/U.S. gal 15-30 06 500
Corn starch 15-18 microns, av. size 3242 180-250 0 9-1 500
Gold cyanide leached oft 65%-200 mesh 50-60 300-600 05 500
Spent vegetable carbon 98%325 mesh 1W-130 gm/litres 3G50 15 500
Dextrose processing
Steel mill dust 2040%-2 microns 4050 170300 06-1 2 500
Sodium hypochlorite Fine 12 150 09 500
Top teed drum
Iron ore concentrates 24%200 mesh 35 6300-7300 15 150
8 mesh top size
Sodium Chloride 5-10%-100 mesh 25-35 1000-1 500 30 150
Bone char 1 %-70 mesh 8-20 1200-1700 40 90
Ammonium sulphate 5-15%-35 mesh 3 W O % by vol. 1000-1700 45-60 75
TABLE 11.19. Data of Centrifugal Filters and Sedimentation Centrifuges (Purchas, 1977)
(a) Operating Ranges of Main Types of Centrifugal Filters
333
334 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION
TABLE 11.19-(continued)
(b) Criteria for Selection of Sedimentation Centrifuges
(F.A. Records).
REFERENCES U. D.G. Osborne, Vacuum filtration, in Svarovsky, Ref. 17, 1981, pp.
321-357.
1. C. Almy and W.K. Lewis, Factors determining the capacity of a filter 14. D.B. Purchas, (Ed.), Solid-Liquid Separation Equipment Scale-up,
press, Znd. Eng. Chem. 4, 528 (1912). Uplands Press, London, 1977.
2. N.P. Cheremisinoff and D. Azbel, Liquid Filtration, Ann Arbor Science, 15. D.B. Purchas, Solid-Liquid Separation Technology, Uplands Press,
Ann Arbor, MI, 1981. London, 1981.
3. R. Bosley, Pressure vessel filters, in Purchas, Ref. 14, 1977, pp. 367-401. 16. A. Rushton and C. Katsoulas, Practical and theoretical aspects of
4. D.A. Dahlstrom and C.E. Silverblatt, Continuous filters, in Purchas, constant pressure and constant rate filtration, in Gregory, Ref. 10, 1984,
Ref. 14, 1977, pp. 445-492. pp. 261-272.
5. E. Davies, Filtration equipment for solid-liquid separation, Trans. Inst. 17. L. Svarovsky (Ed.), Solid-Liquid Separation, Butterworths, London,
Chem. Eng. 43(8), 256-259 (1965). 1981.
6. J.E. Flood, H.E. Parker, and F.W. Rennie, Solid-liquid separation, 18. F.M. Tiller (Ed.), Theory and Practice of Solid-Liquid Separation,
Chem. Eng. 163-181 (30 June 1966). University of Houston, Houston, 1978.
7. M.P. Freeman and J.A. FitzPatrick (Eds.), Theory, practice and process 19. F.M. Tiller and J.R. Crump, Solid-liquid separation: an overview,
principles for physical separations, Proceedings of the Engineering Chem. Eng. Prog., 73(10), 65-75 (1977).
Foundation Conference, Pacific Grove California, 0ct.-Nov. 1977, 20. F.M. Tiller, J.R. Crump, and C. Ville, Filtration theory in its historical
Engineering Foundation or AIChE, 1981. perspective; a revised approach with surprises, Second World Filtration
8. C. Gelman, H. Green, and T.H. Meltzer, Microporous membrane Congress, The Filtration Society, London, 1979.
filtration, in Azbel and Cheremisinoff, Ref. 3, 1981, pp. 343-376. 21. R.J. Wakeman, A numerical integration of the differential equations
9. C. Gelman and R.E. Williams, Ultrafiltration, in Cheremisinoff and describing the formation of and flow in compressible filter cakes. Trans.
Azbel, Ref. 3, 1981, pp. 323-342. Inst. Chem. Eng. 56, 258-265 (1978).
10. J. Greaow ~ .Solid-Liquid Separafion, Ellis Honvood, Chichester,
- (Ed.). ,
22. R.J. Wakeman, Filter cake washing, in Svarovsky, Ref. 17, 1981, pp.
England, 1984. 408-451.
11. K.J. Ives, Deep bed filtration, in Svarovsky, Ref. 17, 1981, pp. 284- 23. R.H. Warring, Filters and Filtration Handbook, Gulf, Houston, 1981.
301. 24. Solids Separation Processes, International Symposium, Dublin, April
12. D.G. Osborne, Gravity thickening, in Svarovsky, Ref. 17, 1981, pp. 1980, EFCE Publication Series No. 9, Institution of Chemical Engineers,
120-161. Symposium Series No. 59, Rugby, England, 1980.