3 - BIM 2015 WIT Proceedings

Building Information Modelling (BIM)
in
Design, Construction and Operations
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First International Conference on Building Information
Modelling (BIM) in Design, Construction and Operations
BIM 15
Conference Chairmen
L. Mahdjoubi
University of the West of England, UK
C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute, UK
R. Laing
Robert Gordon University, UK
International Scientific Advisory Committee
V. Ahmed
C. Anumba
C. Cory
F. Fadli
T. Froese
A. Ghaffariana Hoseini
J. Harty
D. Heesom
T. Kouider
S. Lockley
M. Mathews
B. Sidawi
Organised by
Sponsored by
WIT Transactions on The Built Environment
International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning
WIT Transactions
Transactions Editor
Carlos Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology
Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst
Southampton SO40 7AA, UK
Editorial Board
B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia C D Bertram The University of New South

Y N Abousleiman University of Oklahoma, USA Wales, Australia
K S Al Jabri Sultan Qaboos University, Oman D E Beskos University of Patras, Greece
H Al-Kayiem Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, S K Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of
Malaysia Technology, India
C Alessandri Universita di Ferrara, Italy H Bjornlund University of South Australia,
D Almorza Gomar University of Cadiz, Spain Australia
B Alzahabi Kettering University, USA E Blums Latvian Academy of Sciences, Latvia
J A C Ambrosio IDMEC, Portugal J Boarder Cartref Consulting Systems, UK
A M Amer Cairo University, Egypt B Bobee Institut National de la Recherche
S A Anagnostopoulos University of Patras, Scientifique, Canada
Greece H Boileau ESIGEC, France
M Andretta Montecatini, Italy M Bonnet Ecole Polytechnique, France
E Angelino A.R.P.A. Lombardia, Italy C A Borrego University of Aveiro, Portugal
H Antes Technische Universitat Braunschweig, A R Bretones University of Granada, Spain
Germany J A Bryant University of Exeter, UK
M A Atherton South Bank University, UK F-G Buchholz Universitat Gesanthochschule
A G Atkins University of Reading, UK Paderborn, Germany
D Aubry Ecole Centrale de Paris, France M B Bush The University of Western Australia,
J Augutis Vytautas Magnus University, Australia
Lithuania F Butera Politecnico di Milano, Italy
H Azegami Toyohashi University of Technology, W Cantwell Liverpool University, UK
Japan G Carlomagno University of Naples Federico
A F M Azevedo University of Porto, Portugal II, Italy
J M Baldasano Universitat Politecnica de D J Cartwright Bucknell University, USA
Catalunya, Spain P G Carydis National Technical University of
J G Bartzis Institute of Nuclear Technology, Athens, Greece
Greece J J Casares Long Universidad de Santiago de
S Basbas Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Compostela, Spain
Greece M A Celia Princeton University, USA
A Bejan Duke University, USA A Chakrabarti Indian Institute of Science,
M P Bekakos Democritus University of Thrace, India
Greece J-T Chen National Taiwan Ocean University,
G Belingardi Politecnico di Torino, Italy Taiwan
R Belmans Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, A H-D Cheng University of Mississippi, USA
Belgium J Chilton University of Lincoln, UK
C-L Chiu University of Pittsburgh, USA F Erdogan Lehigh University, USA
H Choi Kangnung National University, Korea D J Evans Nottingham Trent University, UK
A Cieslak Technical University of Lodz, Poland J W Everett Rowan University, USA
S Clement Transport System Centre, Australia M Faghri University of Rhode Island, USA
J J Connor Massachusetts Institute of R A Falconer Cardiff University, UK
Technology, USA M N Fardis University of Patras, Greece
M C Constantinou State University of New York A Fayvisovich Admiral Ushakov Maritime State
at Buffalo, USA University, Russia
D E Cormack University of Toronto, Canada P Fedelinski Silesian Technical University,
D F Cutler Royal Botanic Gardens, UK Poland
W Czyczula Krakow University of Technology, H J S Fernando Arizona State University, USA
Poland S Finger Carnegie Mellon University, USA
M da Conceicao Cunha University of Coimbra, E M M Fonseca Instituto Politcnico de
Portugal Bragana, Portugal
L Dvid Kroly Rbert College, Hungary J I Frankel University of Tennessee, USA
A Davies University of Hertfordshire, UK D M Fraser University of Cape Town, South
M Davis Temple University, USA Africa
A B de Almeida Instituto Superior Tecnico, M J Fritzler University of Calgary, Canada
Portugal U Gabbert Otto-von-Guericke Universitat
E R de Arantes e Oliveira Instituto Superior Magdeburg, Germany
Tecnico, Portugal G Gambolati Universita di Padova, Italy
L De Biase University of Milan, Italy C J Gantes National Technical University of
R de Borst Delft University of Technology, Athens, Greece
Netherlands L Gaul Universitat Stuttgart, Germany
G De Mey University of Ghent, Belgium A Genco University of Palermo, Italy
A De Montis Universita di Cagliari, Italy N Georgantzis Universitat Jaume I, Spain
A De Naeyer Universiteit Ghent, Belgium P Giudici Universita di Pavia, Italy
P De Wilde Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium L M C Godinho University of Coimbra, Portugal
D De Wrachien State University of Milan, Italy F Gomez Universidad Politecnica de Valencia,
L Debnath University of Texas-Pan American, Spain
USA R Gomez Martin University of Granada, Spain
G Degrande Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, D Goulias University of Maryland, USA
Belgium K G Goulias Pennsylvania State University, USA
S del Giudice University of Udine, Italy F Grandori Politecnico di Milano, Italy
G Deplano Universita di Cagliari, Italy W E Grant Texas A & M University, USA
M Domaszewski Universite de Technologie de S Grilli University of Rhode Island, USA
Belfort-Montbeliard, France R H J Grimshaw Loughborough University, UK
K Dorow Pacific Northwest National D Gross Technische Hochschule Darmstadt,
Laboratory, USA Germany
W Dover University College London, UK R Grundmann Technische Universitat Dresden,
C Dowlen South Bank University, UK Germany
J P du Plessis University of Stellenbosch, South A Gualtierotti IDHEAP, Switzerland
Africa O T Gudmestad University of Stavanger,
R Duffell University of Hertfordshire, UK Norway
N A Dumont PUC-Rio, Brazil R C Gupta National University of Singapore,
A Ebel University of Cologne, Germany Singapore
G K Egan Monash University, Australia J M Hale University of Newcastle, UK
K M Elawadly Alexandria University, Egypt K Hameyer Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
K-H Elmer Universitat Hannover, Germany Belgium
D Elms University of Canterbury, New Zealand C Hanke Danish Technical University, Denmark
M E M El-Sayed Kettering University, USA K Hayami University of Tokyo, Japan
D M Elsom Oxford Brookes University, UK Y Hayashi Nagoya University, Japan
L Haydock Newage International Limited, UK T Krauthammer Penn State University, USA
A H Hendrickx Free University of Brussels, C-H Lai University of Greenwich, UK
Belgium M Langseth Norwegian University of Science
C Herman John Hopkins University, USA and Technology, Norway
I Hideaki Nagoya University, Japan B S Larsen Technical University of Denmark,
D A Hills University of Oxford, UK Denmark
W F Huebner Southwest Research Institute, F Lattarulo Politecnico di Bari, Italy
USA A Lebedev Moscow State University, Russia
J A C Humphrey Bucknell University, USA L J Leon University of Montreal, Canada
M Y Hussaini Florida State University, USA D Lesnic University of Leeds, UK
W Hutchinson Edith Cowan University, D Lewis Mississippi State University, USA
Australia S lghobashi University of California Irvine, USA
T H Hyde University of Nottingham, UK K-C Lin University of New Brunswick, Canada
M Iguchi Science University of Tokyo, Japan A A Liolios Democritus University of Thrace,
L Int Panis VITO Expertisecentrum IMS, Belgium Greece
N Ishikawa National Defence Academy, Japan S Lomov Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
H Itoh Fukuhara-cho, Japan Belgium
J Jaafar UiTm, Malaysia J W S Longhurst University of the West of
W Jager Technical University of Dresden, England, UK
Germany G Loo The University of Auckland, New Zealand
Y Jaluria Rutgers University, USA J Lourenco Universidade do Minho, Portugal
P R Johnston Griffith University, Australia J E Luco University of California at San Diego,
D R H Jones University of Cambridge, UK USA
N Jones University of Liverpool, UK H Lui State Seismological Bureau Harbin, China
N Jovanovic CSIR, South Africa C J Lumsden University of Toronto, Canada
D Kaliampakos National Technical University L Lundqvist Division of Transport and Location
of Athens, Greece Analysis, Sweden
D L Karabalis University of Patras, Greece T Lyons Murdoch University, Australia
A Karageorghis University of Cyprus E Magaril Ural Federal University, Russia
M Karlsson Linkoping University, Sweden L Mahdjoubi University of the West of England,
T Katayama Doshisha University, Japan UK
K L Katsifarakis Aristotle University of Y-W Mai University of Sydney, Australia
Thessaloniki, Greece M Majowiecki University of Bologna, Italy
J T Katsikadelis National Technical University D Malerba Universit degli Studi di Bari, Italy
of Athens, Greece G Manara University of Pisa, Italy
E Kausel Massachusetts Institute of S Mambretti Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Technology, USA B N Mandal Indian Statistical Institute, India
H Kawashima The University of Tokyo, Japan Mander University of Tartu, Estonia
B A Kazimee Washington State University, USA H A Mang Technische Universitat Wien, Austria
F Khoshnaw Koya University, Iraq G D Manolis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
S Kim University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Greece
D Kirkland Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners Ltd, W J Mansur COPPE/UFRJ, Brazil
UK N Marchettini University of Siena, Italy
E Kita Nagoya University, Japan J D M Marsh Griffith University, Australia
A S Kobayashi University of Washington, USA J F Martin-Duque Universidad Complutense,
T Kobayashi University of Tokyo, Japan Spain
D Koga Saga University, Japan T Matsui Nagoya University, Japan
S Kotake University of Tokyo, Japan G Mattrisch DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany
A N Kounadis National Technical University of F M Mazzolani University of Naples Federico
Athens, Greece II, Italy
W B Kratzig Ruhr Universitat Bochum, K McManis University of New Orleans, USA
Germany
A C Mendes Universidade de Beira Interior, M F Platzer Naval Postgraduate School, USA
Portugal D Poljak University of Split, Croatia
J Mera CITEF-UPM, Spain H Power University of Nottingham, UK
R A Meric Research Institute for Basic Sciences, D Prandle Proudman Oceanographic
Turkey Laboratory, UK
J Mikielewicz Polish Academy of Sciences, M Predeleanu University Paris VI, France
Poland D Proverbs University of the West of England,
R A W Mines University of Liverpool, UK UK
J L Miralles i Garcia Universitat Politecnica de R Pulselli University of Siena, Italy
Valencia, Spain I S Putra Institute of Technology Bandung,
C A Mitchell University of Sydney, Australia Indonesia
K Miura Kajima Corporation, Japan Y A Pykh Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
A Miyamoto Yamaguchi University, Japan F Rachidi EMC Group, Switzerland
T Miyoshi Kobe University, Japan M Rahman Dalhousie University, Canada
G Molinari University of Genoa, Italy K R Rajagopal Texas A & M University, USA
T B Moodie University of Alberta, Canada T Rang Tallinn Technical University, Estonia
D B Murray Trinity College Dublin, Ireland J Rao Case Western Reserve University, USA
G Nakhaeizadeh DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany J Ravnik University of Maribor, Slovenia
M B Neace Mercer University, USA A M Reinhorn State University of New York at
D Necsulescu University of Ottawa, Canada Buffalo, USA
F Neumann University of Vienna, Austria G Reniers Universiteit Antwerpen, Belgium
S-I Nishida Saga University, Japan A D Rey McGill University, Canada
H Nisitani Kyushu Sangyo University, Japan D N Riahi University of Illinois at Urbana-
B Notaros University of Massachusetts, USA Champaign, USA
P ODonoghue University College Dublin, B Ribas Spanish National Centre for
Ireland Environmental Health, Spain
R O ONeill Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA K Richter Graz University of Technology, Austria
M Ohkusu Kyushu University, Japan S Rinaldi Politecnico di Milano, Italy
G Oliveto Universit di Catania, Italy F Robuste Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya,
R Olsen Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., USA Spain
E Oate Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, J Roddick Flinders University, Australia
Spain A C Rodrigues Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
K Onishi Ibaraki University, Japan Portugal
P H Oosthuizen Queens University, Canada F Rodrigues Poly Institute of Porto, Portugal
E L Ortiz Imperial College London, UK G R Rodrguez Universidad de Las Palmas de
E Outa Waseda University, Japan Gran Canaria, Spain
O Ozcevik Istanbul Technical University, Turkey C W Roeder University of Washington, USA
A S Papageorgiou Rensselaer Polytechnic J M Roesset Texas A & M University, USA
Institute, USA W Roetzel Universitaet der Bundeswehr
J Park Seoul National University, Korea Hamburg, Germany
G Passerini Universita delle Marche, Italy V Roje University of Split, Croatia
F Patania University of Catania, Italy R Rosset Laboratoire dAerologie, France
B C Patten University of Georgia, USA J L Rubio Centro de Investigaciones sobre
G Pelosi University of Florence, Italy Desertificacion, Spain
G G Penelis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, T J Rudolphi Iowa State University, USA
Greece S Russenchuck Magnet Group, Switzerland
W Perrie Bedford Institute of Oceanography, H Ryssel Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte
Canada Schaltungen, Germany
R Pietrabissa Politecnico di Milano, Italy G Rzevski The Open University, UK
H Pina Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal S G Saad American University in Cairo, Egypt
M Saiidi University of Nevada-Reno, USA S Tanimura Aichi University of Technology,
R San Jose Technical University of Madrid, Japan
Spain J L Tassoulas University of Texas at Austin, USA
F J Sanchez-Sesma Instituto Mexicano del M A P Taylor University of South Australia,
Petroleo, Mexico Australia
B Sarler Nova Gorica Polytechnic, Slovenia A Terranova Politecnico di Milano, Italy
S A Savidis Technische Universitat Berlin, A G Tijhuis Technische Universiteit Eindhoven,
Germany Netherlands
A Savini Universita de Pavia, Italy T Tirabassi Institute FISBAT-CNR, Italy
G Schleyer University of Liverpool, UK S Tkachenko Otto-von-Guericke-University,
G Schmid Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Germany Germany
R Schmidt RWTH Aachen, Germany N Tomii Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan
B Scholtes Universitaet of Kassel, Germany N Tosaka Nihon University, Japan
W Schreiber University of Alabama, USA T Tran-Cong University of Southern
A P S Selvadurai McGill University, Canada Queensland, Australia
J J Sendra University of Seville, Spain R Tremblay Ecole Polytechnique, Canada
J J Sharp Memorial University of I Tsukrov University of New Hampshire, USA
Newfoundland, Canada R Turra CINECA Interuniversity Computing
Q Shen Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Centre, Italy
USA S G Tushinski Moscow State University, Russia
X Shixiong Fudan University, China P Tzieropoulos Ecole Polytechnique Federale
G C Sih Lehigh University, USA de Lausanne, Switzerland
L C Simoes University of Coimbra, Portugal J-L Uso Universitat Jaume I, Spain
A C Singhal Arizona State University, USA E Van den Bulck Katholieke Universiteit
P Skerget University of Maribor, Slovenia Leuven, Belgium
J Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia D Van den Poel Ghent University, Belgium
V Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia R van der Heijden Radboud University,
A C M Sousa University of New Brunswick, Netherlands
Canada R van Duin Delft University of Technology,
H Sozer Illinois Institute of Technology, USA Netherlands
D B Spalding CHAM, UK P Vas University of Aberdeen, UK
P D Spanos Rice University, USA R Verhoeven Ghent University, Belgium
T Speck Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, A Viguri Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Germany Y Villacampa Esteve Universidad de Alicante,
C C Spyrakos National Technical University of Spain
Athens, Greece F F V Vincent University of Bath, UK
I V Stangeeva St Petersburg University, Russia S Walker Imperial College, UK
J Stasiek Technical University of Gdansk, G Walters University of Exeter, UK
Poland B Weiss University of Vienna, Austria
B Sundn Lund University, Sweden H Westphal University of Magdeburg,
G E Swaters University of Alberta, Canada Germany
S Syngellakis Wessex Institute of Technology, J R Whiteman Brunel University, UK
UK T W Wu University of Kentucky, USA
J Szmyd University of Mining and Metallurgy, Z-Y Yan Peking University, China
Poland S Yanniotis Agricultural University of Athens,
S T Tadano Hokkaido University, Japan Greece
H Takemiya Okayama University, Japan A Yeh University of Hong Kong, China
I Takewaki Kyoto University, Japan B W Yeigh SUNY Institute of Technology, USA
C-L Tan Carleton University, Canada J Yoon Old Dominion University, USA
E Taniguchi Kyoto University, Japan K Yoshizato Hiroshima University, Japan
T X Yu Hong Kong University of Science & G Zharkova Institute of Theoretical and
Technology, Hong Kong Applied Mechanics, Russia
M Zador Technical University of Budapest, N Zhong Maebashi Institute of Technology,
Hungary Japan
K Zakrzewski Politechnika Lodzka, Poland H G Zimmermann Siemens AG, Germany
M Zamir University of Western Ontario, Canada R Zainal Abidin Infrastructure University Kuala
G Zappal CNR-IAMC, Italy Lumpur(IUKL), Malaysia
R Zarnic University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Building Information Modelling (BIM)
in
Design, Construction and Operations
Editors
L. Mahdjoubi
C.A. Brebbia
R. Laing
Editors:
L. Mahdjoubi
C.A. Brebbia
R. Laing
Published by
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A Catalogue record for this book is available

from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-84564-914-2
eISBN: 978-1-84564-915-9
ISSN: (print) 1746-4498
ISSN: (on-line) 1743-3509
The texts of the papers in this volume were set individually by the authors
or under their supervision. Only minor corrections to the text may have been
carried out by the publisher.
No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher, the Editors and Authors for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the
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by the Editors or Authors of the material contained in its publications.
WIT Press 2015

Printed in Great Britain by Lightning Source, UK.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.
Preface
This book contains peer-reviewed papers presented at the 1st International

Conference on Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Design Construction
and Operations, held at the University of the West of England (UWE), Bristol;
organised by that Institution and the Wessex Institute of Technology (WIT).
The Conference was chaired by Professor Lamine Mahdjoubi of the University

of the West of England; Professor Carlos A. Brebbia of the Wessex Institute and
Professor Richard Laing from Robert Gordon University.
This conference is concerned with Building Information Modelling (BIM) as a

catalyst for change in the twenty-first century. BIM is essentially value creating
collaboration throughout the entire life-cycle of an asset, underpinned by the
creation, collation and exchange of shared 3D models and intelligent, structured
data attached to them. BIM has far-reaching consequences on both building
procurement and infrastructure. This recent emergence constitutes one of the most
exciting developments in the field of the Built Environment. These advances have
offered project teams multi-sensory collaborative tools and opportunities for new
communication structures.
The modern built environment disciplines have been transformed through the
development of new and innovative tools and techniques. These have fundamentally
altered the manner in which the supply chain operates the processes through which
designs are evolved, and the relationships between conceptual, detail, construction
and life cycle stages.
The Conference fulfilled the vital task of bringing together experts from industry,
practice and academia to debate topics, develop innovative solutions and predict
future trends. The papers contained in this Volume reflect this as well as the
importance of interdisciplinary and collaborative practices. These papers are
available to the international community through the eLibrary of Wessex Institute
(www.witpress.com/elibrary) as well as this book, which is being distributed
internationally in paper and electronic formats.
The Editors would like to express their appreciation to UWE for allowing the
organisers the use of their facilities, as well as to all the authors for their excellent
contributions. They are particularly indebted to the members of the International
Scientific Advisory Committee and other colleagues who have acted as reviewers,
ensuring in this manner the quality of this volume.
The Editors
Bristol, 2015
Contents
Section 1: BIM in design coordination
3D digital fabrication and erection technologies for

prefabricated bridges
S. Lee, S. Park, N. S. Dang & C. Shim................................................................. 3
Using BIM to facilitate iterative design

M. H. Sakikhales & S. Stravoravdis..................................................................... 9
Effects of the differences between virtual and physical perception

of space on Building Information Modelling
N. Saleeb ............................................................................................................ 21
Using free tools to support the BIM coordination process into SMEs
V. Muoz & Y. Arayici ....................................................................................... 33
Section 2: BIM in construction operations
Using BIM to automate construction site activities

H. S. Omar & M. F. Dulaimi ............................................................................. 45
Building Information Modelling (BIM):

the impact of project attributes towards clients demand
in BIM-based project
N. A. H. Hadzaman, R. Takim & A. H. Nawawi ................................................ 59
Supplier BIM competence assessments within the cloud:

a proposed Fuzzy-TOPSIS approach
A.-M. Mahamadu, L. Mahdjoubi & C. A. Booth ................................................ 71
Section 3: BIM and life cycle project management
3D scene capture: a comprehensive review of techniques and

tools for efficient Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Emergency
Preparedness (EP) applications
F. Fadli, H. Barki, P. Boguslawski & L. Mahdjoubi ......................................... 85
Using BIM to follow up milestones in a project plan during

the design phase
. Mejlnder-Larsen......................................................................................... 97
The use of building information modelling (BIM) in managing

knowledge in construction project delivery: a conceptual model
T. Bouazza, C. E. Udeaja & D. Greenwood .................................................... 107
Best practices for BIM Execution Plan development for a

PublicPrivate Partnership Design-Build-Finance-Operate-Maintain
project
J. J. McArthur & X. Sun .................................................................................. 119
Section 4: BIM and collaborative working and practices
BIM: postgraduate multidisciplinary collaborative education

M. Mathews ..................................................................................................... 133
Launching the innovative BIM module for the architecture and

built environment programme in China
L. Tang, R. Jin & K. Fang ............................................................................... 145
Involvement matters: BIM implementation at project level

in the AEC industry
K. Brthen & A. Moum .................................................................................... 157
An examination of clients and project teams developing information

requirements for the Asset Information Model (AIM)
D. Navendren, L. Mahdjoubi, M. Shelbourn & J. Mason ................................ 169
A BIM-based supply chain model for AEC

E. Papadonikolaki, R. Vrijhoef & J. W. F. Wamelink ...................................... 181
Communication framework to support more effective onsite

construction monitoring
R. Y. Shrahily, B. Medjdoub, M. Kashyap & M. L. Chalal .............................. 195
Making collaboration work: application of a Conceptual Design

Stages Protocol for pre-BIM stages
M. Leon, R. Laing, J. Malins & H. Salman...................................................... 205
Analysis of collaborative design and decision making through
argumentation applied for pre-BIM stages
M. Leon & A. Toniolo ...................................................................................... 217
Streamlining Building Information Model creation using Agile

project management
S. Suresh Kumar & J. J. McArthur .................................................................. 229
BIM-GIS Community of Practice

P. A. Corcoran, D. A. Bruce, A. Elmualim, D. Fong, T. McGinley
& B. Stephens .................................................................................................. 241
Managing expectations of BIM product quality: a lemon market

theory view
C. Merschbrock & C. Nordahl-Rolfsen ........................................................... 253
BIM methodology as an integrated approach to heritage

conservation management
A. L. C. Ciribini, S. Mastrolembo Ventura & M. Paneroni ............................. 265
Section 5: BIM-facilities management integration
Scan to BIM: the development of a clear workflow for the

incorporation of point clouds within a BIM environment
R. Laing, M. Leon, J. Isaacs & D. Georgiev.................................................... 279
3DIR: three-dimensional information retrieval from 3D building

information modelling environments
P. Demian, K. Ruikar & A. Morris .................................................................. 291
Section 6: Interoperability issues and BIM
BIM for Infrastructure: integrating spatial and model data for more
efficient contextual planning, design, construction and operation
M. Suchocki ..................................................................................................... 305
Building Information Modelling: a study into the suitability of

BIM within projects with construction values of less than 5M
R. Watt ............................................................................................................. 317
Overcoming challenges in BIM and gaming integration:

the case of a hospital project
A. Figueres-Munoz & C. Merschbrock ............................................................ 329
Link between BIM and energy simulation

M. Senave & S. Boeykens ................................................................................ 341
Section 7: BIM-GIS integration
A light weight algorithm for large-scale BIM data for visualization

on a web-based GIS platform
J. E. Kim, C. H. Hong & S. D. Son .................................................................. 355
BIM models generation from 2D CAD drawings and 3D scans:

an analysis of challenges and opportunities for AEC practitioners
H. Barki, F. Fadli, A. Shaat, P. Boguslawski & L. Mahdjoubi ........................ 369
BIM-GIS modelling in support of emergency response applications

P. Boguslawski, L. Mahdjoubi, V. Zverovich, F. Fadli & H. Barki ................. 381
Section 8: BIM in building operation and maintenance
Building information model implementation for existing buildings

for facilities management: a framework and two case studies
G. Carbonari, S. Stravoravdis & C. Gausden ................................................. 395
Digital models applied to the analysis, intervention and management

of architectural heritage
R. Angulo Fornos ............................................................................................. 407
Section 9: BIM and automation in construction
Public BIM-based model checking solutions: lessons learned from

Singapore and Norway
E. Hjelseth ....................................................................................................... 421
A novel approach to 2D drawings-based reconstruction of

3D building digital models
L. Gimenez, S. Robert, F. Suard & K. Zreik .................................................... 437
Implementation of BIM into cold-formed steel residential buildings

M. Abu-Hamd .................................................................................................. 449
Section 10: BIM standards
A Web-based Decision Support System (DSS) to assist Small

and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) to broker risks and
rewards for BIM adoption
T. T. Lam, L. Mahdjoubi & J. Mason .............................................................. 463
The design and development of a classification system for BIM

