CORROSION OF OIL- AND GAS-WELL

EQUIPMENT
BOOK a
OF THE VOCATIONAL TRAINING SERIES

PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE

 Copyrigh t o 1958 by [he
A~1 E RICAN E'ETROLEUM I:-<STITUTE
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Wt~shington, D.C. 20037

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part of the material pub iished herein should be
addressed to the Director, American Petroleum
l nstitute. Production Oepartmenr. 211 N. Ervay.
Suite 1700. Dallas, TX 75201.

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0-a.in.. ~pp

FIRST P'RlHT1HG t9S8-tU

S(COfi OPRJHflatG 1 ~
THlft_O PRIHTIHG 1JU.-UI
,OURT'lf PflfH TlMG 1913-l.SM
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TE.HT'H PRINTING 1932--AM
 IIi

CORROSION OF OIL- AND GAS-WELIL

EQUIPMENT

Sponsored by

~ATIO:-:.\L ASSOCIATlOX OF CORROSlO~ Et\GlXEERS

and
.UIERICA~ PETROLED1 L"<STITt:TE

Published By
Production Department
AMER1CA:-i PETROLEU~ 1:-i"S'l'ITCTE
Dallas. Texas
 FOREWO RD

The Sl'lentifk approach Lo the pettoleum industry's corrosion fHoblems

has spread so rapidly that it has left bdlind it somP noticeable gaps in ulHk'l'
s Landmg bet"een teehno.logists and op~<tating petsonneL The practical value
of cotTOSion countel'lneasures, tlO matter how perfect they may bl? in t he
theoretical or labo ratory .:>l!ase. depends upon certain kaowledge and atti-
tudes on Lhe part of foremen, pumpers, well tend4ll'S, a lid indi\ iduals \\'ith
relate<! n~sponsibilities.
This manual is rlirected at tleld operating personnel. in the hope that
stead)( use 11ill enhance th e knowledg<'! and attitudes mentioned, specitically :
Appreciation qf th~ enormous cost of oil-field conosion.
Ability to l'I!COgni.ze early indlcaiions of corros ion.
Awareness 4~ f the impotta nce of early rep01i il1g.
Desire to mke elfectrve pat't in the solution.
The manual is nut intended to p1oducc technica l experts. Th erefo1eo. it
make:; full use of the srmp lest possible tP.rms and descriptions. The conuol
measures it describes arc only typical, and should not be automatically ac-
cepted as the best solution for any spec1fic problem. The ci!cumstanccs of
corrosion \'a.ry widely, and technical advice shou lr! always be sought \\'h en
causes are obscure, or eost ot seve1iry is high.
W. F. Oxjl)l'd, J 1.
T echnical Committ~e 1. Cot-rosron ot' Oil- and
Gas-\\'ell E quipment
~ational Association of Corroston Engineers

R. E. Foss
Committee on Vocational Train ing
Production Department
A merican Petroleum InstiLUte
 \'II

T \ULI:: Of C'O~ TE:\'1':::

\'

CIIAI'TEI: t <;f.\'F.!AL .-\:WEt 'TS t)F CrH:nO~I():\

T \'pes ..t (\wrosiln ..
F.to rmmit;; ol' Corm~lon Problem .. ,,,,
l111]lOI'l<ll1Ce ur fi!!ld Persorml'l Ill ( .,r.-n:.ioll-~llnt l'tll f'l''ljl'!'illll:i ;)

