Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
ABS TRACT
pylons and cables are designed to support the deck and and railways passing beneath. These days bridges are
also being constructed over oceans to connect two or
more islands. The structure can be for passage/ carriage
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 1
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
of persons, cattle, vehicles, water or other materials scientific dimension helps the engineer in evolving
carried across in pipes or conveyers. Bridges are a civil efficient structures.
engineering creation that holds enormous appeal and
Bridges are built for improving the mobility of people
fascination to the people. Bridge building is as old as
and enhancing the quality of life of the society. Such man
civil engineering. The design of bridges depends on
made structures may have some adverse effects on the
various factors like function of the bridge, the nature of
environment. Therefore bridges should satisfy both the
the terrain where the bridge is constructed, the material
immediate and future demands of mobility and also be
used to make it and the funds available to build it etc
acceptable to people in terms of visibility, noise and
The concept of bridge building came into existence pollution during and after construction. As construction
with the felling of wooden logs across small streams due of bridges is a public welfare program, the society has to
to natural forces. With the growth of civilizations, the pay for the cost of the structure in the form of taxes and
need for travel impelled mankind to find ways and means tolls. These aspects form the social dimension of any
of bridging gaps over deep gorges and perennial streams, project.
for walking across. Owing to the above fact timber can
Technological dimension deals with the major
be considered as the earliest material to be used for
technological developments in evolution in different
bridging. This has been followed by bridges built with
forms of structures, materials of construction, design and
stone and then of brick, used by themselves or in
construction techniques and also machinery and plants
combination with timber. Such bridges however have
used for construction. Technology played a vital role in
been possible only for short spans. But with the
finding and refining a number of alternative materials for
development of steel and iron as construction materials
use in bridge building, like bricks, cast iron, wrought
bridge engineering has also expanded its horizons to span
iron, steel, cement etc Because of such technological
longer distances.
research and advances bridges of longer spans at
Design of a bridge is an art involving immense challenging locations have become possible. A
knowledge, skill and experience. It is a highly tedious job technological development in the design and manufacture
which requires through expertise in all branches of civil of vehicles has also led to a need to increase the strength
engineering like surveying, transportation, structural and geometrical requirements of the bridges bein g built
engineering, geotechnical engineering material science as well as their standards of maintenance.
etc There are three dimensions involved in the
However for a structural engineer, the scientific
planning of huge structures which are designed for a
dimension is of primary importance, but it is also
period of 50 to 100 years. They are:
necessary to balance the other two dimensions before,
1) Scientific dimension during and after construction of the structure. It is the
2) Social dimension responsibility of a structural engineer to evolve a form of
3) Technological dimension structure which is socially acceptable and at the same
time results in an economic, durable and efficient
product. For this he/she has to make use of the
Scientific dimension implies that every structure has
technological developments in an optimal manner.
to perform in accordance with laws of nature. These laws
of nature are interpreted by scientists as formulas Some of the famous bridges in the world are listed
containing relationships between various basic elements, below:
and engineers make use of such pre existing formulas
1) Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco (Fig 1)
to design the structures. Though the method of analysis
2) M illau Bridge, France
may differ depending on the structure and practice the
3) Tower Bridge, London
ultimate concept of design remains the same. The
4) Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan (Fig 3)
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 2
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
3) Arch bridges
1) Decking, consisting of deck slab, girders,
4) Cantilever bridges
trusses, etc.;
5) Suspension bridges
2) Bearings for the decking;
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 3
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
SUPERSTRUCTURE
1) Bridge deck
2) Structural members
The components above the level of bearings are
3) Parapets (bridge railings), handrails,
grouped as superstructure, while the parts below the
sidewalk, lighting and some drainage features
bearing level are classed as substructure. The portion
The top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic is
below the bed level of a river bridge is called the
called deck. The deck is the roadway portion of a bridge,
foundation. The components below the bearing and
including shoulders. M ost bridge decks are constructed
above the foundation are often referred as substructure.
as reinforced concrete slabs, but timber decks are
occasionally used in rural areas and open-grid steel decks
1.4. BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY
are used in some movable bridge designs (Bascule
An important first step in understanding the Bridge). As polymers and fibre technologies are
principles and processes of bridge construction is improving in the recent days, Fibre Reinforced Polymer
learning basic bridge terminology. Although bridges vary (FRP) decks are also being used these days. Bridge decks
widely in material and design, there are many are required to conform to the grade of the approach
components that are common to all bridges. In general, roadway so that there is no bump or dip as a vehicle
these components may be classified either as p arts of a crosses onto or off of the bridge.
bridge superstructure or as parts of a bridge substructure.
The most common causes of premature deck failure are:
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 4
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
1) Insufficient concrete strength from an structural strength of a bridge, but are important aesthetic
improper mix design, too much water, and safety items. The materials and workmanship that go
improper amounts of air entraining into the construction of these features require the same
admixtures, segregation, or improper curing. inspection effort as any other phase of the work.
2) Improper concrete placement, such as failure
to consolidate the mix as the concrete is
placed, pouring the concrete so slowly that
SUBSTRUCTURE
the concrete begins the initial set, or not
maintaining a placement rate in accordance. The substructure consists of all of the parts that support
3) Insufficient concrete cover due to improper the superstructure. The main components are:
screed settings or incorrect installation of the
1) Abutments or end-bents,
deck forms and/or reinforcement
2) Piers or interior bents,
3) Footings
A bridge deck is usually supported by structural 4) Piling.
members. The most common types are:
Abutments support the extreme ends of the bridge and
1) Steel I-beams and girders confine the approach embankment, allowing the
2) Pre - cast, pre - stressed, reinforced concrete embankment to be built up to grade with the planned
bulb T beams bridge deck. When a bridge is too long to be supported
3) Pre - cast, pre - stressed, reinforced concrete I by abutments alone, piers or interior bents are built to
beams provide intermediate support. Although the terms may be
4) Pre - cast, pre - stressed, concrete box beams used interchangeably, a pier generally is built as a solid
5) Reinforced concrete slabs
wall, while bents are usually built with columns.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 5
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
from the substructure units down to underlying layers of Simple S pan: A span in which the effective length is the
soil or rock. same as the length of the spanning structure. The
spanning superstructure extends from one vertical
support, abutment or pier, to another, without crossing
over an intermediate support or creating a cantilever.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 6
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
bridges. The tree fallen accidentally across a stream was Tianjin and a railway bridge at high altitude on their
the earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the recently opened rail link to Tibet.
natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil
In the medieval times church has greatly influenced
below and the creepers hanging from tree to tree
bridge building. All the bridges in this age have been
allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other
built with stone, brick masonry and timber using
were the earliest forebears of the arch and the suspension
empirical methods for design. A typical example is the
bridges, respectively. The primitive man imitated nature
first London Bridge built by Peter of Colechurch in 1176
and learnt to build beam and suspension bridges.
1209 AD. This was masonry with 19 pointed masonry
The earliest reference to a man made bridge goes as far arches on piers, none of them with same dimensions.
as 3306 BC, an 1100 m long wooden bridge built in Wittengen Bridge built in 1758 in Germany was the
England. The oldest bridge still standing is a stone slab longest timber bridge in Europe with a span of 119 m in
pedestrian bridge across river M eles in Smyrna, Turkey those days.
said to be 2500 years old. Swiss were the pioneers of
It was during Renaissance period that the concept of
timber bridges, specially using trestle form. In known
bridge building based on scientific basis came into
history, the Chinese appear to be the earliest to build
existence. The truss system based on the principle of
stone bridges. Romans are believed to have built bridges
triangles, which cannot be deformed, was developed.
and aqueducts for carriage of water before even the start
Andrea Pallaido (1508 1580 AD), evolved several truss
of the first millennium. Romans are also credited to have
forms, including the king post type. Verrazino (1615)
used timber pile bents for foundation and piers as early as
had written about roads, machines, water wheels, bridges
95 BC. Queen Nitocrin built a bridge in stone piers and
including masonry arches with use of pre - stressing rods,
wooden deck in about 780 BC. Iron and lead were used
as well as suspension bridges and the use of iron bars for
in this bridge to bind the stones together. Gordon River
suspension bridges. First metal bridge was
Bridge built in 13 BC in France was a masonry aqueduct
Coalbrookdale Bridge built in cast iron in the year 1776.
