Clin Oral Invest (1999) 3: 16
REVIEW
W. E. Gerabek
The tooth-worm: historical aspects of a popular medical belief
Received: 18 February 1998 / Accepted: 19 October 1998
Abstract The concept of a tooth-worm, which according
to popular belief, caused caries and periodontitis, has ex-
isted in diverse cultures and across the ages. During the
Enlightenment, however, the theory of the tooth-worm was
assigned by medical doctors almost exclusively to super-
stition. Even so, the idea that toothache was caused by
gnawing worms held on even into this century. There were
many different ideas with regard to the appearance of tooth-
worms. In England, for instance, it was thought that the
tooth-worm looked like an eel. In Northern Germany,
people supposed the tooth-worm to be red, blue, and gray
and in many cases the worm was compared to a maggot.
The gnawing worm was held responsible for many evils
and, in particular, was blamed for toothache provoked by
caries. The question is discussed of how the belief in the
existence of the tooth-worm in former times can be ex-
plained. In popular medicine, numerous therapies were
applied in order to eradicate the tooth-worm. In addition
to the fumigations with henbane seeds, which allowed the
tooth-worm to develop in the form of burst seeds, there
were also magical formulas and oaths.
Key words Tooth-worm Toothache Caries later times. For example, Nicol Nicoli Falcucci, who
Periodontitis Popular medicine Medical superstition
The origin
According to Townend (1944), the idea of the tooth-worm
developed in the Near East and spread from there through-
out the world ([44], p. 58). Paul Diepgen, however, be-
lieves that Ancient Egypt was the source of the tooth-worm
story. He writes, Since parasites have appeared very of-
ten in Egypt the worm has become the main symbol of all
diseases. The frequent occurrence of parasites and the sci-
W. E. Gerabek
Institute for the History of Medicine,
Bayerische Julius-Maximilians-Universitt Wrzburg,
Oberer Neubergweg 10 a, D-97074 Wrzburg, Germany
Springer-Verlag 1999
ence of the humors of the body were the reason for the dis-
astrous, long lasting opinion that worms come into being
in any place within your body as soon as there are spoiled
humors. ([10], p. 20). Kobusch states in his dissertation,
published in 1955, that it is uncertain where the belief in
the tooth-worm originated. He doubts that research will be
able to answer this question ([29], p. 8).
Appearance of the tooth-worm
Belief in the evil worm has existed in diverse cultures and
across the ages. For example, both very advanced civil-
izations as well as people living in the Roman Empire and
the Middle Ages believed in the tooth-worm ([21, 23], vol.
1, p. 182; vol. 2, p. 838). In Germany, for instance, the
term zanewurm can be found in ninth and tenth century
literature ([42], vol. 3, p. 503; vol. 4, p. 367, [22], p. 834].
In her book Causae et curae, Hildegard von Bingen men-
tions the tooth-worm as a possible cause of dental caries
([29], p. 10). Patients spoke of the monster as well in
lived in Florence during the Renaissance and who died in
1412, reported on the problem of tooth-worms ([43], p.
138). The belief that a worm developed in a bad tooth,
started to pick immediately and then died as soon as it
came into contact with air can be traced back to Paracel-
sus [3, vol. 9, col. 849]. We meet the parasite again in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ([22], p. 834): Al-
brecht von Haller talks about the tooth-worm in his
Onomatologia medica, which was written about 1750
([20], vol. 2, p. 544).
During the Enlightenment, however, doubt arose about
the existence of the tooth-worm. Pierre Fauchard, who was
born in Bretagne and worked as a dentist in Paris, rejected
the theory of the worm in his epochal two-volume work
Le Chirurgien dentiste ([43], p. 189) which was published
in 1728. Fauchard thought that the cause of caries was not
the tooth-worm. In his opinion, the reasons for dental car-
ies were different internal and external physical conditions
2
([43], p. 189) which he wanted to study by using precise
scientific research methods. From the middle of the eight-
eenth century (or more precisely, from the time everything
was considered from a scientific aspect) Fauchards opin-
ion was widely accepted by those who were skilled in med-
icine and who were carrying out precise empirical research.
During the following era the theory of the tooth-worm
was assigned almost exclusively to superstition. Although
medical doctors havent really believed in the existence of
actual tooth-worms since the Age of Enlightenment, the
idea that toothache was caused by gnawing worms held on
even into the present century ([4], p. 31).