lllA I'TF. f: Z: S\\"EET COP.t!0:-:10:\ I

!lC:>cr.!PTIO:\ OF D.\:\U.GC: j
Ch~m,~Lry Jf r.euctwn ...
Gas-ennden~at!) \\'~lis
5 wee t Uil \\"ells - ... ... .. _ .. .!I
:O.IF.TIIODS OF EVALLHIO;.: OF E~T:\T Of THE r'HOL\LE~f 1l
Iron Conlent .. ... ... .... .... .... .... ... .l '
Cunosion TtJ:$t L'oupons. .. .... .. . ... ... ..J;,
t:quipm<jni~ Inspection . .... . .. __ .. . .. . 18
CO:.:Tf~OL :'lll.i:.-\ SCRES ... .. .... _ ... ... .... 21
Design and Operating Tedmi,rues.. .. .... .. .... . ......... ....... 11
CtHTll~ion lnhillicon. .... ... ..... ... ... ... ... ... .. .. . .. .. :.:!1
Alloys ... .... .. ... .... _ _ .......... .... ..... ....... .... ... ... ... .. .... 15
Protecti,e C.>ntings .. -. ... :.!fi
cHAPTEn ~. so c-r. com~osro:.: . ~ .. ...~ .. ........... . .. :26
DESCfllPTION OF .DA?-.!AGE... .. ..... ... .. .. .... ... ..... .... .... 2!\
Chem i,;try ot r.eact1on........... ........... .... .... . ... ......... .... ... ..... 26
Oil-well Tubing ...... ... ..... .... .... .... ... .. . .... .... _ 27
.-\ nnul;~r-sJla e Con osion ..... .... ... ... ... .... ..... .... ... .:ti
Sucker Rods ...... ......... ................... .... ... . ... .... ...... ... ....2!.1
Cas We ll:; . .... ........... .... ....... ... ... .. ..... . :.!9
S~1rface Eqmpment ...2\l
Tnjec:tlon Equipn1enl .. ..... .... .. ... .3l
:IIFTH00S OF VALUAT0;( OF E:XTEI\"T OF THI~ Plt08LE;\L .32
Annl~;t:.~ of l'roduced Fltti<!~ and Cas .. .... ..~ ....... 3~
c~tlqlel'S ... - . .. ........... . ........ .................. - - _, ..... - - ...:3~
Ct>U}>c>n::> .. .. - - ... .......... ... ,... ...... -.u . . .. .. ;12:
Equi pmenL-faHure Hecclrds .. .......... . .. ..... . ............. .......... .. .. .J:~
C'Ol\"T P.OL :O..rEASURES .. ... ....... ....... ... ..... .... ... ------- ...35
DesiJ;\'n and Ope1ating Tech niques ... ..... . __ ., ...... -... ...35
Inhibition .... .. .... ...... ..... ............ .......... ......... .... . .. ................35
~ on-melall i<.: .\laterials .. .. . .. ........ .. ................................. ....37
Economics ot' Corrosion ControL ..... .... ..... ..... ....... ......... __ _ ...3!J
CFl r\ PTEH t; OXYCEt\ CORROSTO~ ... . .. .. ..... ...........-tO
DESC RIPTIO:.: OF DA.\!AGE .. ....... .. .. - ................................ tO
Chemistry o!' Reaction ... .... ............ ............ .... .. .......... .. .....- .. JO
Oil \\'ells .. . ... ...... ..... . ...... .... ..... ... .. .. ........ .... .... . ... AO
\"iii

Dt"ill Pipe ..... ..... .. ......... ._.. ..... - ...................... It

Surface Equipment ..... ....... .......................... . ........ ........ ....... ...A~
\\'ate1-flood Injectio n Equipmen t . ......................... ...........................A:3
Offshore Operations ...... ..... . ........... .......... . ......... ................. -14
METHODS OF EVALCA1' l0N OF F:XTE:'\T OF THE PROBLDL...... lii
Thickness Jlileasuremenl ........ ............. ........... ......... ......... ......... . l5
Equipment Failures. .... ..... .......... ...... ...................... ........ ......... 45
COKTROL ~[ASURES ........- ....... ~ ............. ... ....... ....... . ..... 15
Design and Opera t lng Tech.niques ........................................................... 15
Tteatment with Corrosion Inhibitors ......... ~..................... .... ........ . .47
The L'se of Resistant Alloys....... ................ ........ ........ ...... ~ ..---"''
Cathodic ProtecLion ...... ........ ................. .. ......... .. ....... .................. -IS
Selection, Application. and Inspection of Proteclive Coatings ..............J.8
ClLA.PTER 5: ELECTROCHE~IICAL CORROSlO::\ . ...... .. ........... ~.5-i
DESCRIPTlOK OF DAMAGE .............................................................. ;:)+
Chemisl l-y of Reaction .........................................................................54
Bimetallic Corrosion .. ~..... .. ... ...... .......................................-.......... ....56
Concen tration Cells ..... .... ........ .............. ......... .................... ~ ...........60
Soil Corrosion Of Pipe and Surface Equi1>ment....................................61
Casing COlTOSion .................. ........ . ................- ..-.... ~.......... .............62
METHODS OF EVALuATION OF E:XTE:-.."1' OF THE PROBLE:\1......63
Recognizing E lectrochemical Conosion ............................................... G3
Current and Potential :-.reasurements..........._ ...................-.... ........... 63
Failun! Records .. ............................. _ ........ ~ ..........................................66
CONTROL ;yrEAS URES ............................................................................ 66
Design ...........................................- ................. .. ~ ................................. 66
Cathodic Protection ...... . ........... .............. .................. .................. ...68
ECONO:VfTCS OF CATHODIC PRO'tECTIOt\............................................73
APPEKDIX ................ ........ .......~ ....................................- ...............- ......75
PART 1: GLOSSARY OF 'il'ERMS...........................................................75
PART 2: BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................... 79
PART 3: OIL-WELL PUMP S ...............- ......................- .....................SO
PART 4: SURVEY METHODS USED tN CATHODIC-
PROTECTION STUDII&S ....................................................81
Potential lHeasurements .......................... ........ .. . ....... ..... 81
lR Drop (Curre nt Flow)-................ ....- ..........- ...- ......83
Resistance Measurements ....................................................85
Qualitative Field Test for Iron Sulfide on Steel
Equipment ....--~ ............... ~.-- ....~ ........ _ .._ __ ....85
Simplified Procedure for the Field Determination of
Hydrogen Su lfide in Water ................................................85
Field Method for Determination of Iro n (Ferrous)
in Sweet Oil-field Waters- .......----------..-.--86
ACKNO\VLEDGMENT ........--- -- -.............................................. _ ........87
 CHAPTER 1