49 m high, with three rows of superposed arches.
James was the person who patented suspension bridge
Etruscans are believed to have used vaults for bridge
form and built some with steel chains. French Engineer
construction as early as 600 BC. Europe is considered to
Vicat invented the aerial spun cables for suspension. This
be one of the birthplaces of bridge design and
type has become the major form for building longer and
technology. Therefore it may also be said that they must
longer spans today.
have been the earliest to develop bridge building as a
technique. The industrial revolution ushered in the use of iron in
bridges in place of stone and timber. The first iron bridge
Gradually the Roman Bridge building art spread to
was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in
M iddle East as far as India. M acro Polo is said to have
England by Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. It
remarked Indian cultures adopted their own tools under
consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in cast iron,
this influence for bridge building and further developed
joined together side by side to form a single arch span of
suspension bridges. Indians have built suspension
30 m. The construction details of Iron Bridge followed
bridges with use of ropes for suspension and bamboo and
the spirit of timber and masonry construction practices.
timber planks for decks in the hilly regions from early
Wrought iron replaced cast iron in bridge construction
days. They are also credited to have built cantilever type
during the period 1880 90. Wrought iron was ductile,
of bridges laying stone slabs one over the other in a
malleable and strong in tension. In 1808, James Finley in
progressive manner to bridge gaps, but have kept no
Pennsylvania patented a design for suspension bridge
records. Russians used timber as main bridge building
with wrought iron chain cables and level floor. Wrought
material until the end of 15th century. China has built
iron chains were used for a suspension bridge built by
some notable bridges using tied arch form and cable
Thomas Telford across the M enai Straits in Wales in
stayed bridges. Two elegant examples are Dagu Bridge at
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 7
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
1826 with a record breaking span of 177 m. The M enai plates of the structure was rebuilt. The Howrah Bridge
Straits Bridge was the worlds first iron suspension over the Hooghly River at Kolkata, built in 1943 with a
bridge for vehicles and also the worlds first iron main span of 457 m, has elegant aesthetics and possesses
suspension bridge over sea water. Japanese also built iron pleasing proportions among the suspended span,
bridges in the same period. The longest cable suspension cantilever arms and anchor spans. It was a notable
bridge, Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, with a record span of achievement at the time of construction. Developments in
1991 m was built by them. Germany was the first to welding technology and precision gas cutting techniques
introduce the concept of cantilever construction in the in the post Second World War period facilitated the
modern days and incremental launching of concrete economical fabrication of monolithic structural steel box
decks, as well as the modern form of cable stayed girders characterized by the use of thin stiffened plates
bridges. and the closed form of cross section.
Though steel is said to have been known in China by 200 Franklin D. Roosevelt once said there can be little
BC and in India by 500 BC, its widespread use doubt that in many ways the story of bridge building is
materialized only in the latter half of nineteenth century the story of civilization. By it, we can readily measure a
after the discovery of the Bessemer process in 1856. Eads progress I each particular country. Based on this saying,
Bridge at St. Louis was the first bridge to be built with the Indian civilization being one of the oldest, must have
extensive use of steel, as early as 1874. Firth of Forth built bridges well before Christian era. According to
Railway Bridge in Scotland followed suit, with use of records of Chinese travelers on Indian history, India
tubular steel sections for main girders and columns. This appears to have had a number of bridges. Firoze Shah
design had been appreciated for the bold attempt made to who ruled in Delhi is said to have built canals and
span such lengths and shaping the structure so as to bridges. One can still see some old masonry arch bridges
follow clearly the force lines and giving an elegant look built by the Portuguese in 16th or 17 th century in Goa.
th th
for a viewer. Trend in 18 and 19 centuries for longer One old bridge still in use is the stone slab bridge across
span bridges especially in USA tended towards cable River Cauvery at Srirangapatnam built by Tipu Sultan.
stayed suspension bridges. The Golden Gate Bridge in India also has a number of old masonry and stone arch
San Francisco, built in 1973 is the most famous of this bridges built in the middle of the 19 th century on the
type. Use of wrought iron and steel as basic materials Railways, which bear testimony to the skill of the local
instead of masonry and timber has revolutionized bridge people in bridge construction. The British who built the
building for many centuries till the arrival of pre - railways have brought the steel bridge girders and their
stressed concrete. The first Portland cement concrete designs form UK, but they depended on the local skills
bridge to be built was the Grand M aitre Aqueduct across and expertise to build the others. Structural forms and
River Vane in France built in 1867 1874. France is also designs for longer spans also appear to have come from
the birthplace of pre - stressed concrete, which is the the British. The technical knowledge within the country
major form of bridge superstructures all over the world has since kept pace with the developments abroad. The
today either by itself or in combination with steel. use of reinforced concrete for road bridges has become
popular in India since the beginning of the twentieth
The worlds first modern cantilever bridge was built in
century. The bridge types adopted include simply
1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the river M ain at
supported slabs, simply supported T beam span,
Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129 m. The
balanced cantilever with suspended spans, arch and bow
worlds most famous cantilever bridge is the Firth of
string girder and continuous or framed structures. The
Forth Bridge in Scotland. The worlds longest span
Third Godavari Railway Bridge built in 1996 with 28
cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over St.
spans of 97.5 m is a recent example of elegant concrete
Lawrence River, with a main span of 549 m. The first
bowstring girder bridges.
attempt to construct this bridge ended in failure due to
miscalculation of the dead load and buckling of the web
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 8
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 9
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Road over
Road under (subway)
Flyover (road over road)
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 10
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 11
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Year Bridge Location M ain Deck
Span M aterial
The Stromsund Bridge in Sweden, built in 1957 with
(m)
a main span of 183 m, and the Dusseldorf North Bridge
1999 Tatara Kamiura, 890 Steel
built in 1958 with a span of 260 m are early examples of
Japan
cable stayed bridges. Another well known bridge in
1994 Normandie Seine, 856 Steel
this category is the M aracaibo Lake Bridge in Venezuela
France
designed by Ricardo M orandi of Italy and built in 1963.
2001 Nanjing 2 Nanjing, 628 Steel
The Sunshine Skyway Bridge (1987) designed by
China
Eugene Figg and Jean M uller over Tampa Bay in Florida,
1993 Yangpu Shanghai, 602 Composite
has a main span of 360 m with pre stressed concrete
China
deck and single plane cables. The Dames Pont Bridge
1997 M aiko Chuo Nagoya, 590 Steel
at Jacksonville, Florida, built in 1987 with a span of 390
Japan
m is the longest cable stayed bridge in USA. Designed by
1999 Oresund Sweden 490 Steel
Howard Needles and Finsterwalder, the bridge features H
1992 VidyasagarSetu Kolkata 457 Composite
shaped Reinforced Concrete towers and two plane
1996 Second Severn Bristol, 456 Composite
cables supporting R.C deck girders. Currently, the Tatara
UK
Bridge in Japan (1999) with a span of 890 m is the
1987 Rama IX Bangkok 450 Steel
longest cable stayed bridge in the world. The M illau
1983 Luna Spain 440 Concrete
Viaduct, completed in 2005, with six spans of 350 m and
two spans of 240 m, supported on towers up to 235 m 1975 St. Nazaire France 404 Steel
height is a unique cable stayed bridge. 1978 Stretto di Vigo, 400 Steel
Rande Spain
Indias first cable stayed vehicular bridge is the 1982 Luling M ississippi 372 Steel
Akkar Bridge in Sikkim completed in 1988 with two 1978 Dusseldorf Germany 367 Steel
spans of 76.2 m each. The Second Hooghly Bridge Flehe
(VidyasagarSetu), completed in 1992, with a central span 1987 Sunshine Florida, 366 Concrete
of 457.2 m and two side spans of 182.9 m each, is a Skyway USA
notable engineering achievement in India. The various 1970 Duisburg Germany 350 Steel
cable stayed bridges are shown in the following table. Neuekam
Basic concepts of the application and design of the cable
1990 Tempozan Japan 350 Steel
stayed bridges are presented here. 1990 Glebe Island Australia 345 Concrete
1) Inclined Cables
1993 Karnali Nepal 325 Composite
2) Towers (also referred as pylons)
1972 Kohlbrand Germany 325 Steel
3) Deck
1969 Kniebrucke Germany 320 Steel
In a simple form, the cables provided above the deck 1977 Brotonne France 320 Concrete
and connected to the towers would permit elimination of 1971 Erskine Scotland 305 Steel
intermediate piers facilitating a larger width for purposes 1959 Severins Cologne 302 Steel
of navigation. When the number of stay cables in the 1987 Dongying China 288 Steel
main span is between 2 and 6 the spans between the stay 1976 WadiKuf Beida, 282 Concrete
supports tend to be large (between 30 and 60 m) Libya
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 12
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 13
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
single A-frame tower with fan type cables, converging at m corresponding to width-to-span ratio of 1:31.7. The
the apex of the A- frame. The decking is of orthotropic center span was erected by the cantilever method. The
steel deck with two main girders of box section as in fig. aesthetic appeal, the economic advantage and the ease of
The Norderelbe Bridge (1962) in Hamburg was the first construction make the cable stayed bridge the preferred
bridge with cables arranged in star type in single plane. option in the span range of 200 to 900 m.