There were many different ideas regarding the appear-
ance of a tooth-worm. In England, for instance, it was
thought that the tooth-worm looked like an eel. In North-
ern Germany, people supposed the tooth-worm to be red,
blue, and gray ([3], vol. 9, col. 849) and in many cases the
worm was compared ([11], vol. 7, p. 496, [9], p. 341, [22],
p. 651) to a maggot ([22], p. 651). The gnawing worm was
held responsible for many evils and, in particular, it was
blamed for toothache provoked by caries. It was also con-
sidered to be the cause of headache ([22], p. 834). The fa-
mous Flemish surgeon Jan Yperman (who died about 1330)
claimed to have observed that the moving worms caused
suppuration in the teeth.
Explanation of its existence
How can the belief in the existence of the tooth-worm in
former times be explained? During the imperial era in
Rome Scribonius Largus, the famous medical doctor and
physician to the Emperor Claudius, wrote (from 43 to 48
A.D.) a prescription book which was called De composi-
tione medicamentorum and dedicated to his patron Cal-
listus. Scribonius Largus suggested methods to relieve the
pain suffered from a toothache. He mentioned palliatives
that included fumigations, rinsings, and fillings. These
palliatives also formed the basis for the production of rem-
edies that were to be chewed. In particular, Scribonius rec-
ommended henbane for relief of toothaches. The Romans
sometimes called this herb herba dentaria ([17], col.
1918) because it was often used for toothaches, while in
Tyrol one spoke of a tooth-herb and in Carinthia (an-
other region of Austria) the Apollonia-herb (Apollonia
is the patron of toothache) ([32], p. 224). Scribonius gave
the following instructions for a fumigation, distribute
henbane-seeds onto coal, allow the smoke to come to the
teeth, and rinse again with lukewarm water. While spit-
ting out afterwards, there may occur sometimes tiny
(tooth-)worms.
Karl Sudhoff gave the following explanation:
In the Orient (for instance in Avicennas Canon apparently substantiated by accidentally made observa-
medicinae) ([43], p. 118) and in the Occident (in medie-
val England, e.g. Gilbertus Anglicus) ([43], p. 128) the
blackish seedcorn of this narcotic plant has been spread on
the glowing coal and it was inhaled into the open mouth
as vapor fumigation. This process gave again and again the
opportunity to demonstrate the tooth-worms as materia
peccans in a tricky way. Within the heat and humidity of
the hot coals the seeds developed into white little threads
the tooth-worms! The pain would get better thanks to
these herba dentaria ([43], p. 95).
The tooth-worm was not only regarded as a source of
evil due to its characteristics, it was also used as a medi-
cation. Scribonius Largus, for instance, referred to the
tradition of applying gnawing worms on bad teeth. The
Roman medical doctors thought that they could get rid of
bad teeth quicker this way and that this loss of teeth helped
the patient get well faster ([29], p. 10]. In the Middle Ages,
we encounter this idea again. In Avicennas (9801037)
Canon medicinae, one is advised to spread cabbage but-
terfly caterpillars on the hollow teeth, which are supposed
to fall out soon. The Persian reported that, in fact, sick teeth
fall out after a few days ([299, p. 10); but certainly, this
didnt happen because of the caterpillars!
We can learn more about the development of the belief
in tooth-worms and how, 200 years ago, they were con-
ceived to be by consulting Grimms Deutsches Wrterbuch
(Grimms dictionary). According to the entry for Zahn-
wurm, the tooth-worm is viscous lymph which is squeezed
out of the blocked pores of the teeth by the contracting
strength of fumigation. The fumigation was the result of
the henbane seeds which wwere distributed on coal. This
lymph might actually be the viscous sulcus liquid which is
visible with periodontitis ([12], vol. 31, col. 188). It is, of
course, not tenable and no longer accepted to assert that a
viscous liquid can escape out of pores within the tooth.
