1.

Shrinkage of Concrete

Concrete deformation due to movement of water from or to the ambient

medium when no external stress is acting is termed shrinkage. It is
independent of stress and is caused by chemical reactions in the hydrating
cement paste and by the loss of water during the drying process.
Technically, shrinkage will continue for the life of the concrete, but most
shrinkage will occur within the first 90 days after placement [33]. Shrinkage
cracking is a major cause of concern for concrete structures. In addition to
weakening the structure, these shrinkage cracks have the potential to allow
infiltration of moisture and chloride ions that accelerate the corrosion of
steel reinforcement and reduce the durability of concrete.

2.1 Type of Shrinkage

The four main types of shrinkage associated with concrete are plastic
shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and carbonation
shrinkage.

2.1.1 Plastic Shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage is associated with moisture loss from freshly poured
concrete into the surrounding environment. Plastic shrinkage occurs only in
fresh concrete. The most common mechanism is the evaporation of water
from the surface of the plastic concrete. However, the loss of water through
the sub-base or formwork can exacerbate the effects of surface evaporation
[33]. In the fresh concrete, the particles are completely surrounded by water.
If water is removed from the system, menisci are formed between particles.
These menisci generate negative capillary pressure, which pulls the cement
particles together. By pulling on the particles, the capillary stresses tend to
reduce the volume of the cement paste. Capillary pressures continue to rise
as water is lost at the surface of the concrete.
When the pressures reach a critical value, the water that remains in the
concrete rearranges to form discrete zones with voids between them. Plastic
shrinkage cracking occurs at this point.
2.1.2 Autogenous Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage is the volume change of the cement paste due to