The bridge has a box section at centre with one single
web girder on either side as in fig. The cable
configuration is justified more from aesthetic
considerations than on economic grounds. The Brotonne
Bridge built in 1977 with a main span of 320 m has a
single plane of cable stays and uses a precast pre -
stressed concrete box girder deck. The Yangpu Bridge in
Shanghai, china built in 1994 with a main span of 620 m
marked a significant development. This was surpassed in
the same year by the Normandie Bridge in France with a
main span of 856 m. The Sunniberg Bridge in
Switzerland built in 1999 with main spans of 140 m and
the M illau viaduct in France completed in 2005 with
main spans of 342 m are outstanding applications of
multi-span cable stayed bridges.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 14
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Dusseldorf North bridges, or in two inclined planes as in orthotropic plate deck, as adopted for the Normandie
Severins bridge (lateral suspension) .The single-plane Bridge and the Tatara Bridge. Torsion box deck sections
system has the advantage that the anchorage at deck level in pre stressed concrete have been used with single-plane
can be accommodated in the traffic median resulting in system, as in Brotonne Bridge and the sunshine bridge.
the least value of required total width of deck. With the Composite deck section have been employed in the
two -planes system, additional widths are needed to second Hooghly bridge at Kolkata, India and the Second
accommodate the towers and deck anchorages. Severn crossing, U K. Special attention should be
Aesthetically, the single-plane system is more attractive devoted to the anchorage of cables to the deck. The
as this affords an unobstructed view on one side for the superstructure of the main span is normally constructed
motorist. Other notable examples of single-plane system using the segmental cantilever method.
are the Rama IX Bridge (1987) in Bangkok, Thailand,
The ratio of the side span (Ls) to the main span (Lm)
the Sunshine Skyway Bridge (1987) in Florida, USA and
for the case of a bridge with towers on both sides of the
the Normandie Bridge (1994) in France. In the case of a
main span usually lies between 0.3 and 0.45.The ratio
two-plane system of cables, a side view of the bridge
Ls\Lm can be 0.42 for concrete highway bridge decks
would give the impression of intersection of the cables.
and not more than 0.34 for Railway Bridge. This ratio
The choice of the cable arrangement should be done with
influences the changes in stress in the back stay cables
care and diligence, so as to ensure an enhanced aesthetic
due to variation of live load. It further influences the
quality of the bridge through a system in harmony with
magnitude of vertical forces at the anchor pier, the
the environment.
anchor force decreasing with increasing Ls\Lm. The
The two inclined plane system of cables with the choice of Ls\Lm depends also on the local conditions of
cables radiating from the apex of an A-frame as in water depth and foundation.
Severins bridge facilitates the three-dimensional
TOWERS
structural performance of the superstructure and reduces
the torsional oscillations of the deck due to wind, thus Towers carry the forces imposed on the bridges on the
enhancing the aerodynamic stability of the bridge. The bridge to the ground. They are not replaceable during the
torque due to eccentric concentrated loads would life of the bridge. Hence they should be designed to be
necessitate the use of box section orthotropic deck for the structurally strong, constructible, durable and
single-plane system. The decking is generally of
economical.
orthotropic plate system with box girders for the two-
plane system also, but can be of pre stressed concrete The tower may take any one of the following forms:
girders as in M aracaibo bridge in Venezuela and Hoescht
1) Single free standing tower, as in Norderelbe
bridge over main river in Germany. The Rama VIII
Bridge
Bridge in Bangkok uses a combination of two-plane and
2) Pair of free standing tower shafts, as in
single plane systems. Using an inverted-Y pylon, the 300
Dusseldorf North Bridge
m main span is supported with twin inclined stays while
3) Portal frame, as in Severins Bridge and
the back span has a single plane system of stays.
Second Hooghly Bridge
DECK STRUCTURE 4) A frame, as in Severins Bridge or inverted
Y shape as in Yangpu Bridge
While the deck is merely supported by the cables in 5) Diamond configuration, as in Globe Island
suspension bridge, the deck of a cable stayed is an
Bridge, sydney
integral part of the structure resisting the axial force and
bending induced by the stay cables. For bridge width When the stay cables are in one plane, a single free
greater than 15 m and spans in excess of 500 m, the need standing tower may be adopted. In this case, the pier
to reduce dead weight prompts the use of all-steel below the box girder should be sufficiently wide for
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 15
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
bearings to resist the torsional moments of the The single tower or towers consisting of a pair of
superstructure. For bridges with cables in two planes, the separate columns will be stable in the lateral direction
towers can be a free standing pair, or a portal frame with due to the restoring force provided by the cables in case
a slender bracing. An additional bracing may be of lateral displacement due to wind forces, as long as the
introduced below the deck. The A-shaped tower and the cable anchorages are situated at a level above the base of
inverted Y-shaped tower have been favoured for long the tower. The towers may be designed to be hinged or
bridges having shallow box girder decks in regions of fixed at the base, depending on the magnitude of the
strong wind forces. The land take at the base can be vertical loads and distribution of the cable forces. While
reduced by adopting a diamond configuration, as used in a tower with a fixed base induces a large moment, the
the Tatara Bridge. Typical arrangements of towers are increased rigidity of the total structure resulting from a
shown in figure. fixed base at the towers and the relative ease in erection
as compared with a hinged base may be advantageous.
On the other hand, the hinged base results in reduced
bending moments in the towers and may be advantageous
with weak soil conditions. The towers should be slender
and should have a low bending stiffness in the
longitudinal direction so that back stay cables will be
functional in partially catering to live loads in the main
span. Towers should normally be vertical.
CABLES
Since the tower is the most conspicuous component in and transfer it to the tower and the back stay cable
a cable stayed bridge, besides structural considerations, anchorage. The main requirements of stay cables are:
aesthetics plays a prominent part in the selection of the
1) High load carrying capacity
particular shape of the tower. For example, the proximity
2) High and stable Youngs M odulus of
of cologne cathedral influenced the adoption of the A-
elasticity
frame for the Severins Bridge. Sometimes, an additional
3) Compact cross section
height is provided for the tower above the point of
4) High fatigue resistance
connection of the cable for architectural reasons, as in
5) Ease in corrosion protection
Norderelbe Bridge. Anchorage of cables at the tower
6) Handling convenience
should follow good order. Since the cables at the deck
7) Low cost
level are anchored along a line along the edges or at the
middle of the deck, it is natural that these should end The ultimate tensile strength of wire is of the order of
along a vertical line at the tower head. In the case of A- 1600 MPa. A typical section of a stay cable is shown in
shaped tower, the anchorage line can be parallel to the figure 18 (Fig.18). While locked coil strands have been
tower leg it is not desirable to spread the anchorages used in early bridges, the recent preference is towards the
transversely in one layer at the tower. use of cables with bundles of parallel wires or parallel
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 16
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
component of each cable tension in balanced such that configuration is a statically indeterminate structure with a
there is no in-plane bending of the tower due to balanced high order of indeterminacy. The deck acts as a
horizontal force due to dead load at the completion stage: continuous beam on elastic supports of varying stiffness.
and ii) the net force on the main girder member at the Bending moments in the deck and pylons increase due to
connection of the cable at the completion stage be zero. second order effects due to deflection of the structure.
