Grammar

Present simple

A tener en cuenta:
En la tercera persona del singular al verbo se le debe aadir -s. Las oraciones se
construyen de forma clsica Suj + Verbo + Complementos.

Cundo usamos el Present simple?

1. Para expresar sucesos que ocurren de forma normativa y regular.

They eat lunch at two oclock.

2. Cuando hablamos de situaciones permanentes.

I work in London.

3. Para expresar verdades generales.

The moon goes round the earth.
Those bags sell really fast.

4. Para hablar de hbitos y de cmo estos ocurren normalmente.

You buy new clothes every Saturday.

5. Para describir la trama de libros y pelculas.

The story begins and ends in Spain. The year is 1937.
Present continuous

Cundo usamos el Present continuous?

1. Para hablar sobre el momento presente.

Im wearing a pair of old jeans.
Im looking at a blue bag right now

2. Para sugerir que una accin es temporal, normalmente con palabras como: ahora, por
el momento, en el presente o solo.
Theyre eating lunch at the moment.
Im working in London this week.

3. Para expresar verdades generales

The moon goes round the earth.
Those bags sell really fast.

4. Para expresar una accin que ha empezado pero que an no ha terminado.

Im cleaning my room.
(Hay acciones que pueden verse interrumpidas por un suceso, pero continuar nada ms
este hay acabado, ya que as se han planeado anteriormente. En estos casos, se sigue
utilizando el presente continuo).
Im looking round the shops.

5. Para expresar situaciones de cambio o desarrollo.

Navy blue bags are getting really fashionable

6. Con las palabras siempre y continuamente si lo que queremos es quejarnos,

denunciar o criticar
Youre always buying new clothes
7. Con la palabra always cuando algo inesperado ocurre en varias ocasiones.
Im always meeting my neighbor John near the station

State verbs
Estos verbos son casi siempre utilizados en compaa del continuo. Principalmente se
utilizan para expresar sentimientos, pensamientos o sensaciones. A continuacin, se
sealan los verbos de estado ms comunes y utilizados:

- Pensamientos: believe, know, mean, realise, recognise, remember, suppose,

understand, feel y think.
I think youre wrong.
We feel this decision is right.
Think no es un verbo de estado cuando se refiere a algo que alguien est
haciendo, es decir:
Im thinking about my holyday.

- Sentimientos: adore, dislike, despise, hate, like, love, want, wish, prefer.

They despise me because of the way Im living.

- Sensaciones: smell, taste, hear, see.

This sauce tastes great.

I hear what youre saying to me, but I dont agree.
Do you see anything you want to buy here?

Utilizamos el verbo can con estos verbos para mostrar algo de lo que estamos
hablando en ese momento.
I can see youre tired.
I can hear someone in the next room.

Taste and smell pueden ser continuos cuando se refieren a algo que alguien
est haciendo.
Im tasting a sauce
 see puede ser un verbo continuo cuando significa reunirse con.
Laras at the medical centre. Shes seeing a doctor.

- Otros: need, contain, deserve, fit, seem, look, look like, matter, weigh.

This medicine contains aspirin.

Mark weighs 70 kilos.

Listen to, Watch y look no son verbos de estado, pero pueden ser verbos
continuos.
Were listening to music and Diane is Watching a DVD upstairs.

Have puede ser un verbo continuo cuando no signifique posesin.

Steve is having a difficult time at college this term.

Weigh puede ser un verbo continuo cuando a algo que alguien est haciendo.
The shop assistant is weighing the cheese.

The verb to be
El verbo to be casi siempre es utilizado con los tiempos verbales continuos. Pero cuando
es un verbo continuo (being) lo que hace es enfatizar una situacin temporal o, en
ocasiones, describir el comportamiento humano.
Youre being so impatient
My brother is being very nice to me this week.
Francis is filling in a form on line, so were all being quiet as we dont
want him to make any mistakes
Past simple

Para formar el pasado de los verbos regulares debemos aadir al final del verbo la
partcula -ed o -d.

Want Wanted Hope Hoped

Usamos el Past simple cuando:

1. Hablamos de acciones o eventos completados y pertenecientes al pasado.

We had an exam on Thursday
We caught the coach

2. Queremos secuenciar acciones o eventos.

I went round the shops, then I went to the cinema

3. Hablamos de situaciones permanentes o de largo trmino pertenecientes al pasado.

I really enjoyed myself when I was a teenager

4. Para eventos repetidos

Jacks grandmother went to lots of concerts.
She always asked for an autograph when she met someone famous.
Past continuous

Cundo usamos el Past continuous?

1. Para expresar una actividad que empez antes de una acin pasada y que continu
despus o hasta que est finaliz. La accin pasada normalmente se expresa en Past
simple.
We did some revisin while we were travelling.
When we were queuing for the cinema, We saw a famous footballer.

2. Para expresar dos acontecimientos que ocurrieron al mismo tiempo.

He was buying a burguer and all the crowds were walking past.

3. Para eventos repetidos, con una palabra como siempre o continuamente.

Especialmente si el hablante est criticando una actividad.
She was always worrying about her homework

4. Para expresar planes frustrados o instisfechos, con verbos como like, hope o plan.
I was hoping to find a new jacket

Los verbos de estado son casi siempre utilizados con el Past simple y no con el Past
continuous.
I didnt know him I wasnt knowing him
Used to + Verb and Would + Verb

Usamos used to and would to para hablar de hbitos pasados donde queremos
enfatizar que no son verdades duraderas.
I used to collect all the autographs of film stars when I was a teenager.
I would go up to town on my own.
Used to puede describir acciones y estados, pero would puede solo describir
acciones.
All the teenagerz used to/would scream at pop concerts.
They used to be crazy about the Beatles.

Es importante saber que la posicin de los adverbios de frecuencia con used to van
justo detrs del sujeto, es decir:
I often used to study on my own.
I used to often study.
Used to I much more common than would.
Be/get used to + -ing or noun
Be used to significa estar acostumbrado a. Puede ser pasado, presente o futuro, pero
used to slo pasado.
Im used to working at weekends
La forma de construir la interrogativa es:
Are you used to working at weekends?

Get used to significa llegar a estar acostumbrado. Puede ser presente, pasado o
fuuro, pero used to slo pasado.
My new school starts at 7:30. Im not used to starting classes so early
but I will guess soon get used to doing it

Tanto be/get used to pueden ir seguidos de -ing o un nombre/pronombre.

He wasnt used to criticisim and found it hard to accept
My parents are getting used toa quiet house, now the children have all
left home

Present perfect simple

Lo nico que debemos tener en cuenta al usa este verbo es que, el verbo que lo acompaa
debe ir en participio. La dificultad real con este tiempo verbal reside en no confundir su
uso con el del Past simple. A continuacin, se exponen las diferentes reglas a las que
debemos recurrir para no equivocarnos al elegir uno u otro.
 Present perfect simple Past simple
Con since o for cuando el periodo de Con for cuando el periodo al que hace
tiempo al que se refiere sigue afectando al referencia ya no afecta al presente.
presente.
Ive lived there for four years I lived there for four years

Con la partcula de pregunta how long ya que Con la partcula de pregunta when ya que
implica que la accin continua en el presente. implica que la accin es pasada.
How long have you lived here? When did you move here?
En la negativa, para acciones y eventos
inacabados. Habitualmente con still o yet. Para acciones y eventos completados en el
Estas dos palabras siempre se utilizan con la pasado. Habitualmente con la partcula ago,
negativa del Present perfect. Still siempre se colocada siempre a final de la oracin.
coloca antes del verbo y yet detrs.
I Still havent sent the email. I sent the email half an hour ago
I havent sent the email yet.
Para eventos repetidos por un periodo de
tiempo que continua hasta el presente. Para eventos repetidos de un periodo
perteneciente al pasado.
Youve played the saxophone every night You played the saxophone every night

Para referirnos a eventos que han ocurrido en Para referirnos a eventos que han ocurrido en
un pasado reciente. un momento particular del pasado.