selfdesiccation and chemical shrinkage after initial setting has occurred.
Autogenous shrinkage is a microscopic volume change occurring after the
initial setting in situations where the supply of water from outside of
concrete is not enough. As the hydration of cementitious materials
progresses, very fine pores are produced within the hardened cement paste
due to the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel. As the hydration
further progresses, capillary pore water and gel water is consumed and
menisci are produced in these pores due to a lack of water supply from
outside. As a result of negative pressure in the pores, hardened paste shows
shrinkage [18].
Autogenous shrinkage is the early shrinkage of concrete caused by the loss
of water from capillary pores due to the hydration of cementitious materials,
without the loss of water into the surrounding environment. This
phenomenon is known as selfdesiccation of concrete. Self-desiccation occurs
in all concrete irrespectively of the water-cement ratio. However, its effects
are very different in normal concrete and highperformance concrete. In high-
performance concrete, significantly more cementitious materials and less
mixing water are used compared with normal concrete. In normal concrete,
there is substantially more water than required for hydration of cementitious
materials particles. This excess amount of water is contained in well-
connected capillaries. Menisci created by the process of self-desiccation
occur in large capillaries. But, stresses generated in large capillaries are very
low, resulting in lower autogenous shrinkage. On the other hand, in case of
high-performance concrete, pore network is essentially composed of fine
capillaries due to low water-cement ratio and high amounts of cementitious
hydration products. When self-desiccation starts to take place, very high
tensile stresses are generated in these fine pores, resulting in higher
autogenous shrinkage.
Although autogenous shrinkage is three-dimensional, it is usually expressed
as alinear stain so that it can be considered alongside the drying shrinkage.
Typical values of autogenous shrinkage are about 40 x 10-6 at the age of one
month and 100 x 10-6 after five years. Autogenous shrinkage tends to
increase at higher temperatures, with higher cement content, and possibly
with finer cements, and with cements which have a high C3A and C4AF
content. At a constant content of blended cement, a higher content of fly ash
leads to lower autogenous shrinkage. As self-desiccation is greater at lower
water/cement ratios, autogenous shrinkage could be expected to increase but
this may not occur because of the more rigid structure of the hydrated
cement paste at lower water/cement ratios. Nevertheless, at very low
water/cement ratios, autogenous shrinkage is very high: a value of 700 x 10-
6 was reported for concrete with a water/cement ratio of 0.17 [1].
2.1.3 Drying Shrinkage
Drying shrinkage is different from autogenous shrinkage with regard to the
mechanism of a decrease in humidity. Drying shrinkage is caused by the
diffusion of water from concrete into the outer surrounding environment.
Drying shrinkage refers to the reduction in concrete volume resulting from
the loss of capillary water by evaporation. This shrinkage causes an increase
in tensile stress of restrained concrete, which leads the concrete to cracking,
internal warping, and external deflection, even if the concrete is not
subjected to any kind of external loading. According Mehta and Monteiro
the change in volume of drying concrete is not equal to the volume of water
removed [2]. The reason is that the loss of water from large capillaries may
be considered as free water, and its removal does not cause volume change.
Loss of water held by capillary tension in small capillaries may cause
shrinkage of concrete. It is also possible that shrinkage is related to the
removal of interlayer water, which is also known as zeolite water. It has
been suggested that a monomolecular water layer between the layers of CSH
is strongly held by hydrogen bonding. This water is associated with CSH
structure and the interlayer water is lost only on strong drying.
The drying shrinkage of hydrated cement paste begins at the surface of the
concrete. Depending on the relative humidity of the ambient air and the size
of capillaries in the cement paste structure, drying shrinkage progresses
more or less rapidly through concrete. The drying in ordinary concrete is,
therefore, rapid because the capillary network is well connected and contains
large capillaries. In the case of high-performance concrete, drying shrinkage
is slow because the capillaries are very fine and soon get disconnected by
hydration products. The influence of the gel particle size on drying is shown
by the low shrinkage of the much more coarse-grained natural building
stones and by the high shrinkage of fine grained shale [3]. Also, high-
pressure steam-cured cement paste, which is microcrystalline and has a low
specific surface, shrinks 5 to 10 times [4], and sometimes even 17 times [5],
less than a similar paste cured normally.
It is possible also that shrinkage, or a part of it, is related to the removal of
intracrystalline water. Calcium silicate hydrate has been shown to undergo a
change in lattice spacing from 1.4 to 0.9 nm on drying [6]; hydrated C4A
and calcium sulfoaluminate show similar behavior [7]. It is thus not certain
whether the moisture movement associated with shrinkage is inter- or
intracrystalline. But, because paste made with both Portland and high-
alumina cements, and also with pure ground calcium monoaluminate, exhibit
essentially similar shrinkage, the fundamental cause of shrinkage must be
sought in the physical structure of the gel rather than in its chemical and
mineralogical character [6].
The relation between the mass of water lost and shrinkage is shown in
Figure 2.1. For neat cement pastes, the two quantities are proportional to one
another as no capillary water is present and only adsorbed water is removed.
However, mixes to which pulverized silica has been added and which, for
workability reasons, require a higher water/cement ratio, contain capillary
pores even when completely hydrated.
Emptying of the capillaries causes a loss of water without shrinkage but,
once the capillary water has been lost, the removal of adsorbed water takes
place and causes shrinkage in the same manner as in a neat cement paste.
Figure 2.1: Relationship between shrinkage and loss of water from
specimens of cement-pulverized silica pastes cured for 7 days at 21C and
then dried [3]