The effects of creep and shrinkage during construction
Currently the steel used for cables have ultimate and service life should be considered for concrete and
tensile of the order of 1600M pa. Carbon fibre cables composite decks. The internal force distribution in the
having UTS of about 3300Mpa are under development. deck and tower can be managed to be compression with
The latter cables are claimed to have negligible corrosion minimum bending, by adjustment of the forces in the
and to possess high fatigue resistance. However, carbon stay cables. A rigorous analysis considering three
fibber cables are presently very expensive. dimensional space action is quiet complex. Approximate
designs can be made using a two dimensional
approach. Though the cable stays show a non linear
behaviour due to large displacements, sag in cables and
moment axial force interactions in stays, girders and
towers, an approximate analysis assuming linear
behaviour leads to satisfactory results in most cases.
However, a non linear analysis is essential for very
long span bridges.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 17
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
The cantilever method is normally adopted for the The sequence of planning for bridges forming part of
construction of long span cable stayed bridges. Here the a new highway or railway project will form part of that
towers are built first. Each new segment is built at site or particular project planning. But, in case of a major
installed with precast segment, and then supported by crossing across a large or important river or a major road
one new cable or a pair of new cables which balance its intersection, a more detailed planning for the particular
weight. The stresses in the girder and the towers are bridge itself will be required.
related to the cable tensions. Since the geometric profile
Different steps involved in planning for such a bridge
of the girder or elevation of the bridge segments is
and for major links are:
mainly controlled by the cable lengths, the cable length
should be set appropriately at the erection of each 1) Study the need for a bridge
segment. During construction, monitoring and
2) Assess the traffic requirement
adjustment of the cable tension and geometric profile 3) Location study
require special attention. 4) Study of alternatives
5) Short listing feasible alternatives
A notable example of construction of a major cable
6) Developing concept plans for alternatives
stayed bridge by cantilever method is the Yangpu Bridge
including choice of form, materials, span
in Shanghai, China, built in 1994 with a main span of
arrangements etc...
602 m. The composite girders of this bridge consisted of
7) Preliminary design and costing
prefabricated, wholly welded steel girders and precast
8) Evaluation of alternatives, risk analysis and
reinforced conceret deck slab.
final choice
Depending on the bridge site, cable stayed bridges can 9) Finding resources, detailed survey and design
have any one of four general layouts of spans: 10) Implementation including final preparation of
bid documents, fixing agency, construction
1) Cable stayed bridges with one eccentric
and commissioning
tower, eccentric with respect to the gap to be
bridged, e.g. Severins Bridge A new highway or railway line may need to be
2) Symmetrical two span cable stayed bridges provided as part of development of an area; linking two
e.g. Akkar Bridge or more places of commercial or tourist interest and
3) Three span cable stayed bridges, e.g. strategic importance; as a link to a port, mines, industrial
Second Hooghly Bridge area and/or a large thermal power plant. Their need is
4) M ulti span cable stayed bridge e.g. M illau usually established by evaluating their socio economic
Viaduct. and/or financial viability.
Of these the most common type is the three span Once the need for the project is established the
cable stayed bridge, consisting of the central main span various details have to be worked out. Any highway or
and the two side spans. Temporary stability during rail line will be crossing a number of small and large
construction is a major problem, particularly just prior to streams, canals, rivers and lakes, over which culverts or
closure at mid span. The structure must be able to bridges will have to be provided. Need for a culvert or
withstand the effects due to wind and accidental loads bridges become automatically established in such cases
due to mishaps during erection. When intermediate piers during preparation of project sheets. When a bridge
are provided in the side spans, the stability is very much forming part of such new road or rail projects has to be
enhanced. In this case, the side spans are built first on the provided over a large river, a more detailed initial
intermediate supports, and later the lon g cantilevers in planning is required involving various steps listed above.
the main span. Apart from this, need may arise to provide additional
bridges across major rivers, for linking two major
2.4 GEN ERAL S TEPS IN BRIDGE DES IGN
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 18
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
highways or rail lines or a network of roads in an urban Where artificial gorging is necessary due to absence of
area, including grade separators at busy road firm inerodable high banks, it should be possible to build
intersections in urban areas. Similar planning approach is protection works like guide bunds on a dry location or in
required in such projects. shallow water if unavoidable.
Cross drainage works on alternative alignments of a The approach bank should be secure, and not
road or rail alignment can differ considerably and since be liable to flash flood attacks or major spills
they tend to form 15 to 20 % of the cost of the total during floods.
project, it is essential to analyze and consider the effect It should not be too high or too expensive to
of all the CD works on the alignment, before choosing build; it should not pass through high hills or
the alignment. While fixing the horizontal alignment of major drainage basins or built up areas or
the line/road, it is desirable to select a bridge site such religious structures.
that the bridge/culvert is: It should have reasonable proximity to the
main road or railway to be served without need
On a straight reach of the stream avoiding any
for long or costly connecting links.
bends or meanders
It should be such as to avoid excessive
Clear of the confluence of any tributaries or
construction works under water or over marshy
branches
lands.
Confined within well defined banks
Approaches and protection works should be
With the road approach on either side straight
such as to involve minimum recurring
to maximum extent and
maintenance expenditure and be reasonably
With the crossing normal to the road alignment
safe from flood damages which would
and if skew is unavoidable, limit the skew
otherwise put the bridge out of use for long
angle
periods.
defined and as narrow as possible. downstream for larger rivers. This is necessary for
It should have firm high banks which are fairly locating a straight reach of river where a good normal
inerodable (the ideal site is at a gorge). crossing can be provided. The extent of water course at
In a meandering river, it should be at a nodal flood time (excluding, of course, spill) will give an idea
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 19
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
The plan of the water course should be drawn to a irrigation works in the vicinity should be clearly
scale of l : 2000 for smaller rivers and l : 5000 for larger indicated. The direction of flow of the stream and the
ones. Cross sections should be taken at the proposed north line are the most important markings that are
crossing, one upstream and one downstream, each about sometimes omitted by oversight.
2 km apart. They should be drawn to the same horizontal
scale as that of the plan. In case it is fairly flat, the cross
section can be plotted to different vertical and horizontal
scales (the latter being the same as that of the plan), with
the proportion between the two not less than 1:10 this CATCHM ENTS AREA MAP
will give a better idea of the area of section of flow for
The catchments area map for major bridges can be
working out the observed discharge and also correctly,
prepared from the available topographic sheets of the
determining the position of the bridge so as to cover the
most recent survey made in the area. The Survey of India
deeper and perennially flowing channels.
has prepared maps for the entire country to scale 1 to a
The plan should cover the details of all streams mile or 1: 50,000. They are now preparing maps to scale
joining the main stream river within the reach surveyed, 1: 25,000 and such maps for some areas are available.
the location and value of any benchmark, and the closest The map available to the largest scale should be obtained
inhabited locality; it should also provide sufficient spot - from them. All these maps contain contours for areas
levels for drawing contours, and indicate clearly the covered. Hence, the ridge line bounding the watershed
alignment and position of the proposed bridge with its contributing to the flow to a particular stream/river can
change marked. The low water level, highest flood level be easily traced on such maps. A tracing showing the
(HFL) and ordinary flood level (OFL) should be marked river, tributaries and the ridge or catchments boundary
on the cross section. The position of any borings and trial line prepared will form the catchments area map. The
pits should be indicated on the plan while the details of` area bounded can be worked out either by a planimeter or
bore data should be indicated on the section. The position using squared paper to proper scale. Where the
of GTS benchmarks with their values and also any catchments is small, close enough contours may not be
survey reference pillars left by the survey party should be available on these topographical sheets and a tracing of
marked, indicating, by the side, benchmark values. Such the ridge line may be difficult.
detailing will give an idea of all related data governing
Additional details to be marked on the catchments area
the siting of the bridge at a glance. If any checking
map are:
becomes necessary later, referencing will be easy and
quick, without any need to refer to a number of detailed 1) All irrigation tanks and reservoirs in the
drawings. catchment area intercepting the contributing
streams and which are likely to affect the
The survey can be conducted by triangulation in the
bridge if any of them is damaged
case of a small stream or by a closed traverse in the case
2) Rain gauge stations
of larger streams. (For detailed procedure for
3) Discharge observations
triangulation and other detailed surveys, in order to
4) River bed levels along the river up to the
achieve a good accuracy of the plan, suitable cross
source, as may be available
checks in the case of running open traverses along the
5) Levels of peaks on ridges and peaks of
bank should be established. Some spot-levels should be
isolated hillocks falling within
taken so that the contours can be plotted on the plan also.