GENERAL ASPECTS OF CORROSION

Thl.' useful lifr of oil-tielt l ~quipmcnt is oft.u shortened as a n~sult of
tnrrosiun. In tlw last ~ to Hl n!ars ~rr!at sllides 111\\'f.' been made in cor
tosion detection anrl temcrhes as ;tpplieLI to the oil field . Th1s mauual has
!.wett writtcu Lo put lhh; int'tormation ia a form l.'asr to u:;e.
In simplifier! technical t<>rm5. conosion has been defin(!{l as the rlcstntc
tion of a metal by eithe~ ~.:hemical or electrochemical reactio11 "ith its en
vitonment, Sc)me g~neral sratemcnts concerning cotTosion rates can be
briefly made.
1. Cal'l.lon 3tee! ";11 mmally conode faster than conosion-resislant al
loys Ltscd ill the <)il iield. Then> are Mtable exceptions. such as the fai lure
of stroug alloy steels in H,S systems.
Z. The ma,ior corrodents encountered in the oil field are carbon dioxide,
hrdrogen sulfide, organic acids, hrtltochloric acid, and oxygen dissohed
:n water.
3. Films or scales at the interface 01:tween metal and COITOdent influ-
ence corrosion rates. These lilms include corrosion products . . mill scale,
:md con-osion inhibitors.
J. Emironmental factors--such as chemical composition of ll'atct. tem-
peraturl!. and l'elocit>-affect t.he tace oi' cotTosion. In some cases, so-culled
natural inhibitors ptesen t in produced fluids grea tlr reduce corrosion rates.
5. Impressed voltages and stray electrical currents are often a source
ol serious corrosiOn damage.
Types of Corrosion
For practical considerations, cOlTOsion tn oil ancl gas-ll'ell production
c:a.n be classified into four main type~. each of ll'hich will be c!iscusscd in n
following chapter.
1. Sweet corrosion occLns as a 1es ult of the presence of carbon dioxide
and fatty acids. Oxrgen and hyd1ogen sulfide arc not presenL. T his type of
corrosion occurs in both gas-condensate and oil wells. rt is most freq~tently
enco untered in southern Louisiana and T..:xas, plus other scattered areas in-
di cated by the map (F ig. l). At leasl20 percent of all sweet-oil productton
and t5 percent of condensate production is co nsjdered corrosive (Fig. 2) ..
2. So1cr co1rosion is designated as corrosion in oi l and gas wells pro-
ducing even tr:1ce quantities of hydrogen sulfide. These wells may also COJl
tain oxygen, cnrbon dioxide, or organic acids. It occurs prima rily through-
out Ar buckle prorluction in Kansas and the Permian Basin of west Texas
and ~f'\1' .\{exico. AbMtt 12 percent of all sour ptoduction is considered cor-
rosive.
 CHAPTER 2

SWEET CORROSION
L'ntil recenL years, the term "sour crude'' "as used by production per-
sonnel to designate conosive fluid, and the term "sweet crude" de$ignated
noncorrosive fluid. Inasmuch as many of the wells that were previously
considered noncorrosive because of the absence of hydrogen sulfide have
become corrosive, this distinction has lost most of its accepted meaning.
Sweet corrosion, as used here, can be defined as corrosion occurring in oil
or gas wells where no iron sulfide corrosion product and no odor of H~S
occurs. Some sweet wells do contain Yery low concentrations of sulfides.
Sweet corrosion can occur in either oil or gas wells and, because their
mitigation procedures differ materially, they will be discussed separately.
To facilitate this discussion, a gas-condensate well is one in which all the
fluids enter the well bore as a vapor and an oil well is one in which all or part
of the produced fluid exists in t he liquid state in the formation. However,
it is not uncommon for gas wells to beha"e like oil wells, in the corrosion
sense, after they begin to produce salt water.
Conbolling corrosion in gas-condensate wells was one of the most press-
ing problems before the industry a few years ago. Expensive workover
jobs. damage to the reservoi1, and danger to ope:ratlng person nel all co n-
tributed to make this a serious problem. Chemical inhibitors, coatings,
and alloys have all been used to combat this problem. It is estimated that
the average cost of inhibitor is 75 cents per million cubic feet (MMcf) of gas.
Corrosion in sweet oil wells usually becomes serious a iter the wells have
produced fol' some years, and is associated with high salt.water production.
Wells usually become corrosive when water production reaches 40 to 50
percent. It is estimated that 16,000 existing gas-lift wells alone will become
corrosive and could cost the industry ~16,000,000 per year in corrosion
damage.