2.1.4 Carbonation Shrinkage

In addition to shrinkage upon drying, concrete undergoes shrinkage due to
carbonation, and some of the experimental data on drying shrinkage include
the effects
of carbonation. Drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage are, however
quite distinct
in nature.
Carbonation shrinkage is caused by the chemical reactions of various cement
hydration products with carbon dioxide present in the air. This type of
shrinkage is
usually limited to the surface of the concrete. Because of carbon dioxide is fixed by the
hydrated cement paste, the mass of the latter increases. Consequently, the mass of
concrete also increases. When the concrete dries and carbonates simultaneously, the
increase in mass on carbonation may at some stage give the misleading impression that
the drying process has reached stage of constant mass, i.e. equilibrium (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Loss of mass of concrete due to drying and carbonation [8]
20
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolving of crystals of
Ca(OH)2 while under a compressive stress (imposed by the drying shrinkage) and
depositing of CaCO3 in spaces free from stress; the compressibility of the hydrated
cement paste is thus temporarily increased. If carbonation proceeds to the stage of
dehydration of C-S-H, this also produces carbonation shrinkage.
Figure 2.3 shows the drying shrinkage of mortar specimens dried in CO2 free
air at different relative humidity, and also the shrinkage after subsequent carbonation.
Carbonation increases the shrinkage at intermediate humidity, but not at 100 per cent or
25 per cent. In the latter case, there is insufficient water in the pores within the cement
paste for CO2 to form carbonic acid. On the other hand, when the pores are full of
water, the diffusion of CO2 into the paste is very slow; it is also possible that the
diffusion of calcium ions from the paste leads to precipitation of CaCO3 with a
consequent clogging of surface pores.
Figure 2.3: Drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage of mortar at different relative
humidity [9]
21
The sequence of drying and carbonation greatly affects the total magnitude of
shrinkage. Simultaneous drying and carbonation produces lower total shrinkage than
when drying is followed by carbonation (Figure 2.4) because, in the former case, a large
part of the carbonation occurs at relative humidity above 50 per cent; under such
conditions carbonation shrinkage is reduced. Carbonation shrinkage of high-pressure
steam-cured concrete is very small.
Figure 2.4: Influence of the sequence of drying and carbonation of mortar on
shrinkage [9]
When concrete is subjected to alternating wetting and drying in air containing
CO2, shrinkage due to carbonation becomes progressively more apparent. The total
shrinkage at any stage is greater than if drying took place in CO2 free air. However,
carbonation of concrete prior to exposure to alternating wetting and drying reduces the
moisture movement.
22
2.3.2 Factors Affecting Shrinkage
Generally, plastic shrinkage results from surface evaporation due to
environmental conditions, such as humidity, wind speed or ambient temperature. ACI
305R, Hot Weather Concreting [10], provides guidance for placement of concrete to
minimize plastic shrinkage cracking.
Several factors which may be expected to influence the magnitude of volume
changes in mortars and concretes caused by variations in moisture conditions, which
take place with time and the simultaneous hardening of the cement paste are [34]:
(i) Composition and fineness of the cement
(ii) Cement and water contents
(iii) Type and gradation of aggregate
(iv) Admixtures
(v) Age at first observation
(vi) Duration of tests
(vii) Moisture and temperature conditions
(viii) Size and shape of specimen
(ix) Absorptiveness of forms
(x) Amount and distribution of reinforcement
23
2.3.2.1 Effect of Composition and Fineness of Cement
Cement properties and cement content in concrete influence concrete shrinkage.
As the fineness of cement increases, so does the hydration rate of cement, leading to an
increase to an increase in autogenous shrinkage of concrete. Small autogenous
expansion as opposed to shrinkage may be produced through the use of coarser cements.
Therefore, early age cracking could be possibly being avoided. Although coarser
particles of cement are relatively beneficial in minimizing early age cracking, they may
be detrimental to long-term strength. Mehta and Monteiro [2] state that the variation in
fineness and composition of Portland cement affect the rate of hydration, but not the
volume and characteristics of hydration products. Therefore, normal changes in fineness
and composition of cement have negligible effect on drying shrinkage of concrete.
Higher cement content with lower W/C in concrete results in higher autogenous
shrinkage due to self-desiccation and chemical shrinkage, but may reduce drying
shrinkage due to dense microstructure and poor pore connectivity.
2.3.2.2 Effect of Type and Gradation of Aggregate
