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COURSE OBJECTIVE
Prepared By
Mrs.K.Muthulakshmi
Assistant Professor,
Civil Department,
Sathyabama University.
Chennai-119.
Introduction:
The initial step in preparing for any strain gage installation is the selection of the
appropriate gage for the task. It might at first appear that gage selection is a simple exercise, of
no great consequence to the stress analyst; but quite the opposite is true. Careful, rational
selection of gage characteristics and parameters can be very important in: optimizing the gage
performance for specified environmental and operating conditions, obtaining accurate and
reliable strain measurements, contributing to the ease of installation, and minimizing the total
cost of the gage installation. The installation and operating characteristics of a strain gage are
affected by the following parameters, which are selectable in varying degrees:
Strain-sensitive alloy
backing material (carrier)
Grid resistance
Gage pattern
Self-temperature compensation number
gage length
Options
Basically, the gage selection process consists of determining the particular available
combination of parameters which is most compatible with the environmental and other operating
conditions, and at the same time best satisfies the installation and operating constraints. These
constraints are generally expressed in the form of requirements such as:
Accuracy
test duration
Stability
Cyclic endurance
Temperature
ease of installation
Elongation
Environment
The cost of the strain gage itself is not ordinarily a prime consideration in gage selection,
since the significant economic measure is the total cost of the complete installation, of which the
gage cost is usually but a small fraction. In many cases, the selection of a gage series or
optional feature which increases the gage cost serves to decrease the total installation cost.
Strain Gauge
L
R
A
Where,
: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)
As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:
1) The change in gauge resistance
2) The change in length
The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,
K, is expressed mathematically as
R / R
K
Where L / L
K= the gauge factor
R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
L=the change in initial length in meters
L/L same unit with G, therefore
R / R
K
G
From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.
F
S Where
A
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters
Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Youngs modulus (Hookes Law) is
written as
S
E Where,
G
E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G= the strain (no units)
Applications:
1. Metallic strain gauge formed from thin resistance wire or etched from thin
sheets of metal foil.
2. Wire gauge (small) to minimum leakage for high T applications
3. Semiconductor strain gauge high output transducers as load cells
4. Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of bridge.
5. Strain gauges are used to measure force and small displacements. They are
used for analyzing the dynamic strain of complex structures. They are used to
measure tension, torque etc.
At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are nominally equal
with the result the output voltage of the bridge is equal to zero.
SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor is
desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance that
can be measured with good accuracy.
The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it. The
semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e.
change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity.
Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor gauges.
RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
THERMISTOR
Thermistor is a contraction of a term thermal resistor.
Thermistor is temperature dependent resistors. They are made of semiconductor
material which have negative temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their
resistance decreases with increase of temperature.
Thermistor are widely used in application which involve measurement in the
range of 0-60 Thermistor are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides
such as magnese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.
VARIABLE-INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer which converts the
physical motion into the change in inductance.
Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement.
The inductive transducers are of the self generating or the passive type. The self
generating inductive transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
The variable inductance transducers work on the following principles.
Variation in self inductance
Variation in mutual inductance
An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet coupling between
the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is in the centre, voltage induced in
the two secondaries is equal. When the core is moved in one direction from centre, the
voltage induced in one winding is increased and that in the other is decreased.
Movement in the opposite direction reverses this effect
Whats Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation, such as ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the emission, or ejection, of
electrons from the surface of, generally, a metal in response to incident light.
Photoelectric Transducer
Can be categorized as: photo emissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.
Examples of Photoelectric Transducer
(i) The Photomultiplier Tube
(ii) Photoconductive Cells OR Photocells
the electrical resistance of the materials
varies with the amount of light striking.
(iii) The Photovoltaic Cell or solar cell
- produce an electrical current when
connected to the load.
Plane Polariscope
It consists of two linear polarizer (which transmit light only along their axis of
polarization) and a light source. The linear polarizer nearest the light source is called the
polarizer, while the second linear polarizer is known as the analyzer.
Circular Polariscope
This polariscope employs circularly polarized light. The photo elastic apparatus
contains four optical elements and a light source.
Visualization of stresses in a straight beam subjected to four point bending.
Experimental setup
Experimental setup
Analyzer: Second polarizer used to analyze polarized light passed through material in
testing. Doubly refracting lights which passed through the birefringent are resolved by
analyzer. Speed difference in the refracting lights causes that a certain color from the
light disappears (wave shift).
Solution
The speeds of the refracted lights are directly proportional to the principal stresses 1
and 2, major and minor principal stresses, respectively.