There is a reference in the Handwrterbuch des deutschen
Aberglaubens (Concise Dictionary of German Super-
stition) that in Mecklenburg, Swabia, and Franconia, for
example, the hanging pulpa was considered to be a little,
living worm ([3], vol. 9, col. 849). The hanging pulpa was
probably only an encapsulated abscess. The Deutsche
Krankheitsnamen-Buch (book of names of illnesses) of
Hfler explains the tooth-worm in a similar way. In former
times, if a hollowed tooth was inflamed the pulpa dentis
was killed like a worm by cauterization with a thin
wire. The idea of gray, blue, white, red, or black tooth-
worms is attested in numerous German blessings. The
worm might also be explained in a different way, with re-
spect to the tooth germ. The teeth are gnawed by these
germs, which are similar to worms, and can be imagined
as hanging onto the pulled out, hollowed, resting teeth
([22], p. 834). It is strange that, in the last century, the lar-
vae of a fly named Sacophila Wohlfarti that look similar
to worms were observed in the gums of Russian farmers
([32], p. 221).
In summary, it is very likely that one concluded that
there must be a concrete reason as soon as the first pain
occurred. The assumed cause of the gnawing worm was
tions ([29], p. 9).

Therapy
Medication
In popular medicine, numerous therapies were applied in
order to eliminate the tooth-worm, which according to pop-
ular belief, caused caries and periodontitis. In addition to
the above mentioned fumigations with henbane seeds,
which allowed the tooth-worm to develop in the form of
burst seeds, there were also magic formulas and oaths used
in different writings. There are many interesting references
to the widespread preparation of medicine out of the ingre-
dients of henbane in medieval writings: swem wurme di
zende holnt unde die bilaere (Zahnfleisch) ([12], vol. 2,
col. 24, cf. bilern) ezent ([13], vol. 1, p. 325: swem di
zene holen unde di piler [for whom the worms excavate
the teeth and the gums]), also: weme die wrme die cyene
hlen unde di bilbar ezzen, nime bilsenole unde bere daz
mit wahse unde mach eine cherzen unde stecke die in eine
schuzel, d ein luzel wazers inne s: s diu cherze enbrinne,
s habe die zende dr uber, s vallent die wurme alle in daz
wazer ([25], p. 185, 38, p. 139, 22, p. 834). If the worm
hollows the teeth and eats the gums, you should take hen-
bane-oil and knead it with wax and form a candle out of it.
Put the candle into a bowl filled with a little bit of water:
As soon as the candle burns, you must hold your teeth over
it and the worms will fall into the water. As a consequence
of this therapy the toothache would supposedly wear off.
This so-called henbane- or tooth-worm candle was used
for a long time in popular medicine. Johann van Segen [28]
also spoke of it in his book of medication ([1], p. 110,
no. 374: weder den worm jn den ten [against the worm
within the teeth]).
What is the reason for the pain-relieving effect of the
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) [18, p. 33]? In a commen-
tary referring to the Deutsche Arzneibuch (German
Pharmacopoeia) of 1874 the plant, which is found all over
Europe, is described:
The henbane is a narcotic related to the belladonna. Its
effect concerns mainly the blood circulation while the
pulse rate decreases. On the other hand, it is effective as a
sedative and as a sleeping draught. Although there exist
similarities to opium, the henbane doesnt hold back the
bowel movement like opium does. The henbane is, there-
fore, applied internally as well as externally to spasmodic
and inflammatory sufferings of the respiratory tract, the di-
gestive system, and the urinary apparatus.
Concerning the henbane seeds the Deutsche Arznei-
buch says:
The henbane-seeds are in its effects like the henbane
but its dose has to be less than the one of the henbane be-
cause the content of Hyoscyamine is three times more in-
tensive. Usually, the medical doctor prescribes the hen-
bane-seeds as a seed emulsion In many areas, the hen-
bane-seeds constitute a very popular way of fumigation
having a favorable effect on the pain of hollow teeth. The
seeds are distributed on glowing coal, then the vapor is
conducted by means of a sheet metal funnel to and into the
3
hollow tooth. As a result, the worms should fall out of the
so treated tooth ([41], p. 186).
Note the commentators skeptical attitude with regard
to the tooth-worms. In the 1930s henbane seeds were still
used for toothache ([41], p. 187).