DESCRIPTION OF DA:\1.AGE
Chemistry of Reaction
Corrosion in gas-condensate wells is attr ibu ted to carbon d ioxide and
organic acids. Carbon dioxide (CO!} is noncorrosive in the absence of
moisture. V\lben moisture is ptesent, C0 2 dissolves and forms carbonic acid.
co. .... H,O H,C03
Carbon dioxide Water Carbonic acid
This carbonic acid causes a reduction in pH of the water which makes
it quite corrosive to steel.
Fe + H 2C0 3 FeCO~
Iron Carbon ic acid Iron carbonate
Corrosion product
8 CORI<OSION OF OJ!. ASD GASIIn.t. Qni''11EST

In addition to the acidity produced by carbon (lio::ddc, low molecular-

weight organic acids, such as acetic acid, contribute to the corrosion. These
acids are seldom considered the primary cause of sweet corrosion.
In general. the preceding statements apply to both oil and gas wells.
However, there is one minor exception. Corrosion has been expel'ienced in
some ltigh-pressure, Louisiana Gulf Coast flowing sweet oil wells that pro-
duce very little water. This corrosion has been associated with a porous
scale deposition contaming both chlorides and sulfates. A photograph of
typical scales responsible for this type of corrosion is shown in Fig. 4. The
condition of the pipe aftet removing the scale and the extent of pitting is
shown.
Because carbon dioxide plays such a prominent role in sweet corrosion,
some of the factors governing its behavior should be considered. The im-
portant factors governing the solubility of carbon dioxide are pressure,
temperature, and composition of the water. Pressure increases the solu-
bility (Fig. 5), temperature decrease;; the solubility (Fig. 6), and many
dissolved minerals may buffer the water (prevent pH reduction). In a
gas-condensate well, with almost no dissolved minerals and at relatively
high temperatures. pressure is the controlling factor in fluenc1ng carbon
dioxide solubility. In faet, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide can be
used as a yardstick to predict corrosiveness of gas-condensate wells.
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide can be determined by the
formula:
Partial pressure == total pressure x petcent carbon dioxide.
For example, in a well with a bottom-hole pres~ure of 3,500 psi and a gas
containing 2 percent CO.:
Partial pressure = 3~500 X 0.02 = 70 psi at the bottom of the well.
Using the partial pressure of cat'bon clioxide as a yaTdstick to predict
corrosion, the following te!ationship has been fotmd:
1. A partial p ressure abov-e 30 psi usually indicates corrosion.
2. A partial ptessure between 7 and 30 psi may indicate corrosion.
3. A partial pressure below 7 psi is considered non-corrosive.
The salt water usually produced by a sweet oil well contains dissolve"d
minerals and the foregoing relationship does not always apply. However,
corr osion is most often encountered where the carbon dioxide content is
high. As a first approximation, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is
useful in predicting con-osivity of sweet oil wells. Jn Fig. 7, the solubLlity
of co! in a typical sweet well has been ealculated.
Gas-condensat e Wells
Corrosion in the tubing of gas-condensate wells usually takes the form
of deep pitting, as sho\\o'Jl in Fig. 8. The tubing is attacked in sharp. well-
defined pits that may penetrate the wall completely in a relatively short pe-
riod of time. This pitting is caused by acidic gases dissolved in dro~lets
of water condensed on the t ubing wall, and the tubing below the j::.i:l: of
condensation may be relatively free of corrosion damage.
 I

<- : a o

.. '""
Fig '1- Solt.r~f.ty (0
. ...
01 Var.oc,1 Dplln ~
t,po.col 0 Well

,._ ., - :.~'"'ti c.~ ,._ w, "' ~.,., 105

lo .... 'hetef Co

.....-----------,

..

f 'I S - E'~ec of CO.: Port1ol ''"""'' " ,.t1 of

CoNfeniOit V.:ot~

...

....,.I -,, ---:..~- . . ~..,.\,11(

T't .. ,.,._
:--,:\,.::---,,.,..0--,+,
,
.,...-J...,,
Fig_ 8 - Oeu condtf\\Oit Well T~bll\g -
l'ltti"Q
10

,:, 10 - Cort01iOnEot:oa
Cteu-o.._, l

,.,. 11 (lh - c~rCK.ton-c..ton

of lll

't-fto,;12o,_('Jfht ) - Colro.Po"'
of Ct.oke Body

- - ~-- - --- _ ., ,. ___ _ """'

. , ' '.
- ... ; - .. . . . . .
10

f,t tO- Corto....troaift

of CrOll-OYff r

'10 9- Ri"'owotr~ Cotrosion

''9 11 {left) - Corro.s:fgn.f rolicn

of 11

fg . 12 ,,~e! J -C:or-r~-...
_,..._.cr Ceoq. ~

.. -- - . ~- --- ---- _.-_,_._

. . ~ (.