J. E. Gelder ...................................................................................................... 477
Investigation into the current stage of BIM application in
Chinas AEC industries
R. Jin, L. Tang & K. Fang ............................................................................... 493
Identification and analysis of UK and US BIM standards to

aid collaboration
G. Lea, A. Ganah, J. Goulding & N. Ainsworth .............................................. 505
Section 11: BIM and sustainability
Investigating Green BIM in a Norwegian construction project:

an institutional theory perspective
A. K. Lassen & C. Merschbrock ...................................................................... 519
Developing a BIM-based process-driven decision-making

framework for sustainable building envelope design in the tropics
Y.-W. Lim, F. Shahsavari, N. Fazlenawati, M. N. Azli,
D. R. Ossen & M. H. Ahmad............................................................................ 531
Investigation into informational compatibility of Building

Information Modelling and Building Performance Analysis
software solutions
S. Hyun, L. Marjanovic-Halburd & R. Raslan................................................. 543
The role of BIM in tackling obsolescence, climate change,

and sustainability
T. E. Butt, T. J. Francis, D. Greenwood, K. G. Jones
& A. M. Nasir .................................................................................................. 555
Bio-inspired design material: a multipurpose case study

T. Alqalami, V. Ahmed & M. Ormerod ............................................................ 567
Section 12: BIM and cultural heritage
From BIM to FEM: the analysis of an historical masonry building

P. Crespi, A. Franchi, P. Ronca, N. Giordano, M. Scamardo,
G. Gusmeroli & G. Schiantarelli ..................................................................... 581
BIM and cultural heritage: compatibility tests in an

archaeological site
C. Achille, N. Lombardini & C. Tommasi........................................................ 593
Author index .................................................................................................. 605

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Section 1
BIM in design
coordination
Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Design, Construction and Operations 3
3D digital fabrication and erection

technologies for prefabricated bridges
S. Lee, S. Park, N. S. Dang & C. Shim
Department of Civil Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Korea
Abstract
Creative design of bridge structures requires new approaches for digital fabrication
and accurate geometry control during construction. This paper deals with
prefabricated bridge piers which have unique creative shapes. 3D design models
were created to realize irregular column shapes. Economic formwork for the
precast column segments was provided by 3D printing technology. Panelized
formworks were created from the 3D design models and were attached to common
steel formworks. During fabrication of precast segments, key values of geometry
were controlled by laser scanning. The design models were revised by the scanned
data. Before assembly of the segments in construction site, instructions for
geometry control were provided to ensure final target geometry of the bridge piers.
Information delivery from design to maintenance can be achieved by 3D
information models and new format of drawings including QR codes and 3D
models.
Keywords: digital fabrication, geometry control, prefabricated bridge pier, 3D
design model, 3D printing.
1 Introduction
In construction industry, 3D engineering is a new paradigm to improve creativity
and productivity. IT-tools for construction projects emerge by combining 3D CAD
models and shared information with metadata, scheduling and cost analysis.
Building information modelling (BIM) showed the potential for engineers to
enhance current practices in terms of cost and time. Digital models of structures
for multiple purposes through the entire life cycle provide significant efficiency in
design, construction and management [1]. 3D scanning and 3D printing
WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 149, 2015 WIT Press
www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3509 (on-line)
doi:10.2495/BIM150011
4 Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Design, Construction and Operations
technologies have been fast adopting in 3D CAD based integrated design and
fabrication processes [2].
Design of a bridge needs systematic approach requiring complex knowledge
and collaboration between engineers from different disciplines. Life-cycle
management of bridge structures from design to maintenance needs information
feedback between participants who involve in the bridge project. Digital models
of the bridge provide common data for information delivery. Applications of BIM
to bridge practices have been reported in design, fabrication and construction [3
6]. Current BIM practices for bridges have narrow scopes for specific phase of the
project such as digital mock-up, interference check, simulation, analysis and
estimation.
3D engineering combined with prefabrication and preconstruction significantly
improves efficiency of construction industry in terms of cost and time. For precast
concrete structures, there were important efforts in parametric modelling [7] and
model view definition [8]. Standard precast members are commonly used in bridge
construction. Therefore, 3D parametric modelling can enhance current practices
by providing information exchange between designers, fabricators, contractors
and owners.
In this paper, a process of design, fabrication, construction, and maintenance
of precast pier was proposed by utilizing 3D model and printing technologies.
Well organized parametric modelling provides efficient communication between
participants in different construction stages.
Figure 1: Prefabricated bridge pier details and 3D model [2].
2 Parametric modelling of precast columns

2.1 Model authoring
Model authoring is a time-consuming work when there is a decorative irregular

design. As illustrated in Figure 2, a flowchart for parametric modelling of a precast
bridge pier was proposed. Precast models are divided into two parts including
main design parameters and their properties. Information requirements for the
parametric modelling were defined, and the proposed algorithm built the concrete
objects and reinforcement objects. Concrete parts have several blocks with
decorative design shapes and are assembled by defined assembly coordinate. A
final design model is authored by combining the two parts using the predefined
coordinates.
Figure 2: Test specimen details.
Figure 3 shows the realized example of the parametric model using an

algorithmic modelling tool, grasshopper. The precast pier has a footing, precast
column segments, and a pier cap. Reinforcements, prestressing tendons and their
ducts are included in the model. Each part has its own design parameters, which
have lower and upper bound from experiences. Decorative parts of the precast
column segments were created from images or patterns. Various creative design
can be utilized in the design. Irregular shape of the formwork was fabricated by
3D printing and panelizing inside of a common metal formwork.
3 Geometry control
In the process of assembly of precast concrete columns, it is necessary to use
match-casting method in common practices. In this research, a new quality control
process was suggested. Formworks of the segments and fabricated segments were
Figure 3: Parametric modelling of a designed pier.
scanned by a laser scanning device. Control geometry including member

dimensions and centre coordinates of the duct holes was defined in the model
authoring stage as illustrated in Figure 4. Scanned point cloud data was used to
evaluate geometry error. Target geometry of the bridge pier is determined in the
design stage, and the error is considered in the work order for assembly. An
adjustment devices is utilized to compensate the error by changing the gap
between segments.
4 Digital information delivery

One source multi-use strategy is a useful for digital fabrication and assembly.
During the model authoring, design parameters were defined to generate 3D
models. These input data are utilized to visualize the 3D model and its properties
in mobile devices as shown in Figure 5. Only essential information should be
included in the parameter data. Precast members include these digital information
by attaching QR codes. Digital drawings including a 3D model was also used for
better communication. Bridge owners can utilize the information for inspection
and management.
Figure 4: Geometry control of a precast segment.
Figure 5: Visualized model and its information.
5 Conclusions
Modular structures designed by 3D modelling techniques were proposed.
Parametric model authoring provides much better opportunity for engineers to
reuse the data for fabrication, construction and maintenance. Creative design for
infrastructures can be realized without increasing much cost. From this research,
a new approach of digital manufacturing of precast members was successfully
tested using digital devices including 3D printers, laser scanners, and mobiles.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by a grant (13SCIPA01) from Smart Civil
Infrastructure Research Program funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport (MOLIT) of Korea government and Korea Agency for Infrastructure
Technology Advancement (KAIA).
References
[1] Arun M. Shirole, Timothy J. Riordan, Stuart S. Chen, Qiang Gao, Hanjin Hu
and Jay A. Puckett, BrIM for project delivery and the life-cycle : state of the
art, Bridge Structures, Taylor & Francis, 5(4), pp. 173-187, 2009.
[2] Shim, CS, Park SJ, Song HH and Lee SY, 3D Knowledge Embedded
Engineering on Prefabricated Bridge Substructures, Istanbul Bridge
Conference, August 11, 2014.
[3] Lee KM, Lee YB, Shim CS, Park KL. Bridge information models for
construction of a concrete box-girder bridge, Structure and Infrastructure
Engineering, 8(7), pp. 687-703, 2012.
[4] Shim CS, Lee KM, Kang LS, Hwang J and Kim YH. Three-Dimensional
Information Model-based Bridge Engineering in Korea, Structural
Engineering International, 22(1), pp. 8-13, 2012.
[5] Shim CS, Yun NR, Song HH, Application of 3D Bridge Information
Modeling to Design and Construction of Bridges, Procedia Engineering, 14,
pp. 95-99, 2011.
[6] Kim DW, Chung DK, Shim CS. Development of 3D Parametric Models for
Modular Bridge Substructures, Journal of Korea Institute of Building
Information Modeling, 2(2), pp. 37-45, 2012.
[7] Sacks R, Eastman CM, Lee G, Orndorff D. A target benchmark of the impact
of three-dimensional parametric modeling in precast construction, PCI
Journal, 50(4), pp. 126-139, 2005.
[8] Eastman C, Sacks R, Panushev I, Venugopal M, Aram V. Precast concrete
BIM standard documents: Model view definitions for precast concrete.
Volume 1, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Report. 2010.
Using BIM to facilitate iterative design

M. H. Sakikhales & S. Stravoravdis
Faculty of Architecture, Computing and Humanities,
Greenwich University, UK
Abstract
Architecture design practitioners typically generate and assess few design
alternatives at the early stages of a project, before converging on a final design.
Exploring design alternatives and understanding their impact on building energy
performance leads to better performing building solutions. Therefore, any
automatic process that gives the designer options to explore more alternatives and
make decisions based on building performance would be of great benefit. If we
look at the aerospace and automotive industries, they have developed
multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) methods, which are resulting in a
significant reduction in the design cycle time and thus promoting more design
iterations which then leads to improved product performance. MDO methods have
been successfully applied in these industries, but their application to architecture
practice has been comparatively modest. With the advent of BIM, however, it is
now easier to facilitate the adoption of practices from other industries. This paper
compares MDO processes in the Architecture, Aerospace and Automotive
industries based upon data gathered on recent projects in each industry. It then
reviews how iterative design and MDO process formalizes problem solving and
coordination among groups working on the design of complex engineering
systems. Finally, this paper investigates the feasibility of using BIM to facilitate
an iterative design and MDO process which can result in the improvement in the
number of design iterations of a building project.
Keywords: BIM, iterative design, early-stage design, multi-disciplinary
optimization.
1 Introduction
Achieving sustainability targets for a building is highly depended on the early
stage design phase when important decisions are made [1]. However, traditional
doi:10.2495/BIM150021
architectural practices do not provide enough opportunities for analysis and further
design exploration at the early stage design to achieve improved performance. In
traditional design, 2D drawings were generated by architects first and then, a range
of experts, including energy consultants participated and contributed to the project
by generating their own analysis based on the architects design. As the design
evolved, these experts had to update their analysis with the ever changing design.
Therefore, this process was time consuming and sometimes these experts could
not respond to the design changes within the project timeline. Moreover, as this
process is time, labour and cost intensive, it is typically done at the design
development stage and the finalised design, which does not allow the design team
to assess many of the design options generated at an earlier stage.
This lack of integration of relevant disciplines in the design process can lead to
inefficient performance testing. However, other industries such as aerospace and
automotive have developed multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO)
methods, which are resulting in a significant reduction in the design cycle time.
This, promotes more design iterations which then leads to improved product
performance. MDO methods have been successfully applied in these industries,
but their application to architecture practice has been comparatively modest.
However, with the advent of BIM as a data rich, object-oriented, intelligent and
parametric digital representation of a building in the AEC industry in recent years,
it is now easier to facilitate the adoption of practices from other industries, because
Building Information Modeling (BIM) allows for multi-disciplinary information
to be overlaid in one model [1] and it creates the opportunity for sustainability
analysis to be performed at the early stage design [2].
The main objective of this research is to investigate the feasibility of using BIM
to facilitate an iterative design and MDO process which can result in the
improvement in the number of design iterations of a building project. This paper
compares design and optimization processes in the architecture, aerospace and
automotive industries. It then reviews how iterative design and MDO can be
adopted in the building industry and how BIM can facilitate them.
2 The importance of design on building performance

Building performance is the results of numerous factors such as building mass,
building orientation, surface area-to-volume ratio, thermal insulation, natural
lighting, natural ventilation, window areas and shading devices [3]. These aspects
can greatly decrease building energy requirements and improve occupant comfort
by collecting desirable forms of energy and protecting from undesirable ones [4].
For instance, in terms of using solar energy for heating, a well-designed building
has the ability to collect solar energy through appropriate orientation, store energy
in thermal mass and naturally distribute the stored solar energy back to the living
space [5]. According to Jansson et al. [4] an optimized building orientation, shape,
insulation and ventilation can reduce the heat consumption of a building up to
80%. However, in order to achieve the highest level of performance, these aspects
should be considered at the early stages of design [3]. It is also crucial to consider
all possible options, as some of them potentially may contain better performing
building solutions than anything previously considered. Conversely, architects and

engineers often precede the design process with little or no information about the
performance of the selected design alternative in comparison with other potential
options.
3 The importance of iterative design

Iteration is defined as a process of repeating a set of steps until a desirable result
is achieved [6] and any design process is by nature iterative [7]. In order to
improve the specification of a product, it is crucial to generate as many design
concepts as possible at the earliest stages [8] and to evaluate them and
prepare feedback [9]. However, according to Pugh [8], there is the temptation to
cut and run and move towards final design development in engineering projects.
Therefore, often, engineers and consultants instead of exploring and evaluating
many alternatives, only analyse a chosen design option, which this could result in
poor product performance.
3.1 Design in engineering projects
Ulrich and Eppinger [9] stated that the generic design development process in
engineering projects consists of six phases as illustrated in Table 1. Other
researchers, in general, also indicated the same phases in the design process, but
with alternative name in some cases [10]. This process can be characterized as an
iterative process, especially between phase 1 and phase 3. This iterative process is
crucial for generating value in design processes [10], because generating many
alternatives increases the likelihood of identifying the best option [11]. Although
the process of design refinement can be complicated and time-consuming [10],
iteration results in detailed and well- tested specification which could proceed into
further development [6]. It can therefore be argued that more building design
iterations is a way towards better performing buildings.
Table 1: Generic development process, adopted from [9].
3.2 Design in architecture and the building industry
The RIBA Plan of Work is the most well-known model of building design and
construction process. Table 2 shows a summary of this workflow. In this process,
architects start the design process by defining their performance goal. Then, they
generate some conceptual design alternative to meet these goals, but these
alternatives are only considered in terms of aesthetics or finance and they rarely
consider other criteria such as energy performance. Any performance
analysis,typically starts after the developed design stage. This descriptive model
is a point to point process, where each stage is separated from the previous one.
Each stage starts when the previous one is completed and therefore cannot
represent iterative processes [13]. As a result, any design iterations may identify
as rework and may have the potential to increase the costs and time of the project
[14].
Table 2: RIBA plan of work [12].
Moreover, conventional project management techniques such as CPM and

PERT which are very common in construction practices do not have the ability to
represent feedback and iteration in the projects, mostly, because they only allow
one-way progression in the activity process [13]. In an interview with 15
international building design practitioners, this process was found to be rigid and
inflexible [14]. Implanting this stage to stage workflow increases the chance of
discarding design alternatives at the early stage before their capacities are truly
explored.
4 Issues in using performance analysis at the early

stage design
There are several major challenges that need to be addressed in order to increase
generating and analysing more design alternatives at the early stage design which
are explained in the following sections.
4.1 Interoperability
One major challenge in integrating performance analysis at the early stage design
is the interoperability between design tools and analysis tools [15]. Practitioners,
instead of spending time on interpreting results and making decision, appear to be

spending a significant amount of time on coordinating existing information. This
coordinating process mostly consists of managing design information, including
manual or semi-manual transcription and recoding of already existing information,
manually integrating and representing this information and coordinating their
solutions [16]. With the advent of BIM though, there is potential for a faster and
more accurate data management, although many simulation tools currently only
utilise BIM to import 3D geometry from a project.
4.2 Lack of time
Performance analysis is a time consuming process. An initial survey of 50 design

professionals (5 architects, 45 multidisciplinary engineers) working at Ove Arup
and Partners showed that architects and engineers spent over one month to
generate and analyse a design alternative. So, in the conceptual design phase, they
completed less than three iterations [16]. One reason that causes this issue is that
architects and engineers spend 54% of their time on managing design information
[16].
4.3 Lack of feedback
Decision making on design options needs a good communication to ensure that

the needed information is available. The results of performance analysis have to
feed back into design iteration fast enough to remain relevant for the current
iteration [15]. However, many information exchanges can result to an increase in
the duration of the design process, greater costs and wastage of resources which
could affect the quality of the design [17]. Another problem is that after
information is produced, little consideration is given as to how to represent them
to facilitate multidisciplinary analysis [16].
These limitations prevent a more complete and systematic exploration of the
design space based on multidisciplinary performance analysis. Other industries,
such as aerospace have faced similar design challenges and in order to overcome
these challenges, they have developed new approaches.
5 Experiences from other industries

Integration between vehicle components to achieve a certain level of performance
is crucial in many industries such as aerospace and automotive. These industries
consist of relatively large organizations with generally higher profits than the
building design industry, which allows them to afford to invest in process
engineering to develop processes and technologies that can achieve their
requirements [13].
5.1 Aerospace industry
In 1998, Boeing began a project to design a hypersonic vehicle with a mission to

deliver a payload into the upper stratosphere. Integration between the different
components and the external geometry was crucial to achieve the expected
performance level. However, after six years of work with a similar workflow in
the building industry, the design team could not prepare a design that could meet
all requirements. Therefore, in 2002, Boeing adopted a new methodology to
support multidisciplinary analysis leading to improved product performance [16].
This process had three steps: (1) the design team produces a parametric vehicle
topology and selects the range of parameters to be varied. (2) Each discipline
analyses this model and produces their results. (3) A Design Explorer controls
parameter configurations using statistical methods to explore the entire design
space. Finally, an optimizer uses the performance feedback obtained to find the
best design option [16]. Using this method resulted in a significant increase in the
number of design iterations, as shown in Table 3, where the new method is
compared to the legacy design method in a given twelve weeks period. With the
previous method, the design team analysed 116 engine inlet flow paths and 12
different vehicle configurations over the course of eight years, while using the
MDO process, the design team successfully analysed 3900 engine inlet flow paths
and 98 different vehicle configurations in six days [15]. This dramatic change
resulted in the significantly improved vehicle configuration.
Table 3: Comparison of traditional and MDO process for the design of a

hypersonic vehicle [16].
5.2 Automotive industry
In a recent research project, Mazda Motor Corporation in Japan developed a new

MDO process for structural analysis of the Mazda CX-5 vehicle. During this
process, a variety of computer-aided engineering (CAE) software such as Abaqus,
LS-DYNA and Nastran were used for modelling. Then, a complex analysis system
was produced to optimize vehicle body behaviour in each of the pre-defined
targets and then to identify the final design alternative that can achieve all these
targets together at the lightest possible weight. Next, a variety of Design of

Experiments (DOE) methods and approximation models were employed and then,
a comparison between the different behaviours was conducted manually which
took a great deal of time. After that, the design team decided to turn to the process
automation design exploration. Using this process and setting up the MDO within
an automated workflow, resulted in significant reduction in the analysis setup and
runtime. As a result, a 3.4% reduction in weight over the previous design of the
CX-5 was achieved which was a great achievement due to its significant effects
on fuel consumption. By including an MDO step within the structure development
process, more options can be analysed in a shorter period of time. In order to
complete a MDO, a higher computational resource needs to be allocated, but the
potential mass savings justify the effort [19].
There are fundamental differences between these industries and architectural
practice, thus limiting the adoption of practices from one to the other. However,
with the advancement in new technologies in the building industry such as 3D
printing and robotics, a lot of which have been used already by the aerospace and
automotive industries, there is a potential to adopt more methods and practices
from other industries. For instance, the integration of BIM and new performance
analysis methods could allow architects and engineers to overcome a lot of these
limitations and to more rapidly generate design iterations and analyse them at the
early stage design.
6 How BIM can facilitate iterative design

Although there is a lot of research on BIM technology and using BIM in
collaborative design, there is comparatively less research on the integration of
BIM and building performance [20]. However, BIM has the potential to facilitate
energy performance analysis and has introduced solutions to overcome current
barriers. Moreover, BIM allows other design processes such as parametric
modelling to integrate in the design process which can facilitate the iterative
design process.
6.1 Overcoming barriers
Various methods have been proposed to overcome data interoperability obstacles

between different disciplines or software. (1) A closed system of software which
are compatible to each other and unified through an exclusive data format. (2) A
loose system of different tools and software which can share their data through a
standardised data format [15]. These approaches can also be named as Closed BIM
and Open BIM. File formats such as the IFC and gbXML have been developed to
facilitate data exchange processes without any need to remodel the same project
[20] which could result in significant time savings.
In addition, some BIM platforms have their own compatible performance
analysis tools such as GBS for Revit, EcoDesigner for ArchiCAD and AECOsim
for Bentley BIM, which improves on the data exchange problem. Other analysis
software have also developed plug-ins for BIM platforms. For instance, IES has a
plug in for Revit which can facilitate data exchange between the two software.
Another example is Sefaira, which can run directly within Revit and provides
analysis with no need to exchange file format.
Feedback from performance analysis produces new information which is
critical for the design teams as it could lead them to refine the design before
proceeding [9]. This feedback process needs an effective collaboration and
communication and BIM can play a major role in this process. One way to
accelerate feedback of analysis results is using cloud based platforms. Using cloud
based communication platforms is important due to the geographic distribution of
construction project teams [15]. There are many online collaboration platforms
(OCP) that can facilitate collaboration and communication between various
disciplines.
6.2 BIM and iterative design
With the advent of parametric modelling, working in a linear fashion is no longer

necessary because the designers can modify the model at any time during the
design process and the results would be updated automatically. Moreover, current
parametric design tools such as Grasshopper provide the ability to rapidly generate
design iterations through the use of parameters and algorithms. Although research
on the potential of integrating BIM, building performance optimization and
parametric modelling is still ongoing, some research has already been carried out.
Welle et al. [21] have developed a thermal optimization methodology called
Thermal Opt which enables a larger number of design iterations to be analysed
at the early stage design. Rahmani Asl et al. [22] have created a prototypical
system interface between BIM and energy simulation tools which can help
architects to develop BIM-based parametric models and simulation. Lin and Gerbe
have used BIM models and generative algorithms to develop a MDO framework
to use energy performance as feedback for architects at the early stage design [22].
In addition, commercial developers have also developed and introduced new plug
in software for BIM platforms such as Dynamo and Generative Components (GC)
that enable researchers to expand their investigation. Rahmani Asl et al. [23]
developed a prototype using Dynamo, Revit and GBS to run parametric
simulations for a sample project. A multi objective optimization algorithm is used
to optimize multiple conflicting objectives and approach to a set of optimal
solutions and the system was run for 1000 times, which took around 3 hours
overall to achieve the optimal design option [23]. Mueller [24] developed a
prototype with the set of Bentley software including GC, STAAD and DARWIN.
The system used the Energy Plus engine for energy analysis and computed the
various simulations and generated results which then transferred to the DARWIN
optimization framework which includes a prototype implementation of a multi-
objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) for further processing and finding of the
optimal alternative [24].
7 Discussion and conclusion