The effects of the plant have been known from ancient
times. After henbane was given to a person, it was observed
that he or she suffered from hallucinations, talked incoher-
ently, and sometimes even went raving mad. Now and
then, the patient became drowsy or even unconscious ([32],
p. 220). The hyoscyamine of the henbane develops its ef-
fect by fumigation. The substance contained in the vapor
paralyzes the sensitive ends of the nerves, which means
hyoscyamine works as a local narcotic. At an appropriate
concentration, an effect can be achieved which is like that
of well-known narcotics, e.g. Novocain. The fumigation
of henbane therefore acts as a surface narcotic, which is
pain-deadening, or can even temporarily eliminate pain in
the area of the mouth and teeth. This works for painful mu-
cous membrane diseases as well as for diseases of the gin-
giva, such as aphthae or acute marginal periodontitis. How-
ever, it is hard to imagine that acute periapical ostitis or a
severe pulpitis (Pulpitis acuta serosa totalis, inflammation
of the pulpa), i.e., conditions accompanied by the classi-
cal toothache, could be alleviated by the fumigation of
henbane. The hyoscyamine contained in the vapor is not
so highly concentrated that it could spread into the pulpa
through dentine attacked by caries, or even further through
an already destroyed pulpa, into the periapical zone ([31],
p. 51).
In popular medicine of the Middle Ages and in modern
times as well various medicinal plants such as myrrh were
used to combat the tooth-worm. It is interesting that tansy
(Tanacetum vulgare L.) was prescribed for illnesses sup-
posedly caused by tooth-worm. Tanacetum vulgare was
used in popular medicine because of its biochemical effic-
tivity as a remedy against worms or maggots. In some ar-
eas, it was also given the name worm fern because the
plant could destroy worms. It is important to differentiate
between this worm fern and the actual worm fern, Aspi-
dium Filix-mas, which is used to eradicate tapeworm. In
the area of Geilenkirchen (Germany) crushed blossoms of
the tansy were even put on a slice of bread and butter and
eaten as a remedy against worms [33, col. 590]. Only re-
cently, the efficicacy of Tanacetum vulgare as a remedy for
worm diseases has been confirmed. The thujone and the
bitter constituent tanacetin are the effective components in
the essential oil, the Oleum Tanaceti, taken in combination
with a piece of sugar or with castor-oil. This medicine
should be handled with caution because the content of
thujone could cause death by poisoning. The Tanacetum
vulgare was also used against supposed tooth-worms be-
cause of its effectiveness against intestinal worms.
Why, from todays perspective, were certain medical
preparations used to treat an imaginary tooth-worm? The
henbane was used mainly because of its pain-relieving ef-
fects. It was taken in order to combat toothache. The tooth-
worm was considered to be the cause of the pain, in par-
ticular in reference to caries; therefore, it was thought that
4
the analgesic effect of the henbane was based on its capa-
bility to kill worms. In the case of myrrh or tansy, there is
an analogy between intestinal worms, on the one hand, and
imaginary illnesses of the teeth caused by tooth-worms, on
the other. Remedies used against intestinal worms were
considered as a remedy against the tooth-worm. The for-
get-me-not was also prescribed for various illnesses caused
by worms. The anthelminthic served simultaneously as a
remedy against ear worms, intestinal worms, and tooth-
worms ([25], p. 189).
Spells and formulas
Illnesses of the teeth, whose treatment is based in the po-
pular medicine on bushes and trees, would be of great cul-
tural and historical interest. However, only little evidence
has been passed on in regard to the treatment of tooth-
worms and, therefore, the few existing references are very
important. For example, there is a spell addressed to a pear-
tree:
Pear tree, I complain to you,
three worms are gnawing me,
one is gray and the other one is blue,
the third one is red,
I wish, all three were dead
While reciting the verses one touched the tree and turned
three times around it clockwise ([29], p. 35).
Oaths and formulas
It must be assumed that both the tooth-worm and the tree
have a demonic character if such oaths are used. Tree
demons were widespread in superstition and were even
thought to be able to harm human beings and animals. It
was a common idea that various insects living either on or
under the barkor on the trunk or roots of trees were to be
blamed for such mischief.
Though from our present point of view quite primitive,
people believed analogously that worms had to be identi-
fied with evil demons. They felt that vicious demons had
settled down as parasites in the body of human beings or
animals as caterpillars, butterflies, ring worms, toads etc.,
and were responsible for numerous diseases. Evil ghosts
supposedly also came out of the woods and attacked hu-
man beings and animals. People believed that the trees, in
whose bark the brood of evil ghosts was evidently living,
sent them off. According to this superstition the tree itself
or the demons of the tree were sending the vermin causing
illnesses but at the same time they were able to take them
back ([29], p. 37). There were apparently many procedures
by which one could send the tooth-worm demons causing
toothache back to the trees. In a text published in 1604 we
read the following lines:
Vor die Wrme in Zeenen.
