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SCI5105 EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

COURSE OBJECTIVE

To learn the properities of measurements of static and dynamic respone of structures


and carryout the analysis of results.

Prepared By
Mrs.K.Muthulakshmi
Assistant Professor,
Civil Department,
Sathyabama University.
Chennai-119.

Unit-1 STRAIN MEASUREMENT


Methods of measurement- calibration- Load calibration of testing machines I.S.
Code provisions- Measurement system- Strain measurement- Strain gauges-Principle,
types, Performance, Uses- Strain Rosettes- Wheatstone Bridge-Photo elasticity-
principle, Application- Moire fringe- Electronic load cells-Proving rings.

Introduction:
The initial step in preparing for any strain gage installation is the selection of the
appropriate gage for the task. It might at first appear that gage selection is a simple exercise, of
no great consequence to the stress analyst; but quite the opposite is true. Careful, rational
selection of gage characteristics and parameters can be very important in: optimizing the gage
performance for specified environmental and operating conditions, obtaining accurate and
reliable strain measurements, contributing to the ease of installation, and minimizing the total
cost of the gage installation. The installation and operating characteristics of a strain gage are
affected by the following parameters, which are selectable in varying degrees:
Strain-sensitive alloy
backing material (carrier)
Grid resistance
Gage pattern
Self-temperature compensation number
gage length
Options
Basically, the gage selection process consists of determining the particular available
combination of parameters which is most compatible with the environmental and other operating
conditions, and at the same time best satisfies the installation and operating constraints. These
constraints are generally expressed in the form of requirements such as:
Accuracy
test duration
Stability
Cyclic endurance
Temperature
ease of installation
Elongation
Environment
The cost of the strain gage itself is not ordinarily a prime consideration in gage selection,
since the significant economic measure is the total cost of the complete installation, of which the
gage cost is usually but a small fraction. In many cases, the selection of a gage series or
optional feature which increases the gage cost serves to decrease the total installation cost.

It must be appreciated that the process of gage selection generally involves


compromises. This is because parameter choices which tend to satisfy one of the constraints or
requirements may work against satisfying others. For example, in the case of a small-radius
fillet, where the space available for gage installation is very limited, and the strain gradient
extremely high, one of the shortest available gages might be the obvious choice. At the same
time, however, gages shorter than about 0.125 in [3 mm] are generally characterized by lower
maximum elongation, reduced fatigue life, less stable behavior, and greater installation difficulty.
Another situation which often influences gage selection, and leads to compromise, is the stock
of gages at hand for day-to-day strain measurements. While compromises are almost always
necessary, the stress analyst should be fully aware of the effects of such compromises on
meeting the requirements of the gage installation. This understanding is necessary to make the
best overall compromise for any particular set of circumstances, and to judge the effects of that
compromise on the accuracy and validity of the test data. The strain gage selection criteria
considered here relate primarily to stress analysis applications. The selection criteria for strain
gages used on transducer spring elements, while similar in many respects to the considerations
presented here, may vary significantly from application to application and should be treated
accordingly.

Strain Gauge

The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electric


resistance variation in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on wires. It is a very
versatile detector and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force, or
displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire element
looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member
undergoing stress. A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its
length and decrease its cross-sectional area.

The combined effect is an increase in resistance,

L
R
A

Where,
: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)
As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:
1) The change in gauge resistance
2) The change in length
The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,
K, is expressed mathematically as
R / R
K
Where L / L
K= the gauge factor
R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
L=the change in initial length in meters
L/L same unit with G, therefore

R / R
K
G
From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.
F
S Where
A
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters
Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Youngs modulus (Hookes Law) is
written as
S
E Where,
G
E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G= the strain (no units)

Applications:
1. Metallic strain gauge formed from thin resistance wire or etched from thin
sheets of metal foil.
2. Wire gauge (small) to minimum leakage for high T applications
3. Semiconductor strain gauge high output transducers as load cells
4. Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of bridge.
5. Strain gauges are used to measure force and small displacements. They are
used for analyzing the dynamic strain of complex structures. They are used to
measure tension, torque etc.