The drying shrinkage of concrete is not related to a fraction of neat cement as the
aggregate particles not only dilute the paste but they reinforce it against contraction.
Tests have shown that if the aggregate were readily compressible, as when using porous
but nonabsorbent rubber particles, the concrete would shrink as much as neat cement.
The ability of normal aggregates to restrain the shrinkage of a cement paste depends
upon (1) extensibility of the paste, (2) degree of cracking of the paste, (3)
compressibility of the aggregate, and (4) volume change of aggregate due to drying. In
table A is shown the shrinkage of neat cement in comparison with the corresponding
24
shrinkages of the same cement diluted with a single sieve size (No. 4 to 3/8 in.) of gravel
and crushed limestone, respectively. The reduction in shrinkage due to the aggregate is
greater than would be expected considering its relative volume. It is possible that
internal cracking of the paste due to the restraint of the aggregate is a factor.
Table 2.1: Shrinkage of neat cement in comparison with the corresponding shrinkages
of the same cement diluted with a single sieve size (No. 4 to 3/8 in.)
of gravel and crushed limestone, respectively [35]
2.3.2.3 Effect of Cement and Water Contents
The water content is probably the largest single factor influencing the shrinkage
of cement paste and concrete. Tests have shown that for cements having normal
shrinkage characteristics, the shrinkage of the cement paste varies directly with the
water-cement ratio [33].
Figure 2.5 shows the pattern of shrinkage as a function of cement content, water
content, and water/cement ratio where the concrete is moist-cured for 28 days, thereafter
dried for 450 days [11]. At a constant water/cement ratio, shrinkage increases with an
25
increase in the cement content because this results in a larger volume of hydrated cement
paste which is liable to shrinkage. However, at a given workability, which
approximately means a constant water content, shrinkage is unaffected by an increase in
the cement content, or may even decrease, because the water/cement ratios is reduced
and the concrete is therefore, better able to resist shrinkage.
Figure 2.5: The pattern of shrinkage as a function of cement content, water content and
water/cement ratio [11]
2.3.2.4 Effect of Admixtures
Admixtures can adversely affect the shrinkage potential of concrete. For
instance, water reducers can be used to reduce the paste volume and thereby enhance the
creep capacity without the loss of workability. Set retarders can be used to delay set and
to decrease the amount of heat of hydration. A lower heat of hydration will decrease the
thermal shock on the hydrating concrete [33]. However, overly long retardations will
increase the potential for plastic shrinkage cracking. Proper curing is necessary with the
26
use of a set retarder. Conversely, set accelerators increase the heat of hydration and
early-age shrinkage. This combination will increase transverse shrinkage and the
resulting cracking.
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRAs) are also available. These admixtures
reduce the drying shrinkage by reducing the surface tension of the water in the capillary
pores. If the surface tension of the water is reduced, there is less tension transferred to
the capillary walls, and consequently less shrinkage. Laboratory evaluations have
shown a slight decrease in compressive strength when an SRA is used. Taking
advantage of the water-reducing properties of SRAs can offset the decrease in strength.
Shrinkage of concrete made with high-alumina cement is of the same magnitude
as when Portland cement is used, but it takes place much more rapidly [12]. Including
either fly ash or ground granulated blastfurnace slag in the mix increases shrinkage.
Specifically, at a constant water/cement ratio, a higher proportion of fly ash or slag in
the blended cement leads to higher shrinkage by some 20 percent with the former
material and by up to 60 percent at very high contents of slag [13]. Silica fume
increases the long-term shrinkage [14].
Water-reducing admixtures per se probably cause a small increase in shrinkage.
Their main effect is indirect in that the use of an admixture may result in a change in the
water content or in the cement content of the mix, or in both, and it is the combined
action of those changes that influences shrinkage. Superplasticizers have been found to
increase shrinkage by some 10 to 20 percent. However, the changes in the observed
shrinkage are too small to be accepted as reliable and generally valid.
27
Entrainment of air has been found to have no effect on shrinkage [15]. Added
calcium chloride increases shrinkage, generally between 10 and 50 percent [16],
probably because a finer gel is produced and possibly because of greater carbonation of
the more matures specimens with calcium chloride.
2.3.2.5 Temperature and Relative Humidity
A high temperature and low relative humidity of the ambient environment
accelerate the diffusion of the adsorbed water and capillary water into the atmosphere,