Ein wunderlich/vnd doch wahrhafftig/Kunststcklein.
Schneide von einem jungen Weidenen stamme/die bere
rinde weg/vnd schneide darunter einen span heraus/
stchere die Zeene damit/das sie bluten/vnd las das blut
am Span trucken oder treuge werden. Darnach gehe hin
vnd setze den Span fein wider ein/wie du in aus der Weide
genomen/lege die Rinde wider drber/vnd binde es mit wei-
chen Lehme zu/so vergeht dich die wehetage. Est vera cura,
vnd ist keine Zauberey ([29], p. 37).
Of Tooth-Worms.
It is a strange but a true trick. Cut off a stem of a young
willow the upper part of the bark. Then cut a chip of wood
out of the willow. Pick your teeth with it until they start
bleeding. Let the blood become dry on the chip. After you
have done all that go back and insert the wooden chip into
the bark again. The chip should be at the same place as it
was before you took it out. Cover the chip again with the
bark and connect both by using soft loam. Your days of
pain will pass this way. This is a true remedy and no magic.
There was also the possibility of relieving pain by pick-
ing the teeth. The inflamed socket of a tooth opened by
piercing with the help of a wood chip results in an analge-
sic reduction in pressure ([29], p. 39). In a metaphorical
sense, this was also called the nailing of an illness. One
referred to the nailing of an illness in the sense of pre-
venting the disease from staying or more precisely, from
being effective. The original instructions have been mod-
ified, completed, or even lost over the centuries. It is no
wonder, therefore, that the wood chip actually was replaced
by a nail either because of the lack of knowledge or be-
cause of the reference to the term nailing. Of course, this
misunderstanding was associated with disastrous conse-
quences for the patient troubled by toothache. As a rule the
danger of blood poisoning always existed. For example, an
instruction that was given for the relief of toothache or the
unspoken tooth-worm read as follows: Drill with an iron
nail within the bad tooth until it is bloody, then drive it into
a deciduous tree in the direction of the sunrise, pray three
times the Lords Prayer and finally go away without look-
ing backwards ([29], p. 39).
In former times, the nailing of an illness was a very
common habit in some areas. It is reported, for instance,
that there were many nailed, isolated oaks in the area called
Vogtland (Germany) and in the region called Lausitz (Ger-
many). In the trunks of these oak trees a lot of different
nails were drilled in to relieve pain when suffering from
toothache ([29], p. 40).
Another way to fight the tooth-worm demon was with
oaths and formulas. Only from German speaking regions
have many different prayers, oaths, and tooth or tooth-
worm blessings been passed on to us [14]. In addition, we
are familiar with a large number of other customs for fight-
ing toothache or tooth-worms. Unfortunately, not all of
these examples can be discussed here and only a small se-
lection can be named. It is said that in former times splin-
ters belonging to a dug out coffin helped against toothache
if one used them for picking in the hollow tooth. Accord-
ing to the saying, the splinters had to swim away in flow-
ing water after the procedure was finished ([29], p. 40).
Even at the beginning of our century it was common to
chew on a piece of bread or crust when troubled by tooth-

ache. Finally, the patient had to spit it onto an anthill. Be-
lieving in the effectiveness of an amulet was another prac-
tice.
At the turn of the century, it was a custom in the Land-
shut area (Germany) to hang little worms around the neck
when bothered by toothache. The troubled patient waited
until the little worms had died, then he/she threw the worms
into an oven and prayed the Lords Prayer ([29], p. 49).
Considering the previously mentioned method of dealing
with toothaches, the idea of worms causing the pain comes
to mind. Finally, reference should be made to another tra-
ditional procedure which was also very common in the re-
gion of Graz (Austria) 100 years ago. It was usual that
people wore a tooth which had been extracted from a hu-
man being to prevent toothache or if toothache had al-
ready attacked them to wear one of a hung person ([29],
p. 49). These customs were based on the opinion that ill-
nesses were healed according to the Latin saying, similia
similibus curentur. The extracted (dead) tooth as well as
the (dead) tooth of a hung man were supposed to kill or at
least to relieve the pain of the patients tooth.