Types of strain gauges are:

(a) Wire strain gauges


(b) Foil strain gauges
(c) Thin film
(d) Semiconductor
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two point in an insulating
medium such as air. The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, crome
nickle or nickle iron alloys.
In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is used for sensing
the pressure. The wire is tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience the
compressive force.
The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in transducer
application employ preloaded resistance wire connected in Wheatstone bridge as
shown in fig.

At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are nominally equal
with the result the output voltage of the bridge is equal to zero.

Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the displacement


increases a tension in two wire and decreases it in the other two thereby
increase the resistance of two wire which are in tension and decreasing the
resistance of the remaining two wire .

This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is


proportional to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure .

BONDED STRAIN GAUGE


The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress analysis and for
construction of transducer.
A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine resistance wire. The grid is
cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or teflon.
The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it from
any mechanical demage.
The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen which permit a
good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.
BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
It consists of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to support the
wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding
operation, successful starain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface
preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge, the bond
has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the plastic backing material on
which the gauge is mounted.

SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor is
desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance that
can be measured with good accuracy.
The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it. The
semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e.
change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity.
Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor gauges.
RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

Resistance of metal increase with increases in temperature. Therefore metals


are said to have a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction of platinum rsistance
thermometer. The platinum wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating
material such as mica or ceramic.
This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid whose temperature is to be
measured.
The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the change in temperature of
the gas or liquid
This type of sensor have a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity as they
are made from metals they are also known as resistance temperature detector
Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type for immersion in medium
whose temperature is to be measured or controlled

THERMISTOR
Thermistor is a contraction of a term thermal resistor.
Thermistor is temperature dependent resistors. They are made of semiconductor
material which have negative temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their
resistance decreases with increase of temperature.
Thermistor are widely used in application which involve measurement in the
range of 0-60 Thermistor are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides
such as magnese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.

The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and discs.


The thermistor provides a large change in resistance for small change in
temperature. In some cases the resistance of themistor at room temperature may
decreases as much as 6% for each 1C rise in temperature.
Thermocouples
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a temperature
difference between the joined ends and the open ends, thermal emf is generated, which
can be measured in the open ends.

VARIABLE-INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer which converts the
physical motion into the change in inductance.
Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement.
The inductive transducers are of the self generating or the passive type. The self
generating inductive transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
The variable inductance transducers work on the following principles.
Variation in self inductance
Variation in mutual inductance

PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION OF SELF INDUCTANCE


Let us consider an inductive transducer having N turns and reluctance R. when
current I is passed through the transducer, the flux produced is
= Ni / R
Differentiating w.r.t. to t,
d/dt = N/R * di/dt
The e.m.f. induced in a coil is given by
e = N * d/dt
e = N * N/R * di/dt
e = N2 / R * di/dt
Self inductance is given by
L = e/di/dt = N2 / R
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is R = /A
Therefore L = N2 / /A = N2 A /
From eqn we can see that the self inductance may vary due to
I. Change in number of turns N
II. Change in geometric configuration
III. Change in permeability of magnetic circuit

CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH CHANGE IN NUMBER OF TURNS N


From eqn we can see the output may vary with the variation in the number of
turns. As inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement,
with change in number of turns the self inductance of the coil changes in-turn
changing the displacement
Fig shows transducers used for linear and angular displacement fig a shows an
air cored transducer for the measurement of linear displacement and fig b shows
an iron cored transducer used for angular displacement measurement.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)


It consists basically of a primary winding and two secondary windings, wound over a
hollow tube and positioned so the primary winding is between two secondaries. In figure
shows the construction of the LVDT.

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet coupling between
the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is in the centre, voltage induced in
the two secondaries is equal. When the core is moved in one direction from centre, the
voltage induced in one winding is increased and that in the other is decreased.
Movement in the opposite direction reverses this effect
Whats Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation, such as ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the emission, or ejection, of
electrons from the surface of, generally, a metal in response to incident light.