~ ~ ' - .. .. . .. -~. '

Plo, 13 Corrodon-frosion o f Tubing Walt Opposiro Tubing Parfa~~tiotl

 11

Another type of conosion sometimes found in the tubing of gas-con-

densate wells is known as ..!ingworm" corrosion. As the term implies, the
corrosion occurs in a ring a few inches from the upset, as shown in Fig. 9.
This corrosion may take the form of v"ny smooth corrosion or severe pit-
ting near the upset. The cause of "tingworm" corrosion has been traced
t;o the upsetting process. The heat required in upsetting causes the heated
end to have a different grain structure from the rest of the pipe. A transi-
tion zone in grain .structure near the upset nmollt is usually susceptible
to conosion. This condition can be <)Vercome by fully normalizing the tub-
ing after upsetting. ;\ormalizing is a heat treatment that gives uniformity
to grain structure.
Another type of corrosion damage is commonly called ''sand-cutting" or
erosion . Although sand-cutting does sometimes occur as a purely mechani-
cal action, the damage usually seen is a combination of corrosion a.nd ero-
sion. This type of damage is illustrated in Fig. lO to 13, incl. Damage of
this type usu:Jlly is found near a restriction (such as a choke) where veloci-
ties and turbulence are higher than normal. Corrosion ptoducts that nor -
mally stifle the cono~ion rear.:tion are removed and corrosion continues
unabated. As would be expected, damage of this type is most prevalent in
the wellhead fittings, but experience has proved that velocity also has con-
siderable effect on corrosion in the tubi ng. In one field, it was shown that
increasing the gas velocil~ 3.7 times increases the corrosion rate 5 times.
Sweet Oil Wells
Corrosion damage to sucker rods in sweet oil wells may take the form
of sever e pitting, as.shown in Fig. I.f. to 16, incl.: or the damage may be in
the form of tine cracks thal are not so obvious, as shown in Fig. 17. In many
areas, pin-and-coupling failuras are a major sou1ce of trouble (Fig. 18 to
23. incl.). Fig. 2.t and 25 show body conosion-erosion of a coupling and
alloy rod.

fie. 14 - Severe Plui"g of Sudttr loci's

Fiv. l.S- Sev,... Pi"ing of Suciutr Rods

... . .._, ...

~

: :~ .~,~~ -. '
. . ~~ ... ~ ._ "r ~.]' -,:;-"'i;"~~..;:" _: ... r _ ' '
'"
~

Ao. 16 - Swet Pitting with Corrosion~c01i.on

12

Fig, 18
Pin Sreck
Fig . l 9

fig 20 (feft} - Cquplin~threod

s~eo k

f1g. 21 (obove) - Corro$ion Wear oi Coupling

f'ig. 22 - Sevete C<>rrosion d C<>upling

f ig. 23 - Upsc1 Brook$

Fig. 2Za- Corrosion Of AllOy Coup ling in SWe!:!l fig. 24- C-orro~io11Eros ion of Co~plillg
Condens.ate WclJ

Fig. '25 - Co.rrc>sion-Erosion of Allo.y Rod

 2. SWEF!1' COJIKOSION

Damage to the tubing in pumping wells may take the form of pitti)
rod wear, or a combination of the two. Pitting o( the tubing in sweet:J
wells (Fig. 26 and 27) is similar to that in gas-condensate wells. FailuJ
nttributed to rod wear are usually the result of both rod wear and cora
sion (Fig. 28 and ~9). The sucker rod rubs the tubing ai1Cl temoves Cl
rosion products that could stifle the corrosion reaction, thus allowing cl
rosion to proceed. The first external evidence of this condition is a spli(J
crack in the lubing walL The special problem of pump corrosion and wa
Is rlis<.:ussed in the Appendix ( p. 80).
Probably the most sel'iou s sweet-oil corrosion problem is in gas-
wells. These wells are usually deep, with high bottom-hole pressures
correspondingly high partial pressure of carbon dioxide. They also
usually high water producet-s. This problem is oftE-n accelerated by the
jected gas-lift gas 11hich may contain smRil amou nts oxygen. A sev or
corroded gas-lift valve equalizer tube is pictured In Fig. 30. The gas.!:
problem is doubly seer e because it is difficult to get chemical treatme
down the annulus and below Llle gas.Jift ''alves. This p1oblem will be
cussed in more detail undet tleating techniques.

fig. 26

$e~teT$ PiUtflg of Tubing in Sweot Otl Wells

fig. 28 (lft) - Corrosion Wor

of Tubing
Wet:Jr off on one ~proteclive
uol in I Clef on o1hor.

fig, .29 (right) - (omuion Wear

of Tubing
Wear ho$ ben severe ot u v,.rol
po;nh.
 CORROSIO~ OF <liL- AND GASWt.LL EQL'IPM&:<T