The integration of BIM and parametric modelling can considerably advance the
optimization of building energy [22] and can help designers to generate a large
number of design solutions. Performance analysis can be automated with the help
of generative algorithms and MDO methods. Taking to account aerospace and
automotive industries experience and recent architecture and building research, it
can be concluded that this system needs four important elements: (1) Parametric
geometry modelling, (2) Integrated platform, (3) Multi-disciplinary optimizer and
(4) Genetic algorithm. The relationship between these elements is showed in
Figure 1. It is important to have a parametric model from the beginning, as it
enables the genetic algorithm to explore design alternatives, while facilitating
feedback and results to instantly show on the model. An integrated platform helps
to evaluate many design options in a short time. Finally and optimizer or decision
making system is required in order to quantify the system in terms of objectives
and constraints. It is important to identify parameters and constraints and
understand how they behave in the model and how they can impact on the projects
objective. However, for better interoperability and less coding errors, it is better
and simpler to use compatible software. This could be a group of software from
the same developer or a group of software that already have been using a
compatible code.
Figure 1: Relationship between platforms in BIM base iterative design.
Nevertheless, establishing this system in the building industry is not easy, as

other industries have passed the trial and error phase and their practitioners have
become familiar with this system and its required skills. Although many architects
are familiar with these skills, they are still complicated and sophisticated for
practitioners and a lot of time and training is needed to become a part of usual
architectural modelling practice. Moreover, the building industry does not have
the ability to produce and analyse the prototype and feed the information back to
the detailed design stage. Therefore, even with all the new technologies it is
difficult to reach the level of performance that other industries can achieve. In
addition, the length of the design process is another important difference in these
industries. The average design time in the aerospace industry is 34.5 years and in
automotive industry is around 3.5 years [9], while a typical family house could be
designed, built and introduced to the market in less than a year. So, most of the
construction firms cannot invest a great deal of time on the design phase and their
projects have to be designed in a few months. Moreover, almost all building
projects in the UK have to gain planning permission from their local authorities.
Therefore, it is preferred not to spend so much at the design phase without having
secured planning consent.
Another major challenge of adopting this process is to define the parameters.
Other industries already have spent a lot of time and money to understand relevant
parameters and how to control them in a multi-disciplinary process. For an
organisation in the building industry, it will take a significant amount of time to
determine suitable parameters and constraints and identify their behaviour to
produce suitable design alternatives.
In order to adopt this new approach, the role of architects and engineers needs
to change. Architects are no longer just designers who can generate great ideas.
They have to know more and more about the role of sustainable design factors and
they have to think, design and program in a parametric way. On the other hand,
engineers have to change their role from someone who can manipulate data and
perform calculations, to someone who can identify important parameters in
different disciplines and determine rules between them.
8 Future work
This work is a part of an ongoing PhD research project on the integration of BIM
and building performance. Research is ongoing in order to gain a clearer insight
on using MDO at the early stage design and how BIM can facilitate this process.
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Effects of the differences between virtual

and physical perception of space on
Building Information Modelling
N. Saleeb
Design Engineering and Mathematics Department,
Middlesex University, UK
Abstract
Visualising 3D models of buildings is essential in assisting clients decision-
making process to accept or change design parameters/criteria. However, to
achieve effectiveness, 3D virtual representations of built spaces must be perceived
as identical to their physical counterpart to be built/refurbished, which is the
current assumption by architects and engineers creating 3D space-models and
discussing design decisions with clients during design coordination stages of
Building Information Modelling (BIM) projects. This research provides contrary
evidence to this assumption; evidence that human perception of 3D space
sizes/dimensions in virtual models is different from perception of physical spaces
with the same dimensions. This was achieved by conducting experiments where
diversified participants were asked to evaluate sizes of physical rooms and their
equivalent 3D virtual representations; results were then compared. Size evaluation
was performed using tangible visual cues for assessment, not generic metric
scales, hence eliminating errors due to individual discrepancies in human
appreciation of metrics. This paper discusses the experiments conducted in 2
phases: 1) assessing physical spaces, and 2) assessing 3rd person view of 3D
virtual spaces (visualisation on screen). After analysing differences between
perceived widths, depths and heights recorded in both phases, results showed
evidence that humans perceive each virtual dimension differently from its physical
counterpart, and furthermore with varying percentages. This indicates that current
3D-modelling BIM authoring software might not be depicting true representations/
visualisations of spaces to be built; hence possibly causing clients to issue wrong
decisions based on incorrectly perceived space dimensions during the design
coordination process.
doi:10.2495/BIM150031
Keywords: space perception, physical spaces, 3D virtual spaces, 3D model,

architectural design, building information modelling, visual cues, sketch up
model, virtual reality, visualisation.
1 Introduction
There are several forms of digital space representation used by designers and
architects in the construction industry to represent to clients prospective buildings,
and try to depict reality faithfully. These representation techniques follow
technological advancement. First, CAD tools (Computer Aided Design) provided
2D representations, from which, 3D representations of the objects could be derived
using geometric models. In parallel, GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
emerged allowing non-graphical attributes to be linked to geometric representation
through grids or matrices. Currently, visualisation is depicted using 3D graphical
Building Information Models (BIMs), which can be interlinked together or with
GIS, with rich non-graphical information attached inside them [1]. The
visualisation can either be a solitary model or inside a virtual environment/world
e.g. Second Life.
Parsons [2] shows that, with these visualisation tools, both quantitative and
qualitative information can be represented about spaces. Quantitative information
expresses spatial relationships among people and objects e.g. length, height, size
etc., in an absolute or numeric manner, while qualitative information provides a
sense of place, e.g. architectural style of building, sounds, urban characteristics
[3]. This research poses the question whether human perception of 3D models
virtual space sizes, represented by this quantitative information, is the same as
human perception of the same space in reality that this information represents.
Usually, 3D building information models and computer simulations of them
are chosen by designers to communicate themselves with their clients showing
space design ideas, functionalities and sizes. However, there is a possibility that
those existing forms of digital visualisation might not portray size and dimensions
of a space truthfully hence giving the client a false perception of what the space
would actually look like once built. This might result in wrong decisions at design
phase based on incorrect information, which would only be realised after
construction is complete, rendering it impossible or expensive to change, causing
both usability and financial losses. Considering this, methods to visualise space
would have to be enhanced or new ones created to depict reality accurately. This
also applies to 3D simulations, which allow touring inside or around spaces in a
3D virtual environment to help better perception of them. This permits the user to
become integrated in the space, hence enhancing his perception of it. This can be
done using two methods [4]: 3rd person view (i.e. watching an animation on screen)
where the user can see his avatar moving relative to the space or imagine watching
someone else moving, but does not feel embedded inside it himself; or using 1st
person view (by wearing a virtual reality Head Mounted Display-HMD) where the
user feels immersed inside the environment and completely surrounded by it. As
explained by Salamin et al. [4], while the 3rd person view provides a more global
view of the environment, the 1st person view allows more presence notion. Also
lack of stereo-vision could add trouble evaluating distances, but could be partially
compensated by the 3rd person perspective that increases the field of view. Hence
a second question, which this research poses, is whether there is a difference in
human perception of virtual spaces between 1st and 3rd person views analogous to
real-life space perception. The scope of this paper is limited to comparing the
difference in perception between real-life spaces and 3rd person view of virtual
spaces. The consequent sections will demonstrate what research has been
conducted in this area, the gap being explored, and explain the experiments done
in this research and their results to answer the questions posed here.
2 Background
Few former studies have attempted to compare between human space perception
of a real and a virtual environment, as demonstrated subsequently, sometimes
conducting experiments with static and moving observer or using a tracking and
control subsystems to follow the subject. However, there is scarce evidence to
indicate endeavours to investigate the following aspects proposed by this study,
which are not previously researched. That is to find the percentages of reduction
or increase of perception of each individual space dimension separately between
virtual and physical spaces, to find percentage accuracy of representation of
reality, and hence percentage of adjustment required by 3D-model authoring
software for faithful display of virtual spaces.
Previous work done by Witmer and Kline [5] discussed the difference between
perceived and traversed distances, both inside virtual worlds. For these variables,
two experiments were conducted. The first one used a static observer and the
second one, a moving observer. The difference between these 2 results was
compared to the difference between perceived and traversed estimates made in a
similar real-world environment. However it was not the main goal to make a
comparison between each virtual result and its real-world counterpart. The study
used static distance cues for the perceived distance experiment, in order to
determine the accuracy of stationary observers in estimating distances. The real-
world tests aimed to define participants ability to estimate distances in this
scenario. In general the results suggested underestimating of distance from the
subjects, for both real-world and virtual environment. However, in the physical
world, the errors were smaller probably due to more cues for depth and other
dimensions available, as per the authors theorisation. Unlike their objective, this
current study aims to investigate the percentage of increase or decrease in
perception of dimensions between virtual and physical spaces.
Another endeavour by Witmer and Kline [5] aimed to analyse the influence of
different speeds of movement on participants estimates of traversed distance in a
virtual environment. A questionnaire was completed by participants after they
traversed all the routes. It was found that when participants received compensatory
cues, the estimated distance increased. But when they moved faster, their estimates
were less accurate. The significance of this to the current study is that while the
distances measured were not specific directional dimensions inside spaces,
evidence was given to the importance of compensatory cues for precision of
distance estimation, which was taken into account in the design of this researchs
experiments.
Another study, also looking for the fidelity of a virtual environment versus a
real environment, used a real room and an equivalently modelled virtual room in
an experiment. Participants, ranging in gender and age, 2042 years, explored the
virtual room using a Head Mounted Display (HMD) and answered a questionnaire
for both situations about their perception of the physical and psychological
properties of the room. Participants were asked to measure the room dimensions
in meters and centimetres and also the ratios with each other. Results showed that
subjects perception was quite accurate in the virtual environment when compared
to the actual sizes, except for the height dimension, but no percentage accuracy
was provided [6]. However the majority considered the virtual room as more
spacious and brighter than the real room. Yoon et al. [6] attributed this discrepancy
in their results and with those of Witmer and Kline [5] to size and shape of the
rooms, which was small and almost cubic in the first case and larger elongated
rectangle in the second. Also the navigation movement was restricted which could
have affected perception. As a result, shape ratios were one of the attributes
considered within the current research experiments.
As for using metrics to estimate dimensions, according to Henry and Furness
[7], Very few people feel they can be accurate in expressing distances using a
metric system, such as feet or meters, because metric distances are not
immediately intuitive. This is the reason why for the experiments of the research
at hand, a desk was used as a unit of measurement or guidance for measuring the
dimension of the rooms, and not a metric system. Furthermore, according to
Arthur et al. [8], there is difference between the judgment of absolute and relative
distances in 3D virtual environments.
Another complimentary study by Henry and Furness [7] showed the
underestimating increased as the size of space increased and the underestimates
for dimensions were quite different from the real condition. This gave evidence
for the supposed reasons behind the discrepancy identified between Witmer and
Kline [5], and Yoon et al. [6]. Findings also reaffirmed previous findings that
movement improved perception of space and that the perception of space in
simulation conditions is smaller than in real spaces, however again there were no
percentage comparisons calculated, which is the goal of the current research.
Henry and Furness [7] concluded that small rooms were easy to size up because
the participants could see more of the walls without distortion and their human
scale helped the distances judgment. Hernndez et al. [9] later supported that idea,
The characteristics of our body in metric terms, such as size, eye height, walking
speed, etc. constitute the frame of reference and standard for assessment of
distances, position of objects, etc..
A recent study by Saleeb and Dafoulas [10] conducted a series of experiments
inside Second Life with 84 participants who were asked to partake in short
consecutive e-learning sessions inside 15 selected 3D virtual learning spaces,
inside which they were encouraged to navigate, then asked individually to evaluate
their sizes in terms of number of people they perceive each room can withstand
(using a questionnaire). Results showed that discrepancy increased as the space
sizes increased, which supports findings by Henry and Furness [7]. In another set
of experiments by Saleeb [11], 77 students, diversified in age and gender, were
asked to take an e-learning session inside 3 identically shaped and designed, but
differently sized rooms inside Second Life. Amongst other factors outside the
scope of this paper, students were asked for the optimum space size they enjoyed
that best emulated a real-life classroom. Their vote preferred the room 8 times
bigger than the average classroom in real-life, saying this was the most equivalent
to physical classes; contrarily, the virtual room that was exactly the same size as
an average real-life classroom, was identified as being too small. This adds more
evidence to the fact that virtual dimensions are perceived as smaller than their
counterparts in reality, hence the significance of this research to affirm this and
attempt to find percentage differences between virtual and physical perception of
space dimensions.
A most recent study by Broecker et al. [12] concluded their inability to affirm
that certain depth cues significantly improved depth perception of virtual
geometry. Another research by Chen et al. [13] examined possible differences
between how users physically reach for and locate virtual objects, and that was by
asking 16 students to locate edges of identical physical and virtual boxes in a
CAVE environment. Their results concluded that human performance in virtual
environment was less accurate (greater error) than in the physical environment.
3 Research rationale and description

According to Billger et al. [14], for most computer graphics, the objective is not
producing correct simulations of reality, but visualisations that look good. This
might be acceptable for the gaming industry but not suitable for conveying
depictions of future building spaces accurately to clients in the construction
industry. Hence the objective of the research at hand, is to determine the level of
difference between virtual and real perception of space in an attempt to rectify this
to provide more realistic 3D visualisations of spaces for clients and users. This
section explains the qualitative and quantitative methods/tools that were chosen,
i.e. experiments and survey questionnaires depicting participants perception, their
sampling and variables considered. The scope of this research includes using only
the software Sketch Up, with V-Ray photorealistic rendering plugin to visualise
models with utmost quality and realism, and the plug-in TriDef that will be used
by the sample. Also for the present study, Virtual Reality will be defined as a
computer-generated 3D world that allows the user to feel present and interact with
the world in real time [14].
A randomised sample of 18 students participated from different disciplinary
backgrounds at Middlesex University, UK (Engineering, Architecture, Graphic
Design, Health, Business, Law, Media), diverse in culture and aged 18 to 30. They
were 8 males and 10 females. Exclusion criteria for selection were any visual
disorders, epilepsy, tendency for motion sickness, claustrophobia or sensitivity to
flashing lights. The participants partook in two experiments for each of 3 different
sized rooms, detailed later. One experiment was performed in the real-life room,
and the other in its virtual replica. Each experiment described subsequently
was divided into two parts with the participant static in the room, and the other
whilst moving in it, to test previous research findings that movement enhances
perception of space size. For the virtual experiments, three different conditions
were tested: 1) 3rd person view without the virtual reality HMD, 2) 3rd person view
with the HMD and 3) 1st person view with the HMD and 3D immersion enabled
(using the plug-in TriDef).
For all experiments, the following control and extraneous variables were kept
constant so as not to affect the results: time of day, experiments procedure,
researcher facilitating the experiments, same room colours and content; and only
one independent variable was changed/tested i.e. width or depth or height of the
room, with keeping the other 2 variables constant. The scope of this paper is only
to demonstrate results of comparing between the 3rd person views (not the 1st
person view) and real life view. The real-life experiments were conducted in three
rooms inside Middlesex University. Room A was 16x7m, Room B 9x7m, and
Room C 9x3m. Height of all 3 rooms was the same. Room B was used as the
control experiment and the other 2 rooms chosen specifically to resemble one of
Room Bs dimensions and to be either half or double the other dimension, as seen
from the rooms measurements. This was to fix all dimensions except one, which
would be the independent variable, to compare results of rooms together against.
The depth of room B was almost half of room A (56%), and the width of room C
was almost half of room B (43%). These ratios were chosen as close as possible
to 50%, limited by availability of rooms at Middlesex University.
Before conducting the experiments, the rooms were completely emptied except
for one visual cue, a cubical plain desk, which was placed inside to aid the
participants with assessing the width, depth and height of the room (figure 1). The
same was done with the other rooms, using an identical desk to eliminate any
added variable that might affect the results. These rooms were then modelled/
virtually replicated exactly using Sketch Up, as a representative of 3D model
authoring software used in the construction industry and BIM projects. Sketch Up
was used for ease of use and free accessibility. All dimensions, openings, colours,
textures, materials, fittings were replicated exactly including the visual cue desk
and its exact position in the room. A visual cue was used to rely on relative instead
of absolute sizes, thus avoiding discrepancies in humans ability to measure using
metric scales, as identified in previous research.
Figure 1: Left: Room A in reality before removing furniture, opening window.

Right: Virtual Room A modelled in Sketch Up 2013.
In the real-life static experiment, the participants were seated individually in a

desk and asked to observe the room then answer a questionnaire (detailed
subsequently). In this situation they had to analyse the space, only moving around
head and body whilst seated. Then, the participants were asked to walk around the
room and feel the space to answer the next questions. These steps were the same
for all three rooms and the participants experienced the rooms in a random order,
to eliminate the effect of order on the results. For the virtual experiments, in the
static condition, two images were shown to the participants representing
width/height and depth/height from which they were asked to evaluate the
dimension sizes (figure 2). For the moving condition, a simulation was displayed
to them, while looking at a computer screen, of movement around the whole room,
where the camera height was positioned at human head height of 1.7m. Those
techniques were experimented with and without wearing the HMD (figure 3) and
then were compared to the experiment of static and moving observer in the
physical world. These steps were the same for all three rooms. To overcome the
effect of bias in measurement from performing a physical followed by virtual
experiment in the same room, or vice versa, they were separated by 4 weeks so
participants would have little recollection of their previous answers, not
influencing them. The HMD used was Sony HMZ T1P. The 3D immersive view
using TriDef was not turned on during this condition the purpose of the HMD
was only to restrict field of view, eliminating any distraction from the
surroundings to investigate if results differ from not wearing the HMD.
Figure 2: Left: Room B depth/height virtual image for static experiment. Right:
Room B width/height virtual image for static experiment.
Figure 3: Left: Participant during a virtual experiment looking at the screen.

Right: Participant during a virtual experiment wearing an HMD.
At the end of each experiment, the participants were asked to answer a

questionnaire about how they felt the space they had experienced. The first part of
every questionnaire was about the static condition, followed by a repeat for the
moving condition. This was done by asking them how many desks they perceived
could fit, side by side or on top of each other, in each of the respective width, depth
and height of the room. The position of the desk was constant in both physical and
virtual views, and thus used as a measuring unit instead of relying on participants
judgement of size in metres, which might be flawed and inconsistent. The
participants were then asked about the whole area: How many desks in general
do you feel can be placed in this room taking into account suitable spacing between
them? Between the two conditions, they were asked about how the movement
affected their perception (Bigger, Smaller, Higher, Shorter). The questionnaire
was repeated in exactly the same manner with the virtual experiments.
Another important factor to consider was brightness and light contrast of the
rooms and its effects on size perception. According to Egusa [15], the perceived
depth or distance increases with increased brightness differences. Hence an
additional question in each questionnaire was added about the scale of brightness
of the environment. The participant was asked to describe the brightness using a
numbered scale option (1 for dark, 2 for shadow, 3 for medium light, 4 for bright
and 5 for too much light). This was repeated for the static observer and moving
observer for all questionnaires and rooms physical and virtual.
After conducting the experiments, the outlier values were determined by
running frequency distributions for each group of questions and rooms, for the
purpose of eliminating errors and prepare the data for analysis. The results were
charted for each room separately including the two conditions for physical world
experiment and four conditions for virtual world ones.
4 Discussion of results
Primary results revealed that in control room B, the perception of space decreased
from real to virtual representation, in width, depth and overall area and to some
extent in height. The only condition where this didnt happen was in the height
variable in the static condition of the virtual experiment with the participants using
the HMD glasses. The decrease of perception from the real to the virtual world
also happened in all experiments in the other two rooms that were not control
rooms, but with varying percentages as discussed below. The following figures
compare room B (control room) with the room that has almost double of its depth,
A, and the room that has half of its width, C.
Comparing the amount of difference in perception, the values 69%, 68% and
56% fidelity were found as indication for the decrease of perception from real to
virtual experiments in room A for the width, depth and general numbers of desks,
respectively, in the static condition. The same comparison for static observer was
found for the room C and the numbers found were 88%, 78% and 71% for the
width, depth and general numbers of desks, respectively. The numbers for the
control room, B, were 91%, 84% and 88% for the width, depth and general
numbers of desks, respectively. Those numbers can indicate that by increasing the
depth by almost twice in room A, there was a significant increase in the difference
of space perception between Real and Virtual worlds the virtual was perceived
as being much smaller than the real.
However, a much less increase in the difference of space perception between

Real and Virtual environments happened when the width was decreased by almost
twice in room C. One of the reasons for the general increase in difference of space
perception might be because the rooms, A and C, had more of a rectangular ratio
to the shape of the room than room B, which was used as control. Hence this
increased the depth sensation, making it more difficult to perceive correctly in the
virtual state as depth is the dimension further from the eye. However, since room
C was much smaller than A, there is a possibility this made it easier to perceive its
dimensions correctly, hence compensating for the depth issue and making the
difference in perception less. This could indicate that different shapes affect
human perception of real and virtual spaces; however this is outside the scope of
this research and is one of areas recommended by the author for future work.
Another important factor to eliminate the effect of is the difference in
brightness between the physical and virtual room and its effect on difference in
space perception between them. According to the results, the average brightness
perception was extremely similar for all physical and virtual views of each room.
- Room A: real-life experiment 3.11/virtual experiment no HMD 2.89/virtual
experiment with HMD 3.33
- Room B: real-life experiment 3.54/virtual experiment no HMD 3.35/virtual
- Room C: real-life experiment 3.17/virtual experiment no HMD 2.83/virtual
Because of this high similarity, the influence of this variable was considered
low on the difference in perception between real and virtual spaces, although this
is recommended for further investigation in future, since the virtual results with
no HMD was slightly less.
General results showed that there is a difference between perception of space
in the physical and 3D virtual environments, which ranges between a reduction in
height from 4%9%, in width from 9%31%, in depth from 18%32%, and in
numbers of desks for the whole area from 12%-44%, for the static condition. For
the moving condition, the numbers were 3%7% for height, 5%25% for width,
16%29% for depth and 8%21% for general numbers of desks (figures 4, 5 and
6). Height was the least affected, which contradicts findings by Yoon et al. [6]
founded in their study, that subjects made more errors in evaluation of height in
both the real and virtual environments. This contradiction might be due to possible
miscalculations due to human unreliable ability of using metric scales, like the one
used by Yoon et al. [6] in their study. To counteract this problem, this research
used a desk in both worlds, real and virtual, as a cue for the participants and a
means to measure dimensions relative to each other. Considering this, the height
could have been least affected by the increase or decrease of dimensions because
it is the smallest dimension in the room, thus less liable for distortion as indicated
in the literature.
The depth was the highest affected variable. This might be because it is the
dimension furthest away from the eye, thus might be perceived less accurately.
With movement inside the spaces, these ranges became smaller, giving evidence
that movement possibly enhances space perception as indicated in the literature
Figure 4: % Perception fidelity from Real to Virtual spaces: depth dimension.
Figure 5: % Perception fidelity from Real to Virtual spaces: width dimension.
Figure 6: % Perception fidelity from Real to Virtual spaces: overall floor area.
section. The difference in perception for the number of desks that the participants
felt could be placed in the room area, involves the combination of two dimensions,
width and depth. This merged effect creates a more complex relationship, which
needs further investigation.
One final observation was that the results obtained for using the HMD in 3rd
person view in the virtual experiments were not significantly different from those
conducted without the HMD. Hence there is no apparent effect from restricting
the surrounding field of view of participants on perception of the virtual spaces.
5 Conclusion
The goal of this research was to investigate the percentage differences between
space perception in the real world and virtual environments. The aim of this was
to guide the adjustments needed to improve and evolve this form of space
representation, to enhance 3D visualisation of spaces during the design phases of
Building Information Modelling and allow more accurate representation of the real
spaces, thus ensuring better decision making from clients. The percentage
differences in perception uncovered in this research could provide guidance to
software developers to include appropriate changes in the visualisation engines of
their software to counteract for these differences in perception.
The median values of reduction in perception from physical to virtual space
were approximately: 7% in height for the static observer and 5% for the moving
observer. These values show that this dimension was the least affected and most
accurately perceived. In width, it was approximately 20% for the static observer
and 15% for the moving observer. In depth, the least dimension perceived
accurately, it was approximately 25% for the static observer and 22% for the
moving observer. For general numbers of desks, median reduction in perception
was approximately 29% for the static observer and 15% for the moving observer.
Movement inside the virtual space using simulations was seen to reduce the
percentage infidelity in accurately assessing dimensions of the virtual space.
There are several factors that can be considered for future work: 1) A greater
sample of room sizes can be examined to investigate effect of size on perception.
2) Different room shapes and depths can be examined to evaluate their influences
on perception 3) A larger number of participants can be used in the experiments
with more age ranges, to improve the representation of the overall population of
users. 4) Different 3D authoring software can be used to investigate if results
change for different software with different photorealistic capabilities, and
different brightness/contrast visualisations.
An additional factor outside the scope of the current research is the effect of
setting vision to a focal depth at infinity, which can happen in virtual worlds maybe
causing eyes to tire while looking for cues in the space hence affecting
perception of space size. This can be investigated in future using filmed views of
the real world as control. However this was not done in this research since the
author wanted to find the fidelity of perceiving space as clients do so, i.e. directly
looking at a 3D model on screen or experiencing it in real-life when built.
An important conclusion to take into consideration here is that it is not
sufficient to alter the representation of the whole virtual model equally (e.g.
increase the whole volume by a certain percentage). On the contrary, each
dimension has to be altered differently by visualisation engines of 3D authoring
software, to achieve truthful perception equivalent to reality. Furthermore, results
show that underestimating the size increases as the depth increases and overall size
of space increases. This is consistent with Henry and Furness [7] assertion that
humans size up small rooms more accurately than larger rooms because they can
see more of the whole space without distortion. This means that softwares
compensation for dimension representation might also need to differ based on
different space sizes, to allow clients better perception of reality.
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(1983).
Using free tools to support the BIM

coordination process into SMEs
V. Muoz & Y. Arayici
School of the Built Environment, University of Salford, UK
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) has proved to be a useful methodology for
the AEC industry, bringing into it a large number of benefits. Despite all these
advantages, BIM faces barriers that hinder its broad implementation within AEC
companies. The largest barrier pointed out by the literature is the high initial
investment (hardware, software and training). As a result, Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs) have not been involved in the process and the integration that
BIM should incorporate into a project is undermined because of the impossibility
of each party to work with this technology.
This research proposes to use free tools during the coordination process to
support those SMEs unable to invest in software or training. To achieve this goal,
it will be necessary to review the software available in the market, then the most
suitable tools will be chosen for the coordination process, and finally a workflow
to provide support will be proposed. The proposed workflow had proved to be
good enough to be used by SMEs, however it is necessary to follow the sequence
indicated in order to avoid interoperability issues.
Keywords: building information modelling, BIM coordination, SMEs, free
software.
1 Introduction
Early adopters of BIM technologies have reported great benefits from its
implementation at company and project level. Despite the benefits, the SMEs are
late with the BIM implementation because of the large barrier that funding
software, hardware and skilled staff means for this kind of companies. The
difficulty of these companies to implement BIM is preoccupying considering that
some governments will start to demand the use of this methodology in their
doi:10.2495/BIM150041
projects. Considering further the large amount of work positions that SMEs
generate and that could be threatened for this delay in the BIM adoption, is easy
to figure out why it is necessary to help to SMEs in their implementation process.
Under this scenario, is interesting to note a recent change in the commercial
strategy between software developers to offer completely free of charge tools, then
the benefits for these companies is associated with the sale of products such as
plugins, customizations and consulting.
Because of the feature that free software has (free of charge and simple
interface) it could help to overcome some barriers. Unfortunately the literature has
been unaware in these software and how useful they may be. In this context, this
research aims to awareness about the use of these tools in during the BIM
coordination process.
2 Literature review
2.1 Barriers for BIM implementation
The literature identifies some elements that hinder BIM adoption into companies.
These barriers are cross the project, affecting each actor from owners to
contractors [1].
Authors such as Eastman et al. [2], Deutsch [3] and Elvin [4] agree pointing
out to the cost and lack of training as important entry barriers to adopt BIM into
companies. In this sense the National Report 2015 identifies to the lack of training
and cost as the most important barriers with 67% and 56% of preferences
respectively [5]. Then any firm who wants to implement BIM needs to consider
investing in infrastructure (hardware, software and network) and staff training [6].
Nonetheless, BIM tools are not cheap with a range of prices from $5,000 up to
$11,000. In addition to the software cost, it is necessary to keep on mind an annual
subscription for updating the software, then this investment will not be done just
one time [7].
On the other hand, finding trained staff is very difficult [4, 8] because of the
high demand they have [7]. Indeed, Smith and Tardif [9] say that the demand for
highly skilled professionals will keep growing in upcoming years and the
institutions of higher learning will be unable to satisfy this demand in the short
time. A solution to this lack of staff could be to form in house professionals,
nevertheless to do this may be more expensive than investing in infrastructure,
besides it is needs to consider a learning curve cost in which the staff is learning
to use the software, then the initial productivity will be reduced [2].
2.2 Workflow and collaboration issues
As previously mentioned, there are specific reasons that are avoiding the BIM
adoption to some actors. This inability to be involved in the process is undermining
essential premises supported by BIM process such as workflow and collaboration
across lifecycle project [4].
A non BIM user will affect the communication into the project, making it slow
with long feedback cycles [10]. Nonetheless, the success of BIM implementation
depends on recognizing that the data generated by anyone will be useful to
someone else to carry out some activity following some requirements [9], then the
BIM user will need to communicate their ideas and problems to these non BIM
users. Currently, the only way to allow this communication is through traditional
means such as drawings, meetings and spreadsheets or web based tools to request
for information (RFI) [2].
2.3 BIM for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
In this scenario with barriers hindering the BIM adoption to some companies is
that arises the concern about how the SMEs will deal with this challenge. Even
though the average European enterprise is formed by less than six people [11], it
is important to pay attention in this type of companies because they play a central
role in any economy, being the major source of innovation and employment. In
the European case, they represent 99% of all enterprises and provide around 75
million jobs [11, 12].
While SMEs are important for the economic growth of any country, they have
difficulties in obtaining capital then the access to technologies or innovation is
reduced [11]. Despite the economic factor may be discourage the BIM
implementation into SMEs, it is important that these companies recognize the
benefits that this methodology will bring into their projects. BIM is a differentiator
element that gives the chance to any company to compete against large ones
offering added value, less risk, and better outcomes [13].
2.4 Using free software
In this unfavourable scenario, with economical and staff barriers, the use of free
software seems to overcome these barriers and demonstrate the BIM benefits to
those firms who hesitant to invest in software or training. The main features
present in this type of software are: easy to use, customizable and free of charge
or lower cost [14].
The free software concept does not mean free of charge, then will need to
explain this term in order to clear up which type of software will used in this
research. The free software may be classified based on three characteristics: cost,
source code distribution and rules governing use, then is possible to find four
categories of software [15]:
Public domain software: the author/owner has given up all his property rights
of the software. There is no copyright protecting public domain software.
Free/open source software: the free concept refers to the freedom of the user
to run, copy, distribute, study, change, and improve the software. This
software is free of charge, besides the source code is available to modify.
Freeware: this software is free of charge, can be shared and used for any
reason. The difference with free/open source software is that freewares
source code is not available for users, then it is not possible to modify
according users needs.
Shareware: this is another free of charge software, normally this software is