Photoelectric Transducer
Can be categorized as: photo emissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.
Examples of Photoelectric Transducer
(i) The Photomultiplier Tube
(ii) Photoconductive Cells OR Photocells
the electrical resistance of the materials
varies with the amount of light striking.
(iii) The Photovoltaic Cell or solar cell
- produce an electrical current when
connected to the load.

Plane Polariscope
It consists of two linear polarizer (which transmit light only along their axis of
polarization) and a light source. The linear polarizer nearest the light source is called the
polarizer, while the second linear polarizer is known as the analyzer.

Circular Polariscope

This polariscope employs circularly polarized light. The photo elastic apparatus
contains four optical elements and a light source.
Visualization of stresses in a straight beam subjected to four point bending.

Experimental setup

Light source emits light waves vibrating in infinite number of planes.


Polarization Filter (Polarizer): Polarizer restricts the vibration of light waves to a single
plane.

Experimental setup
Analyzer: Second polarizer used to analyze polarized light passed through material in
testing. Doubly refracting lights which passed through the birefringent are resolved by
analyzer. Speed difference in the refracting lights causes that a certain color from the
light disappears (wave shift).

How to determine stress?

Solution

When stressed, some transparent materials behave as bi-fringent material.

The speeds of the refracted lights are directly proportional to the principal stresses 1
and 2, major and minor principal stresses, respectively.

Test Specimen

Sample specimen Dimensions


Four point Bending

The straight beam is subjected to tranverse loading. The beam is supported at


two ends and downward load is applied at the two points shown in figure.

The Forces acting various sections are indicated as shown in the figure.

Due to application of load the beam is subjected to bending in the transverse plane. The
red lines indicate the new position of the beam.
Interpretation of 2-D photoelastic fringe patterns is based on the stress-optic law:
1- 2 = (N *F )/b
Where b is thickness of photo elastic model.
Calculation of material fringe order.

1- 2 = (N *F )/b

Hence fs can be determined by plotting the quantity Z versus the fringe order, N
2D Photo Elastic fringes under exposure of monochromatic light.

Photo elasticity is the phenomenon of -------------------------------------


Elastic behaviour of material in lighting conditions.
Inducing birefringence in a substance through the application of a stress system.
Bending stresses and shear stress determination using light
Normal stresses
What does n represent in the equation for the Stress-Optic Law?
Thickness of material
Stress-Optical coeffcient
Birefringence
Stress
The colour pattern indicate the ---------------------- of the stressed material?
Stress
Bifrigence
Polarization of light
Strain
What are the quantities on the axes of a Michel-Levy chart?
Retardation against thickness of specimen
Birefringence against thickness of specimen
Birefringence against time
Retardation against time
What is the difference between isochromatic and isoclinic fringes?
a Isochromatic fringes are obtained using monochromatic light, whereas isoclinic fringes
are obtained using white light.
b Isoclinic fringes are obtained when the principal stress direction coincides with the
polarisation of the polariser; isochromatic fringes are lines of constant stress difference.
c Isochromatic and isoclinic fringes occur in different types of plastic.
d Isoclinic fringes are lines of constant stress difference; isochromatic fringes are
obtained when the principal stress direction coincides with the polarisation of the
polariser.
Thermocouple
The thermocouples work on the principle of Seebeck effect, Peltier effect
and Thomson effect.
As per the Seebeck effect, when two dissimilar elements are joined at
their ends the electromotive force exists at their junction.
As per Peltier effect, the amount of electromotive force generated
depends on the temperature of the junction
While, the Thomson effect says that the amount of voltage generated
depends on the temperature gradient along the conductors in the circuit.
The voltage output from the thermocouple changes as its temperature
changes or the temperature of the body in whose contact it is changes.
The voltage output is calibrated against the temperature of the body that
can be measured easily.
Thermocouple is a very popular device used for measurement of
temperature.