Conclusions
In conclusion the belief that worms caused toothache was
not unanimous. On the one hand, some people believed in
the existence of real worms, parasites which caused peri-
odontitis and dental caries by gnawing and drilling. This
led to the use of the orthodox medical treatments which
aimed to destroy these apparent parasites using appropri-
ate remedies and therapies. On the other hand, the tooth-
worm could also be viewed as a demon which could be re-
moved by specific practices, formulas, oaths, worm bless-
ings, and the nailing of the illness. Within the context of
popular medicine the two approaches have coexisted for a
long time. Orthodox medicine abandoned the idea of the
existence of real tooth-worms once and for all at the end
of the eighteenth century but popular traditions held on to
their belief in the existence of tooth-worms at least until
the beginning of this century.
Today, at the end of this century only idiomatic phrases
remind us of the earlier belief in tooth-worms. The former
idea of the illness has remained in our speech when de-
scribing the phenomenon of toothache as drilling,
gnawing, piercing, or biting ([29], p. 53, 55).
References
1. Alstermark H (1977) Das Arzneibuch des Johan van Segen.
Thesis, University of Stockholm (Acta Univ Stockholmiensis.
Stockholmer Germ Forsch, 22)
2. Anonym (1904) Oefele, Tene-worme (Zahnwrmer) Mitteilun-
gen zur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften
3: 432
3. Bchtold-Stubli H (ed) (19351941) Handwrterbuch des
deutschen Aberglaubens, vol VII. IX. Handwrterbcher zur
deutschen Volkskunde. Berlin Leipzig
5
4. Baldinger M (1936) Aberglaube und Volksmedizin in der Zahn-
heilkunde. Schweiz Arch Volkskunde 35: 1
5. Bang AC (1901) Norske Hexeformularer og magiske Opskrift-
er. Kristiana
6. Brodmann C (1921) Deutsche Zahntexte in Handschriften des
Mittelalters. Thesis, University of Leipzig
7. Buchheim L (1964) Der lteste Zahnwurmtext in babyloni-
scher Keilschrift. Zahnarztl Mitt 54: 10141018
8. Diefenbach L (1857) Glossarium Latino-germanicum mediae
et infimae aetatis e codicibus manuscriptis et libris impressis
concinnavit Laurentius Diefenbach. Frankfurt; reprinted
(1968): Supplementum Lexici mediae et infimae Latinitatis,
Darmstadt
9. Diefenbach L (1867) Novum glossarium Latino-germanicum
mediae et infimae aetatis. Beitrge zur wissenschaftlichen
Kunde der neulateinischen und der germanischen Sprachen.