free for a period of time and after that the user must to pay in order to keep
using the software.
For this paper, the term free will be referred to FREE OF CHARGE therefore
it will considerate the use of free/open software and/or freeware.
3 Methodology
The methodology used to demonstrate how useful may be free software in the
coordination process will require identifying and classifying the software
available, then choosing the suitable tools for the process and finally to propose a
workflow.
3.1 Identifying and classifying software
In the market is possible to find different free software that have a direct
relationship with BIM workflows. In a review process eight different software
have been found. From these software have been excluded any free cloud service
because of any server applied to BIM technologies needs to fulfil some
requirements beyond the scope of this research.
The applications identified have been grouped by common features, then the
software is classified in:
Viewer/checker: in this category are included any software able to read a BIM
model to carry out any kind of analysis. The applications in this section are:
Tekla BIMsight, DDS CAD, xBIM Xplorer, Navisworks Freedom, BIM
Vision and Solibri Model Viewer.
BCF tools: in this category is considered BCFier, this tool allows to read and
write Building Collaboration Format (BCF) files.
IFC optimizer: In this category is found it just one tool, Solibri IFC optimizer,
to optimize IFC files eliminating redundant data and reducing the size file up
to 95% of the original size.
3.2 Selecting a viewer/checker tool
As previously had been discussed there are six different viewers available in the
market then will be necessary to select one to include in the workflow to propose
in this research.
Below criteria will be used to select a viewer/checker tool:
Features: it refers to different tools or uses that the software has
Interoperability: different formats supported by software to allow the
information exchange between different applications
Usability: it is the ease of use and learning a software
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of each viewer, in it is possible to see
that Tekla BIMsight has a large number of features, high interoperability and
usability, followed by DDS CAD. While in the opposite corner are Navisworks
Freedom and xBIM Xplorer. The case of BIM Vision is interesting, this software
has the feature to compare graphically the difference between two model versions,
then using this tool will be possible to identify which elements have being added,
deleted or modified. Besides this comparative process is not carry out just between
geometries, it includes the data embedded in each element.
Table 1: Main characteristics of BIM viewers.
Solibri Model Viewer

Navisworks Freedom
Tekla BIMsight
xBIM Xplorer
BIM Vision
DDS CAD
Features
Soft clashes x
Hard clashes x x
Management of clashes x
Mark up x x x x
Attach documents x
Different visualizations x x x x x
Multiple models x x x
Save changes x x x x x
Measure tool x x x x x
4D
Management colours x x x
Model comparison x
Interoperability
IFC x x x x x
IFCzip x x x x
BCF x x
BCFzip x x
gbXML x
Cobie x
Usability
Clear interface x x x x x
Simple navigation x x x x x x
Easy to use x x x x x x
Based on Table 1, the most suitable viewer is Tekla BIMsight, nonetheless in

addition with this viewer and because of its ability to compare models will be
selected BIM Vision too to make the comparison between model versions
allowing to identify the changes in the model.
3.3 Proposing a workflow
Figure 1 introduces the proposed workflow using Tekla BIMsight, BIM Vision,
Solibri IFC Optimizer, and BCFier. In this workflow has been considered two
stages:
a) Design and coordination

Modelling: each designer develops their own models to be shared as IFC files
in a server.
Optimization: the architect uses Solibri IFC Optimizer to reduce the size files
up to 8095% and the file is compressed to IFCzip format.
Federated model: once the files are optimised, the architect will use Tekla
BIMsight to integrate each IFCzip file in a federated model. This model will
used to run clash detection and to check visually any error between models.
These errors will be registered in a BCF file produced by Tekla BIMsight
and shared with the owner via server.
Feedback: the client will use BCFier to read the BCF file with comments
made by the architect, then the client will use the same software to reply those
comments. The BCF file with the client comments will be shared in the
server.
Coordinating design/comments: the designers will read the BCF file with the
client replies using Tekla BIMsight and they will discuss the feasibility to
make the changes indicated by the client.
b) Updating
Modelling: with the feedback from the client and being agreed the likely
solutions to any problem, each designer will modify their own native files,
export it to IFC format and share it via server.
Checking changes: the architect will take the new models and compare them
with the old ones using BIM Vision. This software just read IFC files, then
it is not possible to optimise the files and transform them in this step, then to
avoid interoperability issues this optimisation will be done after checking the
changes in the model.
Optimisation: the new files are optimised using Solibri IFC Optimizer and
converted to IFCzip format. These new files will be used to replace the old
versions in the federated model.
Proposed workflow using free software.

Figure 1:
4 Conclusions
The SMEs need to face on important barriers to implement BIM, like high initial
investment and staff training, nevertheless the software discussed is free and
simple to use, even though will be need a modelling software to create the models
at least the free software will facilitate the coordination and communication
process. With a minimal training and without invest in software any actor will be
able to be involved in the coordination of specialities.
About the software analysed is possible to state that some of them are very
good. Tekla BIMsight could replace the commercial version of Navisworks
Manage for coordination and clash detection of specialities during the design
stage. Also is important highlight the feature that BIM Vision has that will allow
having a better control every time a model is updated, making possible to know
which parts have been modified.
Respect to the proposed workflow, the software have been put through the
coordination process to follow the information workflow and avoid
interoperability issues like could happen if the IFC file is optimised to IFCzip
before run the comparison process in BIM Vision. To include latest software in
the work-flow had been important to bring control in the process, then the architect
will run a command into the software to identify the changes made for each
designer.
Even though the workflow had been well defined, it still can be improved
creating a server to define content management and data security avoiding that any
actor can modify data without permission. However future researches should
consider creating a low cost server to support the proposed workflow from this
research.
References
[1] Hartmann, T. & Fischer, M. Applications of BIM and Hurdles for
Widespread Adoption of BIM. eConstruction Roundtable Event Report,
Stanford University, 2008.
[2] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R. & Liston, K. BIM Handbook: A guide
to Building Information Modeling for owners, managers, designers,
engineers, and contractors (2nd edition), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New
Jersey, 2011.
[3] Deutsch, R. BIM and Integrated Design: Strategies for Architectural
Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New Jersey, 2011.
[4] Elvin, G. Integrated Practice in Architecture, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New
Jersey, 2007.
[5] National Building Standards (NBS), National BIM Report, 2015.
[6] Computer Integrated Construction Research Program (CIC), BIM Planning
guide for facility owners, 2012.
[7] Pramod, K. BIM for building owners and developer, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.: New Jersey, 2012.
[8] Kymmell, W. Building information modelling: Planning and managing

construction projects with 4D and simulations. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2008.
[9] Smith, D. and Tardif, M. Building Information Modeling: A Strategic
Implementation Guide for Architects, Engineers, Constructors, and Real
Estate Asset Managers. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009.
[10] Becerik, B. Suggestions for improving adoption of online collaboration and
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Construction Management, 20th Annual ARCOM Conference.
Khosrowshahi, F (Ed.), Heriot Watt University, Vol. 2, pp. 1221-1233.
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[11] European Commission. The new SME definition: user guide and model
declaration. Enterprise and industry publications, 2005.
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https://www.adjacentgovernment.co.uk/pbc-edition-004/bim-and-the-
smes/
[13] Klaschka, R. BIM in Small Practices: Illustrated Case Studies. Newcastle
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[14] Kavanagh, P. Open source software: Implementation and management.
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[15] Muffatto, M. Open source: a multidisciplinary approach. London: Imperial
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Section 2
BIM in construction
operations
Using BIM to automate construction

site activities
H. S. Omar & M. F. Dulaimi
British University in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Abstract
Controlling construction site operations is one of the crucial overriding concerns
for the clients and contractors, as the majority of the construction delays tend to
occur in the construction phase. It is not surprising to see interest in deploying
advanced technologies such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) to help in
addressing such concerns.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate how to integrate BIM with the daily
construction activities to increase the effectiveness of construction operational
activities and address customers and clients concerns and requirements.
The study adopted the qualitative approach to collect the data from different
construction sites. Clients and numerous members of the supply chain were
involved in the data collection, which covered projects, in United Arab Emirates
(UAE), such as real estate building, infrastructure (e.g. water and waste water) and
road projects.
The study concluded that, integrating BIM in the reoccurring daily construction
operations highly assisted the construction industry to overcome several persisting
and challenging problems related to the traditional disputes and mistrust among
the supply chain players. These disputes resulted from the inaccurate data
collection that leads to the absence of crucial actions, in addition to the huge time
consumed to prepare reports. The results of the study suggest that, the integration
of BIM with the construction operational activities have improved productivity
and enhanced the trust among the project teams. Furthermore, the automation of
the construction site activities using BIM avoided loss of information, enabled
contractors to recognize their weaknesses, enabled immediate update of the
progress reports and the program of works and the easy production of the payment
statement.
Keywords: BIM, automation, productivity, integration, transparency and trust.
doi:10.2495/BIM150051
1 Introduction
For decades the construction industry has been challenged to improve its
efficiency with myriads of different initiatives. These initiatives aiming to improve
the construction industry sub-optimal outcomes resulted from the fragmented way
in which the construction industry operates [1]. Mitropoulos and Tatum [2]
explained that, advances in technology are widely regarded as major sources of
improvement in the construction industry. Hence, adoption of new suitable
technology could be crucial to assisting the construction industry in overcoming
many of its recognized problems. At the moment BIM is rapidly growing in
importance and mandating the construction industry worldwide as a viable tool to
overcome the majority of the reoccurring and persisting problems in the
construction industry [3]. Although BIM is widely utilized since 2002 [4] site
management works is still dominated by traditional paper works especially the
manual recoding of the notes for the on-site activities [5]. Site managers and
inspectors manually collect and record the progress of the site activities, the
collected records have to be re-entered at the site office [6]. During this processes,
site managers and inspectors (the data feeders) always make mistakes. Moreover,
this is a time consuming process which takes approximately 2030% of the
feeders daily efforts to update the construction activities [7, 8]. This traditional
site monitoring and updating system entails numerous weaknesses such as missing
or wrong information. Thus, the Project Manager (PM) is not furnished with the
authenticated and reliable construction progress details. Therefore, many crucial
actions for critical activities are absent [9]. This confusion in many cases could
lead to PMs misjudging what the actual progress is in their projects, and
accordingly to inappropriate decisions being made that could impact the
effectiveness of the use of resources. For example, based on the traditional
progress monitoring system, PM may judge an activity to be only 30% completed
even it is actually 60% completed. In this case, PM may believe that the
construction project is delayed, even though it is proceeding ahead of the planned
schedule. Consequently, the PM will deploy more resources to that activity than
is necessary required which result in waste of time and money [6]. It is obvious;
the current manual system for updating and monitoring the site activities tends to
create uncertainties that lead to clients dissatisfactions. Therefore, the data
collection system requires extensive improvement to collect the actual data [10].
The importance of construction site checking and automatic updating has been
recognized before the advent of BIM, this topic has been investigated in 1960s [7].
Many researchers proposed numerous of initiatives to automate the monitoring
and checking processes of the construction site activities on the bases of zero or
minimal human intervention [11, 12]. This paper considered the automation of the
construction site checking and updating in two levels. First level: where the human
intervention required to visually check the status of the on-site construction
activity(s) based on a ready-made check list that is unique to suit each task. The
check list is linked to the BIM model that is furnished to the Personal Digital
Assistants (PDA) devices such as tablets or smartphones for the on-site inspectors
easy use. The collected data will be automatically sent via the internet to the server
to be stored and automatically updated using the cloud BIM model. The cloud
BIM model is originally an identical copy of the designed BIM model that made
ready to receive the update from the site. The second level is to automatically
update of the progress by comparing the created BIM cloud model against the
designed 3D and 4D BIM final model with no intervention from humans. At this
level, the automated system can identify the construction mistakes based on 3D
BIM model, and the activities that are deviated from the planned construction
schedule based on 4D BIM model. The system will automatically notify the
concerned parties through sending mails for the required actions. The aim of this
paper is to integrate BIMs potential with the available technology of PDA in a
rigorous controlled manner. That is to achieve 100% accuracy of the construction
monitoring and updating, in addition to rein on project delays resulted from the
inaccurate site data collection.
The literature review unveiled many endeavors proposed to automate the
checking process of the construction sites using the recognized technologies such
as bar coding or may be called also Quick Response-code (QR-code), BIM,
Augmented Reality (AR), Global Positioning System (GPS), photogrammetry,
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Laser scanner (LS) and wireless sensors
[1218]. Most of these initiatives considered the full automation of the processes
where the intervention of human element is very limited [8, 11]. The human
intervention is determined to carry, scan and point the electronic devices to collect
the data from the construction sites [17, 19]. However, these initiatives entail
myriads of challenges that hindered reaping its full benefits [8, 11]. Accordingly,
the accuracy of these proposals varies and heavily dependent on several factors,
such as the used technology, the projects level of sophistication, the familiarity
with the new initiative, etc. These factors and their relevant limitations are detailed
hereunder section 1.1.
It is worth mentioning that, the verification and judgment of the accuracy for
the proposed automated initiative is conducted by the traditional checking i.e. by
the human element. Therefore, it is obvious the human element is reliable;
however the dilemma represented in the unsystematic procedures which leads to
loss of data or mistakes in addition to time consuming [14].
The following section addresses the latest and most recognized initiatives that
attempted to automatically monitor and update the on-site construction activities.
1.1 Previous attempts of the on-site automation
1.1.1 Augmented Reality (AR)

AR is one of the techniques used advanced technology to automatically update the
site activities to detect the differences between the design and the actual
construction. There are several definitions for the AR; AR is defined as the
technology that is used to ease associating the digital information with real world
objects and spaces [12]. According to Madden [20] AR is an environment where
virtual elements are embedded in a live picture of real surroundings. However, the
most comprehensive definition proposed by Azuma [21] where he defined AR as
an interface that overlays the digital information and presents it to the users view,
spatially aligned to the current physical environment.
There are several AR systems; however the hub of the latest initiatives of
proposed AR that is utilized BIM can be summarized as follows [12, 17]:
1. The 3D BIM model introduced to the construction site superintendents via
PDA such as tablets or smartphones.
2. The site superintendents use the built-in camera of the PDA devices to capture
site photos for the actual constructed works. The captured photos will be sent
through the PDA devices that are supported by internet wireless connections
to the image-matching system via server installed and connected in the office.
3. The image-matching system automatically compares the captured site photos
against the final BIM model to find out any differences. Any discrepancies
between the actual constructions and the BIM model will be highlighted and
the system will automatically send a notification to the concerned person,
according to the rule created in the system.
4. Last few years witnessed further improvement done to the system, that
proposed installing cameras to cover the site activities, in order to capture the
on-site activities without the intervention of the site superintendents and there
is no need to visit the job-site [22].
It is obvious, AR composed of three elements, data, computing and
presentation [12]. AR is unlike many other technologies proposed to automate the
site activities; AR hub is about displaying the virtual information based on the
BIM model in a real-world environment for necessary actions [22].
Originally, AR was not proposed to automate the construction activities;
however it is developed to benefit the automation in construction by detecting the
construction defects. Therefore, it is obvious to update the construction activities
a massive number of site photos are required. Following are the most recognized
limitations and challenges that hinder the wide adoption of AR to automate the
monitoring of the construction activities.
1.1.1.1 Challenges of the AR Cameras often encounter difficulties in detecting

the indoor objects because of the indoor poor lighting. Similarly, due to the
dynamic nature of the construction site there is difficulty in capturing the actual
status for the covered activities with temporary works such as scaffolding or
frameworks and so forth. The AR image-matching system cant work properly to
run the comparison for the unclear photos or the photos encompass any temporary
works [17]. In addition to that, the cameras shooting location, height and viewing
angle. Moreover, the lighting levels, the camera resolution and the distance
between the camera and the objects are factors influencing the data collection and
the results of the AR outputs [17]. Some AR approaches are using GPS to position
the construction objects; however the accuracy is poor, where GPS errors is in
centimeters and sometimes in meters [12].
1.1.2 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

RFID defined as a wireless technology capable of the automatic identification of
objects and even people based on tags entail the data for the objects and people.
RFID is a contactless technology that operates without line-of-sight restrictions
[23]. In this technology the RFID contains a reader that is used to collect data from
tagged coded objects. The tagged objects must be unique to avoid any data mix
and misleading results. RFID enables tracking of a product and hence monitoring
its performance by running an automatic comparison between the actual collected
data from the site and the planned program of works [24]. In order to enhance the
capability of the RFID system, the entire activities within the site should be
covered with a network of RFID readers to collect the data from the tagged objects
and then transmit these data to a database system that can translate these codes to
activities [23]. Many researchers proposed integrating RFID with BIM to
automatically update the site activities [23, 25]. This initiative seen promising,
however it is compounded with challenges that deters its potentiality. Following
are the most recognized challenges for RFID approach.
1.1.2.1 Challenges of RFID The data collection process from the tagged objects
requires covering the entire site with RFID readers. Therefore, any damage in the
tags for the tagged objects due to the dynamic nature of the site or malfunction of
the reader, hence no data will be transmitted to the system which will be useless
[23].
RFID tags have a small radio antenna that transmits the information over a short
range to RFID reader (few meters), accordingly big number of RFID readers are
required to transmit the data effectively [26].
RFID uses radio frequency, therefore the interference with any other
frequencies could diminish its capability to transmit the data effectively.
Complex or partial activities that consisted of irregular surfaces, cavities or
grooves cannot be appropriately determined by the RFID system.
Temporary installed equipment/works negatively impacts the results of the
RFID, where the temporary works hamper the waves to scan the tagged codes [14].
The price of the RFID still very high, moreover the selection of the required
tags, weather to be passive or active type is a sophisticated technological issue
[14].
1.1.3 3D Laser scanning (LS)
LS may be dubbed also as Laser Distance and Ranging (LADAR). LS defined as
high-end laser scanner that collects physical data from the construction site for the
existing objects/activities using the technology of laser light together with
advanced reflectors. That is to create as-built model with 36mm accuracy [11,
27]. Many studies proposed using the 3D LS technology where the laser light
triggers the surrounding to scan the construction activities, which will be reflected
on sensitive devices to create 3D point clouds. Then, all the collected data are
merged together to form as-built model. The merged 3D as-built model is then
manually entered to the system to avoid any misidentification of the similar
objects, where the system cant differentiate or classify many items due to the
similarity of the construction elements. In the second stage the system
automatically detects any progress deviations by comparing the as-built model
with the planned progress model [11].
A recent study by Bosch [11] proposed integrating the as-built model that is
developed by the LS approach with the 3D BIM model (the designed as-built
model) in a semi-automated process where the human intervention is crucially
required. That is because; the fully automated process is not applicable in the
construction industry due to the similarities of the scanned objects where the
system cant recognize the relevant objects automatically. Brilakis et al. [28]
claimed that, LS technique is heavily reliant on manual efforts. Many studies
proposed using LS together with BIM model to compare the construction progress
via the 4D BIM model against the cloud as-built model that is developed from the
LS approach to detect any deviations of the planned schedule [11]. LS currently is
the most recognized 3D reality capturing method in the construction industry,
however this technique challenged with numerous limitations impedes its
widespread utilization [8, 11, 27].
1.1.3.1 Challenges of laser scanning The most popular challenge of the LS is

the discontinuity of the spatial information, where the laser scanning process can
detect only the exposed objects/activities. Whereas, the temporary objects such as
scaffolding, equipment, temporary structures and so forth hinder the authenticated
data collection [11].
The data collection process is a time consuming which also requires
experienced surveyors that use bulky machines need to be manually moved and
positioned [27].
The scanning range is limited, the objects surface degree of reflectivity, the
angle of measurements and sensor calibration are important factors influence the
accuracy of the collected data [8].
During the adverse weather (e.g. rainfall, wind, etc.) the scanning process cant
be conducted [8].
The laser scanning matching mechanism is lacking the recognition of the
objects of self-similarities; therefore huge manual efforts are required [11].
The cost of the laser scanning devices and the related software and hardware
are expensive [8].
1.1.4 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
WSN is a technology that is using sensor nodes which communicate with each
other wirelessly to collect the data from the surrounding environment and share it
with the designed model. The updated model with the actual site conditions can
be used to automatically asses the deviations between the designed model and the
physical as-built (the actual site condition) [29]. In addition, the percent
completion of each activity in the construction schedule can be continuously
viewed in the BIM 4D model [18]. An extensive study by Riaz et al. [18] proposed
solutions to closely monitor the confined spaces in the construction sites through
using the wireless sensors to automatically update the 3D BIM model with the
collected site hazards. However, this proposal is not tested yet to proof its capacity.
WSN like all other recognized automation initiatives are confronted by many
challenges. These challenges are addressed as follow:
1.1.4.1 Challenges for wireless sensors The WSN approach is expensive, in

addition it needs experts to operate the system properly.
The system is heavily depending on Wi-Fi network to transfer the collected
data, thus any poor signal creates discontinuity of the transferred data.
Transmitting the data over a long distance will cause a false data.
WSN are equipped with batteries, any low battery causes a gap for the data
collection in the whole system.
The surrounding weather especially the high ambient temperature negatively
impacts the sensors performance.
A study conducted at the Washington University concluded that the collected
data by the WSN is unreliable. The study found that 70% of the alarms (the
automatic response of the collected data) from similar wireless sensors are false
[18]. It is obvious all the proposed initiatives to automate monitoring of the
construction activities have certain limitations that impede its potential benefits.
Therefore, some researchers have integrated two or more of the aforementioned
automation approaches to alleviate the limitations associated with each of them
individually [30]. For example El-Omari and Moselhi [14] proposed integrating
3D laser scanner with photogrammetry to rapidly track the site activities. The
proposed model can automatically calculate the construction percent of
completion and track the physical construction progress. The added advantage for
the proposed integration between the LS and photogrammetry technique, it
requires less time with cost saving compared to the stand-alone application of
either LS or photogrammetry. The proposed approach also minimized the
limitations of the LS placement by integrating the photogrammetry data with the
LS model cloud [8]. Nevertheless, the proposed approach didnt resolve all the
challenges that diminish the adoption of this approach in a hassle-free manner
[30]. Even the proposed integrated approach has been challenged with certain
limitations, where the captured photos are not automatically aligned with the 3D
cloud model. In addition, the integration between the data collected by LS and
photogrammetry are done manually due to the absence of the sharing algorithm
between both approaches. Therefore, the manual integration between both
techniques is prone to errors, and time consuming process [8].
The literature review revealed that, all the proposed initiatives to monitor the
construction activities are not fully automated and even the fully automated
proposed approaches didnt meet the expectations. Moreover all the previous
approaches are embedding several challenges and limitations.
2 The proposed prototype

The extensive literature study provided a deep understanding for the initiatives
that proposed to automate monitoring and updating the construction activities, the
correlated limitations and challenges for these initiatives are recognized too. The
literature review revealed that, the available technology is lacking the ability to
fully automate monitoring and updating processes for the construction industry
[11]. Figure 1 presents the proposed prototype, wherein the researchers proposed
two levels of processes. First level is the semi-automated process to collect the
data from the construction sites using the human element i.e. site inspectors. In
this level the data collection is rigorously controlled to eliminate the chances of
making mistakes, where the site inspectors use the electronic devices such as
smartphones and/or tablets equipped with BIM models. Based on the BIM model
Site Office
Semi-automated
Site inspections based on Automated
3D BIM model and PDA
with 3D& 4D
Develop BIM
cloud model
comparison
Automatic
Automatic notifications
models
For actions
Figure 1: The proposed prototype.
that is available in the PDA devices the inspector is required to check the actual
activity. The inspector will be able to on the-spot update the construction status
using a unique number for each task that is predefined in the BIM model. Once
the inspector clicks-on the task for inspection, the hand-held device will
automatically introduce the pre-prepared check-list that is suiting the recognized
task. The inspector will be required to fill-in the check list on-site to avoid any
errors and to save time. Moreover, the inspector can narrate and review all the
previous tests i.e. the test results or the required tests, the uploaded specifications,
review the construction method statements, review the previous approvals or
comments, all the required details will be available on-site for each task under a
unique number via the developed BIM model. In order to complete the process for
this level, the inspectors are required to send the collected data via the internet that
is connected to the PDA devices to develop the BIM cloud model. The BIM cloud
model is originally the designed BIM model that is developed to continuously
receive updates for the actual data collected from the site. The second level is fully
automated, where the system automatically run a comparison between the
developed BIM-cloud model and the as designed 3D and 4D BIM models to
recognize any construction mistakes that is deviated from the 3D model.
Concurrent automatic comparison with the 4D BIM model runs to identify any
deviation in the planned program of works. The system will consider the delays
and ahead of the planned schedule as findings that requires immediate actions from
the concerned personnel(s). Therefore, the proposed system/prototype will
automatically send notifications to the predefined concerned parties such as PM,
client or the supervision team representative(s) according to the rules created in
the system. The deviations due to the delays of the planned construction program
require immediate actions by the authorized personnel; the system will highlight
the delayed activity(s) in addition to the impacted activities. Moreover, the system
will advise on the required manpower and equipment to be allotted to recover the
delays. Similarly, the system will advise the required resources based on the rate
of production for the resources that is introduced in the system. All these
notifications are based on the automatically developed recovery plan considering
the milestone date (s).
3 Research framework and methodology