Thermocouple Internal Circuit:

Types of Thermocouples
A thermocouple is available in different combinations of metals or calibrations.
The four most common calibrations are J, K, T and E.
There are high temperature calibrations R, S, C and GB.
Each calibration has a different temperature range and environment, although the
maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple
Applications:
Thermocouple
Steel Industry
Heating Appliance Safety
Power Production : Thermoelectric Generation
Thermoelectric Cooling
Diesel Engines
Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperature Measurement
Temperature Variation of Resistive Sensors

Light Dependent Resistor


The light dependent resistor consists of a length of material (cadmium
sulphide) whose resistance changes according to the light level.
Therefore the brighter the light, the lower the resistance.

Principle of Operation
An LDR is made of a high resistance semiconductor.
If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band.
The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.
Applications of thermistors

Measurement of temperature
Measurement of Difference of two temperatures
Control of temperature
Temperature compensation
Thermal conductivity measurement.
Measurement of Gas Composition
Measurement of Flow
Current-limiting devices for circuit protection as replacement for fuse (PTC)

LDR Applications
Smoke detection
Automatic lighting
Clock Radios
Alarm systems
Dynamic Compressors
Solar Street Lamps
Camera Light meters

Load Cells
Load cells are extensively used for measurement of force; Weigh Bridge is one of the
most common applications of load cell. Here two strain gages are fixed so as to measure the
longitudinal strain, while two other measuring the transverse strain, as shown in fig. 10. The
strain gages, measuring the similar strain (say, tensile) are placed in the opposite arms, while
the adjacent arms in the bridge should measure opposite strains (one tensile, the other
compressional). If the strain gages are identical in characteristics, this will provide not only the
perfect temperature coefficient, but also maximum obtainable sensitivity from the bridge. The
longitudinal strain developed in the load cell would be compressional in nature, and is given by:
1FAE=, where F is the force applied, A is the cross sectional area and Y is the Youngs
modulus of elasticity. The strain gages 1 and 3 will experience this strain, while for 2 and 4 the
strain will be 2FAE=, where is the Poissons ratio.
Proving Ring
Proving Rings can be used for measurement of both compressional and tensile forces. The
advantage of a Proving Ring is that, because of its construction more strain can be developed
compared to a load cell. The typical construction of a Proving Ring is shown in fig.11. It consists
of a hollow cylindrical beam of radius R, thickness t and axial width b. The two ends of the ring
are fixed with the structures between which force is measured. Four strain gages are mounted
on the walls of the proving ring, two on the inner wall, and two on the outer wall. When force is
applied as shown, gages 2 and 4 will experience strain (compression), while gages 1 and 3
will experience strain + (tension). The magnitude of the strain is given by the expression:
=1.08FR/Ebt2
The four strain gages are connected in a bridge and the unbalanced voltage can easily be
calibrated in terms of force to be measured.

Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit.
Used in a load cell to measure an overall change in resistance.
Increases sensitivity and reduces the affects of temperature.
Compensation for Error
Hysteresis
Effects reduced by material selection.
Creep
Adhesive and geometry of gauge.
Temperature
Wheatstone bridge, additional temperature sensitive resistors in series
with the bridge.
Applications of load cells:

1. Scales
2. Weighbridge
3. Force Gauges
4. Torque Gauges
Strain Gauge Load Cells
UNIT II MEASUREMENT OF VIBRATION AND WIND FLOW
Measurement of vibration-Vibration Galvanometers- Vibrometer- Characteristics of
structural vibration- Pressure gauges- Velocity transducers- Seismic transducers-
Linear Variable differential Transformer- Cathode ray oscilloscope-XY Plotter- Wind
Tunnels- Flow meters- Venturimeter- Digital Data Acquisition Systems.
Introduction
Since man began to build machines for industrial use, and especially since motors have
been used to power them, problems of vibration reduction and isolation have engaged
engineers. Gradually, as vibration isolation and reduction techniques have become an integral
part of machine design, the need for accurate measurement and analysis of mechanical
vibration has grown. This need was largely satisfied, for the slow and robust machines of
yesteryear, by the experienced ear and touch of the plant engineer, or by simple optical
instruments measuring vibratory displacement. Over the last 15 or 20 years a whole new
technology of vibration measurement has been developed which is suitable for investigating
modern highly stressed, high speed machinery. Using piezoelectric accelerometers to convert
vibratory motion into an electrical signal, the process of measurement and analysis is ably
performed by the versatile abilities of electronics

Where does it come from?