Fio. 30- Equalizer Tube trcm o Go,.llh Volvo

METHODS OF EVALUATION OF EXTENT OF THE PROBLEM

A number of tests have been devised to detect corrosion and to deter-
mine its severity. The ultimate goal of this work is to be able to predict
corrosion before severe damage occuts. By use of all the lecr.niques de-
scribed belo\\", a reasonable prediction of severity of corrosion can be made.
lron Con tent
Analysis of produced water to determine the irotL conlll1ll is a useful
means of predicting corrosion. However, there are a number of factors that
should be considered when using th1s method of determination. The iron
content of water from a gas-condensate well has more significance than
the iron content of w-aLer from a sweet oil well. Thi~ is to be expected, be-
cause there is usually very little bottom water to contl"ibute impurities.
Though the iron content of condensate waters varies widely, a surve~- by the
NGA...-\ gave an average oi 310 ppm~ fot corrosive wells and 125 ppm
for noncorrosive wells. rn practice, many corrosive we!Js have as little as
100 ppm iron. It has been possible to reduce it:on content of corrosive
wells to as low as 10 to 25 ppm by effective inhibition. ln oil wells, iron
content of corrosive wells may range from 5 ppm up to several hundred
parts per million where large concentrations of iron are present in forma-
tion water.
The occasional fail ure of iron counts to coaelate with corrosion fail-
ures can best be explained by considering the lypes of attack. If the cor-
rosion is a uniform metal removal, the iron count can be high but the dam-
age to equipment relatively small. On the other hand, if the corrosion dam-
age results in deep pits, the iron count may be low but the damage severe.
Also, the amount of water produced has considerable bearing on the in-
terpretation of iron-content data. Ob'Yiously 5 ppm iron in l,OOO bbl of
water represents far more corrosion than 50 ppm in 10 bbl of water. To
reduce iron content to a comparative basis. the iron content is conYerted
to pounds of iron being removed pe1 day. ln this ins tance, iron losses
can be eadily determined using the nomograph in Fig. 31. For example:
.. P.a!'t'$ per miiHon.
 2. SWEET CORROSIO,; 15

With a ruler, draw a line from 5 ppm in Col. 1 to 1,000 bbl per day in Col.
3. This line intersects the middle column at 1.8 lb of iron removed per day.
The principal value of iron analysis is not in predicting extent of corrosion,
but in determining changes in corrosivity. For example, iron analyses are
userul in showing increased corrosivity as water production increases, or
fol' evaluating the effectiveness of inhibitors. Such data arc shown in Fig
32, which has been plotted from data for the North McCollum Field.
lro11-content data a1e no better than the technique used in obtaining
and m1alyzing the sample and the analytical procedure. In all cases, sam-
ples should be take11 from representative flowing fluids and not stagnant
systems. Samples taken at the well head are usually superior to all others..
If the well must be sampled at a separator and a long flow line is involvedJ
some correction wi ll have to be made for the iron pickup or loss in the flow
line. Regardless of where the sample is taken, provisions sllould be !llJLde.
for cleaning the sampler before a sample is taken. In some cases, bottomf
hole samples are necessary to establish presence of iron in formation waterl
Corrosion Test Coupons
The corrosion test plate or "coupon" is another tool used to evaluat~
corrosion. The coupon is a small specimen of metal, usually low-carbo~
steel, which is exposed to the well fluids for 2- to 4-week periods. The lo
in weight is used a& a measure of corrosion and ls reported as mils ~
year" (mpy) penetration. This method of evaluation assumes that the coi:
rosion is uniform, which may not be true because the loss in weight m~
be caused by pi tting. The visual appearance and maximum p it depth o
the coupon is usually reported along with the weight loss. The calculatioq
of corrosion rates from coupon weight-loss data is made according to .t!lj
following eqLJation:
weight of metal removed (grams) x 1,000
mpy = specific gravity of met.al :< H?-387 x area x years
(g/ cc) (cc/cu in.) (sq in. ) (days/365
For a +,;-in. x l-in. x 8-in. mild steel coupon:
/
weight loss (grams) x 365 x 1,000
mpy = days x '7.86 x 16.387 x @'"~
weight loss (grams) X 365,000
days x 2,138.08
weight loss (grams) X 166
ropy=
days
Typical welll1ead coupon installations are shown in Fig. 33. In come ca~
coupot~ are electrically insl.!lated from wellhead equipment by use..iil
plas1!!: hdders.
lti C<IM0$1JS 01 OIL A:O.LI G-Wt:LL EQLIJ")J~:<T

10000

1000
>000
roo
lQOO
1)0
l OCO
~

JI)O

1:10
- ~

soo
roo

l
2 00

>0
.5
.l )Q

tO

tO
.Ol
.02

0 '
)
::>e>
.00> l
.CC2
)

-'''"
.000> IAIIUitl,.$
I
...,11~/0o\f
.!!O(lZ ( 4t. ~ ' ~
 .' ,,
:. lO

.~ ~
'o
~ ...~~ ~ ~ ~ Tubing SlOP
dg, ~2 - Corrlarlo, of I rof'l C<1nte-n I D'1d Coupon
CorrOti:)J'I. R:ott tot N.:,tth M<C-o11~o~m fio-fod

9 " Coupon

Fig. 34- Wlre.llnt>oroed Tubl~ StO!

Fig.. :13 - 1ypi<~;~t Wdlhe-cd Co.vpon lnnoUo110nl Adopted ('H Downhol~ Co upon ,HoJd'tr

One obvious limitation----------------~

of coupons is that they indicate the cotTosio
ratr' only a;: Lhe point of exposute. A number of operatots ha,"e used su
surface installaLions lo obtain t:"ates at various depths. This technique b
proved to be valuable Co~ special studies, but is too expensive for touti
use. A down-hole coupon tnst.allation which can be run using standar
wirP-Iine equipment is as shown in Fig. 34. Typical data !lbtained usin
surface and tlo\l"n-ho!e coupons a1e illustrated in Fig. ~5.
Scale anrl paraffin depositions on the coupon can produce e!Tonco~
indications. These factors sholllrl be considered when evaluating a cou
survey. Also the fact that the conosion rate indicated by the coupon is
...,lative figure, becaus<! coupon stet'! is not identical to tubing. must not
o~\erlooked. Even with these limitations, corrosion coupons pro\'ide usefu
il.fonnation especially wlwn used for comparative purposes such as in in
: oibt!.ot e-.p '"ation.
18

..................