and consequently, increases the drying shrinkage of concrete. An increase in the
atmospheric humidity slows down the rate of moisture flow from the interior to the outer
surface of concrete. Mehta and Monteiro [2] states that at 0% relative humidity, it is
assumed that the drying shrinkage of concrete is zero.
2.3.2.6 Volume-to-Surface Ratio
The size and shape of a concrete element have a considerable effect on the rate
and total amount of shrinkage. The size and shape are often considered together as the
volume-to-surface area ratio. A high volume-to-surface ratio usually results in lower
shrinkage magnitudes.
28
2.3.2.7 Volume and Type of Aggregate
Drying shrinkage of concrete is a fraction of that of neat cement because the
aggregate particles not only dilute the paste but reinforce it against contraction. The size
and grading of aggregate do not, by themselves, influence the magnitude of shrinkage,
but an aggregate incorporating larger sizes permits the use of a mix with less cement and
hence a lower shrinkage.
The shrinkage of aggregates themselves may be of considerable importance in
determining the shrinkage of concrete. Some fine-grained sandstones, slate, basalt, trap
rock and aggregates containing clay show large shrinkage while concretes low in
shrinkage often contain quartz, limestone, granite or feldspar. The pore structure of
aggregate particles may have a strong effect on autogenous shrinkage. Aggregate
particles may contain water in coarse pores, which provides the internal curing for
hydrating cement paste hence reducing autogenous shrinkage. Figure 2.6 indicates the
relationship between W/C ratio, aggregate content and shrinkage.
Figure 2.6: Effect of W/C ratio and aggregate content on shrinkage [36]
29
2.3.2.8 Elastic Modulus of Aggregate
Modulus of elasticity is the most important property of aggregate that directly
influences drying shrinkage of concrete. When readily compressible aggregate is used,
concrete will shrink as mush as neat cement, and that expanded shale leads to shrinkage
more than that of ordinary aggregate. Steel aggregate on the other hand, leads to
shrinkage less than that of ordinary concrete. The drying shrinkage of concrete
increased 2.5 times [17] when an aggregate with high elastic modulus was substituted by
an aggregate with low elastic modulus.
2.3.3 Differential Shrinkage
It was mentioned earlier that the potential shrinkage of neat cement paste is
restrained by the aggregate. In addition, some restraint arises also from non-uniform
shrinkage within the concrete member itself. Moisture loss takes place only at the
surface so that a moisture gradient is established in the concrete specimen, which is thus
subjected to differential shrinkage. The potential shrinkage is compensated by the
strains due to internal stresses, tensile near the surface and compressive in the core.
When drying takes place in an unsymmetrical manner, warping (curling) can result.
It may be useful to point out that the values of shrinkage generally quoted are
those of free shrinkage, or potential shrinkage, that is, contraction unrestrained either
internally or by external constraints on a structural member. In considering the effect of
the constraining forces on the actual shrinkage, it is important to realize that the induced
stresses are modified by relaxation, which may prevent the development of cracking.
30
Because relaxation occurs only slowly, it may prevent cracking when shrinkage
develops slowly; however, the same magnitude of shrinkage occurring rapidly may well
induce cracking. It is shrinkage cracking that is of paramount interest.
Because drying takes place at the surface of concrete, the magnitude of shrinkage
varies considerably with the size and shape of the specimen, being a function of the
surface/volume ratio. A part of the size effect may also be due to the pronounced
carbonation shrinkage of small specimens. Thus, for practical purposes, shrinkage
cannot be considered as purely an inherent property of concrete without reference to the
size of the concrete member.
Many investigations have, in fact, indicated an influence of the size of the
specimen on shrinkage. The observed shrinkage decreases with an increase in the size
of the specimen but, above some value, the size effect is small initially as shown in
Figure 2.7. The shape of the specimen also appears to enter the picture but, as a first
approximation, shrinkage can be expressed as a function of the volume/surface ratio of
the specimen. There appears to be a linear relation between this ratio and the logarithm
of shrinkage as shown in Figure 2.8.
The effect of shape is secondary. I-shaped specimens exhibit less shrinkage than
cylindrical ones of the same volume/surface ratio, the difference being 14 percent on the
average [18]. The difference, which can be explained in terms of variation in the mean
distance that the water has to travel to the surface, is thus not significant for design
purposes.
31
Figure 2.7: Relation between axial shrinkage and width of concrete prisms of
square cross-section and length/width ratio of 4 [37]