In practice it is very difficult to avoid vibration. It usually occurs because of the dynamic
effects of manufacturing tolerances, clearances, rolling and rubbing contact between
machine parts and out-of-balance forces in rotating and reciprocating members. Often, small
insignificant vibrations can excite the resonant frequencies of some other structural parts and be
amplified into major vibration and noise sources. Sometimes though, mechanical vibration
performs a useful job. For example, we generate vibration intentionally in component feeders,
concrete compactors, ultrasonic cleaning baths, rock drills and pile drivers. Vibration testing
machines are used extensively to impart a controlled level of vibration energy to products and
sub-assemblies where it is required to examine their physical or functional response and
ascertain their resistability to vibration environments. A fundamental requirement in all vibration
work, whether it is in the design of machines which utilize its energies or in the creation and
maintenance of smoothly running mechanical products, is the ability to obtain an accurate
description of the vibration by measurement and analysis
What is Vibration?
A body is said to vibrate when it describes an oscillating motion about a reference
position. The number of times a complete motion cycle takes place during the period of one
second is called the Frequency and is measured in hertz (Hz). The motion can consists of a
single component occurring at a single frequency, as with a tuning fork, or of several
components occurring at different frequencies simultaneously, as for example, with the piston
motion of an internal combustion engine. Vibration signals in practice usually consist of very
many frequencies occurring simultaneously so that we cannot immediately see just by looking at
the amplitude-time Pattern, how many components there are, and at what frequencies they
occur. These components can be revealed by plotting vibration amplitude against frequency.
The breaking down of vibration signals into individual frequency components is called frequency
analysis, a technique which may be considered the cornerstone of diagnostic vibration
measurements. The graph showing the vibration level as a function of frequency is called a
frequency spectrogram. When frequency analyzing machine vibrations we normally find a
number of prominent periodic frequency components which are directly related to the
fundamental movements of various parts of the machine. With frequency analysis we are
therefore able to track down the source of undesirable vibration.

Quantifying the Vibration Level

The vibration amplitude, which is the characteristic which describes the severity of the
vibration, can be quantified in several ways. On the diagram, the relationship between the peak-
to-peak level, the peak level, the average level and the RMS level of a sine wave is shown.
The peak-to-peak value is valuable in that it indicates the maximum excursion of the wave, a
useful quantity where, for example, the vibratory displacement of a machine part is critical for
maximum stress or mechanical clearance considerations. The peak value is particularly
valuable for indicating the level of short duration shocks etc. But, as can be seen from the
drawing, peak values only indicate what maximum level has occurred, no account is taken of
the time history of the wave. The rectified average value, on the other hand, does take
the time history of the wave into account, but is considered of limited practical interest because
it has no direct relationship with any useful physical quantity. The RMS value is the most
relevant measure of amplitude because it both takes the time history of the wave into account
and gives an amplitude value which is directly related to the energy content, and therefore the
destructive abilities of the vibration.

The Vibration Parameters, Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement.


Measuring Units

When we looked at the vibrating tuning fork we considered the amplitude of the wave as
the physical displacement of the fork ends to either side of the rest position. In addition to
Displacement we can also describe the movement of the fork leg in terms of its velocity and its
acceleration. The form and period of the vibration remain the same whether it is the
displacement, velocity or acceleration that is being considered. The main difference is that there
is a phase difference between the amplitude- time curves of the three parameters as shown in
the drawing. For sinusoidal signals, displacement, velocity and acceleration amplitudes are
related mathematically by a function of frequency and time; this is shown graphically in the
diagram. If phase is neglected, as is always the case when making time-average
measurements, then the velocity level can be obtained by dividing the acceleration signal by a
factor proportional to frequency, and the displacement can be obtained by dividing the
acceleration signal by a factor proportional to the square of frequency. This division is
performed by electronic integrators in the measuring instrumentation. The vibration parameters
are almost universally measured in metric units in accordance with ISO requirements; these are
shown in the table. The gravitational constant "g" is still widely used for acceleration levels
although it is outside the ISO system of coherent units. Fortunately a factor of almost 10 (9,81)
relates the two units so that mental conversion within 2% is a simple matter.
Considerations in choosing Acceleration, Velocity, or Displacement parameters