The aforementioned two levels represent the proposed prototype which was
extensively discussed with software specialists through semi-structured
interviews. The feedback and the proposed modifications from those specialists
make the proposed prototype applicable and viable for implementation. Figure 2
demonstrates how the prototype was developed, where the developed prototype is
Literature review
Review the relevant research to recognize the
1 challenges for the previous initiatives aimed to
automate the monitoring of the construction.
Challenges
identification
Technological review
Check the applicability of the proposed initiative
with software specialists using semi-structured
interviews
2
Development Evaluation Industry
of theoretical
Feedback
solutions (the
Focus group
prototype)
3 Prototype Prototype
Practical evaluation development
testing &
evaluation Prototype
testing
4
Viable Final prototype
implementation
Figure 2: Research framework and methodology.
presented as stage 1 and 2 in Figure 2. In order to check the viability of the

prototype, the researchers found that the next stage should be testing the proposed
prototype and evaluating the advantages and disadvantages. Recognizing the
prototype limitations enabled the researchers to propose further improvements till
the limit the proposed prototype overcome all the recognized challenges to
effectively automate the construction monitoring. It is worth noting that, the
proposed prototype is evaluated by conducting a focus group discussion of
seventeen experienced professionals representing contractors/subcontractors,
designers (structure and MEP), site supervisors, clients, suppliers, BIM specialists,
in addition to software specialists. The focus group approach was adopted to
enable these carefully selected professionals to evaluate the proposed prototype
based on their knowledge and experience of the BIM as well as some of the latest
automation technologies and the confronted limitations.
The researchers provided a 40 minute presentation on the current automation
practices and the correlated limitations and challenges and then explained in
details the proposed initiative. The group discussions enriched the research by
addressing several challenges, benefits and suggestions that are summarized, in
the following Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Table 1: The proposed prototype challenges according to the group discussion.
Sr. Challenges Remarks

The proposal is heavily dependent on Requires long time and collective work
precise decomposing of the activities from all project workforce including all
1 to show the infinitesimal task using a the supply chain and site
unique number to be synchronized superintendence prior to starting the
with BIM model. site activities.
Any changes of the program will delete
Any change in the program of the affected numbers and use new
construction requires massive change numbers to avoid disturbance. The
2
and rearrangement of the unique program will automatically update the
numbers and the tasks. new changes. The initiative based on
BIM designed model.
Requires collaborative work including
Preparing a template check list for
3 all the involved individuals prior to
cluster of activities is a difficult task.
starting the construction activities.
Synergic issues and algorithms Current software capabilities can be
4 between BIM cloud model and the developed to accommodate these
BIM designed model. issues.
Site inspectors may lack the
Training programs to the site
5 knowledge how to use the PDA
inspectors.
devices.
The developed system doesnt need
Cost issues, for the hand-held PDA advanced devices since it relies on the
6
devices and internet. server storage capacity. Even personal
smartphones can work.
Table 2: The anticipated benefits for the proposed prototype.
Benefits Remarks
Time saving, where all the project parties will get
Immediate development of
1 the same report from their offices at no time
progress reports.
based on eligibility access to the system.
Immediate development of
2 Save the time and disputes.
the monthly payments.
Appropriate estimation and control of the cash
3 Enhance the cost control. out/in. Moreover, at any time the progress report
together with costs can be produced.
The system notifies the concerned personnel with
4 Immediate action.
the required actions.
Enhance transparency and The open environment will enhance the trust and
5
trust. transparency, where the inspection results and the
Client and stakeholders are required actions are seen by the client and
6
continuously updated. stakeholders.
Weaknesses and defects The supply chain can recognize their weaknesses
7
recognition. from the repetitive comments.
Immediate producing of the That basically benefits the facility management
8 as-built including all the teams, users and the client. And any parties in
detailed construction history. dispute.
Review the history of any At any time of the project lifecycle the history of
9
task. the activities can be easily retrieved/ reviewed.
Table 3: Suggestions to improve the proposed prototype.
Suggestions Remarks
The system should automatically
notify the inspectors with the Software specialists confirmed the ability
1
required inspections, including of the new idea to save time and efforts.
date and time.
The procurement methodology That significantly reduces the costs and
2
should be design and built or IPD. enhances BIM potential capacity.
The inspectors comments/approval can be
The system should have different automatically sent for the supervision team
3 levels for approvals of the head as a notification and reminder if
inspection to ensure QA. required for final approvals after the
material and site inspection approvals.
The prototype must be developed to
considerer the construction logic
sequencing i.e. no painting for walls
without approvals of plaster works. In
addition, detecting the construction gaps,
Detect the gaps in inspection and
for example second phase of construction
4 consider the logic construction
shouldnt be allowed prior the completion
sequencing.
of the previous phase, i.e. the system
should notify there is a missed inspection
for the second floors column(s) or the
alike prior to starting any activities for the
third floor.
It is worth mentioning that, stages 1 and 2 via Figure 2 are completed, however
stage 3 is in progress till the time of writing this paper. Stage 4 will be the last
stage to advert the final prototype after physical purifications of all its weaknesses.
4 Conclusion (way forward)

The paper found that, all the available technologies are lacking the precise
automatic data collection from the construction site. Hence, utilization of site
inspectors to collect the data in timely manner and free of errors by using the
advanced technology such as tablets or smart phones together with checklists is
the panacea for this dilemma. Moreover, the proposed prototype significantly
minimizes the mistakes during the data collection process, which to be sent to the
database of the BIM cloud model. The developed software automatically
compares between the actual collected data from the site (e.g. BIM cloud model)
against the designed BIM model 3D and 4D to recognize the differences to find
out the construction mistakes for the quality control using 3D BIM model. In
addition, the prototype will highlight the discrepancies between the planned
program via 4D BIM model and the actual status via the BIM cloud model to
notify the concerned individuals, by sending mails with the required actions. It is
obvious, the proposed prototype can overcome majority of the recognized
problems that aimed to automate monitoring of the construction activities.
Furthermore, it enhances the transparency and trust amongst the project teams
because all the work activities are in an open environment for all the
project teams. The proposed initiative saves the time by notifying the required
actions and determines the required resources to overcome the delays or to exploit
the ahead of progress status. All these notifications to mitigate the delays or
exploit the ahead of schedule based on automatically generated recovery program.
Using the proposed initiative the progress report and the payment, cash flow in/out
is just click away of the finger. Moreover, all the details of all the activities during
the project lifecycle can be narrated and supported with the site photos. The
proposed prototype seems promising; however the field experiment which will
start soon will physically prove its viability in the construction industry.
Developing of the proposed prototype software is in progress till the time of
writing this paper, which will be tested soon.
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Building Information Modelling (BIM):

the impact of project attributes towards
clients demand in BIM-based project
N. A. H. Hadzaman, R. Takim & A. H. Nawawi
Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying,
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
Abstract
Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a systematic process used to model
information involving the use of computer-generated (n-dimensional) software to
simulate the planning, design, construction, and operation of a building. Currently,
BIM technology is an important approach used by most project clients (public and
private) to boost project effectiveness in terms of time, cost and quality of
construction projects to meet client demand. However, previous studies showed
that BIM-based project implementation in Malaysia faces greater challenges due
to project attributes that causes low demand of project clients to adopt BIM.
Hence, the purpose of the paper is to investigate the impact of project attributes
towards client demand by adopting BIM across project life cycle. A cross-
sectional survey was conducted in Malaysia among the three project stakeholders:
the public sector, private sector, and contractors using BIM for their projects.
Seven (7) significant project attributes (i.e., feasibility, definition, duration, project
location, objectives, size and type) and three (3) triangle of client demand
(i.e., time; cost; quality) were subjected to Parametric Pearson Correlation. The
results showed that there exist a significant relationship between the project
attributes and client demand. The results suggest that project clients (public and
private) should take a consideration of project attributes in fulfilling the client
demand at the early stage of project commencement to maximize the BIM benefits
to other stages of construction.
Keywords: attribute, Building Information Modeling (BIM), client demand,
Malaysia.
doi:10.2495/BIM150061
1 Introduction
Building Information Modeling (BIM) in its formative development in the
Architectural, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry, is a digital
representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility that link the
database of project information (Ahmad Latiffi et al. [1]). In line with Ariyaci et
al. [2], BIM is defined as the use of ICT technologies to streamline the building
project lifecycle processes to provide a safer and more productive environment for
its occupants, to assert a list possible environmental impact from its existence, and
to be more operationally efficient for its owner throughout the building lifecycle.
BIM, as a comprehensive concept of process and tools integrates all projects
required data and information, reshaping the way construction project teams work
together with the ultimate aim is to deliver a successful project outcomes
(i.e., time, cost and quality) (Rohena [3]).
According to Karathodoros and Brynjolfsson [4], many construction players
cannot yet recognise the potential benefits of BIM can offer. As such, they are
reluctant to implement BIM even the benefits is clearly defined. In contrast, they
criticize that implementing BIM will incur additional cost without clear and secure
outcome (Khosrowshahi and Ariyaci [5], Karathodoros and Brynjolfsson [4]). Due
to the insecure situations and the needs for the nation to become competitive with
other developed countries, the success of BIM depends on the project attributes
and the current need of the organization (client) involved. By implementing a
function of BIM in a simple and low cost project might not have the desired
outcome and wide benefits (Karathodoros and Brynjolfsson [4]). A clear project
attributes is required to help the client determine whether function of BIM is
effectively and successfully utilized to reap the full benefits of BIM. Client should
define a projects attributes that are appropriate for utilization of BIM in order to
meet the clients demand in BIM-based project. Hence, the objective of this paper
is to investigate the impact of project attributes towards client demand by adopting
BIM across project life cycle.
2 Project attributes in BIM-based project

The project attributes have seven major attributes: project feasibility, project
definition and formulation, project duration, project location, project objectives,
size of the project and type of the project. These are crucial to successful BIM
project outcomes. According to Kometa and Olomolaiye [6] and Tan [7], the types
of the project can be classified into educational, institutional, residential,
industrial, commercial, and recreational. The design and construction of the
projects depends on the size and project location. According to them, the size of
the project considering on the project cost, complexity of the design and
construction, gross floor area, building height and technology required. Building
projects also deals with the project location from small area to urban development,
including remote and confined areas. A project begins with the idea and
formulation of a concept, followed by a philosophy and the idea of the certainty
in scope of work. A development plan is produced by a feasibility study to see the
viability and marketability of idea by considering the risk allocation. Project

feasibility is needed so that an appropriate action can be taken as preparation
before the project commencement. However, in implementing this, there must be
certain specialization of personnel appointment towards BIM application. This
also enclosed with BIM documentation such as BIM Guidelines, BIM Execution
Plan or BIM template to run the BIM process into the project. In order to achieve
a successful BIM-based project, it is vital to set the stakeholders' objective, value
for money in BIM, and suitable selection method of procurement. These goals
could be based on project performance and include items such as reducing the
schedule duration, achieving higher field productivity, increasing quality,
reducing cost of change orders, or obtaining important operational data for the
facility (PSU [8], Jadhav [9]). The problem becomes more complex when dealing
with multi-disciplined design environments (Ibrahim [10]) that influenced the
briefing stage. In such an environment, it is preferable to bring up the issue of data
sharing in terms of formats and platforms at early stage. The best solution is
integrating the whole team to the same platform when possible; otherwise it is very
crucial to bring up the process of file formats conversion and compatibility.
3 Time, Cost, and Quality (TCQ) of client demand in

BIM-based project
In the development of a BIM-based project, some project stakeholders failed to
appreciate the potential of BIM. As such, to a certain extent it is inevitable for
project client to enforce project teams to incorporate BIM in construction projects
(Henttinen [11]). Initially, clients demands are across project phases from strategy
formulation until completion. This means to say that client demands in the project
to be constructed are within budget and frequent cost information, value adding
activities, stipulated time frame, and high standard quality products (PSU [8]).
According to Porwal and Hewage [12], clients can drive the significant
improvement in the cost, value and carbon performance through the use of BIM
as an open and shareable asset information model. One of the most important steps
in the planning process is to clearly define the potential value of BIM among
project team members through defining the overall demand for BIM
implementation. These demands could be based on project performance and
include items such as reducing the schedule duration, achieving higher field
productivity, increasing quality, reducing cost of change orders, or obtaining
important operational data for the facility (PSU [8], Jadhav [9]). It is classified
into three iron triangle of client demand (i.e., time; cost; quality), which acts as
critical objectives of project success, are not independent, but intricately related in
project accomplishment.
Time: major criterion of project success by the clients, contractors, and
consultants alike. There is a universal criticism of failure in the construction
industry due to the time in delivering the projects. Objective of time in BIM refers
to achieving needs of time as stipulated on the benefits of BIM process. The
benefits of BIM in time are: to improve design reviews, more faster and effective
process, impact of clash detection and better collaboration (Rajendran et al. [13]).
The clients objectives can be achieved through an organised interdependence of

time, cost, and quality.
Cost: clients mostly are concerned with the overall profitability and
accountability of the projects generally. However, through an organised of cost
management needs, i.e. resource planning, cost budgeting, cost control and cost
estimating will cause to reduce expenses of cost in the projects. Thus, in case of
BIM, project saving are considerably high at the early stage of project involvement
(design phase). This is due to the coordination issues that could reduce of trade
conflicts among project stakeholders. BIM in cost involved reduces the errors in
take-off estimating and visualization of construction and fabrication works
(Rajendran et al. [13]) that mostly involving the highest cost in the process.
Quality: an ambiguous term to understand differently by different people. It is
sometimes defined as activities designed to improve organisation service known
as pre-defined standards (Rezaian [14]). Improving quality is to enhance the
customer (end-user) satisfaction, function as intended, comfort, and increase
productivity. It is also believed that refers to the proper quality management
mostly in design and construction phases. It recognised three category of quality:
functionality, comfort, and impact (Ahmad [15]). Quality on functionality refers
to the arrangement, quantity and inter-relationship of spaces and how the building
is designed to fulfil client need. In addition, quality on comfort refers to how well
the building is constructed, its structure, engineering system, safety quality, the
coordination of the building, and their performance. Meanwhile, quality on impact
refers to the ability of the building to delight, uplifts local community and
environment, intrigues and design contribution of architecture. Table 1 shows the
matrix of the variables of project attributes upon client demand.
Table 1: Project attributes upon client demand.
Project attributes Client demand

Time Cost Quality
Project feasibility
Project definition and formulation
Project duration
Project objective
Project location
Size of the project
Type of project
4 Methodology
The research utilised a structured questionnaire survey method of three principal
target groups within the construction industry, focusing on the states of Selangor
and Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. The data of collection exercises were held in
Malaysia over a period of one month (26th March to 28th April, 2015). A ten-page
structured questionnaire was distributed to the three target groups, representing a
mixture of professionals including those dealing with design, construction, project
management, quantity surveying, construction, facilities management, and clients
of construction projects. The three targeted group were: public sector, private
sector, and contractors. Samples were randomly selected from the listing provided
by the respective professional institutions and Construction Industry Development
Board (CIDB) through National BIM Committee. To measure these attributes, a-
five-points Likert type scaled items were deployed for which the participants were
asked to indicate their level of agreement and disagreement.
As shown in Table 2, a total number of 85 questionnaires were sent out to the
target groups (public sector, private sector, and contractors) within the
construction industry over a period of one month. Out of this, 30 questionnaires
were completed and returned representing a response rate of 35.29 percent which
is acceptable in construction management research (Dulami et al. [16]). Thirteen
respondents (44.83%) were from the public sector, followed by 12 respondents
(32.43%) from the private sector and 5 respondents (26.32%) from the contractors.
The poor response from contractors could be due to the limited time frame and
lack of expertise and knowledge in BIM. The range of respondents experience in
term of years in the BIM is between 2 and 6 years. This is expected due to BIM
was just introduced in Malaysia construction industry since 2007, representing an
executive level of experience in the sample. Despite the volume of questionnaire
(10 pages) is essential to capture the issues of attributes influencing demand in
BIM implementation, it might have the responsible for the seemingly low response
rate since the data collection are still ongoing for further response for the purpose
of PhD main data collection. Nevertheless, off late this questionnaire was
completed by the various respondents in Malaysia, thus, give some of confidence
that the responses are reliable.
Table 2: Respondents profile.
Respondents Questionnaire Responses Percentage

(type of organisations) distributed returned of responses (%)
Public sector 29 13 44.83
Private sector 37 12 32.43
Contractors 19 5 26.32
TOTAL 85 30 35.29
5 Data analysis, findings and discussion

5.1 Reliability of data
Cronbachs Alpha is the most common method of examining the reliability in

internal consistency. The calculation of the Cronbachs Alpha is based on the
number of items and the average inter-item correlation. It ranges from 0 for a
complete unreliable test to 1 for completely reliable test (Hinton et al. [17],
Pallant [18], Coakes and Ong [19]). Nunally [20] suggests in the range of 0.50
0.60, while Hinton et al. [17], Takim [21], and Takim et al. [22] suggest the scale
range of 0.500.75. Table 3 shows the result for the reliability based on the
Cronbachs Alpha value. The result presented show that the Cronbachs Alpha is
in the range of 0.5590.957 indicating that the data collected are interrelated and
reliable.
Table 3: Reliability of data.

Category Cronbachs Alpha No. of Item
Project feasibility 0.890 6
Project duration and formulation 0.894 4
Project duration 0.892 5
Project objective 0.903 3
Project location 0.829 8
Size of the project 0.800 6
Type of project 0.873 6
Time 0.559 7
Cost 0.951 12
Quality (functionality, comfort, and impact) 0.957 35
5.2 Parametric Pearson correlation
A correlation analysis is preformed to describe the strength and direction of the

two variables co-relates. According to Pallant [18], correlation provides an
indication that there is a relationship between two variables, however it did not
indicate that one variable cause another. The statistical measures value from -1 to
+1 where -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, to +1 indicates a perfect
positive correlation. A correlation of 0 indicates no relationship between the two
variables. Pearsons coefficient of correlation indicates the two variables must be
quantitative and normally distributed. A strong correlation indicates there is only
a small amount of error whilst, a weak correlation indicates a lot of error and the
points are more scattered. As cited in Pallant [18], he suggested a small r = 0.10
to 0.29, medium r = 0.30 to 0.49, and large r = 0.50 to 1.0. Since the data obtained
is normally distributed, the parametric Pearson correlation is employed to
determine the relationship of project attributes and client demand.
Table 4 shows the result of correlation between project attributes impact client
demand in BIM-based project. It can be seen that there is a strong relationship
between project feasibility and cost with negative correlation of r value = -
0.673, (p-value=0.000<0.05). This is in line with Rajendran et al. [13], that project
savings are considerably high when using BIM at the early phase of the projects.
Moreover, a medium positive coefficient of correlation value, r = 0.442 between
project feasibility and time. This is corroborates with OBrien [23] that
selection of wrong technology in the early phase of BIM project commencement
at the same time will affects the performance.
The next project attributes is project definition and formulation. It can be seen
that there is a strong relationship between project definition and formulation and
quality with positive correlation of r value = 0.614. This implies that the scope
of work such as accuracy in detailed BIM design will increase the quality of
construction projects (Ahmad Latiffi et al. [24]).
Besides, a strong positive coefficient of correlation between project duration
and quality with r value of 0.578 occurred. According to Rajendran et al. [13],
BIM assist in system coordination through clash analysis tools to discover and
resolve conflict which affected the quality of the building. Therefore, project
duration could be shorter and quality of the building is achieved.
Table 4: Results of correlation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
** ** ** * * ** **
1 Project 0.686 0.751 0.697 0.457 0.379 0.497 -0.673 0.301 0.442*
feasibility 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.011 0.039 0.005 0.000 0.106 0.014
2 Project 0.918** 0.847** 0.734** 0.415* 0.403* -0.030 0.614** 0.224
definition and 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.023 0.027 0.875 0.000 0.234
formulation
3 Project 0.692** 0.604** 0.512** 0.433* -0.213 0.578** 0.259
duration 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.017 0.258 0.001 0.168
4 Project 0.639** 0.114 0.153 -0.195 0.246 0.209
objective 0.000 0.549 0.418 0.302 0.190 0.267
5 Project 0.481** 0.144 0.029 0.703** -0.144
location 0.007 0.447 0.880 0.000 0.448
6 Size of the 0.697** -0.101 0.539** 0.194
project 0.000 0.594 0.002 0.304
7 Type of -0.234 0.349 0.305
project 0.213 0.059 0.102
8 Cost 0.337 -0.070
0.069 0.713
9 Quality 0.175
0.354
10 Time
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
A strong positive coefficient of correlation revealed a value, r = 0.703 between

the project location and quality. This may be due to the complexity of location
with large scope of work will always associated with a high value of quality.
According to Kozak [25], BIM could be apply to any area of project since BIM
significantly help in quality design and the delivery for the entire project.
Based on the results, the size of the project has a strong positive coefficient
of correlation towards quality with r value of 0.539. This implies that the
complexity in design requirement due to the size of the project could be eliminate
by design review in early stage through integration all parties involved in
BIM-based projects and significantly remain quality (value for money) (Rajendran
et al. [13], Bowen and Cattel [26]).
5.3 Comparative discussion
Table 5 shows a comparison of result between literature search and questionnaire

survey. The literature search consist of seven attributes namely, feasibility,
definition, duration, project location, objectives, size and type and triangle of
client demand (i.e., time, cost, quality).
The first key attributes discussed the project feasibility as the basis of client
demand consisting the time, cost, and quality as according to Rajendran et al. [13],
by triggering at the early stage of the project. Despite BIM could reduce the project
costs through systematic collaboration, it also provide future building visualization
in term of performance (quality) and time saving for the client. Nevertheless, the
coefficient correlation result failed to show that quality is correlated to project
feasibility. This is due to the fact that most of respondents were from the private
sectors (developers) that are mostly concern on the time and cost instead of quality
deliverables.
Table 5: Comparison of results.
Literature review Questionnaire analysis

Project attributes Client demand Parametric Pearson correlation
Time Cost Quality Time Cost Quality
Project feasibility
Project definition
and formulation
Project duration
Project objective
Project location
Size of the project
Type of project
Next, the project definition and formulation that indicates basically on the
concept of BIM, platform and scope of work. From the literature search, it showed
that Client demand on project time and quality has positive impacts on project
definition and formulation. This contradicts to the results of the questionnaire
analysis that failed to regard time as important during the project definition and
formulation. The probable reason could be due to the fact that BIM in Malaysia
has just started and most of the respondents are still unsure of the benefits of BIM
that could affect the time and cost problems as mentioned by Rajendran et al. [13].
In project duration, however, once again the results obtained contradict to
findings from previous research. Time is correlated in project duration based on
literature, however in this research; quality is correlated to project duration based
on questionnaire analysis. For that reason, lack of early integration on design
reviews has contributed to errors in design and construction. Hence, they
perceived BIM could assist in detection of errors and omissions for building
quality purposes (Rajendran et al. [13]).
Another essential point is the correlation between project attributes of project
objective with time, cost, and quality. Surprisingly, there is no correlation found
from the questionnaire analysis. The probable reason for this predicament is that
most of the project objective is determined by the top management, hence the
support from top management is an important element for adopting BIM
technology (Zakaria et al. [27]) in determining projects objective.
Once again, in term of project location, the literature search revealed that cost
is much correlated by the location of the project such as rural, swampy or remote
areas. Surprisingly, the results of the questionnaire analysis failed to be in line with
the literature search. The justification for the dilemma is that, in Malaysia, project
quality used to be emphasised by most construction players in particular when
dealing with BIM-based project (Rajendran et al. [13]) at remote areas. This means
to say that cost is not the main problem with regards to the high risk projects.
Besides, the coefficient correlation revealed that the impact of size of
the projects is only correlated to project quality and not to time and cost. The
contention could be due to most of BIM-based projects that are of high complexity
in design requirement and to date, there is no standard of BIM implementation
guidelines in Malaysia at the national level (Zakaria et al. [27]). As such size and
quality is very much correlated compared to time and cost. Since the data collected
based on perception, some of the respondents could misinterpret the purpose of
the study.
Finally, there is no coefficient correlation that appear from the questionnaire
analysis in term of time, cost, and quality to type of the project. The reason is that
the implementation of BIM-based project for educational, industrial, commercial,
and institutional in Malaysia is still low and stagnant (Zakaria et al. [27]).
6 Conclusion
This paper examines the current views on identifying the correlation of project
attributes towards client demand. The project attributes have revealed seven (7)
attributes. These are: feasibility, definition, duration, project location, objectives,
size and type, while the three triangle of client demand are: time, cost, and quality.
In the end, the findings revealed six (6) coefficient correlations of the impacts.
These are: project feasibility is correlated to time and cost; project definition and
formulation, project duration, project location, size of the project are all correlated
to quality. Undoubtedly, these findings indicate that quality is the most essential
factor by most Malaysian construction players in BIM-based project. Although the
sample is small (30 respondents) for the time being, it findings cannot be discredit.
Further research is to explore the relationship between the client attributes and
client demand and the result will be reported in due course.
The research presented in this paper is part of an on-going PhD research study
at the Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, UiTM Malaysia to develop
a framework of client governing in Building Information Modeling (BIM)
implementation. The result of the study could provide an insight into Malaysian
construction projects environment and could offer a valuable guideline, in
particular to industry players that are going to implement BIM based-projects.
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Supplier BIM competence

assessments within the cloud:
a proposed Fuzzy-TOPSIS approach
A.-M. Mahamadu, L. Mahdjoubi & C. A. Booth
Construction and Property Research Centre,
University of the West of England (UWE), UK
Abstract
Building information modelling (BIM) is regarded as a technological solution for
construction supply chain (SC) integration through centralised digital
communications. A number of approaches have been proposed for the evaluation
of a firms capability to deliver BIM. However, none of the existing approaches
have been specifically tailored for supplier selection processes. Most of the
existing tools have been developed for individual firm capability or maturity
evaluations rather than cross comparative assessments for the purpose of selection.
Consequently, there remains a lack of tools for prioritising suppliers based on their
ability to deliver BIM during evaluations for selection. A Fuzzy-TOPSIS
computational framework for implementing such cross comparative assessments
is proposed. This method is proposed in view of its suitability for implementation
within a cloud-based decision support environment. A high-level architecture for
a cloud-based decision support tool (DST) which can incorporate the proposed
computational model is presented. The proposed framework is capable of
enhancing decision making during the selection process through a robust approach
to the aggregation and comparison of SC firms BIM competence and readiness.
Keywords: BIM, supply chain, selection, cloud, decision support.
1 Introduction
Building information modelling (BIM) describes an embodiment of policies,
processes and technologies for the generation and management of project data in
digital formats throughout a facilitys life-cycle [1]. BIM is expected to bridge
communication gaps which have led to a lack of collaboration and integration
doi:10.2495/BIM150071
within the construction supply chain (SC) [2]. Organisations are therefore
developing the necessary capabilities to enable them deliver projects through BIM
[3]. Evidence, however, points to inconsistency in the levels of adoption due to
varying degrees of proficiency across the construction SC [4]. This is exacerbated
by a lack of standardised approach for evaluating a suppliers ability to deliver
BIM especially during selection or prequalification process.
2 BIM competence and supplier selection