Flight 206 has landed Flight landed at one oclock

Cuando el tiempo expresado ha empezado,
Cuando el tiempo expresado ya ha finalizado.
pero no ha acabado.
I spent this morning writing an essay.
Ive spent this morning writing an essay
Cuando hablamos sobre la cantidad de veces Cuando hablamos de la cantidad de veces que
que algo ha ocurrido en el presente y que, algo ocurri en el pasado.
probablemente, siga ocurriendo.

Alex has phoned Jess three times Alex phoned Jess three times yesterday
Con los adverbios already, before, ever
and never. Never, ever y already se colocan
entre el verbo auxiliar y el verbo significante.
Before, sin embargo, siempre va despus del
verbo significante.
_______________
Nobodys ever complained before.
Ive never tried japanese food.
Shes already gone to the airport.
Ive met her before somewhere.
Despus de un superlativo
________________
Its the best cup of coffe Ive had here
This is the most exciting place weve been to

Present perfect continuous

El Present perfect simple y el Present perfect continuous son usados para describir eventos
o actividades que empezaron en el pasado, pero que continan en el presente. En
ocasiones tambin se utilizan para acciones recientemente acabadas. Algunos verbos
pueden ser usados tanto en el continuo como en el simple sin grandes diferencias de
significado. Estos verbos son aquellos que describen actividades normativas dentro de un
periodo de tiempo, por ejemplo, live, study, wait, work

Martin has lived / has been living in Japan for five years
No se utiliza nunca el Present simple para hablar de cunto tiempo hemos estado
haciendo algo, siempre se utiliza el conitnuo. Es decir:

Hes been playing in a band for two years / Hes playing in a band for two years
Por ltimo, aclarar que, los verbos de estado no son utilizados casi nunca en el Present
perfect continuous.

Cundo hacemos uso del Present perfect simple y cundo del Present perfect
continuous?
 Present perfect simple Present perfect continuous

Para hablar sobre cuntas veces ha ocurrido Para hablar sobre cuntas veces algo est
algo ourriendo.

Ive driven there several times before Ive been driving since five oclock morning

Para poner el foco de atencin sobre la

Para poner el foco de atencin sobre el actividad o evento mismo.
resultado de la actividad o evento completada.
Hes been reading that book since he got up
I ve read the newspapers

Past perfect simple

Cundo usamos el Past perfect simple?

1. Cuando estamos hablando en el presente, pero sobre el pasado, y queremos hacer

referencia a una situacin an ms anterior que a la del pasado simple.
2. En algunas oraciones que contienen expresiones de tiempo (When, after, by the time,
as son as) que sealan que un evento ha ocurrido antes que otro.

I had painted one Wall when I ran out of paint

By the time Richards mother got home, hed finished painting the room

3. Con los adverbios just, already, ever and never. Estos siempre van entre el auxiliar y
el verbo significante.
Hed just finished painting when his mother came in.
When she got home hed already finished painting the room.
Until last weekend hed never painted a room.
Had he ever done any painting before?

Cundo no usamos el Past perfect simple?

1. Si una accin ocurri al mismo tiempo que otra.

When Richards mother saw the room, she was horrified

2. Si una accin ocurri inmediatamente despus de otra y estaba conectada con ella. En
este tipo de oraciones, la accin primera es la causante de la segunda.
When Jill Heard the baby cry, she ran to pick him up

Past perfect continuous

En el Past perfect continuous no se utilizan los verbos de estado. Esto sucede en todos
los tiempos continuos.
 Past perfect simple Past perfect continuous

Cuando no necesitamos enfatizar una accin Para enfatizar una accin continua o cuanto
continua o un periodo de tiempo tiempo esta continua.

Hed played all of the computer games and He had a headache because hed been playing
wanted to do something different computer games for hours.

Cuando hablamos sobre cunto tiempo dur algo

Cuando hablamos sobre cuntas veces algo en algn punto del pasado.
ocurri en un punto del pasado.
How long had you been driving when the car
Id driven six kilometres when the car broke broke down?
down

Future (I)
En ingls existen diferrentes maneras de expresar acciones o eventos en el future.
Podemos hablar de futuro con:

Present simple
- Para hablar de horarios: My plane arrives at Amsterdam airport at 13:40
- Para programaciones: The conference starts on Wednesday at 9:30
- Para personas que han planeado seguir un horario fijo: Mike starts her drama
course in two weekstime

Present continuous
- Para planes que acaban de comenzar: Im flying to a conference in Amsterdam

Future simple (Will)

Cundo usamos el Future simple?

1. Para decisiones tomadas en el mismo momento que se habla.

Thanks for telling me. Ill ring the office now

2. Para algo que no es certero, especialmente con las partculas probably, maybe, I
think, I expect y I hope.
I probably wont be back in time.
I think Ill get a meal in town.
I expect youll be tired after the match.
We hope youll visit us again soon.

3. Para expresar situaciones que nosotros podemos predecir, pero que an no se han
producido.
In 100 years the world Will be a very different place. There will be million; more people
but there wont be much oil available for energy.

4. Para algo que ocurrir en el futuro, pero que no depende de nosotros.

I Will be 23 on my next birthay.

Future continuous

Usamos el Future continuous para expresar un evento que ocurrir en un momento

particular del futuro.
Ill be working at seven oclock
Future (II)

Going to

Going to es extremadamente utilizado en el lenguaje oral informal, pero en el leneguaje

escrito se debe utilizar el Will y los tiempos presentes.

Cundo usamos going to?

1. Para acciones futuras que acaban de ser decididas.
Were going to pack up our stuff, were going to send a message to the mainland and
were going to leave.

2. Para predecir algo cuando acabamos de ver una evidencia de que se producir.
Its going to rain soon.

Future in the past (was/were going to)

Usamos was/were going to:
- Para hablar sobre algo que estaba planeado pero que no ocurri
You were going to stay here for at least a year.

- Para mostrar que no estamos pensando en cambiar nuestros planes.

Well, I was going to watch a film.
Present tenses after time conjuctions
Usamos los tiempos presents para expresar oraciones referidas al futuro y que
comienzan con las conjunciones When, Until, Before, After and As soon as.
- Utilizamos el Present simple para acciones que ocurren al mismo tiempo que el
otro verbo.
Everyones going to be very surprised when you arrive
- Utilizamos el Present perfect para acciones completadas antes que el otro verbo.
Im going to have a shower after Ive answered these emails.

Future Perfect simple

Usamos el futuro perfecto simple para indicar que una accin ser completada antes de
un punto concreto en el futuro. Es muy til para hacer mencin a un punto concreto en
el tiempo.
By the end of this week well have survived longer than anyone else.
Ill have cycled twelve kilometres by lunchtime.
This time next year, shell have finished university.
Youll soon have earned enough to replace your phone.

Future Perfect continuous

Usamos el futuro perfecto continuo para enfatizar cunto durar una accin en un punto
de futuro. Es necesario hacer mencin al punto o duracin del evento en el tiempo.

By the end of this week, week well have been living here for six months
Ill have been cycling for three hours by lunchtime.
To be about to

Usamos to be about to (estar a punto de) para hablar sobre algo que va a ocurrir
inmediatamente y para lo cual ya estamos preparados.
Actually, were about to leave.
I need to talk to you but if youre about to start Dinner, I can phone again later.

En el lenguaje informal, la negativa a menudo significa no tener intencin de hacer algo.