By detecting vibratory acceleration we are not tied to that parameter alone, with
electronic integrators we can convert the acceleration signal to velocity and displacement.
Most modern vibration meters are equipped to measure all three parameters. Where a single,
wide frequency band vibration measurement is made, the choice of parameter is important if
the signal has components at many frequencies. Measurement of displacement will give the low
frequency components most weight and conversely acceleration measurements will weight the
level towards the high frequency components. Experience has shown that the overall RMS
value of vibration velocity measured over the range 10 to 1000 Hz gives the best indication of a
vibration's severity. A probable explanation is that a given velocity level corresponds
to a given energy level so that vibration at low and high frequencies are equally weighted from a
vibration energy point of view. In practice many machines have a reasonably flat velocity
spectrum. Where narrow band frequency analysis is performed the choice of parameter will be
reflected only in the way the analysis plot is tilted on the chart paper (as demonstrated
in the middle diagram on the opposite page). This leads us to a practical consideration that can
influence the choice of parameter. It is advantageous to select the parameter which gives the
flattest frequency spectrum in order to best utilise the dynamic range (the difference between
the smallest and largest values that can be measured) of the instrumentation. For this reason
the velocity or acceleration parameter is normally selected for frequency analysis purposes.
Because acceleration measurements are weighted towards high frequency vibration
components, this parameters tends to be used where the frequency range of interest covers
high frequencies. The nature of mechanical systems is such that appreciable displacements
only occur at low frequencies, therefore displacement measurements are of limited value in the
general study of mechanical vibration. Where small clearances between machine elements are
being considered, vibratory displacement is of course an important consideration. Displacement
is often used as an indicator of unbalance in rotating machine parts because relatively large
displacements usually occur at the shaft rotational frequency, which is also the frequency of
greatest interest for balancing purposes.

SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS


Ability to understanding the definition, functions & categories of transducers.
List the classes and types and examples of transducers.
Operations and applications for each transducers
Stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
E.g.: Thermistor
Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to another in the
same or in the different form'.
E.g. Thermistor with it associates circuit convert heat to electricity.
As a comparison
Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the sensing element
plus any associated circuitry. All transducers would thus contain a sensor and most (not
all) sensors would also be transducers.

Definition of a transducer
Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form to another form of
energy. The majority either converts electrical energy to mechanical displacement or
convert some non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature, sound or light to
an electrical signal.

Functions of transducer:
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.
2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately
Processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
Quantitative data about the measurand
Measurand refers to the quantity, property or condition which the
transducer translates to an electrical signal.
Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application, based primarily on the
physical quantity, property, or condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and capacitance. E.g. :
condenser microphone
B) Self generating transducer:
- Not require an external power, and they produce analog voltage or current when
stimulated by some physical form of energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter
Transducers to be covered
Temperature transducers
Resistive Position Transducer
Capacitive Transducer
Inductive Transducer
Strain Gauge
LVDT
Photoelectric
Temperature Transducers
Temperature transducers can be divided into four main categories:
1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermistor
4. Ultrasonic transducers
1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum, nickel or
resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with temperature has high
intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many configurations and size and as
shielded or open units for both immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be
calculated from the equation:

R R0 (1 T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually 200C
= the temperature coefficient of resistance
T = the difference between the operating and the reference temperature
2) Thermocouple