J
,~ .... .,......

e n''" c......
Qc "' ..." ,: . .., .,.,_
..... II+I'
t" ~

fig. 3.5 - Coupon tn.uollotion ;~ w.n flg~36 - fcee-l~u ol rig_, 30o- lubr-icor;on of Tobl"'9
Prodvc:'ld hy Gotfih '"bing Caliper Co1iper into High.prvrc W~~!~l

Equipment Inspection
Calipl'l' 8urveyll are widely used as an index of corrosion. Within the
l!mitations of th<! tool. tl1e sUITey is a direct ml!asurement of the damage
that has occuned in the subsurface equipment. The tool, as shown fn Fig.
36. consists of a number of peripheral feeler s which hear against the ianet
sm1ace of the pipP. The feelers aetuate a stylus th2t records the grea~:est
pit depth at the location of the feelers. The possibility of the feelers miss-
ing soma pits or only partly entering other pits must be considered. Also,
scale or corrosion product.-; can mask the tl'ue condition ot the pipe. Usual- .
ly, a consideration of pit depth and genetal condition of the pipe is a better
approach than using a literal pit-by-pit interpretation. Calipet surveys
are most valuable when used compat'atively. SeveraJ typical surveys are
shown in Fig. 37 to 40. incl.
The use of caliper surveys in coated tubing is considered a poor prac-
tice. The feele~s are ha1d metal and bear against the pipe with considerable
force. Damage to the coating usually occurs at the end of the joint as the
feelers spring out into the collar.
There is a real danger in tunning calipers in cot'TOsive wells which will
not subsequently be treated with inhibitors Caliper feelers rem ove pro-
tective scales and a1lo" corrosion to occur in the feeler backs. A photo-
graph of such a phenomenon is shown in Fig. 11 and 42.
The benefits obtained from an actual equipment inspecUon should uot
be overloo.ked. This procedme is mosl applicable to surface equipment and
may indicate that a corrosive condition exists before equipment failures
occur. This type of evaluation is especially useful in gas-eond~nsate wells
where corrosion is aggravated by turbu lence. It: coupon and iron-analysts
data indicate cor rosion, inspection of the e-quipment should be made.
 j y!

I
I
~~:..
: ..' ~

. . .
~:.
l
-....
~;-:t ' ..
f
~\~\ ..
cf '}
.,'
'
' ..:!>
\ i
.'

l
-. :
~

.. "
,~,
:
;,. '
..
I
,,
1

Fig, 41 - Co rto~io n in Cc!ipor foc l~ar

ttack' of Unin.bibhd Well

A<:curate records of equipment failures cam1ot be over-stre::1sed as

means of evaluating a conosion problem. H accurate records have
kept, many tiU]CS a pattern of corrosion can be discovered befme individ
failures are sufficiently outstanding to indicate that a problem exists.
some types of wells, performa nce of equipment is the best and cheapest w
of evaluating corro:>ion and corrosion preventives.
CO NTROL MEA..SURES
Desi.gn and Operating Techniques
Design and operating techniques can be used to combat cotTosion in
ways. The original design can be chosen: 1 , to reduce the severit)' of
rosion: and 2. to allow miUgnlion procedures to be easily applied If
rosion appears in a well. Selection of tubing to reduce cor rosion caused
high flow rates, designing the cluistmas tree and surface flow lines to
duce turbulence, nnd designing rod strings are all applications of this pri
ciple. Sometimes the water-oi I ratio can be reduced by squeezing off wa
bearing formations. Poor or questionable operating techniques can be
difference betwen success or failure of a mitigation program.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are used extensively in both oil and gas wells
reduce corrosion damage to subsurface equipment. Most of the inhibi
used in the oil field are of th e so-called "polar organic" type. All of
major inhibito1 suppliets no,.,.. Clln furnish effective inhibitors for the
vention of sweet corrosion as encoun tered in most fields. These ca n be pu
cha~eri as eilher oil-soluble. warer-dispe1sible, or water-soluble. The mai
22 CoRROSIO:< 0!' 011. .\~0 GASWt:w. EQI.lll')IE:<T