 Adjectives

Comparative and superlative

Los adjetivos son palabras que describen nombres (personas o cosas).

Adjective Comparative Superlative

Aadir -er Aadir -est

(Una slaba) Stronger The strongest
Strong
Great You can become stronger at Transformers fitness centre.
Weve got the greatest variety of games ever!

Sustituir -y por -ier Sustituir -y por -iest

(Dos slabas y acabados en -y)
Tidier The tidiest
Tidy
Funny Their flat is Tidier than ours.
Theyre the funniest monkeys youve ever seen.

More + Adjective The most + Adjective

(Dos, tres o cuatro slabas)
More self-confident The most self-confident
Famous
Beautiful
You can become a more self-confident person.
Self-confident
He is the most famous actor in the film.

- Algunos adjetivos de dos slabas (quiet, pleasant, common, polite) a veces

tambin utilizan las terminaciones -er o -est. Propias de los adjetivos de una sola
slaba.

Its quieter than any garden Ive visited before.

- Los adjetivos de dos slabas acabados en -er o -ow generalmente se les aade -er
o -est.

Clever Cleverer Narrow Narrowest

- Adjetivos de dos slabas acabados en -le se les aade -r (comparativo) o -st

(superlativo).
Simple Simpler The simplest
 - Muchos adjetivos de una slaba terminan en una vocal + -b, -d, -g, -n, -p, -t. A
estos adjetivos debemos doblarles la ltima letra antes de aadir -er
(comparativo) o -est (superlativa).

Big Bigger Sad The saddest

- Algunos adjetivos tienen la forma comparativa y superlativa irregular.

Good Better Best Bad Worse Worst

Estructuras comparativas

Podemos usar las Estructuras comparativas para expresar:

- Que algo es ms que otra cosa.

Our prices are better than those of our rivals
We have a more exciting range of games than youll see anywhere else

- Que algo es menos que otra cosa.

Pre- owned games usually arent as expensive as new ones.

The games in the sale are much less expensive than usual.

- Que ambas cosas son iguales.

Fantasy games are as popular as football games with our customers

Adjective position
Los adjetivos en ingls son normalmente colocados antes de la palabra a la cual describen.
We visited an old house. We saw some Beautiful paintings.

Los adjetivos tambin pueden ir seguidos de verbos como: be, get, become, seem, appear,
sound, taste, smell and feel:
Everything seemed pleasant when we started. The flowers smelt beautiful and the
gardens looked wonderful.
En ingls hay muchos nombres que se utilizan como adjetivos:

A diamond ring A library book A folk music A strawberry jam

Adjectives ending in -ing and -ed
Algunos adjetivos estn formados a partir de verbos.
- Usamos la terminacin -ed para describir nuestros sentimientos.
Im tired

- Usamos la terminacin -ing para describir las cosas, situaciones o personas que
nos hacen sentir as.
This work is tiring

Adjective order
En ocasiones, utilizamos ms de un adjetivo, esto nos obliga a establecer un orden de
posicin. Las reglas son las siguientes:

1. Normalmente empezamos con adjetivos que nos proporcionan una opinin o

informacin general.
A dangerous old car A delicate oval tray A valuable silver spoon

2. Adjetivos que proporcionan informacin descriptiva o de los hechos, normalmente,

van seguidos de la opinin y van en el siguiente orden.
3. Los colores siempre van separados por la conjuncin and.

A black and white photograph

4. Cuando usamos ms de un adjetivo despus del verbo, debemos colocar and antes
del ltimo.

The day was hot and tiring

Lord Byron was described as mad, bad and dangerous

Adverbs

Adverb forms
Los adverbios nos proporcionan informacin sobre un verbo, un adjetivo u otro adverbio.
Los adverbios nos pueden proporcionar informacin sobre el tiempo (when), lugar
(where), manera (how) y frecuencia (how often).

Muchos adverbios se forman aadiendo -ly a un adjetivo:

Sad Sadly Safe Safely Hopeful Hopefuly

Un adjetivo terminado en -ly (fiendly, likely, lovely, silly, ugly) no puede convertirse en
adverbio. En su lugar, debemos hacer uso de una frase adverbial.

She started the interview in a friendly manner

He laughed in a silly way

Adverb and adjetives easily confused

- Algunos adjetivos y adverbios tienen la misma forma. Algunos de los ms
comunes son: fast, early, hard, late y daily.
He caught the early train (Adjective) He always arrives early (Adverb)
Shes a hard worker (Adjective) She works hard (Adverb)
The bus is always late (Adjective) I got home late (Adverb)
My daily coffe cost 2,50 $ (Adjective) I swim daily (Adverb)
 - Hard y Hardly son dos adverbios con la misma forma, pero con significado
diferente. Hardly sifnifica casi no, por poco no y es normalmente usado con
las partculas ever y any. Este adverbio puede ir en diferentes lugares de la
oracin.

She hardly noticed when he came into the room.

I had hardly finished my breakfast when they arrived.
Rachel is hardly ever absent.
There was hardly anyone in the cinema.
Hardly any of the children could read.

- Late y Lately son tambin dos adverbios, pero tienen diferente significado.
Lately significa recientemente.
I havent read any good books lately.

- El adverbio para bien es well. Ahora bien, well tambin puede ser un
adjetivo que signifique lo opuesto a enfermo.
It was a good concert. The musicians played well.
I had a bad headache yesterday but Im well today.

Comparative and superlative Adverbs

- Muchos adverbios usan more o less para formular la comparativa y, most o the
least para formular la superlativa.

My brother speaks Italian more fluently than me.

I speak italuan lee fluently than my brother does.
Of all the students, Maria speaks English the most fluently.

- Los adverbios que no terminan en -ly hacen su comparativa y superlativa de la

misma forma que los adjetivos cortos.
Hard Harder Hardest High Higher Highest

Early, a pesar de acabar en -ly, tambin forma la comparativa y la superlativa de la

misma forma que los adjetivos cortos
 - Algunos adverbios son irregulares y deben aprenderse de memoria:
Well Better Best Badly Worse Worst

- Los adverbios utilizan la misma estructura para la forma comparativa que los
adjetivos.

I cant add up as quickly as you can

They arrived later than us

Modifying adverbs and Adjectives

Algunos adverbios son usados para cambiar la fuerza con la que actan algunos
adjetivos u otros adverbios.

He plays extremely well. The weather was very hot.

He spoke to her rather fiercely. The house was quite old.

Algunos adjetivos (perfect, impossible, excellent) pueden ser solo reforzados por
adverbios como completely, absolutely, totally, entirely.
This crossword puzzle is completely impossible.

Adverb position
La posicin ms comn para la mayora de adverbios es despus del verbo. En
ocasiones, pueden ir antes del verbo o al principio de la oracin para dar ms nfasis a
lo que se est diciendo.
He packed his suitcase carefully.
He carefully packed his suitcase
Carefully, he packed his suitcase
Si hay ms de un adverbio o frases adverbiales al final de la oracin, debemos seguir la
siguiente jerarqua:
1. How?
2. Where? The meeting took place unexpectedly in the town hall las Monday.
3. When?

Los adverbios de frecuencia se colocan normalmente en medio de la oracin, justo antes

del verbo y despus de am/is/are/was/were.
I usually travel by train.

Ahora bien, si el verbo es compuesto, el adverbio se coloca justo despus de la primera

partcula.
I have never been to this part of the town before.

Los adverbios de opinin, es decir, aquellos que nos indican la actitud del hablante ante
la situacin que se plantea, se colocan normalmente al principio de oracin y, a menudo,
seguidos de coma.

Luckly, we found the money which I thought I had lost.