This plotting of contours will help in proper location of If possible, the heaviest intensity of rainfall recorded
the axis of bridge with respect to the stream and at the rain gauge stations can be indicated on the
determining the sew angle, if any. Any marginal bunds, catchments plan. The work of preparation of this map can
other flood protection works, and any tanks, lakes and
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 20
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
be done in the office itself and supplementary 8) Settlement characteristics of the soil for
information obtained from enquiries from other determining the settlement and differential
departmental officers. settlement
9) Frictional and porosity properties for
determining sinking or driving effort
10) Any possible constructional difficulties
HYDROLOGIC PARTICULARS
various levels
7) Physical properties of the soil to determine
the bearing capacity
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 21
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Table 2 Navigational Clearance for Bridges the infra-structure requirement for transporting materials
and equipment.
Tonnag Lengt Bea Draf M inimu M inimu
e of h (m) m t m clear m PARTICULARS OF NEAREST BRIDGES
Vessel (m) (m) span (m) headroo
During the investigations, particulars with regard to
m over
foundation details, clearances and other physical
mean
features of the bridges that might have b een constructed
HFL (m)
on the same water course on the nearest railway line or
50 18 5.0 1.5 15 2.0
road should be obtained. Enquiries should also be made
100 24 5.0 1.5 17 3.0
of the bridges that have been overtopped or breached
300 35 6.5 2.0 25 3.9
since their construction or any other type of failure to the
600 60 7.0 2.0 30 6.0
structure. In the case of bridges of smaller magnitude, it
900 and 75 10.0 2.0 90 to 10 to 12
should be sufficient if particulars of such bridges within
more 110
about l0 km radius are obtained. In the case of larger
bridges, particulars should be gathered for those situated
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 22
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
reconstruction will be called for in that period. A time Catchment areas over 15 sq. km:
space of 40 to 50 years is generally advisable for this.
1.5 km and to scale
REPORT AND DRAWING 1:5000
c) A site plan to a suitable scale should show the
The documents to be prepared for the bridge project
selected site and ground details for a distance
will comprise a brief report giving the salient features for
of 100 m upstream and 100 m downstream for
aiding in detailed design and an estimate along with the
small bridges and 500 m on either side for
under mentioned drawings: larger bridges. It shall contain the following
details:
a) An index map to scale, 1; 50,000 in the case of
1) Name of the channel and road, chainage
small rivers and 1: 2, 50,000 in the case of
and identification mark (number etc...)
larger ones. It should show the road/rail
allotted to the crossing
alignment, the position of the proposed bridge
2) Direction of flow, maximum and
with the chainage, general topography of the
minimum discharges
area, existing communication lines. Important
3) Existing and proposed alignments, if it
towns and villages, rivers, canals and other
is in replacement
irrigation works.
b) A survey plan showing all topographical 4) Angle and direction of skew
5) Name of the nearest identifiable town at
features in the immediate vicinity for sufficient
either end of the road
distance on either side of the proposed bridge
6) Position of any bench marks and their
showing the contours at 1 to 2m intervals
values
should be prepared; All alternative sites should
7) Reference to the value of the bench
be marked on this plan. All features that can
marks, the mean sea level taken as
influence the design of the bridge should also
datum
be marked on this plan. A longitudinal section
8) Location of cross section lines
along the proposed alignment to the same
9) Longitudinal section (i.e., alignment
horizontal scale as that of the plan and one-
centre) line with reduced levels marked
tenth of the same as the vertical scale should be
10) Location of trial pits and bore holes with
drawn. The line showing the top of the
identification numbers/ marks
proposed formation should be marked in red on
11) Location of any obstruction for road
the same sheet. These distances can be reduced
alignment, such as nullahs, buildings,
for artificial (like men-made irrigation and
wells, outcrops of rocks etc... (the scale
navigation canals) and in difficult countries by
should preferably be to 1:1000) the
the engineer to suit site conditions. The Indian
alignment line shall be shown in form of
Roads Congress requires this sheet to cover
a thick green line.
details for distances on either side and to scales
d) Cross Sections, one along the proposed
as indicated below.
alignment and two others, one upstream and
Catchment areas less than 3 sq. km:
one down- stream at a suitable distance to scale
100 metres and to scale
1 : 1000 horizontal and 1 : 100 vertical. It
1:1000
should contain the following:
Catchment areas of 3 to 15 sq. km: 1) Bed levels up to tops of banks/ bunds
and ground levels for sufficient distance
300 metres and to scale
beyond, the intervals being such as to
1:1000
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 23
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
give a clear idea of the uneven features bridge opening, and locating abutments and
both in the bed and ground piers so that the bridge covers the deepest and
2) Location and depth of trial pits or perennially flowing channel. The flood levels
borings and nature of soil in bed, banks are required for the purpose of determining the
and approaches (in cases of smaller deck level of the bridge after allowin g for the
bridges and shallow bores, the section of necessary clearance. The low water level helps
soil profile at each bore/ pit can be given in fixing the top of the well or pile foundations
on this itself). taking into consideration the working
3) HFL, OFL, LWL on the entire three conditions.
cross sections. Collection of data: The collection of data with
e) In addition, a few more cross sections to the reference to construction resources and the
same horizontal and vertical scales as that of details of the nearest bridge across the same
the site plan- river are required for obtaining an idea of the
f) A longitudinal section along the channel, construction problems that are likely to be met
showing the site of the bridge, to the same with and working out the unit cost for
horizontal scale as the survey plan (in the case preparation of the estimate for the cost of the
of small bridges this can be plotted on the bridge and appurtenant works. Forecast of the
survey plan itself), the vertical scale not less traffic is likely to use the bridge is made for
than 1: 1000. determining the width of the bridge and in the
g) Typical cross sections along alternative sites case of a costly alternative, for working out the
considered, if any, with a brief note giving relative cost benefit ration also.
reasons for selection of the proposed site to the Report: After the collection of these data and
same scale as in (d) above. working out the details, a report has to be made
out bringing the salient features of the bridge,
its estimated cost, cost benefit ration, etc...
for helping to obtain the sanction. This report
The purposes of these drawings are given below briefly:
should, as far as possible, be so detailed that
Index map: The index map will indicate the when work is sanctioned, the site work can be
geographical location of the bridge and the commenced immediately.
nature of the area served by the bridge
Survey plan: It will give an idea of the nature 3.DES IGN PROCEDURE
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 24
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
works of National Highway (NH) 214. The work was of Andhra Pradesh with lush paddy fields and coconut
supervised by Consulting Engineering Services (India) groves. The village is located in the Godavari Delta
Private Limited (CES) and PWD, Andhra Pradesh. region. The main soils in the area are alluvial red soil,
sandy loam and sandy clay.
Now using the topographical survey data,
hydrographical survey data, sub soil investigation data 3.3 NEED FOR BRIDGE
conducted by PWD, Andhra Pradesh for the construction
of this bridge we are designing a Cable Stayed Railway During the time of bridge construction there was no
Bridge in the same location is proposed in this report in bridge existing across the river Gauthami, branch of
order to compare the advantages of each bridge. Godavari River, connecting Yanam to Yedurlanka in
East Godavari District in Andhra Pradesh. Ferry service
3.2 AREA D ES CRIPTION
was being operated for crossing the river. However, since
The bridge is located between yanam (one of the four the width of the river is very large between the banks, it
districts of the Union Territory of Pondicherry in India) was a huge inconvenience to the large crowds who had to
and Yedurlanka (East Godavari District of Andhra cross the river daily. It was therefore felt necessary to
Pradesh in India) on Gauthami River, a tributary of the construct a high level bridge at this location for smooth
perennial river Godavari. An extensive survey of the flow of daily traffic. Before finalizing the project bridge
area was done before deciding on the site for the bridge. expert from CES along with representatives of PWD,
visited the site to have firsthand information about the
Yanam (Latitude1642' N 1646' N; Longitude: work and local conditions.