Suppliers in the construction SC context refers to consultants, subcontractors and
construction service providers who are employed for the purposes of completing
projects [2]. Suppliers are selected either as part of a project or a construction team
for the execution of several projects. In order to be selected, suppliers normally
undergo a qualification process where they are appraised to ascertain their
suitability or competence. The selection process is one of the most important
phases of a project in view of its usefulness in reducing the risk of engaging
incapable suppliers [5]. As a result, there is a need for robust methodologies for
prioritising potential candidates based on attributes that show necessary capability.
Recently, an important area in which suppliers need to show capability is BIM [3,
6]. However, despite the proliferation of capability assessment frameworks, there
remains a lack of suitable tools for assessing SC firms ability to deliver BIM
during the selection phase.
3 BIM competence and readiness assessments

The general lack of appropriate techniques and tools for evaluating BIM capability
has resulted in the proliferation of BIM wash [7]. According to Succar [7] this
refers to false claims about ability to deliver in BIM. Main contractors and clients
cannot, therefore, appropriately assess such claims as a result of the lack of
benchmarks in the determination of competence, proficiency and willingness to
deliver through BIM [6, 7]. Existing frameworks have been developed mainly to
assess firm capability and maturity, arguable making the more suitable for internal
implementation evaluations [3, 4, 6, 7]. Others were developed for project level
performance measurement thus making them suitable for internal performance
measurement purposes [8]. The tools with some relevance for the selection
activities were, however, not developed for the SC context neither do their
methodologies of evaluation allow for direct cross comparison of alternative firms
[4, 6]. They require the appraisal of individual firms in order to allocate an
aggregated score for their performance. However, the selection process generally
requires a more robust approach to comparing firms performance across multiple
assessment criteria [5, 9]. This has led to the advocacy for the use of multi-criteria
decisions support techniques to aid more robust mathematical modelling of
selection decisions [5, 9, 10]. Existing frameworks for assessing BIM performance
mostly rely on rather simplistic addition of weighted scores which are less robust
for evaluating several alternatives across multiple criteria especially for the
purposes of prioritisation or ranking.
4 Computational methods for construction firms

and supplier selection
Recently there has been greater emphasis on the use of multi-criteria decision
support methodologies for the selection of contractors, sub-contractors and
consultants. Several computational techniques have been relied on in the
development of prequalification and selection models or tools. They include the
dimensional weighting model [10]; multi-attribute analysis and utility theory [5];
case-based reasoning system for the capture and reuse experimental knowledge
experts in evaluation models [11]; neural networks (NN) for matching contractors
attributes to the clients objectives [12]; Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) or its
fuzzy extension [13, 14]; ANP and Monte Carlo simulations [15]; and fuzzy set
theory [9, 16]. These models however predate BIM, thus, do not include criteria
related to BIM. However, criteria used in other BIM performance and capability
frameworks, provide some basis for adaptation into specifically developed
selection models for BIM. Some of the relevant criteria cited include:
organisations and staff competence; culture; availability of technical, managerial
and administrative resources [3, 4, 6, 7, 17]. According to Succar et al. [17], BIM
assessment criteria should be any attributes that show a firms BIM competence,
available resources and historical indicators of BIM performance.
5 Proposed methodology
Despite the availability of many multi-criteria decision methods (MCDM), there
are many limitations which render them unsuitable for the selection of BIM
competent suppliers. Some approaches are restrictive due to complexity, thus,
require a good knowledge of mathematics in order to apply them [5, 9, 10].
Similarly, most generally fail to recognise the uncertainty and vagueness
associated with evaluating several alternatives by human decision makers [16].
Hence, there is a need for the proposition of models that are capable of alleviating
these limitations as well as capable of being applied within a web or cloud based
environment for the development of DSTs. In this paper, Fuzzy-TOPSIS
framework is proposed for ranking alternative suppliers on the basis of their BIM
competence or readiness.
5.1 Proposed computational method for prioritising alternatives suppliers
The proposed Fuzzy-TOPSIS model for prioritisation of BIM competent suppliers

will require decision makers to decide on the requisite criteria for a particular
evaluation under consideration. These criteria must meet the BIM project
objectives or client requirements. The relative importance of such criteria should
also be determined through allocation of criteria weights. The Delphi method is
proposed for the determination of criteria and criteria importance (weight) in this
study. The Delphi method is an iterative process used to collect and analyze
variations in the judgments of experts using a series of questionnaires interspersed
with feedback [4, 18]. The next step is the prioritisation of alternative suppliers
based on the agreed criteria. This process is depicted in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Generic steps for implementing Fuzzy-TOPSIS method in prioritising

BIM competent suppliers.
5.1.1 FuzzyTechnique for Order of Preference by Similarity

to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)
An MCDM technique is deemed appropriate for ranking alternative suppliers
based on BIM competence, hence the choice of Fuzzy-TOPSIS. Hwang and Yoon
[19] developed TOPSIS (Technique for Order Performance by Similarity to Idea
Solution) for determination of the best alternative through the measurement of the
Euclidean distance from best scenario. TOPSIS is based on the concept that the
chosen alternative should have the shortest geometric distance from the positive
ideal solution and the longest geometric distance from the negative ideal solution
[19, 20]. Furthermore, decision makers often find it challenging to allocate crisp
figures for different types of criteria especially when they are subjective or
complicated to measure [20]. Interval judgments however make allocation of
preference scores very easy especially when used for comparative judgements. In
order to perform a TOPSIS evaluation, universal scales are normally used to make
attributes comparable. This is achieved through the use of common linguistic
scales for assessing each criteria. For example software capability can be rated on
scales with corresponding linguistic variable between Very Low to Very High.
However, a critical limitation of the classical TOPSIS is the inability to cater for
uncertainty and imprecision associated with human decision making [21]. Fuzzy
set theory has been integrated with TOPSIS to mathematically model and reduce
inconsistencies that can be introduced by subjectivity [22]. Zadehs [23] fuzzy set
theory, allows a continued assessment of the membership of elements contained
in a set. The membership is defined as the function representing the real unit
interval [0, 1] [23]. The incorporation of fuzzy set principles into TOPSIS allows
the modelling of vagueness as well as incomplete information [20]. This
eliminates the challenges relating to imprecision and vagueness when judgement

is based only on crisp values [21]. In this framework, the proposed model uses
triangular fuzzy number for the Fuzzy-TOPSIS computations. Triangular fuzzy
approach is simple to use as well as easy to understand [20]. Triangular fuzzy have
been extensively applied when fuzzy is integrated with decision modelling
techniques. The basic definitions and steps for the triangular fuzzy as defined by
Dadevirena et al. [20] and Wang and Chang [24] is presented below.
The fuzzy set in the universe of discourse X is part of a membership function
and is associated with each element x in X, between a real number interval
[0, 1]. The function is the grade of membership of x in the fuzzy set. A
triangular fuzzy number is defined as a triplet (a1, a2, a3), Figure 2. The
membership function is defined as (Equation (1)):
0,

,
(1)
,

0,
Figure 2: Triangular fuzzy number .
Let and be two triangular fuzzy numbers, parameterized by the triplet (a1,
a2, a3) and (b1, b2, b3) with the following (Equations (2)(6)):
, , , , , , , (2)
, , , , , , , (3)
1, , , , . , . , . , (4)
/ , , / , , / , / , / , (5)
, , . (6)
BIM competence criteria would normally include both objective and subjective
items [3, 4, 6, 17]. Where the evaluation team relies on many subjective criteria,
assessments will generally be based on approximations, making crisp value
allocation challenging. In such a case, linguistic judgement scales are preferable.
Objectives criteria can however remain crisp especially if an acceptable method

of allocating values to each alternative exists. The linguistic variables used can
then be represented by corresponding fuzzy numbers as presented in Figure 3 and
Table 1.
Figure 3: Membership function of linguistic values for criteria rating.
Table 1: Linguistic values for subjective judgements.
Level Example FuzzyNumber

V1 VeryPoor VP (0,0,0.2)
V2 Poor P (0,0.2,0.4)
V3 Average A (0.2,0.4,0.6)
V4 Good G (0.4,0.6,0.8)
V5 VeryGood VG (0.6,0.8,1)
V6 Outstanding O (0.8,1,1)
Let , , and , , be two triangular fuzzy numbers. The

vertex method for computing the distance between them can be expressed as
follows:
, (7)
1,2, . , 1,2, . , , (8)
where:

A set of performance ratings of 1,2, . with respect to criteria
1,2, . called , 1.2. . , , 1, 2, . . ,
A set of importance criteria 1,2, . .
Based on the above definitions the steps for Fuzzy-TOPSIS can be
operationalised as follows:
Step 1: Select a linguistic value , 1,2, . . , , 1,2, . . with respect
to an evaluation of performance of an alternative for a particular criteria;
Step 2: Calculate the weighted normalized fuzzy decision matrix;

Step 3: Determine the positive-ideal and negative ideal solution. The
fuzzy negative-ideal solution , and the fuzzy negative-ideal
solution , (Equations (9) and (10)).

, , | | ,
1,2, , 1,2, , (9)

, , | | ,
1,2, , 1,2, , (10)
where is benefit criteria and is cost criteria.

Step 4: Calculate the distance of each alternative from and (Equations (11)
and (12)):

, 1,2, , (11)
, 1,2, , (12)
Step 5: Calculate similarities to ideal solution (Equation (13)):
1,2, . (13)
Step 6: Rank alternatives based on their distance from ideal situation.
In order to implement this model, a tender or decision making team must assess
each firm in relation to each criteria (weighted) using the appropriate linguistic
variable on the scales provided. Figure 4 shows the generic decision hierarchy for
implementing the Fuzzy-TOPSIS model. This computational model can be
implemented as part of a wider computational framework a cloud-based decision
support tool (DST).
6 Implementation of proposed computational model

in cloud-based decision support environment
The construction industry is looking towards the optimization of IT in all
operations [2]. One of the most advocated platforms being the internet. Cloud
computing has been advocated as a useful medium for implementing construction
applications and tools [25, 26]. Cloud computing refers to a variety of web or
internet based concepts and methods for sharing configurable computing resources
(e.g. networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) [25]. Cloud computing
provides cheap or free access to many computational services offered in the
Figure 4: Sample decision hierarchy for implementing Fuzzy-TOPSIS model.
internet as a service [26]. A DST implemented within the web refers to

applications or software that aids the integration of multiplicity of data sources
and tools for the generation of relevant information needed for taking a decision
[27]. The benefits of such systems include implantation within the cloud, low cost
of operations as a lot or free applications exist both for their design and use.
Moreover, cloud-based applications do not require additional software to operate
as they are often accessible through most user interfaces such as browsers from
computers or mobile devices [25]. Despite concerns about security, several
approaches exist for safeguarding data through design of associated systems and
processes [26].
6.1 Proposed cloud-based decision support architecture
The architectural components of the proposed cloud-based DST platform include

the web interface, a presentation layer as well as cloud services and data layer for
hosting database and computational models including the proposed Fuzzy-
TOPSIS framework. Data required for the Fuzzy-TOPSIS computation will be
supplied by evaluators through a user interface as well as stored data in the DSTs
databases. The schematic diagram showing the basic high-level architecture is
presented in Figure 5.
JavaScript is proposed for client side scripting as it is one of the most widely
used in web browsers. It is also appropriate where client-side scripts require
interaction with the user or asynchronous communication and control [28].
According to Flanagan and Ferguson [28], JavaScript is also a multi-paradigm
language for supporting object-oriented programming. HTML (Hyper Text
Figure 5: High-level architecture for cloud-based DST.
Markup Language) is proposed as mark-up language. Most browsers use HTML

which describes the structure of a website semantically along with cues for
presentation [29]. According to Arslan et al. [29], CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)
open standards, can aid to specify a layout or formatting that proper ties the HTML
elements as well as provide dynamic graphical user interface (GUI). Proposed
server side scripting language is PHP (Hypertext Pre-processor). PHP is a
commonly used code and can be mixed with HTML codes and various templating
engines and web frameworks [30]. JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is also
proposed for data representation. JSON is an open standard format and uses
human-readable text to transmit data objects [31]. JSON aids transmission of data
between server and web application. The http (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
transfer protocol between will support transfer of information between user
interface and application [29].
A free cloud service is proposed for implementing the computational and
database models through virtual resources. An example of such service is the
Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) [32]. This can support the operation of
main functions of the DST especially in relation to the receipt of queries and
processing within the inference and explanation engine components. The inference
and explanation engine in decision support systems are used for storage and
execution of the logical rules for computational analysis and retrieval of data [33].
A cloud-based dynamic database service is proposed to house the various
knowledge and data including the Fuzzy-TOPSIS computational model, previous
assessment results, criteria and criteria weights from historic assessments. Filters
that are proposed for partitioning knowledge or data in the dynamic database are:
the type and size of supplier; project type; project complexity; scale of project;
BIM maturity and BIM complexity. This will ensure the storage and reuse of
knowledge for projects with matching or similar attributes.
7 Conclusion
The proposed system described, provides a robust approach for achieving a
computational model for prioritising and ranking SC firms based on their BIM
competence or readiness. This computational model can be incorporated within a
broader framework for implementing a DST in a cloud computing environment.
This framework is proposed to aid the development of a DST, specifically tailored
for the selection phase of projects or for the purposes of SC management by main
contractors and clients. The proposed DST framework allows users to register and
enter project attributes which will include assessment criteria and details of
alternative suppliers to be evaluated. Users will be required to provide weight for
the criteria based on their relative importance in the evaluation scenario. Finally,
users will perform evaluation of alternatives with the aid of linguistic scales from
the Fuzzy-TOPSIS computational model. Results will then be displayed as well as
stored as knowledge to aid future evaluations. The proposed framework, thus,
provides a dynamic and cost effective approach for decision making during the
selection of suppliers to work on BIM projects and environments.
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Section 3
BIM and life cycle
project management
3D scene capture: a comprehensive review

of techniques and tools for efficient Life
Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Emergency
Preparedness (EP) applications
F. Fadli1, H. Barki1, P. Boguslawski2 & L. Mahdjoubi2
1
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning,
College of Engineering, Qatar University, Qatar
2
Department of Architecture and the Built Environment,
Abstract
3D scene capture is a critical task in many domains, especially for BIM model
reconstruction of existing facilities, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), and Emergency
Preparedness (EP). While initial CAD/GIS plans and drawings, if they exist,
represent a valuable source of information, acquiring knowledge about the
dynamic scene, aspects like crowd movement or furniture is a necessary and
difficult task. In this context, 3D capture becomes unavoidable as it is the only
way to deal with such dynamic information. We propose, in this work, a critical
review of 3D capture techniques and tools, ranging from photogrammetry to 3D
scanning. Our study distinguishes itself by being oriented towards 3D capture
practitioners, who need to make critical decisions about the choice of adequate
acquisition technologies for a particular application. We review 3D capture
techniques by exposing their pros and cons, and discuss the most relevant aspects
of each technology, like equipment/operation costs, mobility, ease of use, learning
curve, acquisition accuracy, precision and range, generated data complexities,
post-processing considerations, and applications. The paper aims at synthesizing
the analysis by developing a set of recommendations for the use of 3D capture in
various contexts with special reference to LCA and EP in the built environment.
Keywords: 3D capture, laser scanning, photogrammetry, BIM model
reconstruction, LCA.
doi:10.2495/BIM150081
1 Introduction
3D capture is the process of generating 3D models from sensor data dispatched
over a scene. With the recent progress made in computing hardware, especially in
computer graphics and data acquisition technologies, and the rapidly decreasing
prices of such equipment, 3D capture has become more accessible for
professionals and even for amateurs. It is now possible to create and manipulate
large amounts of very complex 3D data, such as cloud points and meshes,
describing the geometry, topology, texture, and other physical properties of a
surrounding scene, all this can be done in cost and time-efficient ways.
3D capture is considered as a critical task for many application domains, like
BIM, building surveying, robot motion planning, life cycle analysis [1], and
emergency preparedness [2]. It is essential as it constitutes the first step towards
the development of suitable indoor/outdoor BIM models that greatly help
practitioners by offering better visualization and interaction means. While initial
CAD/GIS plans, if they exist for a particular scene, represent a valuable source of
information; acquiring knowledge about dynamic scene aspects (human
behaviour, construction and as-built differences) is a necessary and relatively
difficult task, making 3D capture unavoidable in our context, because it is the only
way to deal with dynamic scenes information.
In this paper, we propose a critical review of the available 3D capture
techniques and their potential, ranging from photogrammetry to 3D scanning.
While 3D capture techniques have already been studied in the literature, most of
the existing discussions tend to summarize the literature, do not discuss some
relevant aspects, or do not provide a thorough analysis helping practitioners in
making relevant decisions about the adequate technology for the targeted
application domain. Our comprehensive analysis distinguishes itself from
previous works in the sense that it is oriented towards 3D capture practitioners
who need to make such critical decisions, by examining the relevant aspects of
each technology, the different pros and cons, and the potential application domains
for each technique. 3D capture techniques are analysed and compared according
to many aspects that are important to field practitioners, like equipment and
operation costs, mobility, flexibility and ease of use, learning curve, acquisition
accuracy, precision and range, temporal and spatial complexities of generated
data, post-processing considerations, applications, etc. We also provide a set of
recommendations for field practitioners in order to help adopting the most
adequate 3D capture technologies in various contexts.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: in section 2 we briefly expose the
different techniques proposed in the literature for the 3D acquisition of scenes,
with a focus on the most prominent ones: photogrammetry and laser scanning. In
section 3, we provide a comprehensive comparison of these techniques by
considering the aforementioned aspects. Finally in section 4 we develop a set of
recommendations for field practitioners in order to help them in choosing the more
adequate 3D capture technique(s), according to the application context.
2 Overview of 3D scene capture techniques

The state of the art of 3D capture shows that several techniques have been
developed and used for 3D data acquisition. A strict classification of these
techniques may not be possible but one may talk about two broad categories: 3D
scanning/modelling and image-based techniques.
The first and most basic technique relied on manually measuring the geometry
of a scene and translating it through drafting boards into paper-based drawings.
Later on, the CAD modelling (cf. Figure 1) has emerged as a consequence of the
development of CAD tools and allowed the generation of 3D models. However,
such methods require long modeling times for complex scenes, are unsuitable for
the reproduction of fine or highly curved architectural details, necessitate highly
skilled operators, and induce a loss of control on the accuracy of the generated
model.
Figure 1: CAD modeling illustration for a floor of a skyscraper building. Left:

2D CAD model. Right: 3D BIM model.
Thanks to the data acquisition hardware recent developments, 3D scanning

becomes more affordable. According to different criteria [3], one may classify 3D
scanning techniques into different categories, such as contact/non-contact,
passive/active, reflective/transmissive, destructive/non-destructive, optical/non-
optical, etc. Active and contact-based probing techniques have been employed to
capture the shape of 3D physical objects and generate accurate 3D models. These
techniques use Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM) composed of mechanical
arms that touch the surface of objects along user-defined profiles (cf. Figure 2 left),
so that contact-points coordinates can be deduced from the moving configurations
of the probe arms [4]. Although successfully used for reverse engineering, such a
time-consuming and manually operated technique does not provide consistent
control on the sampling accuracy, does not allow recording visual properties of
objects, and doesnt work on soft or large-size objects (destructive approach).
Non-contact 3D scanning techniques, either optical, e.g. Lidar, or non-optical,
e.g. Radar, Sonar, or Computer Tomography (CT) employ different remote
sensing principles (Laser light for Lidar, microwaves for Radar, etc.). Such
techniques may be classified into transmissive and reflective ones, depending on
the nature of the interaction of the emitted wave with the target objects. These
techniques do not intrinsically interfere with the scanned object, reducing the
destructive impact of the capture and allowing to operate on fragile objects. They
Figure 2: 3D scanning/photogrammetry devices. Left: A contact-based

MicroScribe MX device (photo taken from [4]). Center: The Riegl
VZ-400 terrestrial laser scanner. Right: The Nikon D600 digital
camera shipped with Riegl VZ-400 scanner.
also widen the capture range as no physical contact is required. Lidar or laser
scanning technique is the most relevant in our context. The principle consists in
emitting laser beams, of frequencies typically between 5001500 nm [5], and
analysing the reflected beams, in order to measure the distance between the device
(cf. Figure 2 center) and the scanned objects. Laser scanners are widely used as
we will see next. One of the main reasons of their wide adoption is that a laser
beam has a tight focus, meaning that it can be used to capture large scenes, contrary
to other optical techniques which lose focus for large distances.
Image-based techniques and especially photogrammetry (also known as
stereoscopy) have a long history as they find their roots in the middle of the 19th
century. According to [6], Aim Laussedat (a French inventor) is the first one who
thought of using still images for mapping purposes. However, it is only recently
that the availability of high quality cameras (cf. Figure 2 right) encouraged the use
of photogrammetry to model 3D scenes. Photogrammetry aims to produce
measures of a scene and to deduce its 3D structure by examining a set of images.
The principle consists in positioning targets whose coordinates are known in
advance on the objects to be captured, and then taking several image captures of
these objects from different positions and angles. By using the a priori information
of the camera positions/rotations, the target points coordinates, and some
principles of projective geometry, the captured images are combined to form a 3D
model of the scene [7]. One of the advantages of photogrammetry is that it allows
extracting colour and texture information. However, in extreme conditions (low
textures or very complex objects), photogrammetry reaches its limits.
Photogrammetry may be used effectively as a complement to 3D laser scanning
and the following sections provide usage recommendations.
3 Review of 3D capture technologies