Actually, I dont agree with what you said.
In fact, the weather was better than wed expected.
Questions

Making yes/no questions

Para formular preguntas que puedan ser contestadas con un s o un no, debemos seguir
las siguientes reglas:

1. Debemos poner el verbo auxiliar antes del sujeto.

Youre going on holiday son Are you going on holiday soon

2. En el Present simple y el Past simple, debemos usar como auxiliar las partculas
do/does y did.
I like Italy Do you like Italy?
She prefers Greece Does she prefer Greece?
They went to Corsica Did they go to Corsica?

3. En los verbos modales debemos poner el modal antes del sujeto.

We can stay here Can we stay here?

Short answers for yes/no questions

Respondemos a las cuestiones de s o no usando el mismo auxiliar o modal que se ha
utilizado en la pregunta.
Is she staying in Spain? Yes, she is. / No, she isn't.
Have you been to New York? Yes. I have / No, I haven't
Are you going to Greece? Yes, lam. / No, I'm not.
Did they like the hotel? Yes, they did. / No, they didn't
Can we book our flight online? Yes, we can. / No, we can't
Should: contact the police? Yes, you should. / No, you shouldn't.
Making questions with questions words
- Cuando usamos what, which o who para hacer preguntas sobre el sujeto del
verbo, no debemos cambiar el orden de las palabras. Simplemente sustituir el
sujeto por la partcula de pregunta.
The pool looks too small What looks too small?
This hotel offers the best view Which hotel offers the best view?

- En una oracin de sujeto, who siempre va seguido por un verbo en singular. A

menos que dos o ms personas sean mencionadas en la pregunta.
Who is coming to your party? Who are coming?
Who are your favourite singers?

- Cuando usamos what, which o who para hacer preguntas sobre el objeto del
verbo, debemos cambiar el orden de las palabras.
This hotel offers the best view What does this hotel offer?

Compara estas dos oraciones de sujeto y de objeto

Molly's visiting Shirin Who's visiting Shirin? Molly. (Who = subject)
Molly's visiting Shinn Who's Molly visiting? Shirin. (Who = object)

Recuerda la diferencia entre estas cuestiones con like.

What does Molly like? (what does she enjoy?)
0 / She likes playing.
What does Molly look like? (Tell me about her appearance / Shes pretty.
What is Molly like? (Tell me about her character) / Shes intelligent.

Question tags
A menudo, queremos aadir una proposicin de estado a la pregunta. El verbo de la
proposicin debe tener la forma complementaria a la del verbo auxiliar en el estado.

- Si el estado es positivo, la proposicin debe ser negativa.

Theyre going to Greece, arent they? Yes / Ellos van a ir a Grecia, no? S

- Si el estado es negativo, la proposicin debe ser positiva.

You arent going to Greece, are you? No / T no vas a ir a Grecia, si? No
 Hacemos proposiciones de pregunta:

1. Con do/does/did para todos los verbos en presente o pasado simple, excepto to be.

You like the seaside, don't you? You don't like the seaside, do you?
Molly prefers Greece, doesn't she? Molly doesn't prefer Greece, does she?
Your friends are in Madrid, aren't they? Your friends aren't in Madrid now, are they?

2. Con el mismo auxiliar o modal de la pregunta para el resto de tiempos verbales.

They havent arrived yet, have they? No

We can stay here, cant we? S

3. La proposicin para I am es arent I.

Im doing the right exercise, arent I?

4. La proposicin para I am not es am I.

I am not in the right place, am I?

5. La proposicin para lets es shall we.

Lets go to France, shall we?

Agreeing with statements

Para estar de acuerdo con las proposiciones usamos so para expresar positividad y
neither para la negatividad. El verbo siempre va antes del sujeto (partcula + verbo +
sujeto).
1. Con el verbo to be o con un modal.
He was really angrily / So was I
He cant speak French / Nor can we

2. Con un verbo auxiliar.

I wegnt to Spain last year / So did they
I dont want to have a fight about it / Neither do I
Countable and uncountable nouns; articles

Countable and uncountable nouns

Los nombres contables pueden ser tanto singulares (a job, a company) como plurales
(many companies, few jobs). Pero los incontables no tienen plural (Health, advice,
luggage), el verbo siempre es singular (Petrol is expensive, Excercise is good for you) y
con ellos, a menudo, se utilizan expresiones como a piece of para referirse a cantidad.

- Muchos nombres pueden ser contables e incontables, pero siempre con diferente
significado:

These grammar exercises are easy!

Exercise is good for you.

The gallery was showing works by several artists.

I don't enjoy hard work

News es incontable y siempre lleva el verbo en singular, a pesar de que parece un plural

A piece of news a news

A (n), the and no article

Modals (I)

Use of modals

Los verbos modales can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will and
would:

- Siempre son usados antes de otro verbo.

He can swim

- Nunca cambian de forma, es decir, no se aade -s, -ed o -ing al final del verbo.

- Van seguidos de un verbo en infinitivo y sin to al final. A excepcin de ought to

que siempre rige esta partcula final.

You should get up earlier

You ought to get up earlier

- En la negativa van inmediatamente seguidos de la partcula de negacin.

You should not / shouldn't be late for college.

You ought not to be late for college

- A la hora de formular preguntas, el modal siempre se coloca antes que el sujeto.

Could you wake me up

Rules and obligation

- Para expresar obligacin podemos usar tanto must como have to.

I must go now or Ill miss the bus / I have to go now or I'll miss the bus.

- Usamos must para dar rdenes, para escribir advertencias o avisos fuertes,
incluso para nosotros mismos.

You must tell me everything.

Lucia must be home by midnight.
You must come to the hotel one day.
I must go now.

- Cuando la obligacin no viene del hablante, se pueden utilizar ambos, pero es

ms correcto have to.

You have to pay to park your car here.

I have to stay until the food is cooked.

- Para expresar hbitos utilizamos have to.

I have to get up early to cook breakfast.

Jose has to practise the piano for twenty minutes a day.

- Solo usamos must para referirnos al presente o al future. Para otros tiempos
usamos have to.

I had to work every day (past simple)

I'll (will) have to work longer hours. (future)
I avoided having to speak to him by crossing the street. (verb + -ing)
If I got the job, I'd (would) have to buy a car (conditional).

- Cuando nos referimos al pasado con el have to, debemos utilizar had to.
I had to get up early
A pesar de que must y have to expresan obligacin, mustnt y dont have to tienen
significados diferentes. Mustnt significa no debes hacer esto (como imposicin) y
dont have to significa no es necesario hacer esto.

We mustnt make a lot of noise

You dont have to stay at school until youre 18

Usamos should para hablar sobre aquello que es correcto hacer.

Adam should take more care when hes cycling.

I shouldnt spend so much time watching TV.

Para hablar del pasado, usamos la forma compuesta should have + past participle.

I should have told the truth.

We shouldnt have lent her that money.

Necesity

Podemos hacer uso de need to como verbo principal en cualquier oracin, pero tambin
en la negativa con su forma modal.

She doesnt need to come. / She neednt come.

Para hablar en pasado decimos:

Oliver needed to buy a computer.

Oliver didnt need to buy a computer.

Modals (II)

Asking and giving permission

Podemos formular preguntas de peticin con los modales can, could y may.

- Tanto can como could se pueden usar de forma similar, pero could (podra) es
ms formal que can (puedo). May es la frmula ms formal y slo se suele
utilizar en advertencias escritas.

Can I leave my bag here while I look round the museum?

Could I borrow your car for a few days?
You may borrow six books from the library.

Making requests

Podemos usar can you?, Will you?, Could you?, Do you think you could?, Would you?,
Would you mind? para preguntar a quien sea sobre lo que sea-

- Usamos can you? o Will you? Especialmente en conversaciones informales.