8211' E 8219' E)is a town in the Indian union
territory of Pondicherry; it is located in Yanam district. This stretch from Yanam Yedurlanka is now a part of
Yanam has about 300 years of history and it was NH 214. At the time of survey the people in Konaseema
transferred to India in 1954. It forms a 30 km enclave in area covering Yedurlanka, M uramalla, Polavaram,
the district of East Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. It Pallamkurru and other villages up to Amalapuram of East
occupies the delta of Godavari River, the town is situated Godavari District had to cross the Gauthami, Branch of
where the River Coringa(Atreya) branches off from Godavari River by ferry service from Yedurlanka in
Gauthami into two parts, 9 km from the Bay of Bengal in Konaseema area to Yanam in Pondicherry Union
the Coromandel Coast. It has a population of about Territory and then proceed by road to Kakinada, the
32,000. Due to some relaxation in Tax and other District Head Quarters of East Godavari District. When
exemptions, lots of Business activities go on in Yanam. the river is in floods, there is much inconvenience in
M any people are getting employment in these transportation of their agricultural produce to the markets
industries/firms. The major business areas in this region of Yanam and Kakinada and vice versa. Yanam is fast
are Coconut Dwelling, Rice M ills, Fishing and Other growing Industrial center and several Gas Based
Traditional Occupations. According to the 19952005 Industries are now coming up around Yanam and
Development Records it was the first best constituency Kakinada. Kakinada port is fast developing and two
in Pondicherry, which is moving forward in the M ajor fertilizer Companies i.e., Godavari and Nagarjuna
development sector, and also one of the best fertilizers are located at Kakinada.
constituencies in India.
If a high level bridge is constructed across Gauthami
Yedurlanka (Latitude 16 42 N; Longitude 82 12 E) a
0 0
branch of river Godavari between Yanam and
village in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh is Yedurlanka, it will help in development of 2 regions i.e.,
situated on the banks of Gauthami River. It is located Yanam of Pondicherry State and Konaseema area
28.7 km from the district main City Kakinada in (Central Delta) of Andhra Pradesh. As the O.N.G.C
I.Polavarammandal. The District is known as rice bowl activities in Godavari basin are in full swing it will
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 25
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
facilitate government and transportation of their vehicles (CD) works. The skew angle is also taken into
and also supply of Natural Gas to Yanam and other consideration. Skew angle is the angle between the major
industrially developing centers in East Godavari Dist rict. axis of the substructure and a perpendicular to the
Also several raw materials particularly, that required for longitudinal axis of the superstructure. The
coir industries and edible oil units can be easily representatives of CES, with assistance from PWD,
transported from Konaseema area to Yanam. Further the examined the site. The site was inspected from both
construction of the bridge reduces the distance between Yedurlanka and Kakinada sides.
Amalapuram and Kakinada by 40 km, by road. Apart
from the above mentioned facts, the fact that both Yanam The alignment proposed after analyzing all the
and East Godavari Districts are centers of tourism is well contributing factors is shown in Drawings. The
known. Therefore providing a bridge in this region will proposed alignment is shown in green. The reasons for
enable the development of tourism in this area. selecting this particular alignment are as listed below:
advantageous both to the industries in the area as well as 2) This is at a smaller skew angle
3.4 TOPOGRAPHICAL S URVEY The alignment starts at km. 22/2 +175 of Kakinada
Yanam road (now part of NH214) goes round of Yanam
A detailed survey has been carried out in the area in town and crosses the river Gauthami in a normal
order to decide the alignment of the bridge. Due to lack direction (1 km upstream side of the existing ferry point)
of resources and permissions we could not conduct the and then turns right and runs parallel to flood bank before
survey, but as a part of the project we have collected the joining the Amalapuram Yedurlanka road at km 24/6.
data from R&B, Andhra Pradesh and made a detailed The total width of the river at site of crossing is 2.331 km
study of the same. The method used in surveying and the form flood bank to flood bank. The approach length of
various facts observed thereby in the finalization of the Yanam side is 5.285 km and on Yedurlanka side is 4.115
alignment are briefly described below. km.
The survey of the river course was done up to the 3.5 HYDROGRAPHIC PARTICULARS
High Flood Level (HFL) line covering a distance of
about 5 km upstream and 2 km downstream for locating a The terms necessary for the hydrologic design of a
straight reach of river where a normal crossing can be structure are as follows:
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 26
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Design Discharge (Q) including afflux and the Scour level : Normal
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 27
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
will be approximately 1700 m whereas only during HFL gradient of 1 in 50 with introduction of vertical curve of
condition the waterway spreads further and waterway 50 m. M inimum abutment clearance of 1.5 m is provided
width becomes about 2300 m. at the abutment ends thus providing formation level at
abutments as +8.73
The proposed bridge site is located near the sea and is
subject to tidal variation. Under HTL condition, the
waterway is restricted between the banks which are about
1700 m apart.
Because of close proximity to the sea, during the rainy 3.6 SCOUR DEPTH AND LIN EAR WATERWAY
season when the high flood occurs, the river cannot
generate a very high velocity with the result the water CALCULATION OF SCOUR DEPTH
embankment of suitable height may be provided, to material collected from scour zone.
minimize the cost.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 28
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Therefore Corresponding
founding level =
= 18.17 say
18.2 m = - 44.0
(RL)
Afflux for non erodiable beds
However in design, considering factor of safety founding
level is kept at
RL - 45.8 m
Where H = afflux
For abutment, scour level =
v = velocity in m/s
= 4.58-2(18.17)
= -31.8 (RL)
=1143 m
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 29
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Effective width of pier foundation = going on in all the seasons and there is no visible sign of
any scour that has taken place in this stretch. Under HFL,
condition Laceys waterway comes out to 1370 m which
is less than 1700 m.
= 4.91 m
Effective width of abutment foundation = Therefore it is felt that as proposed earlier a bridge
span of 2150 m is not really required. It is proposed to
have 1798.8 m length of bridge between river faces of
dirtwalls, which is more than Laceys waterway, thus
= 2.92 m
including 600 m shallow depth stretch towards Yanam
Total obstruction = side from the existing bund up to the Ferryghat, over
which approach embankment of suitable height may be
provided, to minimize the cost.
= 222.9 say 222m
3.7 SOIL PARTICULARS
Total waterway = 1143 + 222
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 30
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
wash water. In this method, water was forced under that the vane is rotated at the rate of 0.1 /sec. the
pressure through an inner tube which is rotated inside a maximum dial reading attained is noted. From initial and
casing pipe. The slurry flowing out gives an indication of final dial gauge readings the deflection may be found out.
the soil type. Whenever a change in strata is indicated by Torque may be obtained from the calibration chart. By
the slurry flowing out, washing was stopped and a tube the torque value shear strength of the soil may be
sampler was attached to the end of the drill rod. Soil computed from the height diameter ratio is 2 for the
samples were obtained by driving the sampler into the apparatus using in the field.
soil. The entire boring operation was conducted in
accordance with the provisions laid in IS: 1892 1962 SOIL PROFILE
The diameter of the bore hole was 150 mm and casing At bore hole number LB 3, the soil profile consists
was used to support the walls of the bore hole. US of yellowish clay with sand from + 2.632 m to + 2.032 m
samples were collected using seamless thin walled followed by soft clay from + 2.032 to 1.268. M edium
sampling tubes at all bore holes. The thin walled sampler sand from -1.268 to 3.618, soft clay from 3.618 to
is 100 mm in diameter and 1.7 mm in wall thickness. The 6.868, medium sand from 6.868 to 12.268, soft clay
inside and outside clearances as well as the area ratio of from 12.268 to 17.268, stiff clay from 17.268 to
the sampling tube are within the permissible limit. The 26.468, coarse sand from 26.468 to 30.368, stiff clay
collection of UD samples was done as per provisions laid from 30.368 to 36.868, yellowish very stiff clay from
in IS: 2132 1963. 36.868 to 47.088, yellowish very stiff clay with
pebbles from 47.088 to 55.368, very stiff clay from
SPT were conducted at change of strata in each bore 55.368 to 57.768. Where the bore was terminated the
hole, depending on the soil strata, throughout the depth water table was met with at a depth of 2.5 m below the
of exploration, the SPT was conducted by driving a split EGL.
spoon sampler under the blows of 65 kg weight with a 75
cm free fall. The initial 15 cm penetration was taken as At bore hole number LB 4, the soil profile consists
the seating drive. The number of blows required to drive of yellowish silty sand from + 3.076 to + 0.576 followed
the sampler 30 cm beyond the seating drive is taken as by soft clay from + 0.576 to 6.424, sandy clay from
the SPT N value. Refusal is considered to have been 6.424 to 9.674, stiff clay from 9.674 to 16.424, stiff
reached when the rate of advance is less than 2.5 cm for clay with pebbles from 16.424 to 23.424, coarse sand
50 blows. All standard penetration tests are carried out as from 23.424 to 26.674, yellowish stiff clay from
per provisions in IS: 2131 1963. D S samples were 26.674 to 39.174, yellowish very stiff clay with pebbles
collected at required intervals to assess the nature of soil from 39.174 to 46.124, yellowish very stiff clay with
and to evaluate geo technical properties in the pebbles and traces of mica from 46.124 to 50.924,
laboratory. very stiff clay with pebbles from 50.924 to 57.374.