Test Specimen
The Forces acting various sections are indicated as shown in the figure.
Due to application of load the beam is subjected to bending in the transverse plane. The
red lines indicate the new position of the beam.
Interpretation of 2-D photoelastic fringe patterns is based on the stress-optic law:
1- 2 = (N *F )/b
Where b is thickness of photo elastic model.
Calculation of material fringe order.
1- 2 = (N *F )/b
Hence fs can be determined by plotting the quantity Z versus the fringe order, N
2D Photo Elastic fringes under exposure of monochromatic light.
Types of Thermocouples
A thermocouple is available in different combinations of metals or calibrations.
The four most common calibrations are J, K, T and E.
There are high temperature calibrations R, S, C and GB.
Each calibration has a different temperature range and environment, although the
maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple
Applications:
Thermocouple
Steel Industry
Heating Appliance Safety
Power Production : Thermoelectric Generation
Thermoelectric Cooling
Diesel Engines
Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperature Measurement
Temperature Variation of Resistive Sensors
Principle of Operation
An LDR is made of a high resistance semiconductor.
If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band.
The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.
Applications of thermistors
Measurement of temperature
Measurement of Difference of two temperatures
Control of temperature
Temperature compensation
Thermal conductivity measurement.
Measurement of Gas Composition
Measurement of Flow
Current-limiting devices for circuit protection as replacement for fuse (PTC)
LDR Applications
Smoke detection
Automatic lighting
Clock Radios
Alarm systems
Dynamic Compressors
Solar Street Lamps
Camera Light meters
Load Cells
Load cells are extensively used for measurement of force; Weigh Bridge is one of the
most common applications of load cell. Here two strain gages are fixed so as to measure the
longitudinal strain, while two other measuring the transverse strain, as shown in fig. 10. The
strain gages, measuring the similar strain (say, tensile) are placed in the opposite arms, while
the adjacent arms in the bridge should measure opposite strains (one tensile, the other
compressional). If the strain gages are identical in characteristics, this will provide not only the
perfect temperature coefficient, but also maximum obtainable sensitivity from the bridge. The
longitudinal strain developed in the load cell would be compressional in nature, and is given by:
1FAE=, where F is the force applied, A is the cross sectional area and Y is the Youngs
modulus of elasticity. The strain gages 1 and 3 will experience this strain, while for 2 and 4 the
strain will be 2FAE=, where is the Poissons ratio.
Proving Ring
Proving Rings can be used for measurement of both compressional and tensile forces. The
advantage of a Proving Ring is that, because of its construction more strain can be developed
compared to a load cell. The typical construction of a Proving Ring is shown in fig.11. It consists
of a hollow cylindrical beam of radius R, thickness t and axial width b. The two ends of the ring
are fixed with the structures between which force is measured. Four strain gages are mounted
on the walls of the proving ring, two on the inner wall, and two on the outer wall. When force is
applied as shown, gages 2 and 4 will experience strain (compression), while gages 1 and 3
will experience strain + (tension). The magnitude of the strain is given by the expression:
=1.08FR/Ebt2
The four strain gages are connected in a bridge and the unbalanced voltage can easily be
calibrated in terms of force to be measured.
Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit.
Used in a load cell to measure an overall change in resistance.
Increases sensitivity and reduces the affects of temperature.
Compensation for Error
Hysteresis
Effects reduced by material selection.
Creep
Adhesive and geometry of gauge.
Temperature
Wheatstone bridge, additional temperature sensitive resistors in series
with the bridge.
Applications of load cells:
1. Scales
2. Weighbridge
3. Force Gauges
4. Torque Gauges
Strain Gauge Load Cells
UNIT II MEASUREMENT OF VIBRATION AND WIND FLOW
Measurement of vibration-Vibration Galvanometers- Vibrometer- Characteristics of
structural vibration- Pressure gauges- Velocity transducers- Seismic transducers-
Linear Variable differential Transformer- Cathode ray oscilloscope-XY Plotter- Wind
Tunnels- Flow meters- Venturimeter- Digital Data Acquisition Systems.
Introduction
Since man began to build machines for industrial use, and especially since motors have
been used to power them, problems of vibration reduction and isolation have engaged
engineers. Gradually, as vibration isolation and reduction techniques have become an integral
part of machine design, the need for accurate measurement and analysis of mechanical
vibration has grown. This need was largely satisfied, for the slow and robust machines of
yesteryear, by the experienced ear and touch of the plant engineer, or by simple optical
instruments measuring vibratory displacement. Over the last 15 or 20 years a whole new
technology of vibration measurement has been developed which is suitable for investigating
modern highly stressed, high speed machinery. Using piezoelectric accelerometers to convert
vibratory motion into an electrical signal, the process of measurement and analysis is ably
performed by the versatile abilities of electronics
The vibration amplitude, which is the characteristic which describes the severity of the
vibration, can be quantified in several ways. On the diagram, the relationship between the peak-
to-peak level, the peak level, the average level and the RMS level of a sine wave is shown.