It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together at one end, a temperature
difference between this end and the other end of wires produces a voltage between the
wires. The magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the wires and
the amount of temperature difference between the joined ends and the other ends.
The emf of the thermocouple
E = c(T1 T2) + k(T12 T22)
Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 = the temperature of the hot junction
T2 = the temperature of the cold or reference junction
Thermistor
A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as
oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC). That is, their resistance
decreases as their temperature rises.
Types of thermistor Resistance
Disc 1 to 1M
Washer 1 to 50k
Rod high resistance

This figure shows resistance versus temperature for a family thermistor. The resistance
value marked at the bottom end of each curve is a value at 250C
Note!
The resistance decreases as their temperature rises-NTC
Advantages of thermistor:
Small size and low cost
Fast response over narrow temperature range
Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC) region
Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence
Of resistance on absolute temperature.
Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due
to large resistance
Limitations of thermistor:
Non linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics
Unsuitable for wide temperature range
Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance

Resistive Position Transducer


The principle of the resistance transducer is that the physical variable under
measurement causes a resistance change in the sensing element.
A common requirement in industrial measurement and control work is to be able
to sense the position of an object or distance it has moved.

L
R
A Potentiometer
R: resistance change
: density
L: Length
A: area

Figure shows the construction of a displacement transducer uses a resistance element


with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object being monitored.
The resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element depends on
the position of the object. The output voltage depends on the wiper position and
therefore is a function of the shaft position
Consider Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is certain
fraction of VT, depending on the position of the wiper:

V0 R2

VT R1 R2
This equation shows that the output voltage is directly proportional to
the position of the wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed
Uniformly along the length of travel of the wiper.

EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4 in. is used in the
circuit of figure 1 (b). R1 +R2 is 1000 and VT = 4 V.
The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0?
Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

kA 0
C ( Farads)
d
where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
o= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m
Forms of Capacitance Transducers
Rotary plate capacitor:
The capacitance of this unit proportional to the amount of the fixed plate that is covered,
that shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer will give sign proportional to
curvilinear displacement or angular velocity.

Rectilinear capacitance transducer

It consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving cylinder. These pieces are configured so the
moving piece fits inside the fixed piece but insulated from it.
A transducer that varies the spacing between surfaces. The dielectric is either air or
vacuum. Often used as Capacitance microphones.

Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to long lead length
Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or passive type. The self
generating type utilizes the basic electrical generator principle, i.e., a motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor
(generator action). This relative motion between the field and the conductor is
supplied by changes in the measurand.
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts physical
motion (position change) into a change in inductance. Transducers of variable
inductance type work upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacement. The
displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of three variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits .

Resources
Books:
1. Experimental Stress Analysis. Second Edition
Dally, J W | Riley, W F
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1978, pp. 571, 1978
2. Experimental Stress Analysis, Fourth Edition
Dr. Sadhu Singh,
Khanna Publisher.

Reference Links:
http://dynamark-engineering.com/services/matproptest/ESA.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelasticity#References
www3.ntu.edu.sg/.../photoelasticity/index.html
http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~culler/WEI/labs/lab7-sensing/sensing.htm
http://www.ce-transducer.com/Resistance.asp
http://forum.onestopgate.com/forum_posts.asp?TID=3536
http://www.eee.metu.edu.tr/~koray/exp1.pdf
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/53335-variable-resistance-transducers/
http://ptuas.loremate.com/beee/node/5
General Info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_cell
Weighbridge: http://floorscale.com.cn/cheap-weighbridge/
Digital Scale: http://www.scales-n-tools.com/
Digital Torque Wrench: http://tohnichi.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/tohnichi-digital-torque-wrench
Load Cell Comparisons: http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/loadcells.html
Shear: http://www.process-controls.com/intertechnology/Revere_Transducers/images/SSB.gif
Beam: http://www.tradeindia.com/selloffer/1616481/Bending-Beam-Load- Cell.html
S-Type: http://metrology.burtini.ca/img/stype.jpg
Button: http://www.appmeas.co.uk/images/cdf-80x80.jpg
Canister: http://www.omega.co.uk/literature/transactions/volume3/images/loadpic3.jpg
Compression/Tension: http://www.ishida.com/technologies/loadcell/html.html
Voltage Equation: http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3642
Resistivity Equation: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistivity
QUESTION BANK