Frankfurt; reprinted (1964): Aalen
10. Diepgen P (1923) Geschichte der Medizin, vol I, 2nd edn.
Gschen, Berlin Leipzig
11. Du Cange (1954) Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis, VII.
Graz
12. DWB (1860/1956) Deutsches Wrterbuch, II, XXXI. Leipzig;
reprinted (1984): Munich
13. Hoffmann von Fallersleben AH (18301837) Fundgruben fr
Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur, III. Breslau
14. Fehrle E (1926) Zauber und Segen. Jena
15. Fonahn A (1905) Orm og Ormmidler. Christiana
16. Frederiksen J (1980) Ddesche Arstedie. In: Ruh K, Keil G,
Schrder W, Wachinger B, Worstbrock FJ (eds) Die deutsche
Literatur des Mittelalters. Verfasserlexikon, vol II, 2nd edn,
Gruyter, Berlin, col. 283239
17. Georges KE (1879) Ausfhrliches lateinisch-deutsches und
deutsch-lateinisches Handwrterbuch, aus den Quellen zusam-
mengetragen. Lateinisch-deutscher Theil, vol I, 7th edn, Leip-
zig
18. Gener O (1974) Gift- und Arzneipflanzen von Mitteleuropa,
3rd edn. Heidelberg
19. Gorelich L, Gwinnett AJ (1978) Life and death of the tooth worm
or when I believe it, I will see it. New York State Dent J: 2125
20. Haller A von (17541756) Onomatologia medica, III.
21. Hoffmann-Axthelm W (1985) Die Geschichte der Zahnheil-
kunde, 2nd edn. Quintessenz, Berlin
22. Hfler M (1899) Deutsches Krankheitsnamen-Buch. Munich;
reprinted (1970): Hildesheim
23. Hovorka O von, Kronfeld A (19081909) Vergleichende Volks-
medizin. Eine Darstellung volksmedizinischer Sitten und Ge-
bruche, Anschauungen und Heilfaktoren, des Aberglaubens
und der Zaubermedizin, III. Stuttgart
24. Hbotter F (1913) Beitrge zur Kenntnis der chinesischen sowie
der tibetanisch-mongolischen Pharmakologie. Berlin Vienna
25. Keil G (1960) Die Bekmpfung des Ohrwurms nach Anweisun-
gen sptmittelalterlicher und frhneuzeitlicher deutscher Arz-
neibcher. Z Dtsch Philologie 79: 176200
26. Keil G (1961) Die Cirurgia Peters von Ulm. Untersuchungen
zu einem Denkmal altdeutscher Fachprosa mit kritischer Aus-
gabe des Textes. Forschungen zur Geschichte der Stadt Ulm,
vol 2. Ulm
27. Keil G (1978) Bartholomus. In: Ruh K, Keil G, Schrder W,
Wachinger B, Worstbrock FJ (eds) Die deutsche Literatur des
Mittelalters. Verfasserlexikon, vol I, 2nd edn. Gruyter, Berlin,
col. 609615
28. Keil G (1983) Johann van Seghen (Siegen). In: Ruh K, Keil G,
Schrder W, Wachinger B, Worstbrock FJ (eds) Die deutsche
Literatur des Mittelalters. Verfasserlexikon, vol IV 2nd edn.
Gruyter, Berlin, col. 743744
29. Kobusch H (1955) Der Zahnwurmglaube in der deutschen
Volksmedizin der letzten zwei Jahrhunderte. Thesis, University
of Frankfurt
30. Kuhn A (1864) Indische und germanische Segenssprche. Zeit-
schrift fr Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaften 13
31. Lchel W (1976) Die Zahnmedizin Rogers und der Rogerglos-
sen. Wrzburger Medhist Forschungen 4. Pattensen
6
32. Marzell H (1938) Geschichte und Volkskunde der deutschen
Heilpflanzen. Stuttgart
33. Marzell H (1978) Wrterbuch der deutschen Pflanzennamen, ed.
Paul H, vol IV. Stuttgart Wiesbaden
34. Meyerhof M (1929) Autobiographische Bruchstcke Galens aus
arabischen Quellen. Sudh Arch 22: 7286
35. Norrbom S (1921) Das Gothaer mittelniederdeutsche Arznei-
buch und seine Sippe. Mittelniederdeutsche Arzneibcher 1.
Hamburg
36. Oefele F von (1904) Zwei medizinische Keilschrifttexte in Ur-
schrift, Umschrift und bersetzung. Ein babylonischer Zahn-
wurmtext. Mitteilungen zur Geschichte der Medizin und der
Naturwissenschaften 3: 217224
37. Petsch R (1938) Spruchdichtung des Volkes. Halle
38. Pfeiffer F (1863) Zwei deutsche Arzneibcher aus dem 12. und
13. Jahrhundert. Sitzungsberichte der sterreichischen Akade-
mie der Wissenschaften, philologisch-historisch Cl 42: 110200
39. Ring MC (1971) Anton van Leeuwenhook and the tooth-worm.
J Am Dent Assoc 9991001
40. Schffer JC (1757) Die eingebildeten Wrmer in Zhnen nebst
dem vermeyntlichen Hlfsmittel wider dieselben. Regensburg
41. Schneider W (1974) Pflanzliche Drogen. Sachwrterbuch zur
Geschichte der pharmazeutischen Botanik, vol II. Lexikon zur
Arzneimittelgeschichte, vol V, 2. Frankfurt
42. Steinmeyer E von, Sievers E (18791922) Die althochdeutschen
Glossen, IV. Berlin; reprinted (1969): Dublin Zurich
43. Sudhoff K (1926) Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, 2nd edn. Leip-
zig; reprinted (1964): Hildesheim
44. Townend BR (1944) The story of the tooth-worm. Bull Hist Med
15: 3758
45. Vandewiele LJ (1970) Een Middelnederlandse versie van de Cir-
ca instans van Platearius naar de hss Portland, British Museum
MS. Loan 29/332 (XIVe eeuw) en Universiteitsbibliotheek te
Gent Hs. 1457 (XVe eeuw). Oudenaarde