Institutionalism, in the social sciences, an approach that emphasizes the role of institutions.

The study of institutions has a long pedigree. It draws insights from previous work in a wide array of disciplines,
including economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. The reappearance of interest in
institutions in the early 1980s followed a familiar pattern: it was a reaction to dominant strands of thought that neglected
institutions, historical context, and process in favour of general theorizing. Accordingly, institutionalism is frequently
characterized by the attention it gives to history. The institutionalism that emerged in the 1980s is called new institutionalism
(NI), but it is less new than it is a restatement of previous scholarship. The following discussion traces the development of
institutionalism from the 19th century to the emergence of NI in the last decades of the 20th century.

Rational Choice Institutionalism

Example: Congress, circular voting, from "impossibility" to stability Actors have a fixed set of preferences or
tastes, behave instrumentally to maximize its goals; in a highly strategic manner of extensive calculation Politics:
a series of collective action dilemmas (prisoner's dilemma; tragedy of the commons)

Role of strategic calculation (institutions structure such interactions) Origin of institutions: to realize or
maximize actors' value, survival of the fittest Institutional change: exogenous shocks push equilibrium to a new
equilibrium Common questions: why do "bad"/"inefficient" institutions persist?

Sociological Institutionalism

Arose from "organizational theory" in late 1970s against "means-ends" rationality in organization Culturally-
specific practices, akin to the myths and ceremonies devised by many societies (Culture vs. Calculus)

Action is tightly bounded up with interpretation Individual must find a way of recognizing situation as well as
of responding to situation A world of individual or organizations seeking to define and express their identity in
socially appropriate ways Mutually constitutive character between institutions and individual action

Problematic: why organizations take on specific sets of institutional forms, procedures or symbols Broader
definition of "institutions": symbol systems, cognitive scripts, and moral templates that provide the "frame of
meaning" guiding human action (Culture is institutions) Institutions to provide the very terms through which
meaning is assigned in social life

Organizations often adopt a new practice because it enhances the social legitimacy of the organization and its
participants. ("logic of social appropriateness" vs. "logic of instrumentality") Examples: immigration policy,
battle of sex and gender, SCO

Historical Institutionalism

Institutional organization of the polity or political economy as the principal factor structuring collective behavior
("structuralism") State (or others) not as a neutral broker among competing interests but as a complex of
institutions capable of structuring the character and outcomes of group conflicts

Institutions: the formal or informal procedures, routines, norms and conventions embedded in the organizational
structure of the polity or political economy (organizations and the rules or conventions promulgated by formal
organizations Eclecticism: both "calculus" and "culture"
Asymmetries of power associated with the operation and development of institutions Emphasize "path
dependence" and "unintended consequence" (examples: QWERTY keyboard; SCO; Soviet Nationality policy)
Persistent institutions are not always purposive and efficient Role of ideas and Beliefs

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It aims to
understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social roles, experience, interests,
chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such
as anthropology and sociology, communication, psychoanalysis,[1] home economics, literature, education,
and philosophy.[2]

Feminist theory focuses on analyzing gender inequality. Themes explored in feminism

include discrimination, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, patriarchy, stereotyping, art
[3][4]

history[5] and contemporary art,[6][7] and aesthetics.[8][9]

Types of Feminism:

Liberal Feminism-: Feminists strive for sexual equality via down to earth political and legal reform. Liberal feminism is a form of
feminism that argues that equality for women can be achieved through legal means and social reform.

Radical Feminism-: Radical feminism is a movement that believes sexism is so deeply rooted in society that the only cure is to eliminate
the concept of gender completely. How would this be possible?

Radical feminists suggest changes, such as finding technology that will allow babies to be grown outside of a woman's body, to promote
more equality between men and women. This will allow women to avoid missing work for maternity leave, which radical feminists argue
is one reason women aren't promoted as quickly as men. In fact, radical feminists would argue that the entire traditional family system is
sexist. Men are expected to work outside the home while women are expected to care for children and clean the house.

Socialist Feminism-: Socialist feminists reject radical feminisms main claim that patriarchy is the only or primary source of oppression
of women. Rather, socialist feminists assert that women are unable to be free due to their financial dependence on males in society.

Women are subject to the male rulers in capitalism due to an uneven balance in wealth. They argue that liberation can only be achieved
by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.

Cultural Feminism-: It is developed from radical feminism, although they hold many opposing views. It is also a feminist theory of
difference that praises the positive aspect of women. As radical feminism died out as a movement, cultural feminism got rolling.
Cultural feminism believes in encouraging feminine behaviour rather than masculine behaviour.

For example, the belief that "women are kinder and gentler than men," prompts cultural feminists call for an invasion of women's culture
into the male-dominated world, which would presumably result in less violence and fewer wars.

Eco-Feminism-: Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which unites environmentalism and feminism.

Ecofeminists believe that these connections are illustrated through traditionally "female" values such as reciprocity, nurturing and
cooperation, which are present both among women and in nature.

Other forms of feminism-:

Black Feminism
Separatist feminism