Field VST is conducted as per IS: 4434 1978 code At bore hole number M B 1, the soil profile consists
to determine inplace shearing resistance in saturated soft of sandy clay from 2.268 to 3.268, medium sand
marine clay. The test was conducted at various depths. 3.268 to 6.768, coarse sand with pebbles sand shells
For conducting tests, the shear vane is pushed into the from 6.768 to 17.268, soft clay from 17.268 to
ground up to a depth of 4 times the diameter of the bore 27.268, sandy clay from 27.268 to -29.268, yellowish
hole or 50 mm whichever is more below the bottom of very stiff clay from 29.268 to 51.968, yellowish very
the bore hole. It was ensured that no torque is applied to stiff clay with pebbles from 51.968 to 63.018 where
the torque rods during the thrust. No hammering was the bore was terminated.
permitted. A minimum period of 5 minutes was allowed
after insertion of the vane. The gear handle is turned so
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 31
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
At bore hole number M B 2, the soil profile consists yellowish clay with pebbles from 27.168 to -66.318
of sandy clay from 4.297 to 4.797, medium sand with where the bore was terminated.
traces of silt from 4.797 to 10.297, medium sand with
traces of silt and clay from 10.297 to 15.047, medium At bore hole M B 8, the soil profile consists of sandy
sand from 15.047 to 21.797, soft clay 21.797 to - clay from 4.113 to 5.613, medium sand with traces of
32.297, yellowish stiff clay from 32.297 to -65.247, silt from 5.613 to 22.613, soft clay with pebbles from
where the bore was terminated. 22.613 to 28.113, yellowish very stiff clay with
pebbles from 28.113 to 64. 963, where the bore was
At bore hole M B 3, the soil profile consists of sandy terminated.
clay from 1.496 to 2.246 followed by medium sand
with traces of silt from 2.246 to 7.746, medium sand At bore hole M B 9, the soil profile consists of
with traces of silt and clay from 7.746 to 13.246, medium sand from 10.250 to 17.45 followed by soft
medium sand 13.246 to 17.596, soft clay from clay with pebbles from 17.45 to 31.05, yellowish
17.596 to -17.796, medium sand from 17.796 to very stiff clay with pebbles from 31.05 to 72.20
20.996, soft clay from 20.996 to 26.996, yellowish where the bore was terminated.
very stiff clay from 26.996 to -62.996, where the bore
was terminated. At bore hole LB 5, the soil profile consists of
brownish stiff clay from + 2.892 to 1.908 followed by
At bore hole M B 4, the soil profile consists of sandy medium sand with traces of silt from 1.908 to -13.108,
clay from 1.413 to 2.163 followed by medium sand soft clay from 13.108 to 25.608, yellowish very stiff
2.163 to -20.913, coarse sand with shells from 20.913 clay with pebbles from 25.608 to 57.858 where the
to 23.913, soft clay 23.913 to 30.413, yellowish bore was terminated.
very stiff clay with pebbles from 30.413 to 62.563
where the bore was terminated. LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
At bore hole M B 5, the soil profile consists of sandy The various soil samples namely the US samples, the
clay from 1.768 to 3.768 followed by medium sand - DS samples and SPT samples were used to determine the
3.768 to 20.768, soft clay from 20.768 to 25.768, following soil properties.
At bore hole M B 6, the soil profile consists of sandy limit and plasticity index
clay from 3.925 to 4.825 followed by medium sand 3) The specific gravity of soil solids
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 32
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
from the average grain size distribution curve as shown * 16.78 * 0.9)
in the figure.
= - 25.62 m
= 4.58
Silt factor
(1.27 * 16.78)
= - 16. 73
say 16.75 m
f = Laceys silt factor for bed material = 1.27 As soft clay layers of large thickness are encountered
in most of the bore holes, considerable amount of
D = mean scour depth
negative drag is expected on piles. However the negative
drag need not be considered under scour conditions. It is
advised to use larger diameter piles which would increase
= 16.78 m the negative friction linearly but would also improve the
vertical load carrying capacity at a higher rate that the
Pier scour level
negative drag. A factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used on
the ultimate capacity estimated by static formula. In stiff
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 33
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
clay layer the C values to be adopted for the pile In this case
capacity are shown in the table 3.
9) Forces on parapets shear force and bending moments at various sections are
DEAD LOAD: The dead load is the weight of the It is evident that the maximum shear force will occur
structure and any permanent load fixed thereon. The dead at the centre of the span. M aximum shear force will
load is initially assumed and checked after design is occur when the entire moving load of span 910m is on
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 34
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
In order that maximum positive shear force is The distribution of wheel loads on steel troughing or
produced the leading load should be at section X which is steel or wooden beams spanning transversely to the track
at a distance of x as shown in the figure and supporting the rails directly shall be designed in
accordance with the constant elastic support theory.
Positive shear = 33701.42 kN
DYNAMIC EFFECTS
In order that maximum negative shear force is
produced the trailing load should be at section X When a train moves over a bridge an additional impact
load is caused due to factors such as fast travel of load,
Negative shear = - 3095.42 kN
uneven track, rough joints, imperfectly balanced driving
wheels and lateral sway. The increase in load due to
As the load crosses the centre of the span c the negative
dynamic effects should be considered by adding a load
shear produced at c is
equivalent to a CDA multiplied by the LL giving the
F = - 931.814 kN maximum stress in the member under consideration. The
speeds up to 160 km/h are taken for BG.
Now in order to find the absolute bending moment we
should find the centre of gravity of load system. For main girders of double track spans with 2 girders
It is also known that the absolute maximum bending Where L is loaded length of span in meters for the
moment will occur when the heaviest load is close to the position of the train giving the maximum stress in the
M = 4536767.218kN-m
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 35
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
Frictional resistance of expansion bearings has to be The loaded length L is taken as follows:
additional load throughout the chord to which the bearing The stability of piers under
3) Resistance due to the movement of bearings Lateral bracings of the loaded deck of railway spans
due to change in temperature. These forces are should be designed to resist, in addition to the wind and
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 36
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
centrifugal forces, a lateral load due to racking forces of 3.9 DECK DES IGN
5.9KN/m is treated as a moving load. This lateral load
Generally, the main girders require web stiffening
need not be considered for computing the stresses in
(either transverse or both transverse and longitudinal) to
chords or flanges of main members.
increase efficiency. Sometimes variations of bending
FORCES ON PARAPETS moments in main girders may require variations in flange
thickness to obtain economical design. This may be
Railings or parapets should have a minimum height
accomplished either by welding additional cover plates
above the adjacent roadway or footway surface of 1m
or by using thicker flange plate in the region of larger
less one half of the horizontal width of the top rail (or)
moment. In very long continuous spans (span > 50 m)
top of the parapet. They are to be designed to resist a
variable depth plate girders may be more economical.