Can you pass me the bread?

Will you get me some stamps from the post office?

- Para preguntar de una forma ms educada podemos utilizar could you? y would
you?

Could you tell me where the station is?

Would you lend me your camera?

- Usamos do you think you could? Para hacer peticiones.

Do you think you could move your thing off the table?
Making offers

Existen bastantes formas de ofrecer ayuda a alguien:

Can I/we help you to cook dinner?

Shall I/we clean the car for you?
I can / I could / lend you some money.
Why don't I carry that bag for you?
Would you like me to do the washing up?

Making suggestions

Para realizar sugerencias podemos utilizar las siguientes expresiones.

Giving orders and advice

Para dar rdenes y consejos se debe utilizar.

You really must start looking for a job.

You'd better start looking for a job.
You should / ought to start looking for a job.
You could start looking for a job.
Para construir la negativa, normalmente utilizamos had better not o shouldnt.

You'd better not forget to send that application form.

You shouldn't wear those clothes for the interview.

Nunca usamos mustnt o couldnt para dar un consejo

Modals (III)

Ability

Usamos can o be able to para decir que alguien tiene la capacidad o habilidad para
hacer algo. Can es ms comn que be able to en el presente.
Usamos normalmente can para:
- Para hablar de una habilidad en general.
James can play chess, although hes only six years old.
Humans cant see very well in the dark.

- Para hablar sobre una situacin en la que alguien es capaz de hacer algo. Esto
puede referirse tanto al presente como al futuro.
The manager cant see you right now.
You can get tickets to the festival on this website.
I can meet you tomorrow because I have a day off.
Tanto el can como be able to tiene su forma pasada. El pasado de can es could, y el
pasado de be able to es was/were able to.

Usamos could o was/were able to:

- Para hablar sobre la habilidad que alguien tena en el pasado.

He could/was able to read when he was three but he couldnt/wasnt

able to catch a ball when he started school.

- Para hablar sobre una situacin en la cual alguien era capaz de hacer algo.
I was able to meet them yesterday because I had a day off.
No usamos could para hablar de una situacin en el pasado, pero si podemos usar el
couldnt.
She was able to come to the meeting out she couldnt stay for lunh.
They were able to see the match because they had a day off.

Para expresar situaciones en las que alguien es capaz de hacer algo, utilizamos el can
slo para el presente y el could para pasado. En el resto de tiempos verbales usamos la
forma conjugada del be able to.

Well be able to sell the photo to a newspaper. (will future)

They havent been able to contact Mary because of the storms. (Present perfect)
If you saved enough money, you would be able to visit me in London. (Condicional)
They hope to be able to visit me next year. (Infinitivo)
Deduction: certainty and possibility

Presente
Para hablar en tiempo presente sobre algo certero usamos:
- Must cuando estamos seguro de que algo es verdad.
It must be from Steven because hes in Australia.

- Cant / Couldnt cuando estamos seguros de que algo no es verdad.

It cant be / couldnt be from Steven because thats not his writing.

Para hablar en tiempo presente sobre algo que es posible, podemos usar may, might o
could. El significado es el mismo.

- May, might or could cuando pensamos que algo es posible de verdad.

The parcel may be / might be / could be from Dads friends Tony, because he
moved to Australia recently.

- May not / might not cuando pensamos que algo no es posible de vedad.

It may not be / might not be from someone we know.

Pasado
Para hablar en tiempo pasado sobre algo que es certero usamos:
- Cuando estamos seguros de que era verdadero utilizamos must have + past
participle.

Steven must have arrived in Perth by now.

 - Cuando estamos seguros de que algo no fue verdad utilizamos cant / couldnt
have + part participle.

He cant / couldnt have got there yet because it will take at least two weeks.

Para hablar en tiempo pasado sobre algo que es posible usamos:

- Usamos might have / may have / could have cuando pensamos que algo es
posiblemente verdad.

He might/may/could have stopped for a few days on the way.

- Usamos might not have / may not have cuando pensamos que algo posiblemente
no sea verdad.

He might/may not have had time to do everything he wanted.

Futuro
Podemos utilizar might (not), may (not) and could cuando estamos hablando sobre
posibilidad en el futuro.

James may go out to see Steven in Australia next month.

We might get into a lot of trouble, in my opinion.
I think there could be a storm tonight.
Should we get a bigger bag for the potatoes? This one might/may not be
strong enough.
Expectations

Cuando tenemos expectativas de que algo ocurrir, podemos utilizar should (not) +
infinitive without to.

Steven should email us soon.

It shouldn't be too long before we hear from Steven.

Tambin Podemos utilizar should cuando descubrimos una situacin que no ocurri
como esperbamos.

This email from Steven says he's in Melbourne but he should be in Sydney this week.

Cuando hablamos sobre una situacin pasada podemos usar should (not) have + past
participle.

He should have left Alice Springs several days ago.

He shouldn't have had any trouble finding places to stay.

Pronouns and determiners

Possessive s and of

Usamos s con:
1. Personas, paises y animales.

The girls clothes were very dirty.

Britains roads get more crowded every year.
I nearly trod on the cats tail.

2. Expresiones de tiempo.
I want to go on weeks holiday. Theyre last years tours.
Usamos of :

1. Para hablar de cosas.

Whats the price of that holiday?

Possessive adjectives and pronouns

Los adjetivos posesivos se utilizan siempre antes de un nombre.

Those are your keys? Where is my phone?

Los pronombres posesivos se utilizan para evitar repeticiones.

That's not your umbrella, it's mine.

Usamos los adjetivos posesivos en lugar de the para referirnos a partes del cuerpo y
ropa.

My father broke his leg

She lost her favourite jeans
Reflexive pronouns and own

Usamos los pronombres reflexivos para:

1. Para dejar claro que estamos hablando del sujeto del verbo.
Amy blamed herself for what had happened.

2. Para enfatizar.
I went to this place myself to see what it was really like.

3. Con algunas expresiones communes como: like by yourself, enjoy yourself, behave
yourself, help yourself o make yourself.

You can help yourself to as much food as you want.

The resort's got everything you need to enjoy yourself

There and it + verb to be

Usamos there + to be cuando:

1. Para decir que alguien o algo existe, especialmente cuando nos referimos a ese
alguien o algo por primera vez.

There are some lovely apartments.

There is a tour guide.

2. Para referirnos a una accin particular, situacin o lugar acabada de mencionar.

There's a page called Walking Tours. It is full of useful tips.

3. Para introducir informacin sobre el tiempo o la distancia.

It's twenty past five and it's sunny here in New York.
It's only a few metres from here to the beach.
4. Para evitar utilizar una frase que contega -ing o infinitvo como sujeto.
It's surprising to see you here.
It's a waste of time looking at your website.

Someone, anywhere, everybody, etc

Este tipo de palabras siguen las mismas reglas que some y any.

Utilizamos some:

1. En cuestiones, especialmente en peticiones y ofertas de las cuales esperamos un s

como respuesta.

Can I have something cold to drink?

Would you like something to eat?

2. En oraciones positivas.

I want to go somewhere sunny.

Usamos any:

1. En preguntas y oraciones negativas.

Are you interested in anywhere in particular?

We havent got anything like that this year.

Las palabras como someone, everybodysiempre van seguidas de un verbo en singular.

Everyones going for them this year.

Nobody wants to go on those tours

All, most, some, no and none

Estas palabras siempre son usadas con el plural y con los sustantivos incontables, pero no
tambin puede ir acompaado de sustantivos en singular.

Each and every

Each and every pueden ser utilizados con el mismo significado:

Each / Every apartment has a balcony.

Ahora bien, algunas veces tienen significados diferentes:

- Each es usado para cosas individuales o personas en un grupo.