1. Define Precision of a Measuring instrument.


2. Define Accuracy.
3. Define Sensitivity.
4. Define Gauge factor.
5. State the difference between Accuracy and Precision.
6. Define Range.
7. Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.
8. Write short notes
on:(a) Accuracy (b) Sensitivity (c) Range
9. Define a strain gauge.
10. List the various types of strain gauges.
11. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge?
12. What are the various factors to be considered before selecting a gauge?
13. Define strain sensitivity of a gauge.
14. List the various limitations of a mechanical strain gauge.
15. Write the advantages of Foil type strain gauge over Wire type strain gauge?
16. What is a Strain rosette?
17. What are the advantages of an acoustical gauge?
18. What are the limitations of an optical gauge?
19. Write a short account of the various types of strain gauges. Give their special advantages and limitations.
20. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should be considered?
21. What are the various types of Mechanical strain gauges? Explain Huggenberger tensometer in detail.
22. What are the various types of optical strain gauges? Explain the Tuckerman gauge in detail.
23. Explain the construction and working of Acoustical strain gauge.
24. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Describe a capacitance strain gauge and give its
uses and limitations.
25. Name the different types of electrical strain gauges.
26. Name the different types of electrical resistance strain gauges.
27. Differentiate between bonded and unbounded gauges.
28. What is a weldable gauge? What are its advantages?
29. Name the materials used for material gauges.
30. What is meant by Temperature compensation?
31. Why Wheatstone bridge circuits are preferred over potentiometer circuits in static strain measurements?
32. What are the requirements of strain gauge materials?
33. What are the limitations of potentiometer circuit?
34. Define a strain rosette.
35. Write short notes on the following :
36. (i) Electromagnetic strain gauge (6)
37. (ii) Weldable strain gauge (6)
38. What is the necessity of temperature compensation? How this can be achieved?
39. What do you understand by a strain rosette? What are the different types of strain rosette configurations
currently in use? Discuss their uses and limitations.
40. Discuss the various methods of calibrating a strain gauge.
41. What are the essential requirements of a balancing technique? Discuss the different ways in which you
can balance a bridge.
42. Discuss the associated instrumentation for measuring
a. Strain strains
b. Dynamic strains
43. What is the photoelastic effect?
44. Differentiate between ordinary and monochromatic light.
45. Define Stress optic law.
46. Define isoclinics and isochromatics.
47. What do you mean by compensation?
48. What is a stress trajectory?
49. Define sensitivity index and figure of merit of a photoelastic material.
50. What is the necessity of calibration of a photoelastic material?
51. Why Tardys method of compensation is preferred over all other methods?
52. Who discovered the photoelastic effect and when?
53. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the fringes obtained in it
54. Sketch a plain polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the fringes obtained in it.
55. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.
56. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo elasticity.
57. What are the important properties of an ideal photoelastic material? Discuss the important photoelastic
materials.
58. Explain the Tardys compensation method in detail. Why this method is preferred over other methods?
59. List down various NDT Techniques used to detect the damages in the materials.
60. State the importance of NDT methods in Aviation Industry.
61. What are the advantages of Ultrasonic method over X-ray method?
62. What are the advantages in magnetic particle inspection method?
63. What is the necessity of the refrigeration technique?
64. What is the effect of dye-etchant on strain-sensitivity of the coating?
65. What is a grating?
66. Differentiate between a model and master grating.
67. Define Holography.
68. What is Thermograph?
69. State the uses and advantages of Non-Destructive Testing procedures. Explain in detail any one of the
NDT procedure for evaluating a given specimen.
70. Write short notes on the following:
a. Eddy Current Testing
b. Radiography
71. Explain the process of Magnetic particle inspection with a neat sketch.
72. With a suitable sketch explain the process of Fluorescent penetrant technique.
73. Explain the brittle coating method in brief. What are the advantages and limitations of this method?
74. Briefly explain the following which are used in the experimental analysis:
a. Fibre optic sensors
b. Thermography
c. C Scan

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