factm to be coo5ider ed is the selection of ~he proper inhibitor application

procedwe.
Wells. either flowing or pumping. completed without a packer are usual-
ly treated by dumping lhe chemical down the annulus so that it drops to
the well bottom and enters th: tubi ng with produced flu ids (.Fig. 43). The
chemical is sometimes nusned down with well fluid. In some situations it
has been most successful to use oil-soluble inhibitors; in other cases, water-
dispersible inhibitors. Inhibitors in pellet form have iecentir been intro-
duced. Very liLt le conchtsive data are ye t available. It is difficult to make
rules governing the selection of the best inhibitor type for a given well or
field.
ln gas-lift wells the1e is a special problem of getting the inhibitor to
drop beiO\\- the gas-lift valves without entering the tubin g through the
\alves (Fig. 44L This results in protection of only that portion of the tub-
Ing above the valves. The use of oil-i.nsoluble inhibitors heavier than bl'ine
and the use of weighted peHets have been suggested for getting inhibitor
past these valves.
Wells with the annulus packed off present an entirely different problem.
Inhibitor cannot be injected in to the annvlar space (Fig. 4:5) . i\Iethods that
have been used to inject cheJTIJcal In this type well inclllde :
1. Pump a slug of inhibitor solution rapidly down the tubing while
well is shut in for at least 1 hour. A system for rapidly pumping in-
hi.bitor into h igh-pressure wells is usually mounted on a truck or
t railer as shown in Fig. 46.
2. Lubri~ate inhibitor sticks into the tubing and allow to drop to bot-
torn wfi'ere they melt while well is shut in. Sticks with a variety of
melting points are avai.lable. A stick lubricator is pictured in Fig. 17.
3. Put liquid inhibitor concentrate in a tool which takes inhibitor to
bottom. This tool can be wire-line operated or a free-falling tool.
Th.e forego ing procedures are a lso a pplicable to dually completed
wells using parallel strings (F ig. 48).
4. One of the more recent developments is the injector valve which Op
erates on a predetermined pressure differential incorporated in the
t ubing string ,i ust above tho packer (Fig. 49). The annulus is filled
with inhibitor solution. The well is treated by pumping chemical
into the annulus which applies the necessary pressure to the injector
valve. After the pressure is removed from the casing, the vahe
closes. It is important that the annulus be carefully cleaned of loose
scale, paraffin, and mud pl'ior to running this valve.
5. Inhibitor is injected oown the hole in a small st-ring parallel to the
tubi.ng in the same manner as a Kobe-pump parallel string.
6. An extra string of tubing is run inside of th e regu lar tubing. Jnhibi-
tor is injected into the annulus between the two tubing strin_gs ind
production is through the inner stting.
 METHODS OF E\' ALUA1'10.:-.i OF EXH;NT OF' THE PR013LEM
Analys is of Produced Fluids and Cas
When a corrosion fai lure occurs in eqUipment handling sour produc-
tion, the damage ca11 generally be attributed at least in part to hydrogen
sulfide attack. However, no exact conclation of conosion with the amount
of H.S, CO. , or water production bas been obtained. Analysis of produced
fluid~ will si10w whether hydrogen sulfide is present. .Expenence has shown
that t l'<ict!s of H~S are pl'esent in many "sweet" wel ls and react so rapid ly
with either dissolved iron in the wate1 or the well'S equipment that none
IS detectable in the production. An im:reasing number of cases are being
found ll'here iron sulJide in tubing seale is the only indication of sulfide.
The pre,;ence of black iron sulfide 111 the brine or ns a scale on the equip-
mem is positive evidence of sulfide GOITDsion. Because of the adherent. in-
soluble nature of the scale, the extent of corrosion cannot be accurately
evaluated by quantitative determination of the iron sulfide. The iron sui-
tide has been shown to concent rate at tha oil-water interface. Iron tests
on the produced oil and water may be of minot value if enough tests can
be taken on a given well to arrhe at some stntisti~al analysis oi data. Gen-
erally. this method is too time-consuming an d costly to be of apprecia ble
value to the field in determining corrosion tates in sou1 wells. Unless tile
corrodmg equipment is subjected to high-velocity tluid flow, some scale
can be found on the metal surfaces. The o;cale may vary from tiny spots in
the pits to continuous !ayers 118 in. or more thick. Detection of the scale
mar be hindered by thl! presence of oil and other material and by rapid
oxidation when the scale is exposed to air.
Calipers
Because of the insoluble nature or the conosion products, the use of
mechanical calipers to determine the extent and degree of corrosion does
not give accurate results. The calipet may not be able to dislodge the scale
and the record shows no corrosion. Othe1 times, only a fraction of the true
pit; depth is indicated. Some ope r ators run a wire brush ahead of the caliper
to remove the loose scale, thereby inctensing the accuracy of the tool. It is
generally understood that the log obtained with such a caliper is optimistic
and more of a qualitative than a quantitative indication of corrosion. Cali-
pers can be used to record red Lid ion in wall thick11ess resulting ftom box
wear.
Coupons
Wellhead co upons have been used in obtaini ng qual itative indications
of cortosion tates. ~a general rule, the sutface coupons installed as shown
in lhe manner described on p. 15 and 17 of Chapter 2 do not represent actual
conditions of corrosion under su bsurface condit ions. Quantitative data from
coupon exposure are difficult to obtain. partly because of lack of repre
sentative wetting of the coupon. Coupons do, howe,e1, give indication
that conosion may be occ urring (Fig. 72). The use of calibrated rod and