The peak-to-peak value is valuable in that it indicates the maximum excursion of the wave, a
useful quantity where, for example, the vibratory displacement of a machine part is critical for
maximum stress or mechanical clearance considerations. The peak value is particularly
valuable for indicating the level of short duration shocks etc. But, as can be seen from the
drawing, peak values only indicate what maximum level has occurred, no account is taken of
the time history of the wave. The rectified average value, on the other hand, does take
the time history of the wave into account, but is considered of limited practical interest because
it has no direct relationship with any useful physical quantity. The RMS value is the most
relevant measure of amplitude because it both takes the time history of the wave into account
and gives an amplitude value which is directly related to the energy content, and therefore the
destructive abilities of the vibration.
When we looked at the vibrating tuning fork we considered the amplitude of the wave as
the physical displacement of the fork ends to either side of the rest position. In addition to
Displacement we can also describe the movement of the fork leg in terms of its velocity and its
acceleration. The form and period of the vibration remain the same whether it is the
displacement, velocity or acceleration that is being considered. The main difference is that there
is a phase difference between the amplitude- time curves of the three parameters as shown in
the drawing. For sinusoidal signals, displacement, velocity and acceleration amplitudes are
related mathematically by a function of frequency and time; this is shown graphically in the
diagram. If phase is neglected, as is always the case when making time-average
measurements, then the velocity level can be obtained by dividing the acceleration signal by a
factor proportional to frequency, and the displacement can be obtained by dividing the
acceleration signal by a factor proportional to the square of frequency. This division is
performed by electronic integrators in the measuring instrumentation. The vibration parameters
are almost universally measured in metric units in accordance with ISO requirements; these are
shown in the table. The gravitational constant "g" is still widely used for acceleration levels
although it is outside the ISO system of coherent units. Fortunately a factor of almost 10 (9,81)
relates the two units so that mental conversion within 2% is a simple matter.
Considerations in choosing Acceleration, Velocity, or Displacement parameters
By detecting vibratory acceleration we are not tied to that parameter alone, with
electronic integrators we can convert the acceleration signal to velocity and displacement.
Most modern vibration meters are equipped to measure all three parameters. Where a single,
wide frequency band vibration measurement is made, the choice of parameter is important if
the signal has components at many frequencies. Measurement of displacement will give the low
frequency components most weight and conversely acceleration measurements will weight the
level towards the high frequency components. Experience has shown that the overall RMS
value of vibration velocity measured over the range 10 to 1000 Hz gives the best indication of a
vibration's severity. A probable explanation is that a given velocity level corresponds
to a given energy level so that vibration at low and high frequencies are equally weighted from a
vibration energy point of view. In practice many machines have a reasonably flat velocity
spectrum. Where narrow band frequency analysis is performed the choice of parameter will be
reflected only in the way the analysis plot is tilted on the chart paper (as demonstrated
in the middle diagram on the opposite page). This leads us to a practical consideration that can
influence the choice of parameter. It is advantageous to select the parameter which gives the
flattest frequency spectrum in order to best utilise the dynamic range (the difference between
the smallest and largest values that can be measured) of the instrumentation. For this reason
the velocity or acceleration parameter is normally selected for frequency analysis purposes.
Because acceleration measurements are weighted towards high frequency vibration
components, this parameters tends to be used where the frequency range of interest covers
high frequencies. The nature of mechanical systems is such that appreciable displacements
only occur at low frequencies, therefore displacement measurements are of limited value in the
general study of mechanical vibration. Where small clearances between machine elements are
being considered, vibratory displacement is of course an important consideration. Displacement
is often used as an indicator of unbalance in rotating machine parts because relatively large
displacements usually occur at the shaft rotational frequency, which is also the frequency of
greatest interest for balancing purposes.
Definition of a transducer
Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form to another form of
energy. The majority either converts electrical energy to mechanical displacement or
convert some non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature, sound or light to
an electrical signal.
Functions of transducer:
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.
2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately
Processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
Quantitative data about the measurand
Measurand refers to the quantity, property or condition which the
transducer translates to an electrical signal.
Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application, based primarily on the
physical quantity, property, or condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and capacitance. E.g. :
condenser microphone
B) Self generating transducer:
- Not require an external power, and they produce analog voltage or current when
stimulated by some physical form of energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter
Transducers to be covered
Temperature transducers
Resistive Position Transducer
Capacitive Transducer
Inductive Transducer
Strain Gauge
LVDT
Photoelectric
Temperature Transducers
Temperature transducers can be divided into four main categories:
1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermistor
4. Ultrasonic transducers
1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum, nickel or
resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with temperature has high
intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many configurations and size and as
shielded or open units for both immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be
calculated from the equation:
R R0 (1 T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually 200C
= the temperature coefficient of resistance
T = the difference between the operating and the reference temperature
2) Thermocouple
It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together at one end, a temperature
difference between this end and the other end of wires produces a voltage between the
wires. The magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the wires and
the amount of temperature difference between the joined ends and the other ends.
The emf of the thermocouple
E = c(T1 T2) + k(T12 T22)
Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 = the temperature of the hot junction
T2 = the temperature of the cold or reference junction
Thermistor
A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as
oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC). That is, their resistance
decreases as their temperature rises.
Types of thermistor Resistance
Disc 1 to 1M
Washer 1 to 50k
Rod high resistance
This figure shows resistance versus temperature for a family thermistor. The resistance
value marked at the bottom end of each curve is a value at 250C
Note!
The resistance decreases as their temperature rises-NTC
Advantages of thermistor:
Small size and low cost
Fast response over narrow temperature range
Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC) region
Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence
Of resistance on absolute temperature.
Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due
to large resistance
Limitations of thermistor:
Non linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics
Unsuitable for wide temperature range
Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance
L
R
A Potentiometer
R: resistance change
: density
L: Length
A: area
V0 R2
VT R1 R2
This equation shows that the output voltage is directly proportional to
the position of the wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed
Uniformly along the length of travel of the wiper.
EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4 in. is used in the
circuit of figure 1 (b). R1 +R2 is 1000 and VT = 4 V.
The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0?
Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
kA 0
C ( Farads)
d
where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
o= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m
Forms of Capacitance Transducers
Rotary plate capacitor:
The capacitance of this unit proportional to the amount of the fixed plate that is covered,
that shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer will give sign proportional to
curvilinear displacement or angular velocity.
It consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving cylinder. These pieces are configured so the
moving piece fits inside the fixed piece but insulated from it.
A transducer that varies the spacing between surfaces. The dielectric is either air or
vacuum. Often used as Capacitance microphones.
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to long lead length
Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or passive type. The self
generating type utilizes the basic electrical generator principle, i.e., a motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor
(generator action). This relative motion between the field and the conductor is
supplied by changes in the measurand.
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts physical
motion (position change) into a change in inductance. Transducers of variable
inductance type work upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacement. The
displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of three variables:
1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits .
Resources
Books:
1. Experimental Stress Analysis. Second Edition
Dally, J W | Riley, W F
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1978, pp. 571, 1978
2. Experimental Stress Analysis, Fourth Edition
Dr. Sadhu Singh,
Khanna Publisher.
Reference Links:
http://dynamark-engineering.com/services/matproptest/ESA.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelasticity#References
www3.ntu.edu.sg/.../photoelasticity/index.html
http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~culler/WEI/labs/lab7-sensing/sensing.htm
http://www.ce-transducer.com/Resistance.asp
http://forum.onestopgate.com/forum_posts.asp?TID=3536
http://www.eee.metu.edu.tr/~koray/exp1.pdf
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/53335-variable-resistance-transducers/
http://ptuas.loremate.com/beee/node/5
General Info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_cell
Weighbridge: http://floorscale.com.cn/cheap-weighbridge/
Digital Scale: http://www.scales-n-tools.com/
Digital Torque Wrench: http://tohnichi.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/tohnichi-digital-torque-wrench
Load Cell Comparisons: http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/loadcells.html
Shear: http://www.process-controls.com/intertechnology/Revere_Transducers/images/SSB.gif
Beam: http://www.tradeindia.com/selloffer/1616481/Bending-Beam-Load- Cell.html
S-Type: http://metrology.burtini.ca/img/stype.jpg
Button: http://www.appmeas.co.uk/images/cdf-80x80.jpg
Canister: http://www.omega.co.uk/literature/transactions/volume3/images/loadpic3.jpg
Compression/Tension: http://www.ishida.com/technologies/loadcell/html.html
Voltage Equation: http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3642
Resistivity Equation: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistivity
QUESTION BANK