Each child drew a picture of her own parents.

The customs officer checked each passport in turn.

- Every enfatiza que todas las personas o cosas en un grupo estn incluidas.

Every holiday youve mentioned is the kind of holiday id hate.

Each (no every) puede ir seguido de of + plural noun o pronoun.

Each of the apartments / Each of them has a balcony.

Fjate en la diferencia entre all all y every!

He sat by the river every morning. / He sat by the river all morning.
Both, neither and either

Usamos both, neither and either cuando nos referimos a dos tems.

- Usamos un verbo en plural despus de both.

Both places are too noisy / Both (of) the places are ... / Both of them are ...

- Usamos un verbo singular despus de either and neither.

Either/Neither place suits me / Either/Neither of the places / them suits me.

- Usamos bothand, neither and eitherpara conectar dos ideas o acciones.

Both the Hotel Flora and the Grand Hotel have good restaurants.
Neither the Hotel Flora nor the Grand Hotel has a good restaurant.
We could stay at either the Hotel Flora or the Grand Hotel.
Reported speech

Tense changes in reported speech

Cuando estamos informando sobre algo que alguien ha dicho, normalmente, informamos
ms tarde de lo que la accin ha sucedido y, por tanto, debemos realizar un cambio en los
tiempos verbales empleados.

Los siguientes verbos no cambian cuando realizamos un reported speech.

Could, would, should, might, ought to, used to y todos los verbose n past perfect.
Cuando hacemos un reported con must, podemos usar must o had to, pero had to es ms
comn.
Kate must buy some fruit / Kate said she had to / must buy some fruit

Ahora bien, usamos mus y no had to cuando hacemos un report:

- Negativo:
Paul: You mustn't tell Sally our secret / Paul said we mustn't tell Sally our
secret

- Una deduccin:
Sarah: Jim must be tired after the flight / Sarah said Jim must be tired
after the flight.

Reporting in the same tense

Si el verbo del report est en presente, usamos el mismo tiempo que el hablante original.
Amy: I've missed the bus so I'll be a bit late / Amy says she's missed the bus so
shell be a bit late.
Si el verbo del report est en pasado, usamos el mismo tiempo que el hablante original
si la situacin todava es verdad.
Robert: 'I have three sister?
Robert said he has three sisters / Robert said he had three sisters.

Carlo: 'I'm getting married in June

Carlo said he is getting married in June / Carlo said he was getting married in
June.

Verbs for reporting

Normalmente usamos say y tell para hacer un report de algo que alguien dijo.
- Si utilizamos say debemos acompaarlo con to para mencionar a la persona con
la que el hablante se comunic.

He said to me (that) he was going to win. (not He said me)

 - Si utilizamos tell, siempre debemos utilizarlo sin to.
He told them (that) he was going to win. (not He told to me them/ He told that)

Tambin podemos usar otros verbos report en lugar de say y tell. Algunos de estos son:

He reminded me (that) it was his birthday.

She persuaded me (that) I should buy a different car.
He informed me (that) he had a new job.
They warned us (that) the bridge was in a dangerous condition. Y

Algunos verbos van siempre acompaados por that. Los utilizamos para mencionar a la
persona con la que el hablante se comunic.

I mentioned (to my uncle) that Nicholas had found a new job.

The attendant pointed out that the pool would be closed on Saturday.
She complained (to the waiter) that the food was cold.
He explained (to us) that volcanic activity often caused earthquakes.

Depus de agree usamos with para la persona con la que el hablante se comunic.

Jack agreed (with me) that the film was brilliant.

Verbs for reporting with to infinitive

Normalmente informamos sobre rdenes y peticiones usando tell o ask + object + to

infinitive.

Be quiet The teacher told us to be quiet. (= an order)

Don't stay out late Dad told me not to stay out late. (= an order)
Please help me He asked us to help him. (= a request)
Could you carry my bag. please? She asked me to carry her bag. (a request)
Reporting questions

Las preguntas con palabras de pregunta guardan esas palabras para formar el reported
speech.

How do you feel? Rachel asked James how he felt

What's the weather like? She asked (him) what the weather was like.

Las preguntas de s / no son reportadas con if o whether.

Can you hear me? Rachel asked James if/whether he could hear her.
Is the sea calm? Rachel wanted to know if/whether the sea was calm.

Usamos la misma estructura cuando preguntamos educadamente por informacin.

Can you tell me what time the next train leaves?

I'd like to know if there's a flight to Australia next Thursday.

References to time, place, etc

Depende de lo lejos que est el tiempo al que nos estamos refiriendo deberemos cambiar
cambiar las referencias temporales o no.

We didn't do any work yesterday. They admitted that they hadn't done any work the
day before.

Will the library be open tomorrow? She enquired whether the library would be open
the following day.

'I have to go now or I'll miss my bus. He explained that he had to go right then or
he'd miss his bus.
The passive

La pasiva se forma con el verbo to be seguido del past participle.

Activa Pasiva
The police officer saw the robber at the airport. The robber was seen at the airport.
Shes following him. Hes being followed.
Shell catch him soon. Hell be caught soon.

En ingls la voz pasiva es muy utilizada, tanto al hablar como al escribir. Usamos la
pasiva cuando:

1. Cuando no sabemos quin o qu hizo algo.

My phone has been stolen.
The first tools were made in Africa two million years ago.
2. Cuando la accin realizada es ms importante que quien la hizo.
Income tax was introduced in England in 1778.

3. Si es obvio qu o quin hizo algo.

The thief has been arrested.

Podemos usar by + la persona/cosa para mostrar quin/que hizo la accin si esta

informacin es importante.
The plice officer saw the robber The robber was seen by the plice officer.

Algunos verbos Pueden tener dos objetos, cuando esto sucede, ambos objetos Pueden
ser el sujeto de la oracin pasiva.
A witness gave some information to the police:
- The police were given some information by a witness.
- Some information was given to the police by a witness.

It is said that

A menudo, en ingls, usamos it + passive + that cuando informamos sobre algo que la
gente dice o cree de forma general.
It is believed that the tree was placed there by other members of the gang.

Podemos usar unos verbos muy concretos para formar este patrn correctamente (agree,
announce, believe, decide, report, say and think):

It's (is) said that a famous singer used to live in this house.
It was agreed that the theatre must be closed.
It's (is) reported that the damage will cost millions of pounds to repair.
It's (has) been announced that a new road will be built along the river.
Until the 16th century it was thought that the sun revolved around the Earth.
The to infinitive y -ing

Verb + to infinitive

If you decide to add nuts

I hope to see you later.

La forma negativa se forma de la siguiente forma:

If you decide not to ice it

Los siguientes verbos siempre llevan un objeto antes del to infinitivo.

Her father taught her to play tennis.

The teacher reminded the children to bring their swimming things
The school allows students to wear jeans.
Verb + -ing

I enjoy making it.

Avoid adding the eggs all at the same time.
Keep beating the eggs.
I suggest adding a little lemon juice.

La negativa se forma de la siguiente manera.

If you dont leave immediately, you risk not catching your plane.
Can you imagine not having a car nowadays?

Verb + to infinitive or -ing (without difference in meaning)

Continue adding the flour / Continue to add the flour

I prefer using apricots / I prefer to use apricots
I love making cakes / I love to make cakes

- Like, prefer, hate y love Pueden ir seguidos por el to infinitivo o por -ing, pero
would like, would prefer, would hate y would love siempre va seguido del to
infinitivo.
Verb + to infinitive or -ing (with a difference in meaning)

Verb + that clause

Todos los siguientes Pueden ir seguidos por that sin que su sentido cambie
- Admit
- Consider
- Deny
- Imagine
- Mention
- Recomend
- Suggest
- Propose
- Remember
- Forget
- Regret
Adjective + to infinitive
Muchos adjetivos pueden ir seguidos de to infinitivo. Los siguientes son algunos de los
ms comunes:

Im surprised to see you here.