Figure 2.8: Relation between ultimate shrinkage and volume/surface ratio [18]
32
2.3.4 Shrinkage-induced Cracking
As mentioned in connection with differential shrinkage, the importance of
shrinkage in structures is largely related to cracking. Strictly speaking, we are
concerned with the cracking tendency because the advent or absence of cracking
depends not only on the potential contraction but also on the extensibility of concrete, its
strength, and its degree of restraint to the deformation that may lead to cracking.
Restraint in the form of reinforcing bars or a gradient of stress increases extensibility of
concrete in that it allows it to develop strain well beyond that corresponding to
maximum stress. A high extensibility of concrete is generally desirable because it
permits concrete to withstand greater volume changes.
The schematic pattern of crack development when stress is relieved by creep is
shown in Figure 2.9. Cracking can be avoided only if the stress induced by the free
shrinkage strain, reduced by creep, is at all times smaller than the tensile strength of the
concrete. Thus, time has two-fold effect: the strength increases, thereby reducing the
danger of cracking but, on the other hand, the modulus of elasticity also increases so that
the stress induced by a given shrinkage becomes larger. Furthermore, the creep relieves
decreases with age so that the cracking tendency becomes greater. A minor practical
point is that, if the cracks due to restrained shrinkage form at an early stage, and
moisture subsequently has access to the crack, many of the cracks will become closed by
autogenous healing.
One of the most important factors in cracking is the water/cement ratio of the
mix because its increase tends to increase shrinkage and, at the same time, to reduce the
strength of the concrete. An increase in the cement content also increases shrinkage and,
therefore, the cracking tendency, but the effect on strength is positive. This applies to
drying shrinkage. Carbonation, although it produces shrinkage, reduces subsequent
33
moisture movement, and therefore is advantageous from the standpoint of cracking
tendency. On the other hand, the presence of clay in aggregate leads both to higher
shrinkage and to greater cracking.
The use of admixtures may influence the cracking tendency through interplay of
effects on hardening, shrinkage, and creep. Specifically, retarders may allow more
shrinkage to be accommodated in the form of plastic shrinkage and also probably
increase the extensibility of concrete, and therefore reduce cracking. On the other hand,
if concrete has attained rigidity too rapidly, it cannot accommodate the would-be plastic
shrinkage and, having a low strength, cracks.
The temperature at the time of placing determines the dimensions of concrete at
the moment when it ceases to deform plastically. A subsequent drop in temperature will
produce potential contraction. Thus, placing concrete in hot weather means a high
cracking tendency. Steep temperature or moisture gradients produce severe internal
restraints and thus represent a high cracking tendency. Likewise, restraint by the base of
a member, or by other members, may lead to cracking.
Figure 2.9: Schematic pattern of crack development when tensile stress due to
restrained shrinkage is relieved by creep [33]
34
2.3.5 Effect of Shrinkage
Virtually all concrete is subject to some form of restraint, such as steel
reinforcement, forms, subgrade, or adjacent members. Each of these forms of restraint
involve the imposition of a gradually increasing tensile force on the concrete which may
lead to time-dependent cracking, increases in deflection and a widening of existing
cracks.
The advent of shrinkage cracking depends on the degree of restraint to shrinkage,
the extensibility and strength of the concrete in tension, tensile creep and the load
induced tension existing in the member. Cracking can be avoided if the gradually
increasing tensile stress induced by shrinkage, and reduced by creep, is at all times less
than the tensile strength of the concrete. The existence of load induced tension in
uncracked regions accelerates the formation of time-dependent cracking. The control of
such cracking requires two important steps. First, the shrinkage-induced tension and the
regions where shrinkage cracks are likely to develop must be recognized by the
structural engineer. Second, an adequate quantity and distribution of anchored
reinforcement must be included in these regions to ensure that the cracks remain fine
and the structure remains serviceable.

REFERENCES:-

1. Neville, A. M.: Properties of Concrete 4th Edition, Pearson

Education, Inc., India, 2006.

2. ACI. (2005). Report on Factors Affecting Shrinkage and Creep of

Hardened Concrete. ACI 209.1R-05 , 12.

3. ASTM. (1997). ASTM - Section 4 . American Society for Testing

Materials.

4. BaZant, Z. P. (1975), 'Theory of creep and shrinkage in concrete

structures: a precis of recent developments', Mech. Today, 2, 1-93.

5. NeVille, A. M., and Dilger, W. (1970), Creep of Concrete, Plain,

Reinforced, Prestressed, North-Holland, Amsterdam.