horizontal force and the vertical force each of 1.5 kN/m
MAIN GIRDER DESIGN
applied simultaneously at the top of the railing (or)
parapet. The main span is taken as 1000 m and the side spans are
399.4 m each. The plate girders for the main span are
WIND PREESURE EFFECT
designed here and a similar consideration is considered
for the side spans also. The loads are moving loads and
The basic wind pressure is obtained from IS: 875. No
the deck is designed to withstand the worst position of
live load on the bridge need to be considered when the
loading i.e., the maximum bending moment is considered
basic wind pressure at deck level exceeds for BG bridges
for the loading which causes maximum stress in the
1.5kN/m2.
members.
a) For unloaded spans:
One and half times the horizontal Total Load = 188731.52 kN/m for 1000 m
The area as above for the unloaded portion, plus the area Therefore, for 200 m span length
of the windward girder above and below the moving load
Total Load = 37746.304 kN/m
plus the horizontal projected area of the moving load. For
railway bridges, the height of the moving load is the L = 200m
distance between the top of the highest stack for which
the bridge is designed and the rail level, less than
600mm. In case of foot bridges, the height of moving
load is to be taken as 2m throughout the span.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 37
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
= 2.494
188731520 kN mm2
m
Assume b=1500 mm
=
188731520*106 N mm
Assume
= 376225.68 mm
= 376.225 m
= 372025.690 mm
=188112.84 mm
= 372.025 m
=
188112.84 +
= 101.46 say 110 1050
mm
=189162.845
Provide a web of =
mm
(372025.690*110) mm
=
40922825.9 mm2
= 5.283447875*1017 mm4
=
40.92 m2
= 67.19 N/mm2
=
307459
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 38
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
1) = 2107.301 mm
X 3 = 534.632 mm say 535 mm The actual thickness of web 110 mm is less than the
above values hence vertical stiffeners should be
Design of Stiffeners
provided.
It is essential to provide stiffeners at appropriate
In case only vertical stiffeners are provided then the
distance in order that the plate girder is safe.
thickness of web required is as follows:
Bearing Stiffeners:
1) = 934.664 mm
The permissible bearing stress is given by
2) = 945.814 mm
= 20131362.13
1) = 747.73 mm
mm2
2) = 756.651 mm
= 20.13 m2 Since even now the actual thickness of web is less the
required thickness a horizontal stiffener should be
provided at the Neutral Axis. The stiffeners are steel
plates of (10.9 * 0.91) m size with a spacing of 5 m
between each other. All the connections are butt welds
and the design procedure is done in accordance with IS:
800.
Therefore t = 0.91 m
CROSS GIRDER DESIGN
b = 10.9 m A cross girder is very important as it connects the two
main girders and is also responsible for supporting the
Hence provide a plate (10.9 * 0.91) m as bearing stiffener
bridge against all the lateral forces. A cross girder is a
beam column acted upon by the lateral forces i.e., the
Intermediate Stiffener:
wind pressure etc... and also a concentrated transverse
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 39
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
load at the centre of the span of the girder. As the bridge possibility of corrosion. The steel tubes here are taken as
is a double track BG bridge the width of the bridge is 4.5 per the specifications in IS: 228 and steel tables.
m. The direct stress in compression on the cross sectional
For a span of 1000 m 100 cross girders placed at a area of axially loaded steel tubes should not exceed the
spacing of 10 m are found necessary to balance the values of c as per IS: 806. The maximum shear stress in
lateral force and provide bracing of the main girders. a tube is calculated by dividing the total shear by an area
Total Lateral Force is found out to be P = 8900 kN equal to half the net cross sectional area of tube, and
The concentrated load acting on each cross girder is W = this should not exceed the b values mentioned in IS:
475.392 kN 806.
The maximum bending moment is found using the The round tubular sections provide the most efficient
following formula cross sectional shape for compression members having
lateral restraint in all directions normal to the axis of the
member. The diameter of the member should be as large
as possible with the additional requirement of d/t should
= 9334869.523
be small enough to assure that pressure failure by local
N mm
buckling will not occur.
= 9.33 kN m
The local buckling strength of very short perfect tubes
Steel ISHB sections are provided as cross girders.
depends primarily on L/d ratio. The local buckling is
obtained using the following equation.
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 40
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
stress of a cable must consider many factors, the most Hence Qs = 0.3 * 8 * D H = 636.4
important being the strength of the anchorage assemblage
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 41
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
D = 6 m and H =
14 m
all = 7.1 t/m2
Therefore total all = 7.1 + 56.7 = 63.8 t/m2
Surcharge = 14 * 1 = 14 t/m2 Hence
Total gross bearing capacity = 63.8 + 14 = 77.8 t/m2
Under seismic / wind case, bearing capacity = 77.8 *
1.25 = 97.25 t/m2 For = 0
Calculation for Bearing Capacity for Abutment A1 ic = iq = ir = 1
For C = 0.1 kg/cm2 w = 1
= 220
Nc = 17.19
Nq = 8.1
= 246.95 t/m2
Nr = 7.59
all = 246.95 /2.5 = 98.8 t/m2
Therefore
Surcharge = 14 * 1 = 14 t/m2
Sc = 1.3
Total gross bearing capacity = 98.8 + 14 = 112.8 t/m2
Sq = 1.2
Founding level is at 14 m below scour level and due
Sr = 0.6
to this large embedment, deep seated failure theory
which is nothing but General shear failure theory will
be applicable as there is no chance of punching shear
failure. On this basis bearing capacity has been
calculated by General shear failure theory as per IS:
Hence
6403. The foundation system adopted is group piles at
45 m reduced level.
For = 0
ic = iq = ir = 1
w = 1
= 210.83 t/m2
all = 210.83 /2.5 = 84.3 t/m2
Surcharge = 14 * 1 = 14 t/m2
Total gross bearing capacity = 84.3 + 14 = 98.3 t/m2
Calculation for Bearing Capacity for Abutment A2
For C = 0.45 kg/cm2
= 190
Nc = 14.060
Nq = 5.908 CONCLUS ION
Nr = 4.842
Therefore The main aim of this report is to highlight the advantages
Sc = 1.3 of cable stayed bridges. The design of a cable stayed
Sq = 1.2 bridge is presented taking into consideration all the active
Sr = 0.6 forces of nature. The designs have been computed as per
the specifications in the various Indian Standard Codes
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 42
IJCSIET--International Journal of Computer Science inf ormation and Engg., Technologies ISSN 2277-4408 || 01102015-005
and Indian Railway Standards. The cable-stayed bridge is to wind induced oscillation during construction. The
related to the cantilever bridge. The cables are in tension, cables require careful treatment to protect them from
and the deck is in compression. The spans can be corrosion.
constructed as cantilevers until they are joined at the
centre. A cable stayed-bridge lacks the great rigidity of a REFERENCES
trussed cantilever, and the continuous beam compensates
for this. Indeed, while a long cable-stayed span is under 1) Victor Johnson. D., Essentials of Bridge
construction, there can be great concern about possible Engineering, Sixth Edition.
oscillations, until the cantilevers are joined. 2) Ponnuswamy. S., Bridge Engineering,
Second Edition.
Advantages of cable-stayed bridges are that the two 3) Niels J. Gimsing., Cable Supported Bridges
halves may be cantilevered out from each side. There is Concept and Design, Third Edition
no need for anchorage's to sustain strong horizontal 4) Bridge Engineering Handbook
forces, because the spans are self-anchoring. They can be 5) Indian Railway Standard Bridge Rules
cheaper than suspension bridges for a given span. M any 6) Indian Railway Standard Bridge Sub
asymmetrical designs are possible. They can be built structure Code
with any number of towers. The number of cables 7) Indian Railway Standard Steel Bridge Code
required is also less and the time taken for construction is 8) Khurmi .R.S, Theory of Sturctures, Revised
also very less. The aerodynamic design of a cable stayed Edition
bridge is very effective and in spite of very long spans 9) Ram Chandra, Design of Steel Structures,
the lateral sway due to wind pressure can be easily Volume 1
countered by a cable stayed bridge. These bridges do 10) Troitsky, M .S., Cable stayed bridges
not block the waterway and thereby provide greater Theory and Design
width and height for navigation. 11) Department of Roads and Building,
Government of Andhra Pradesh
Disadvantages of cable-stayed bridges are that in the
longer sizes, the cantilevered halves are very susceptible
IJCSIET-ISSUE5-VOLUME3-SERIES-2 Page 43