The book was hard to understand and at times I found it almost impossible to read.

Los adjetivos marcados con un asterisco son aquellos que pueden ir seguidos de to o -
ing sin que su significado se vea alterado.

Conditionals (I)

Zero conditional

Usamos este condicional para expresar verdades generales. En este condicional, la

partcula if es sinnimo de cuando.

If / When you're in love, nothing else matters. = Nothing else matters if / when
you're in love.
If / When it rains, we get terrible traffic jams. = We get terrible traffic jams if /
when it rains.
If / When we heat ice, it melts. = Ice melts if / when we heat it.
First conditional

Usamos este condicional cuando creemos que algo es posible.

If you visit me, Ill take you to the Tower of London.
If it snows, well go skiing.
If see Ruth, Ill give her your message.

En ocasiones, utilizamos este condicional eliminando la partcula if y convirtindolo en

un imperativo. Fundamentalmente se utiliza para promesas y tratos.

Pass this exam and well give you a motorbike.

Wait a minute and I'll be able to help you.
Break that jug and you'll have to pay for it.

Second conditional

Usamos este condicional para situaciones imaginarias que pensamos que son imposibles
o muy poco probables. En este condicional utilizamos siempre were y no was, es ms
formal.

The world would seem wonderful if you were in love.

If I were you, I wouldn't phone him.
Third conditional

Usamos este condicional para expresar momentos que no pueden ser cambiados.
Sabemos que la condicin es imposible y la consecuencia es imaginaria.

The world would have seemed wonderful if you'd (had) been in love
En este condicional, en ocasiones, would es sustituido por otro modal verb como could
o might

I might visit you if you invited me.

I could have visited you if you'd (had) invited me.

Conditionals (II)

Unless

Significa si no y es utilizado con el presente para hablar de una condicin en el

presente o en el futuro.

Were going unless the weather gets much worse.

We won't have time to reach the top of the mountain unless we set out early.
Unless you drive more slowly, I'll be sick.
This water isn't safe to drink unless you boil it.
In case
Muestra una accin tomada para preparar un evento o situacin.

- Usamos el tiempo presente despus de in case cuando queremos expresar que la

accin presente nos prepara para una accin futura.

Take a whistle in case you get separated.

Make sure you have my phone number in case you miss the bus.

- Usamos el tiempo pasado simple despus de in case para mostrar una accin
pasada. A menudo, este tipo de construcciones muestra que t hiciste algo
porque otra cosa podra haber pasado si no ms tarde.

He took his surfboard in case they went to the beach.

I had taken plenty of cash with me in case the shop didn't accept credit
cards.

Provided / Providing that as / so long as

Son expresiones que se utilizan con el tiempo presente para hablar sobre el future.
Tienen un significado muy similar a if.

As long as we all stay together, we'll have a great time.

You'll do very well in your interview so long as you don't talk too fast.

Provided (that) it doesn't snow too heavily, see you here at six o'clock.

My father says he'll meet us at the airport, providing (that) we let him know our
arrival time.
I wish and if only
Ambas construcciones se utlizan para expresar deseo por algo. Tienen el mismo
significado, pero if only es menos comn y ms contundente.

- Wish / if only + past simple es usado cuando queremos expresar un deseo sobre
una situacin presente.
I wish you loved me.

I wish I knew the answer.

If only he could drive.

If only we had a bigger flat!

- Podemos utilizar were en lugar de was despus de cualquier sujeto.

I wish I was/were clever like you.
I with the weather wasn't/weren't so wet here.
If only my sister was/were here!

Its time and would rather (not)

Estas expresiones van seguidas del pasado simple con un tiempo presente que le de
significado.

It's time we ate dinner now.

It's time I went home.

I'd rather you didn't bring large cameras.

We'd rather the flat was bigger, but it's all we can afford.

Cuando el sujeto de would rather es el mismo que el del verbo que le sigue, usamos el
infinitivo sin el to.

They'd rather eat at home as they have a small baby.

I'd rather go home by taxi at this time of night.

We'd rather not spend too much money as we're saving for a new car.
Prepositions (I)

Prepositions of place

In, at and on

Usamos in para alguien o algo dentro de un rea limitada.

The Prime Minister is in Washington.
She is due to appear in Edinburgh
There are some lovely trees in this park.
Tambin lo Podemos usar para algo o alguien dentro de un edificio, habitacin o
contenedor.
They heard shouting in the manager's office.
Do you keep your credit cards in this wallet?

Usamos on para un punto fijo en una lnea, para un punto en una superficie, con las
palabras floor y ceiling, y para el trasnporte (a excepcin de coches y taxis, para estos
utilizamos in).
She's holidaying on the north coast of Africa.
We stopped at a caf on the road to Brighton.
I want to hang this picture on the wall.
There's a spider on the ceiling.
They met on a plane.
I can't read on the bus.
He came home in a taxi.

Usamos at cuando pensamos sobre un lugar en trminos de su funcionalidad o de

lugar de encuentro y para un evento.

He will have talks at the White House.

I keep my tennis racket at the sports club.
I'll see you at the theatre.
He will remain at the conference.
Above and over

Usamos above y over cuando una cosa es ms alta que otra. Over se utiliza cuando una
cosa cubre otra. Above se utiliza cuando dos cosas no estn directamente una encima de
la otra o para documentos.

They built an extra room above/over the garage.

Put this rug over that old chair.
The hotel is above the beach.
Please don't write above the line.

Under and below

Under o below se utiliza si una cosa es baja que otra. Under es lo opuesto de over y
below lo opuesto de above. Adems, below se utiliza para documentos.

The garage is below/under the workshop.

There's a beautiful old chair under that rug.
The beach is below the hotel.
Please don't write below the line.

Along and through

Along se utiliza para algo que sigue una determinada lnea.

There were cheering crowds along the route of the procession.

We strolled along the river bank at dusk.

Through significa pasar de un lado de algo a otro.

The road goes through Birmingham.

We could see the sea through the trees.
The train went through the tunnel.
By and beside

Ambos significan al lado de y Pueden ser utilizados indistintamente.

A security man was standing by / beside the door.
Id love to live by/ beside a lake.

Prepositions of time

At, on and in

At es utilizado para un punto en el tiempo, para una hora del da y para una poca de
vacaciones.
At the start of her tour of Europe.
At six o'clock, at dawn, at lunchtime.
At Christmas, at Easter.

On es utilizado para fechas y das.

On Monday, on 3rd December

In es utilizado para todo o un periodo de tiempo.

In the afternoon, in winter, in the twenty-first century,

In the Middle Ages

By and until

By significa que algo ocurre antes del tiempo mencionado. Until, por el contrario,
significa hasta.
She intends to be in Chile by the end of the year.
Part of the motorway will remain closed until this afternoon.
We can't eat until all the guests arrive.
In, during and for

In y during son, a menudo, utilizados con el mismo significado, pero during muestra un
evento particular, especialmente si es una interrupcin.
In/During the summer we often go for long walks.
The manager was released during the night.
They walked out of the hall during the politician's speech.

For muestra cunto tiempo hace que algo ocurri.

He will remain at the conference for two days.
We went to Spain for the summer.

Prepositions (II)

Prepositions which follow verbs and adjectives

Verb + Preposition

Verb + Object + Preposition

Verb + different prepositions

To be + adjective + preposition
Prepositions used to express who, how and why

By, with and for

- Usamos by con los verbos pasivos, para la persona o cosa que realiza la accin.

The window was smashed by Andy.