The aim of the current discussion is to compare the most prominent capture
techniques from the aforementioned two categories (image-based and 3D
scanning). This non-exhaustive discussion focuses on photogrammetry and laser

scanning, but whenever relevant, some of their variations are mentioned.
3.1 Safety and autonomy/mobility
Photogrammetric techniques only require the use of conventional still cameras

after the placement of identified targets. Therefore, the process is not harmful for
the operator, contrary to laser scanning which is harmful for the operators eyes.
Recently, there is a trend of using LED light in 3D scanning as a replacement of
laser. The advantage is that LED light is safer and as accurate as laser light (for
close range captures only). When it comes to autonomy of capture devices,
photogrammetry requires less power consumption than laser, as no built-in
amplifier is required as in laser scanners, enabling the production of more
autonomous and mobile capture devices. We shall however mention that some
hardware manufacturers recently propose handheld flexible laser scanners which
are primarily used for scanning small size objects and attempts have been made to
use them for large scene capture.
3.2 Equipment and operation costs
Evaluating the capture budget is a crucial factor as this budget must fit projects
financial constraints. Regarding equipment cost, photogrammetric devices are the
most accessible ones, as they are basically manufactured for general public. While
the prices are rapidly decreasing, the performance and specifications are
continuously increasing, allowing them to be widely and easily used by ordinary
people. Photogrammetric devices can be purchased for prices starting form tens of
dollars only! On the other hand, despite the fact that laser scanners have been
commercialized since three decades, the prices are still high and their decreasing
evolution didnt follow the rapid drop of the other electronic devices prices.
According to [3], laser scanners prices range from tens of thousands of dollars to
hundreds of thousands of dollars, depending on the sophistication of the scanner,
the included accessories/software, and the specifications. In consequence, laser
scanners are still inaccessible for general public and are more tailored to
companies or educational institutions with consequent budgets. A list of laser
scanner providers may be found in [3].
Recently, some companies started proposing scanner rental services [8], as a
compromise to the high purchase pricing. Besides budget considerations, it is also
crucial to take into account the lifetime of the scanning device. While
photogrammetric devices may be used for decades, laser scanners have a much
smaller lifetime expressed in thousands of hours [5], because they are quickly
deteriorated by the operational temperature of the built-in amplifier of the laser
equipment.
Structural light scanners [9] represent another kind of 3D scanners that deserve
a discussion. Unlike laser scanners, the principle is to project patterns of light
(usually lines) and to use camera(s) for the capture of the light distortions. Specific
software is then used to reconstruct the geometry of the exposed object from the
light pattern distortions, yielding a 3D model. Structured light scanners are
cheaper and may constitute an alternative to laser scanner in some contexts (tight
budgets). However, they present weaknesses like loss of focus for large scenes,
low resolution/accuracy, the need for separate emission/reception devices, and the
manual handling of the capture process, contrary to laser scanners which require
less user input. A popular example of a handheld structured light (infrared) scanner
is the Kinect device shipped with the Microsoft Xbox gaming system.
Regarding the operational cost of a 3D capture process (equivalently the
learning curve), since photogrammetric devices can be found on almost any
private office, it is expected that ordinary people can use them easily. Laser
scanners are not public-friendly and need specific trainings, so an additional
operational cost has to be accounted (steep learning curve).
3.3 Software
Besides the aforementioned equipment cost considerations, the availability of

cheap or open source software is one of the main points that influence the decision
to adopt a capture technology. There exists a big gap between photogrammetry
and laser scanning in terms of software support. Because laser scanner providers
are mainly targeting professionals with consequent budgets, most of them provide
specific software which is generally highly expensive and compatible only with
the scanner it ships with. In extreme cases, it cannot be even used with other
devices from the same company! Such software has closed source code, disabling
the possibility of examining it for further R&D purposes.
We shall note that even if each company has a proprietary closed file format,
some open file formats allowing basic data exchange between different devices do
exist. An example of proprietary laser scanning software is the RiSCAN PRO
delivered with RIEGL devices (cf. Figure 2 center), which allows both remotely
operating on the scanner and processing the captured data (filtering, registration,
hole closing, resampling, etc.).
Because photogrammetric techniques emerged a long time before laser
scanning, in addition to the availability of cheap price still cameras and their wide
usage among general public, photogrammetric software offer is richer, cheaper,
and even multiplatform. Autodesk 123D Catch is a freemium mobile application
for hobbyists, which allows generating 3D models on the cloud from a set of
overlapping images. Eos systems Photomodeler is well-known and probably the
most mature and affordable commercial software (price starting from $1145) using
close-range photogrammetry for 3D models reconstruction. Other free and open
source alternatives do exist like the openMVG C++ library and VisualSFM,
making them good candidates for research purposes. Compared to laser scanning
software, photogrammetric software is cheaper, more accessible, and relatively
usable with any capture device.
3.4 Resolution, precision, range, and capture details
The quality a measurement system in general and of a 3D capture device in

particular is usually assessed through a set of objective measures, among which
we will define and discuss the range, resolution, precision, and accuracy
parameters. The range of a capture device measures the maximal distance up to

which a device can properly acquire the properties of an object located at that
distance from the device. Resolution is a measure intrinsic to the capture device,
as it measures the minimal distance between two distinct data samples (point in
the case of laser scanning and pixels in the case of photogrammetry) and is
sometimes called or inter-sample distance. Accuracy refers to the difference
between the measured sample coordinates and the real physical coordinates of that
sample in the captured scene. These parameters are not independent from each
other, as for example, the resolution/accuracy of a data sample depends on the
range or the distance of the corresponding physical sample from the capture
device.
The accuracy of a laser scanning capture may be easily estimated in advance,
compared to photogrammetry whose outcome is unpredictable because of many
parameters, like the 2D image to 3D model conversion errors. Although some
previous work claims that photogrammetry, especially with the increasing
capabilities of imaging devices, can achieve similar or even higher
resolution/accuracy than laser scanners, there is an agreement in the literature that
laser scanning performs better in general and can go below the millimetre
accuracy, and that for complex geometry scenes and objects, photogrammetric
methods are still unable to reproduce accurate 3D models, compared to laser
scanners [3]. Another factor consolidating these facts resides in the fact that laser
beams have tight focus, meaning that they are more precise in capturing scenes at
higher ranges, and even at very short ranges at the level of molecules [10]. For
concrete measures of such parameters, the reader is referred to the manuals
chipped with the different capture devices.
Another aspect distinguishing photogrammetry and laser scanning techniques
capture details resides in the environmental conditions under which these
techniques are guaranteed to perform correctly. Because of its emissive nature,
laser scanning is less affected by ambient light changes (day or night operations)
and the resulting acquisition data is relatively invariant with respect to climate
conditions. However, because of their properties, very shiny materials like water
surfaces are impossible to scan. On the other hand, photogrammetric capture is
highly influenced by weather/light fluctuations, and the capture outcome highly
depends on the scene illumination, as the capture result deteriorates for dark scene
areas. This point represents one of the main weaknesses of photogrammetry.
3.5 Temporal/spatial data complexity and processing
Laser scanning is the more advanced data capture. Compared to photogrammetry,

laser scanning has shown to be more efficient in capturing data quickly, as millions
of points can be captured per second and this rate is even increasing. The main
reasons for this high capture speed reside in the fact that scanners provide an
automated way of scanning large 3D areas (at least for a single scan) in 360
horizontal direction, by using tight focus laser beams, allowing for more capture
density. On the other hand, photogrammetry relies on 2D capture and then on some
heavy processing for 3D point cloud generation, making it less efficient and
constrained by the single image capture resolution. Laser scanning can capture
data in near real-time, compared to photogrammetry, which is an offline process.

We shall note that in order for efficiency claims to be fair, the same data set have
to be targeted for both photogrammetry and laser scanning. In the literature, laser
scanning has been reported to be slow compared to photogrammetry when using
high resolutions, but this is not true as if one wants to target the same resolution
with photogrammetry, this is sometimes impossible and if it is possible, it makes
photogrammetric capture slower.
Because of the speed of 3D laser capture, it is expected that the spatial
complexity of the acquired data is more consequent than that of photogrammetry.
Depending on the resolution of the scanner, the more laser beams are emitted or
projected onto a scene, the more points are collected and typical point clouds may
easily attain billions of points for large projects where hundreds of scans may be
required. Such generated point clouds may provide rich and very detailed
information about a scene, but a lot of information makes the task of processing,
analysing, and extracting pertinent knowledge more difficult. Detailed point
clouds correspond to large size (tens to hundreds of gigabytes) and complex files
which require high computation power and are extremely difficult to handle by
processing software. Photogrammetric data is less cumbersome than laser data.
However, with the progress made in of imaging device specifications and
algorithms, current applications may involve tens of thousands of images yielding
to very large point clouds.
For photogrammetry, the most critical issue concerns processing or combining
individual images into a 3D model. The placement of targets allowing individual
image registration and the manual choice of individual image spatial
positions/rotations represent time consuming and tedious tasks especially if the
number of snapshots/target points increases. The most time consuming sub-step in
a photogrammetric process is the combination of the individual 2D images into a
unique 3D point cloud. On the other hand, such a resource consuming 2D-to-3D
conversion sub-step is unnecessary in laser scanning, as data is already in 3D form
and the registration of the individual 3D point clouds is relatively easier.
The reader interested in precise measures of 3D capture complexity and
processing cost may refer to specific papers [11] and capture hardware manuals
[12]. We avoided mentioning precise numbers because they tend to change from
a hardware/software system to another and are also customizable within the same
device.
3.6 Applications
Whenever some geometric or physical information about a scene is required or

needs to be reconstructed, data capture enters into action. Photogrammetry and 3D
scanning have been interchangeably and successfully used in many applications.
On the one hand, Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) has been applied for interior
building modeling, navigation, and exploration [13], while Airborne Laser
Scanning (ALS) has been used for 3D city/terrain modelling and landslide volume
computation in geology, in order to capture the geometry of cities and terrains
[14]. In transportation projects, it has been used for acquiring design and
construction data [11]. Cultural heritage and historical buildings digitization is
probably the most explored domain where laser capture has been used for heritage
documentation and preservation [13]. On the other hand, photogrammetry touched
similar application domains like for example in bridge engineering [15], but the
application domain that deserved most of the researchers attention was cultural
heritage preservation, where it has been used for the digitization and
reconstruction of photorealistic 3D models for many historical sites [7, 16], thanks
to the ability of photogrammetry to better capture visual aspects of scenes.
4 Recommendations for field practitioners

The provided review reveals that laser scanning technology represents the future
of 3D capture. It is the most promising 3D capture tool as it is the most accurate
one. On the other hand, photogrammetry provides less complex data than laser
scanning, but requires further costly processing of that data. The accuracy of the
resulting 3D models is limited by the images accuracy, as well as the precision of
the registration of the different images.
As predicted by Debevec [6] in the beginning of the 21st century, since each
technology comes with its own set of limitations, it is interesting to look towards
combining different technologies, especially laser scanning and photogrammetry,
in order to improve the accuracy of photogrammetry and to reduce or ideally
eliminate the manual steps required for generating 3D models. Nowadays, the
trend is going towards such a combined use of techniques for better reconstruction
and modeling outcomes. As an example of such an integration of capture
techniques, in the LCA context, El-Omari and Moselhi [1] described a progress
reporting application, where both photogrammetry and laser scanning have been
combined to improve the accuracy and speed of collecting data from a construction
site. In cultural heritage digitization, laser scanning and photogrammetry have
been recently used in conjunction for developing documentation systems for
Umayyad desert palaces in Jordan [16], Quattro Canti historical monument of
Palermo [17], and Fatih mosque of Istanbul [18], etc. In robot motion planning,
laser and vision sensors were combined for the development of a robot navigation
system in indoor environment [19].
We shall note that besides the aforementioned conventional techniques, new
data capture tools have emerged recently, thanks to the miniaturization of
electronic devices, the development of new communication standards, and the
dramatic drop of electronic chip prices. Such techniques include Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID), Bluetooth, and bar coding. They may be used for some
specific data capture subtasks in a more cost/time-effective way than laser
scanning or photogrammetry. For instance, RFID may be used to track crowd
movement within a facility in the context of an EP scenario, by providing pertinent
and concise data about tracked people (their position and even identification in the
building), while laser scanning and photogrammetry, will generate a lot of
unnecessary data which is time/space complex, needs costly processing to extract
pertinent knowledge equivalent to what RFID offers, and inhibits real-time
operating which is a critical requirement for EP applications.
As a synthesis for our discussion, the previous discussions emphasize that there
is not ideal 3D capture technique to be used in all circumstances, as each technique
offers advantages but comes with inherent problems. No one of the exposed
techniques can be universally considered better than the others. When the need
arises for data capture in a particular context, one has to first carefully identify the
application needs in terms of data capture and to transpose them to each technique
by considering its strengths and weakness, in order to find the (relatively) most
adequate one. As most often, no technique perfectly fits a particular application
context; one might consider using other techniques, in conjunction or
complementation of the first one, in order to improve the capture and extraction
of relevant knowledge. In cultural heritage, it appears that combining laser
scanning (more precision) and photogrammetry (better visualization) gives the
best results, while in an EP context, laser scanning and RFID represent good
candidates as laser scanning, when used offline, enables precisely acquiring the
3D geometry of the facility, while RFID enables tracking people in a real-time
way.
In future, we believe that the main challenges that researchers need to address
for 3D capture consist in:
Reducing the time required to perform a capture campaign, especially when
high resolutions are used.
Determining the minimum number of points/images sufficient for extracting
the needed scene information.
Developing efficient tools for the extraction of semantics from the raw
captured data.
5 Conclusions
The paper develops a comprehensive review of 3D capture techniques and tools,
with a deliberate focus on the most prominent ones: 3D laser scanning and
photogrammetry. These techniques have been introduced and compared by
exposing their weaknesses and strengths, according to many criteria of relevance
for 3D capture practitioners like equipment/operation costs, mobility, accuracy,
precision and range, data complexities, etc.
As 3D scene capture touches a plenty of application domains, this work targets
a wide audience of professionals. It provides a set of recommendations and advices
that help data capture actors for the correct and critical choice of adequate 3D
capture technologies that best suit the targeted application, with special reference
to LCA and EP in the built environment.
Even if our study gives some hints facilitating the choice of adequate 3D
capture tools, it shows that a perfect or an ideal technology may not exist for a
particular application domain, but any technology that reduces the tedious manual
subtasks involved in 3D capture is more than welcome and non-conventional
techniques like RFID should also be investigated. While laser scanning excels in
accurately capturing the geometry of scene objects, photogrammetry excels in
extracting visual details like texture and colours, making it a complementary
technology and motivating the integration of different capture techniques for better
results.
Acknowledgement
This research/publication was made possible by a National Priority Research
Program NPRP award (NPRP-06-1208-2-492) from the Qatar National Research
Fund (a member of The Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely
the responsibility of the author(s).
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Using BIM to follow up milestones in

a project plan during the design phase
. Mejlnder-Larsen
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Abstract
Traditionally, progress in construction projects is done by manually reporting
status on activities in a project plan, very often based on subjective evaluation.
This increases the possibility to report different status than actual progress,
especially in large and multidisciplinary construction projects with high
complexity. Could the project plan be related to a building information model
(BIM) and could project progress reported directly from the BIM lead to a more
accurate, consistent and coordinated status?
This paper assesses how object status in the BIM can be related to milestones
in a project plan. Findings are based on experiences from the oil and gas industry.
Data is gathered from case projects in Kvaerner, a Norwegian EPC (engineering,
procurement and construction) contractor. The paper examines how a project plan
can be connected to a BIM, focusing on the benefits and possibilities of adding
status to objects in the BIM and how project progress can be reported and
visualized using BIM.
Research shows that project progress can be extracted directly from the BIM
by introducing control objects, where objects in the BIM are assigned statuses that
measures grade of completeness. Checklists are connected to control objects and
define criteria that must be fulfilled to reach a correct quality level. Control objects
are connected to activities and dated in the project plan. Status on activities can
then be obtained and related to milestones, to see if the project is on schedule.
By defining control objects in the BIM and adding quality levels that measure
status related to milestones, the control objects can be connected to activities in
the project plan. Status on each activity related to each milestone can be obtained
directly from the BIM. Instead of manual reporting, progress towards milestones
in the project plan can be reported directly from the BIM.
Keywords: building information modelling, project execution model, project
planning, progress visualization, quality visualization.
doi:10.2495/BIM150091
1 Introduction
When design moved from 2D to 3D, there was a need to get a thorough
understanding of design progress, which was not very easy by looking directly
into large and complex 3D models. Kvaerner, a Norwegian EPC contractor,
started using a 3D design environment (a multidiscipline and object based 3D
design software integrated with a number of information systems that serves
as the main source of information for engineering and construction, where the
main purpose is to improve the coordination and consistency between the
disciplines responsible for the design in the project (Kvaerner [1])),
corresponding to building information modeling (BIM) (a digital
representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility, and a
shared knowledge resource for information about a facility, that forms a
reliable basis for decisions during its life cycle from concept to demolition
(NBIMS [2])) in the construction industry. They began running collision
controls, as part of interdisciplinary checks (IDC) in the design phase. It took
a lot of time and resulted in tens of thousands of object collisions on a regular
offshore production platform (topside). The process was gradually optimized, with
a categorization of clashes into hard clashes (critical clashes between objects
trying to occupy the same space) and soft clashes (clashes between the obstruction
volumes provided around objects for access or clearance, and not the physical
object). But did it say anything about the quality of the 3D design environment
(hereafter called BIM)?
Kvaerner started with the objects in the BIM and looked at how they were able
to harvest status on objects that had reached a measurable level of quality. Status
definitions were defined for use on objects in the BIM. When the designer had
completed a defined work, the objects were given relevant status. A checklist with
a number of control questions were prepared for each discipline, which focused
on execution on own work and interfaces towards adjacent disciplines. When the
control questions were fulfilled, they were signed off in the checklist and a higher
status was achieved. Several status levels were established. Eventually Kvaerner
were able to extract statuses directly from the BIM, which formed the basis for the
connection towards the milestones and eventually the project plan.
In research on project progress with the use of BIM, there has been very little
focus on the use of object status, especially in the design phase. Sacks et al. [3]
developed a BIM-enabled system to support production planning and day-to-day
production control on construction sites. Common for this and similar solutions,
is visualization of project and work status, by color-coding of objects. BIM is ideal
for visualizing process and is used to show information that is specifically filtered
for the viewer. This includes the ability to query visible objects for their
relationships with work packages and their changing status through time.
Similarly, Chen and Luo [4] has defined how the BIM describes quality status in
construction with different color codes. The color codes are grouped in two; before
or after inspection is performed. When the relevant part of the BIM is accepted
(passed), it will be marked with yellow color code. If the part of the BIM fails an
inspection, it will be marked red. A nonconformance report that states the violation
of codes that fail to deliver the consistency of design intent and construction results
will be issued for corrective action.
The main focus in research on BIM and progress is related to the construction
phase and the 4D concept, where objects are linked to construction schedules,
where time represents the fourth dimension. Traditionally, a 3D model and a
project schedule, which are developed separately, have been combined into a 4D
model. A schedule simulator is utilized to link the objects with the related
scheduling activities. The resulting 4D model displays the construction sequence
by showing consecutive objects as a progression over the time-span of the project
(Wang et al. [5]). The 4D concept has been adopted in industry and several
commercial applications are available for 4D construction planning (Sacks et al.
[6]).
The focus of this paper is to assess how BIM can be used to follow up
milestones in a project plan in the design phase. The paper is divided into two
parts. The first part of the paper introduces control objects and the use of quality
levels in BIM, and how status definitions can define quality of a design. The
second part focuses on how control objects in the BIM can be related to milestones
in the design phase, how the milestones in the design phase are related to the
project plan, and how BIM can be used to follow up activities in the project plan.
The research is qualitative, conducted as case study research. Findings are
based on experiences from project execution in major oil and gas projects through
Kvaerner, one of Norways largest EPC contractors. The data has primarily been
gathered from two case projects at Kvaerner. These offshore projects are delivery
of offshore production platforms (topsides) in the North Sea, executed as EPC
contracts, and one with engineering on a subcontract. An EPC contract in the oil
and gas industry corresponds to a design-build contract in the construction
industry, where the engineering and construction services are contracted by a
single builder or contractor. Data has primarily been collected through relevant
company and project documentation and interviews with resources in key
positions. The aim is to identify findings that can be adapted to the construction
industry. According to Mejlnder-Larsen [7] the more similar the oil and gas
industry and construction industry are related to project execution, and more
specifically on variables related to BIM, the more relevant the findings from the
oil and gas industry will be towards the construction industry.
2 BIM and design quality

2.1 Control objects and quality levels
A design deliverable may be divided into detailed sets of information linked to

suitable control objects for each discipline. A control object consists of either one
or several similar objects or objects that are grouped together with other related
objects. All control objects will achieve the same quality level in the design phase
(and in subsequent phases). The grade of completeness for a control object is
described by status definitions. The status numbering, name and description are
common for all control objects. Quality level is the degree of completion an
activity or deliverable have at a given time, and how far each discipline has come,
or how much they have done. Quality level describes what should be the quality
of a given control object from creation to completion, divided in certain steps.
Each quality level shall be achieved prior to or at certain milestones. The quality
level descriptions refer to status for control objects (AkerSolutions [8]). Status for
each control object is illustrated with a color code, so that the BIM can display the
quality level directly, using color codes on each object. In design, the main quality
levels are S1 Preliminary, S2 Release for verification, and S3 Frozen. See
Table 1 for all status definitions in the design phase.
Table 1: Status definitions used in the design phase (AkerSolutions [8]).
Status Name Definition Color

Control object registered with preliminary/
S1 Preliminary
estimated information.
Control object released for verification/
Released for
S2 IDC. Necessary information required for
verification/IDC
the verification/IDC included.
Verification/IDC comments implemented.
S3 Frozen Interface towards other control objects and
other disciplines frozen.
Detail design of control object completed
Detail design and approved for construction. Detailing
S4
completed shall not affect interfaces to other
disciplines and control objects.
The connection between control objects, quality levels and status levels are
illustrated in Figure 1. The illustration shows a simple concrete structure that
consists of a base slab with four columns in each corner and a top slab that rests
on the columns. The entire concrete structure can be seen as one system, where all
objects are mutually dependent of each other. The control object is the concrete
structure. The quality level of the control object is defined using status definitions
(S1S4). To fulfill a desired quality level, in this case S3, all objects must have
achieved the same status level (S3). Each status level is displayed with unique
color codes. Here, all objects have status S3, except column 1, which have status
S2. If there are minor adjustments needed before the column can be lifted to status
S3, the control object can still obtain quality level S3, but with column 1 on Hold.
This means that it will be put on a punch list with outstanding issues that must be
solved.
The use of status can be applied broadly. If four status levels on quality (and
progress) are defined, then these can be applied in construction projects. It is
important that criteria for how far the design should have come at the different
status levels (S1S4), and that they are defined relative to something that brings
the work to completion.
Figure 1: Illustration of a control object with quality level and status levels.
The status definitions (S1S4) define the grade of completeness or maturity for
a control object at the various milestones. Similarly, Sacks et al. [3] define
maturity to be a measure of the state of readiness of a work package or a task.
The maturity index is displayed using color-coded symbols on task icons.
Unresolved preconditions may prevent execution of the work correctly, on time
and with the expected level of resource consumption.
With each control object there is a checklist that defines the requirements that
must be achieved at the different quality levels. It works in the sense that when a
discipline has created a design, the discipline goes through a checklist with a
number of control questions for each control object. In order to demonstrate that
the quality level has a certain status, (for example S3, Frozen) all control
questions shall be checked off. The discipline engineer is responsible for this.
What is not done must be transferred to a punch list, so that it can be taken into
account in the continuation of the work. The checklists and quality levels related
to the control objects are in Kvaerner is implemented in their BIM software
(AVEVA PDMS [9]). When all control questions in the checklist connected to
each control object are fulfilled and checked off by a discipline, a higher quality
level is achieved and status with color codes is set by the BIM software. Kvaerner
has over the years developed an increasing number of control objects where the
corresponding checklists are related to milestones and subsequently progress in
the project plan. The reason is to try to move away from personal estimates,
sometimes guesstimates, on how far each discipline has come (for example 30%
complete).
Status is both quality and quantity. If a discipline have gone through the
relevant checklists and fulfilled all criteria in those, and for instance achieve
quality level S4 (Detail design completed), then relevant control objects have a
quality that enables the discipline to start producing drawings for construction. At
the same time, the achieved quality level is a goal, because the design will have a
given number of control objects in status S4. If not all control objects are on status
S4, the relevant discipline is behind schedule. If all control objects have status S4
the discipline is on schedule, and satisfy both quality and quantity.
Research shows that quality in the BIM can be seen through status on the
objects in the model. According to Sacks et al. [6] visualization of process status
is needed and should be displayed in a manner that can be readily understood by

all, regardless of their technical knowledge. The focus has primarily been on
developing a system for the construction phase, and not the design phase. The
authors have defined work status icons that are shown for each location in a 3D
model view for construction. This representation provides the status, the duration
for which the current status has been valid, and the expected remaining work
duration, where relevant.
A topside facility on a production platform often consists of up to 100,000
objects. Kvaerner cannot define control objects to follow up all of these, but must
focus on the most central ones, being essential for keeping control of the project.
First, Kvaerner focus on objects that are technically feasible to achieve status from.
Because of the size and complexity of a topside, there will be objects that are not
modeled in detail. An example is a valve, where the bolts used for fastening are
not modeled, but are defined in the specification attached to the valve. Second,
Kvaerner focus on objects that have several other objects connected to them, which
means that the status on one object implies the same status on connected objects.
An example is if a complete (frozen) pipe is located, it will assume that the steel
supporting the pipe is complete. With this as a basis, Kvaerner active measures
status on a minimum of 30% and up to 50% of all objects in the design phase from
defined control objects in the BIM. The rest is measured manually on each activity
in the project plan, where the discipline leaders set the status for each of the
relevant disciplines.
3 BIM and design progress