The fire was started by an electrical fault.

- Usamos by + -ing para mostrar cmo algo ocurre.

7

He smashed the window by hitting it with a hammer.

He got in by breaking a window.

- Usamos with + noun para una herramienta.

He smashed the window with a hammer.
He covered his face with his handkerchief.

- Usamos for + -ing o noun para explicar el objetivo de una herramienta u otro
objeto. Tambin lo podemos utilizar para explicar la razn de algo.

He keeps a bag of tools in his car for emergencies.

The owners of the house thanked him for saving their property.
He received an award for bravery.
Expressions with prepositions

No confundir estas expresiones con:

Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses with who, wich and that

Las defining relative clauses nos proporcionan informacin esencial sobre las cosas o
personas a las que se refieren.

The picture that hangs next to Margaret's portrait is the one I like best.

Si eliminamos las palabras that hangs next to Margaret's portrait no podemos saber a
que pintura se est refiriendo, o lo que es lo mismo, nos falta informacin para
comprender el sentido real de la oracin.

Usamos las defining relative clauses:

1. Usamos el pronombre relativo who para personas, wich para cosas y that para
personas y cosas.

There's the woman who sold me the bracelet.

I'm looking for a website which has the words of pop songs.

Where did you get the coat that you were wearing?

They're the people that run the local caf.

2. Como sujeto de la relative clause.

The picture which/that hangs next to Margaret's portrait.

Defining relative clauses with who and wich

Las no-defining relative clauses nos proporcionan informacin extra sobre las cosas o
personas a las que se refieren.

The next painting shows Edmund's wife Margaret, who he married in 1605.

Si eliminamos las palabras who he married in 1605, todava conocemos el sentido

esencial de la oracin.
Usamos las no-defining relative clauses:

1. Siempre usamos el pronombre relativo who para persona y wich para cosas.

My friend Tom, who works for a software company, earns a good salary.
This company makes all kinds of phones and chargers, which are sold in
fifty different countries.

2. Como sujeto de la oracin.

The building which is very old, costs a lot of money to repair.

3. Siempre separado del resto de la oracin por comas.

My best friend, who works at the cafe on Saturdays, says its always busy.

Whose, whom, when, where and why in relative clauses

Tanto las defining clauses como las non-defining clauses pueden:

- Comenzar por whose (en lugar de his / her / their), por when (para referirse a
tiempo) y por where (para referirse a lugares).

William, whose wife Jane was a famous beauty, had nine children.
Here they are in this picture from the year when the youngest was born.

- Comenzar con whom (para personas).

The man whom we asked for directions was extremely helpful.

His friend, whom he neglected, became very depressed.

Una defining clause puede:

- Comenzar con why de las palabras the reason.
This victory was the reason why he became a national hero.

A menudo omitimos las palabras when and why, pero no where.

I remember the day (when) I met you.

Prepositions in relative clauses
Cuando hay una preposicin junto a un pronombre relativo:
- Normalmente, ponemos la preposicin al final de la oracin.
Shad a friend I shared everything with.
Peter Frost, who (or whom) my father used to work for, has become a
government minister.

- En ingls informal, algunas veces ponemos la preposicin al inicio de la oracin,

seguida de which (para cosas) o whom (para personas).

I had a friend with whom I shared everything.

Peter Jones, for whom my father used to work has become a government
minister.
The family history, about which I cared very little, was Jasper's main
interest.
There may be a fault in the cable to which the printer is connected.

Numbers and pronouns + of whom / of which

Las non-defining clauses Pueden empezar con un nmero o un pronombre como some,
most, each, a few, neither + of whom o of which.

The castle contained a lot of paintings, two of which were extremely valuable.
The best students, all of whom are over eighteen, will go to university in the
autumn.
Free tickets were given out to a group of football fans, one of whom was my
brother.
The cakes, each of which was decorated in a different colour, looked very
appetising.
My uncle's stories, most of which I'd heard before, were extremely boring.
I was offered a choke of two rooms, neither of which looked very clean.
Linking words

Adicin
1) Furthermore: adems, es ms
2) Moreover: adems, es ms
3) In adittion: adems, en suma
4) Not only: no solo

Contraste
1) Although: aunque
2) However: sin embargo
3) Whereas: mientras que
4) Nevertheless: Sin embargo
5) On the other hand: Por otro lado

Causa
1) Because: porque
2) Therefore: por lo tanto, entonces
3) Since: puesto / ya que
4) As a result: como resultado
5) As a consequence: como consecuencia
6) In order to: para

Secuenciadores
1) First / firstly: primero, en primer lufar
2) Next / then: seguidamente, luego
3) Afterwards: despus de, ms tarde
4) Finally / eventually: Finalmente, al final
5) Last but not least: por ltimo, si bien no menos importante
Para ejemplificar
1) For example: por ejemplo
2) For instance: por ejemplo
3) Such as: tal como
4) Like: como
5) Apart from: aparte de

Comparar
1) As: como
2) Similarly: de manera similar

Para generalizar
1) Mostly: prcticamente, mayormente
2) In general: en general

Clarificar una afirmacin

1) That is to say: es decir
2) In other words: en otras palabras

Enfatizar
1) As a matter of fact: por cierto, de hecho
2) Definitely: En efecto, definitivamente
3) Obviously: obviamente
4) Above all: sobre todo
5) Actually: de hecho
Introduccin
1) To begin with: para empezar
2) Nowadays: Hoy en da, actualmente

Conclusin
1) In conclusion: en conclusion
2) To sum up: para resumir
3) In short: en resumen
Phrasal verbs

Existen Phrasal verbs compuestos por dos o tres palabras. Aquellos que estn
formados por tres palabras (verb + adverb + preposition) son inseparables, por ejemplo:
get away with (salirse con la suya). Ahora bien, los Phrasal verbs compuestos por dos
palabras (verbo + adverbio) pueden ser separados si introducimos entre las dos partculas
un nombre o un pronombre. El nombre puede colocarse al medio o al final, pero el
pronombre slo en el medio. Por ejemplo: I tried on (probarse) the red jacket; I tried the
red jacket on; I tried it ton.
Se debe tener cuidado al hacer uso de Phrasal verbs, ya que muchos de ellos se
forman con verbos irregulares y, dependiendo del contexto (si es pasado), se deber
adaptar al tiempo verbal correspondiente. Por ejemplo: I took of (take of) my coat and sat
down.

2 particles (verb + adverb) 3 particles (verb + adverb +

4
preposition)
Nombres:
- I tried on the red jacket
- I tried the red jacket on
Inseparables
Pronombres:
- I tried it on

Stand out: diferenciarse, destacarse o sobresalir.

Add to: sumar, aumentar, incorporar, introducir o agregar.
Cut down: reducir
Dress up: disfrazarse, ponerse elegante o vestirse de gala.
Fit in with: integrar, encajar o adaptar.
Go out: salir, apagarse o extinguir.
Keep up with: mantenerse al tanto, estar al da o seguir el ritmo.
Pull on: tirar de algo.
Put together: elaborar, armar, preparar o recopilar.
Save up: ahorrar.
Slip on: ponerse.
Take back: recuperar.

Go ahead: seguir adelanate.

Go back: volver.
Go for: ir a buscar.
Go in: entrar. Phrasal verbs with go
Go on: continuar.
Go over: revisar o examinar.
Go up: subir o aumentar.

Come down with: Enfermar.

Cut down on: Reducir algo.
Get round to: Evitar, Evadir.
Keep to: Mantener, Seguir, Guardar.
Live on: Vivir de algo, Sobrevivir.
Put on: Ponerse.
Take up: Ocupar, Llevar, retomar.
Gramtica
First

Gabriel Esteller Collado