3.1 Project execution model and milestones
The initial design phase in Kvaerner is called System Definition and consists of
three stages (AkerSolutions [10]). The content and scope of these three stages are
similar to the three stages in the design phase for the construction industry, as
defined by RIBA [11]. This increases the relevance towards the construction
industry. See Figure 2 for a comparison of the project stages and milestones in the
two industries. In the first stage, both have focus on basis requirements for the
design. The objective of stage 2A System Design, with milestone M2A, is to
identify and confirm all design basis requirements. In stage 2 Concept design,
the initial concept design is produced in line with the requirements. The second
stage focuses on further development of the concept design. The objective of stage
2B System Design and Layout Development, with milestone M2B, is to further
develop the design and make sure that the overall layout is frozen. In stage 3,
Developed design, the concept design is further developed and the design work
of the core designers is progressed. In the third stage, the design is finalized and
frozen. The objective of stage 2C Global Design, with milestone M2C, is to
further develop the system and area design to a stage where all interfaces and the
system design shall be frozen. In stage 4, Technical design, the architectural,
building services and structural engineering designs are further refined to provide
technical definition of the project and the design work is developed and concluded.
Figure 2: Comparison of project stages and milestones in the design phase.
Kvaerner has developed a project execution model (PEM), which defines what
should be done, when it should be done, to what quality and at what status. The
objective of a PEM is to secure predictability in project execution using a standard
methodology well known to the project team. It reflects a logic sequence in critical
project activities where progress and quality requirements are aligned at
significant milestones to ensure predictable project execution (Kvaerner [12]).
All disciplines should know at any given time how far they are expected to
have come. Knowledge of where the disciplines are is equally valuable whether
they are on, ahead of or behind the milestone. If the disciplines do not measure in
proportion to the status line, they in fact do not know if they have a problem and
how to deal with the problem ahead. It is only when the milestone is set and is
measured against it is possible to know. Experiences from the case projects show
that to a milestone in the design phase, disciplines can be ahead and disciplines
can be behind with their design. If a discipline has come too short it is a problem,
and if a discipline has come too far, it may also be a problem. The main challenge
is to take care of those behind and decide what to do with them in the continuation
of the project. When the disciplines that have been behind catches up, they can
influence those already finished. Much of what is done must then be redone,
because the disciplines already finished have based their design on unfinished
design basis, and can have made assumptions that are not correct.
The PEM controls what is the optimum picture at any given time in project
progress so that all disciplines are in balance with each other. The more balance
on the status line, the more likelihood for fewer design changes. The entire
structure of the PEM is based on the simple reasoning that it should not be random
how far each discipline has come on the various inputs on a given milestone. This
is described through milestone requirements. Audits are conducted on milestones,
where punch lists on what may not have been finished to the relevant milestone
are developed. It will then be taken into account in the planning process in the
continuation of the design, to be able to add it into future plans and to the resource
picture.
The client will have contractual milestones. The milestones defined in PEM
should be distributed the best way possible in the project, so that it becomes
consistency between when the client claims something should be done and when
the PEM says that it should be done. Adding milestones defined in PEM as parallel
as possible with the contract milestones to the client, will avoid communicating a
different message to the project team in every project. Kvaerner will always find
that the client put various milestones into the contract that the client wants to
measure Kvaerner on, and can add penalty or bonus to the milestones. There is
also a project deadline with daily fines. Any discrepancies to each milestone must
be dealt with. A punch list must be developed, so that the project plan can be
considered and adjusted in relation to that. The knowledge of what have not been
done is as important as the knowledge of what have been done.
3.2 Milestones and project plan
A project plan is created with a number of activities that should be measured on

the status line related to a milestone. The activities describe control objects with
relevant quality levels. Measuring begins with what is planned (forecast) status
compared to actual status, to see how it complies. This is handled in regularly
(weekly) meetings in Kvaerner. If the control objects should have been on quality
level S4 (for example) on a given date (for milestone M2C all should be on status
S4), the relevant disciplines (piping, electrical, etc.) can be chosen to see where
they are behind, where they are on, and where they are ahead.
There are approximately 30,000 activities in the project plan needed to build a
topside. Gradually, through experience, Kvaerner have found out what the content
should be, how far the disciplines should have come and what quality the
deliveries should have, when the milestones are reached. The advantage of the
planning system is that there are many activities that are related in a logical line,
and that helps to analyze the consequences when the milestones are not reached.
All activities that will be completed are marked against each milestone in the
design phase. It will then be possible to follow how far the disciplines have come.
The focus is not on the activities that go through, but on those to be completed. A
report that shows how each activity relates to project progress can be created. This
is done on a regular (weekly) basis in the case projects.
Progress planning always starts on the date of completion and goes backwards.
And so the milestones are drawn up. This methodology ensures that what shall be
delivered at the completion date receive sufficient focus. PEM is not a project plan,
but can reflect the plan whereas all activities in the project plan are sorted with an
identifier towards milestone and quality level. The goal is to create a project plan
that enables a maximum degree of harvesting of status from the BIM. Each control
object is linked to the project plan through the milestones. Kvaerner has developed
planning checklists that define what should be achieved by the planning system to
each milestone, how many activities there are, if the activities are linked logically,
if it is broken down in a way consistent with the established WBS structure etc.
When the quality levels of all control objects are exported from the BIM, they can
be linked to the activities in a project planning and reporting application, which in
Kvaerner is Safran Project (Safran [13]).
4 Conclusion
This paper has introduced control objects and how the quality levels on these are
defined using different status definitions. Correct quality levels on each control
object for each discipline to each milestone in the design phase can be reached by
fulfilling relevant checklists. The maturity and quality of the BIM can then be
visualized, through status color codes on each control object for all relevant
disciplines. The control objects in the BIM can be connected to the project plan
through milestones. Activities for each discipline in the project plan describe the
quality on control objects that must be reached to each of the milestones in the
design phase. This can be expressed through quality levels on the control objects.
This makes it possible to aggregate status of activities (related to a milestone)
directly from the BIM, through quality levels on relevant control objects.
The common denominator for the connection between plan and BIM are
milestones. All milestones and control objects with quality levels are dated in the
planning system. All activities in the project plan are linked to the milestones. The
quality level on each control object (for each discipline) on a given milestone can
visualize whether the project (through disciplines) is ahead of, on or behind
schedule. Instead of manually reporting, progress towards milestones in the project
plan can be reported directly from the BIM.
This paper has described how we can report progress towards milestones in the
project plan, as defined in a project execution model (PEM), directly from a 3D
design environment (BIM), based on experiences from case projects at Kvaerner.
According to Mejlnder-Larsen [7] the oil and gas industry and construction
industry have a high degree of similarity related to project execution, and more
specifically on PEM and BIM, which makes the findings in Kvaerner relevant to
adapt towards the construction industry. The focus for further research will be to
discuss the findings theoretically and to develop concepts (models and
frameworks) to be able to use the findings identified in this paper in the
construction industry.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Kvaerner for access to case projects and resources,
coordinated through Tom Henningsen and Bjrn Lindal. The author would also
like to thank the supervisors at Norwegian University of Science and Technology
(NTNU), Professor Tore Brandstveit Haugen (Department of Architectural Design
and Management) and Professor Ole Jonny Klakegg (Department of Civil and
Transport Engineering), for valuable feedback. The author would like to thank
supervisor Hkon Sannum at Multiconsult for expert advices.
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The use of building information modelling

(BIM) in managing knowledge in construction
project delivery: a conceptual model
T. Bouazza, C. E. Udeaja & D. Greenwood
Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering and Environment,
Northumbria University, UK
Abstract
Todays construction environment is described as turbulent due to economic crisis,
global competition and rapid changes in industry structure. For most of the
construction organisations to stay afloat within this environment, organisations
have to find new ways to create value for their potential and existing clients.
Building information modelling (BIM) technology has been identified by many
proponents in this area as the technology that can create value within the supply
chain (SC). In the UK, BIM is increasingly being seen not just as a technical
process to determine the likely performance of projects but a valuable tool in the
mediation between many associated stakeholders with their differing visions,
numerous requirements and variation in their expertise, and as a valuable process
to promoting learning and managing knowledge. This emerging role presents new
and considerable challenges for management of knowledge during its generation,
capture and reuse to ensure the meaningful engagement of such stakeholders in
the project process. This research will investigate the effective methods for
Knowledge Management (KM) to be implemented in the current construction
environment, using BIM as a means for managing knowledge and learning. The
work presented in this paper will develop a conceptual model of how BIM can be
used to manage knowledge in construction project delivery. The paper will
describe the proposed conceptual model that uses BIM to manage knowledge in
construction project delivery and concludes with suggestions of how this might be
implemented in practice, as well as further work that is required in this area.
Keywords: KM, BIM, construction project, tier 2 supply chain, COBie.
doi:10.2495/BIM150101
1 Introduction
The construction industry plays a key role on the national scene; it occupies a
fundamental position in the national economy. The construction industry is
beneficial in generating employment for more than 2.8 million people and the
globalization of construction works around the world [1]. According to Peters and
Katalytik [2] the construction sector increases the gross domestic product GDP by
10% which contributes significantly to economic growth. However, the
construction industry is becoming turbulent due to economic crisis, global
competition and rapid changes in industry structure. These factors contributed to
the emergence of some issues that construction organisations are facing such as
spiraling costs, increasing demands for efficiency [3], fragmentation issues, and
lack of collaboration among project team members [4, 5]. This work developed
here is part of a PhD research work undertaken in Northumbria University on the
role of building information modelling (BIM) in managing knowledge in the
construction project delivery. Current practice for research initiatives for
Knowledge Management (KM) will be reviewed. This will lead to the formulation
of a KM strategy that uses BIM to facilitate communication and collaboration
across the supply chain (SC) in order to develop knowledge repositories and
learning chains. The proposed framework is expected to enhance communication
and collaboration, and avoid information loss, overload, duplication and
misunderstanding. It is also anticipated that an effective KM strategy will help in
preserving knowledge effectively across various stages of a construction projects
delivery.
2 Knowledge management in construction project delivery

Construction project activities are knowledge-intensive activities which place
construction organisations in the position to find ways to manage their information
and knowledge more efficiently and effectively [6]. Knowledge Management
(KM) is not a new concept and has been around since the early 1990s, and there
have been many acknowledgments that knowledge is a companys most critical
asset and a source of lasting competitive advantage [7]. In the building industry,
the awareness of KM has increased considerably over the last few years. Research
proponents indicated that many construction companies were aware of the benefits
of KM and many more had or were planning to have a KM strategy in place. This
awareness of the importance of KM has stemmed from important industry reviews
[810]. These have all emphasised the need for change, innovation and best
practice, of which KM is acknowledged to be a major component. The argument
for KM is further reinforced by the current economic crisis that has produced
challenges for the construction industry as firms who lose their intellectual assets
and face a downsizing without capturing knowledge first due to lack of KM
strategies. Perhaps now, more than ever the commercial advantages of KM have
become relevant. KM can help to minimize waste, prevent the duplication of effort
and the repetition of similar mistakes from past projects and for improved
efficiency. It can also aid the reuse of existing knowledge gained via past
experience which can greatly reduce the time spent on problem solving and
increase the quality of work. In order to stay afloat within the construction
environment, the organisations have to find new ways to create value and manage
the knowledge of the project for their potential and existing clients. Kayaetin and
Tanyer [11] argued that knowledge is deemed as a critical factor in realising the
most successful projects and the most important asset within the organisations that
gained competitive advantage in the market.
According to Tan et al. [7], knowledge in a construction project is divided into
three categories: general, specific, and process. The management of this
knowledge is mostly informal and people-centred; however, there is a growing
trend towards the development of formal strategies in place. On the other hand, in
a supply chain the role of managing knowledge lies with different supply chain
tiers, which requires the collaboration of many suppliers that might not be
involved at the early stage of design, such as the tier 2 supply chain (see Figure 1).
The tier 2 supply chain as shown in Figure 1 are those suppliers who do not have
direct links with the ultimate client (the main client), but are required to contribute
their knowledge at the early stage of the project. The knowledge and information
that these tier 2 suppliers contribute at the early stage is hardly used and normally
wasted, which leads to the repetition of mistakes, work overload, and hence to loss
of the intellectual assets and competitiveness in the market. Zisko-Aksamija [12]
argued that the role of managing knowledge during its generation is challenging,
therefore to manage this knowledge there is a need for some effective strategies.
Figure 1: The relationship between suppliers.
BIM has been identified by many proponents in this area as an approach that
can create value and manage knowledge within the SC [1214]. In the UK, BIM
is increasingly being seen not just as a set of technical tools and processes for
improving the performance of projects but as a valuable tool in the mediation
between many associated stakeholders with their differing visions, numerous

requirements and variations in their expertise, and as a valuable process to
promoting learning and managing of knowledge [15, 16]. The next section will
discuss existing using BIM processes in managing knowledge in project delivery.
3 Potential of BIM processes in managing knowledge in

project delivery
BIM has been given many different definitions [1721]. Most of these sources
have defined BIM as a technological tool that represents a building in a three
dimensional digital model and a platform where all parties involved can access
and exchange information and data concerning the project. However, BIM is not
only about technology, it encompasses other aspects such as the relationships
between the stakeholders and the process of delivering a construction project.
According to the government report by UK Treasury, BIM is a collaborative way
of working between the stakeholders using the contemporary technologies that
facilitate the design and construction processes [19]. Despite the different
definitions of BIM, there are several on-going research projects investigating
aspects of managing knowledge in construction projects delivery using BIM
processes. These recent research works include the following:
Oxman [22] discussed the possibility to move from BIM to Building
Knowledge Model (BKM) that facilitates the collaboration of team members
in digital design through the use of two models: the Schema Emergence in
human mind and digital design and the Issue-Concept-Form (ICF) models.
Konukcu and Koseoglu [23] demonstrated how BIM could be integrated into
the construction supply chain in order to improve information flow and
knowledge management between the stakeholders throughout the lifecycle of
the construction project. This was called a Building Knowledge Model
(BKM) through BIM technologies and human interactions.
Liu et al. [20] developed a building knowledge modelling (BKM) approach
that integrates BIM and KM to capture and reuse knowledge in BIM
processes. This approach requires the integration of an intermediate module
called Knowledge+ which is used to connect BIM with a Knowledge
Management System (KMS).
Jan et al. [24] proposed a methodology called BIM-based Knowledge Sharing
Management (BIMKSM) System that enhances construction project
knowledge sharing using a BIM approach. The BIMKSM approach is used as
a visual platform combining a BIM approach and web technologies.
Charlesraj [21] developed a conceptual Knowledge-based BIM (K-BIM)
framework which combines BIM, KM, and Facility Management (FM)
ontologies. This approach is claimed to help to facilitate the more effective
management of a facility.
Deshpande et al. [25] explored a novel method that captures knowledge
during the design and construction stages utilizing the parametrics of BIM
models through IFC (Industry Foundation Class) format.
This summary of the research in this area is by no means exhaustive; however

the proliferation of research projects demonstrates the increasing interest
of researchers in integrating BIM and KM for improving the competitiveness of
construction organisations in delivering their projects. However, construction
organisations and the industry still has a significant gap to bridge to reach best
practice in their use of BIM systems in managing knowledge in project delivery.
It is clear that some developments are still needed to exploit the full potential of
BIM in this respect. The research work on Building Information Modelling-
Knowledge Management systems (BIM-KM system) addresses how the
emerging BIM paradigm can be deployed to improve construction projects
delivery.
4 A strategy for developing a conceptual model for the use of

BIM in Managing Knowledge
This research aims to develop a new concept called Building Information
Modelling-Knowledge Management system (BIM-KM system), which uses BIM
processes to manage Tier 2 (sub-contractors) knowledge in a construction project
delivery (see Figure 1 for an illustration of Tier 2). The Tier 2 supply chains would
ideally be required to contribute their knowledge and expertise at an early stage of
the construction project but these suppliers or sub-contractors are normally only
able or willing to contribute a fraction of their knowledge: the main reason for this
is their need to avoid commercial exposure [26, 27]. The resulting situation is that
by time the contract is awarded, and the Tier 2 suppliers are in place, contractually,
the unexploited knowledge is then less useful to the parties involved. This
invariably leads to a missed opportunity and loss of value to the owner and a loss
of competitiveness in the market for the Tier 2 suppliers (see Figure 2). What is
required is a strategy that will help manage the unexploited knowledge before the
value diminishes.
5 The conceptual framework for BIM-KM

The work presented in this paper emphasizes the use of BIM processes in order to
manage and capture the Tier 2 knowledge before the value diminishes. The
research proposed here will develop a framework called BIM-KM system to
address the issue of losing the Tier 2 knowledge as explained in the previous
section. The approach will enable the construction project team using BIM
platform to capture Tier 2 knowledge at the design stage of a project. The
knowledge captured can then be reused in subsequent stages of the project and
other construction projects contributing to the increase of the organisation assets.
The framework consists of the following: a project knowledge file (e.g. COBie),
an integrated BIM platform, Tier 2 knowledge that deals with knowledge and
learning events and Tier 2 knowledge managers (see Figure 3). However, before
these components are described, an overview of the procedure will be presented
below.
Tier 2 Supply Chain
Org. 2 Tier 2 Unexploited knowledge
Org. 1 & 2 Tier 2 Unexploited knowledge2 Org. 2 & 3 Tier 2 Unexploited knowledge
Org. 1 Tier2 Unexploited knowledge Org. 3 Tier 2 Unexploited knowledge
Org. 1, 2 & 3 Exploited knowledge
Figure 2: Knowledge loss illustration.
Project Knowledge File
Figure 3: The conceptual framework.
5.1 Overview of the BIM-KM system
Figure 3 shows the overview of the BIM-KM system. During the delivery of a
project, knowledge and learning events occur throughout the BIM execution and
also from normal day-to-day activities. These knowledge and learning can be
captured through the BIM Execution Plan (BEP), Master Information Delivery
Plan (MIDP), Employers Information Requirements (EIR), the project process or
the project team involved in the project execution. The capture of these events will
be facilitated using both non-digital and digital processes that will be encapsulated
within the integrated BIM platform. Once the knowledge and learning are
captured, they need to be stored and archived in a project knowledge file ready for
reuse in the same project or subsequent projects (see Figure 3). Further works will
be carried out to establish how the Tier 2 knowledge and learning events will be
captured, organised or structured. The work that will be undertaken in this regard
will utilise the PAS standards [28] in formalising and organising the knowledge
and learning events. The subsequent sections will discuss the Tier 2 knowledge
managers, project knowledge file and the integrated BIM platform.
5.2 Tier 2 knowledge managers
The role of Tier 2 knowledge managers is to manage the whole process of BIM-
KM system. As part of this role, the knowledge managers need to be familiar with
the issues around project knowledge capture and understand how to organise the
knowledge and structure it for reuse. The Tier 2 knowledge managers will be in
charge of developing and managing the project knowledge file and coordinating
the integrated BIM platform.
5.3 Project knowledge file
As a prototype for the project knowledge, the project knowledge file designed for
an earlier project the CAPRIKON project [29] was adopted. The project
knowledge file will contain knowledge and information relating to both project
and whole life cycle knowledge that will be used to manage the asset in the future.
However, the focus will be mainly on knowledge that will be required for reuse
during the projects lifecycle. In this framework, the project knowledge file will
be using COBie concepts and principles for sharing non-graphic data about a
building [28, 30]. The nature and structure of the project knowledge file has not
yet been determined, but conceptually the process would be that illustrated in
Figure 4.
Figure 4: The project knowledge file and COBie.
5.4 Integrated BIM platform or system
The role of an integrated BIM platform is to capture both non-graphical and

graphical data generated by the Tier 2 knowledge managers and process it in such
way that the knowledge and learning events are captured and organised in the
project knowledge file. The integrated BIM platform will be used to follow the
information life cycle as documented by the relevant PAS standards [28]. The
integrated BIM platform has been set-up in this framework to interact with the
project knowledge file, the Tier 2 knowledge managers and knowledge and
learning events components as shown in Figure 3.
6 Conclusion
The construction industry is still facing increasing demands for efficiency and
these are set against its fragmentation and lack of collaboration among the
stakeholders in construction projects. In recent years, many commentators have
acknowledged the need for innovation and best practice and managing knowledge
has been considered to be a critical factor in realizing the most successful projects.
The ability to manage the knowledge will not only help to prevent the reinvention
of the wheel but will also serve as the basis for innovation and overall
improvement. Given the growing importance of knowledge towards the success
of a project delivery, it is not surprising that BIM champions and the construction
industry are keen on developing some kind of synergy between the approaches of
KM and BIM so that knowledge and learning chain can be created in order to
unleash innovation and creativity by managing knowledge up and down supply
chains. It is evident that forging a BIM and KM alliance will help provide
significant opportunities to resolve many problems that exist in project delivery.
As reported in this work, many previous research works on BIM and KM alliance
have focused on the delivery of technology solutions, probably because of the
growth in BIM technological software systems. However, it is now recognized
that a good solution does not result from the implementation of information
technology (IT) alone. Therefore approaches that are purely based on IT are bound
to be less than successful in project delivery: process and people issues, which are
not readily solved by IT systems, would need to be resolved. Thus a combined
approach one that incorporates people, process and technology will deliver a
more complete solution. The work presented in this paper, has set out an approach
for using BIM in managing knowledge, which is intended to reflect people,
process and technological solutions in delivering construction projects. The paper
formulated a conceptual framework called BIM-KM system which captures Tier
2 knowledge and learning events using an integrated BIM platform. The
framework comprises of a project knowledge file, and integrated BIM platform
that will help to enhance and manage Tier 2 knowledge and learning events. It is
anticipated that the captured knowledge will avoid time waste, reduce cost as a
result of seamless delivery, and help prevent knowledge loss due to time lapse. In
the long term it will contribute in gaining competitiveness for the suppliers and
value-added to the clients. Further work is required to determine the precise nature
and contents of Tier 2 knowledge and learning events and how it will be organised
and structured in project knowledge file before it can be reused.
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Best practices for BIM Execution Plan

development for a PublicPrivate Partnership
Design-Build-Finance-Operate-Maintain
project
J. J. McArthur & X. Sun
Department of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, Canada
Abstract
PublicPrivate Partnership (P3), also known as Private Finance Initiative,
projects are becoming an increasingly popular procurement method. These
projects are uniquely challenging as they require the collaboration of the
designers, constructors and operators from the earliest stages of the project, each
of whom has a particular perspective. Balancing conflicting priorities and
identifying where they align is a critical step in project planning. When BIM is
used in these projects, it can provide substantial benefit to the project team by
facilitating the information flow between stakeholders, minimizing duplication
of effort and allowing the team to make informed decisions to optimize the
project over its life cycle from both a delivery and usage perspective. A well-
conceived BIM Execution Plan developed at the beginning of the project with
input from all stakeholders and implemented by all stakeholders supports this
goal. This approach ensures that information included in the model can be used
throughout the project lifecycle, avoiding re-work, and allowing the team to
begin with the end on mind and take full advantage of this project delivery
method. This paper reviews best practices for using BIM in P3 projects and
presents a framework to guide the development of a life cycle BIM execution
plan applicable to this context, with the analysis and prioritization of use cases,
identification of element data necessary over the project life cycle, and the staged
inclusion of this data within the model. As it is based on the most complex of
current project delivery methods, this framework is widely adaptable and can be
used for the full range of project delivery techniques.
Keywords: BIM, BIM Execution Plan, P3, operations, project lifecycle.
doi:10.2495/BIM150111
1 Introduction
Globally, PublicPrivate Partnership (P3) projects involve a partnership between
the public sector (typically the end-user) and a private sector team whose
members may include designers, contractors, financiers and/or facility managers.
This partnership brings along several advantages, such as improved operational
efficiency, minimized infrastructure deficit, and enhanced technology innovation
[1, 2]. A unique aspect of P3 projects is that the project is divided into two key
stages: pursuit (when multiple teams prepare a preliminary design and compete
to offer the lowest qualified bid), and the post-award stage, when the winning
team executes the detailed design, construction and/or operations and
maintenance (O&M) of the facility.
This paper provides a framework to guide the development of Building
Information Modelling (BIM) Execution Plan for the delivery of P3 projects with
a particular focus on those with an O&M component, as they emphasize the
project life-cycle costs and thus the need for long-term planning from the start.
This research consists of a literature review of BIM utilization and existing BIM
execution plans (Section 2.1), and P3 Critical Success Factors (CSF)
(Section 2.2), supported by an industry survey on P3 project delivery using BIM
(Section 3) to synthesize a framework (Section 4) to guide P3 teams through the
process of development or adaptation of a BIM Execution Plan that considers all
phases of the project.
2 Building an execution plan and the P3 context

BIM has gained popularity within the Architecture, Engineering, and
Construction (AEC) industry during the past decade as this developed intelligent
virtual building prototype integrates graphic and nongraphic databases that can
be easily retrieved during the project lifecycle, which involves the design,
construction, operation and maintenance phases [3, 4]. BIM allows projects to be
completed quickly and at a lower life-cycle cost because it enables significant
reduction of design errors that can lead to re-work, accidents in construction, and
project failures [5, 6].
How to adopt and optimize BIM in building construction projects remains a
critical question, particularly in the operation and maintenance, though one study
recommended 10 ways to engage in this phase [7]. The major challenges to BIM
adoption in most companies are the lack of fully trained practitioners, and the
concerns about implementation cost and potential benefits [6, 8, 9].
2.1 BIM Execution Plan development
A BIM Execution Plan (BEP; or BIM Implementation Plan) is a tool to provide a

standardized workflow and general guidance for strategic BIM implementation
in a holistic approach for a particular project or a group of projects [10, 11]. It
outlines the overall project vision, defines BIM uses, and serves as a record of
agreement among stakeholders about their roles, responsibilities, and the specific
information transferring between them [10, 12, 13]. It is also recognized as a
living document [10, 13] requiring constant review and updates throughout the
life cycle of the project. It has been demonstrated that the early development and
effective use of a BEP has a strong influence on the success of a project BIM
[10, 11, 14].
For this paper, twelve BEPs [10, 1323] were selected of sixty in circulation,
selected based on a) representation of geographical diversity, b) currency (all
were published in the past five years) and c) their influence on other BEP
templates [9, 24]. As such, common elements demonstrate a best practice in
BEP development. These, along with the first published BEP template [12], are
presented in Figure 1.
AEC (CAN) [17]

VA [16] Oct 8 2012 SBCA [22]
Apr 2010 HKIBIM [20] Aug 2013 NATSPEC [13]
Jun 2011 IU [15] Jun 2014
Jul 2012
CIC HK [21]
Penn State [12] Penn State COBIM [19] CPIx (UK) [23] Mar 2015
Oct 2009 [10] Mar 2012 Mar 2013
Statsbygg [18]
May 2011 AEC (UK) Dec 2013
[14] Sep 2012
Figure 1: Timeline of BIM Execution Plan template development.
Each BEP is tailored to individual project requirements. A review of the BEP

elements showed remarkable consistency across templates and the influence the
original research [9] at Penn State has had on the field. These elements occurring
in the majority (6 or more) of these templates have formed the core of the
proposed framework, and are discussed in more detail in Section 4.
One key element, and the focus of this paper, is the selection of BIM use
cases for implementation. Several were consistently included across templates as
follows:
(1) Unanimous (12 of 12 templates): 3D design coordination, space
management, 4D (phase) planning, engineering analysis, design authoring,
building system analysis.
(2) Generally agreed (11 of 12): Design reviews, programming, maintenance
scheduling, mechanical analysis, facility energy analysis, cost estimation,
site analysis, structural analysis.
(3) Included by majority (9 or 10 of 12): Construction system design, existing
conditions modeling, visualization, 3D construction coordination, site
utilization planning, lighting analysis, code validation, sustainability
evaluation.
A series of best practices were listed explicitly in [14, 16] and these have been
synthesized as follows and expanded to apply to the P3 context:
(1) Dedicate personnel from all partners to develop BEP (see [23]).
(2) Owner (and O&M partner) involvement in BIM output definitions.
(3) Foster an open environment for sharing and collaboration.
(4) Develop guidelines to assist collaboration within the consortium and
project stakeholders.
(5) Early planning: especially regarding use case identification and selection
and phased ownership assignments for model elements.
(6) Review and update the BEP regularly and resolve outstanding issues.
(7) Provide sufficient resources for BIM [14].
(8) Ensure a consistent approach to BIM execution across all partners.
(9) All partners use standard appendices, checklist, templates, etc.
(10) Sub-divide models to avoid oversized files.
(11) Document what needs to be modeled and the Level of Development
(LOD) [25] required for each element and sub-element in each phase.
(12) Modify model in 3D instead of 2D views to ensure model integrity.
2.2 Critical Success Factors in P3 projects
There has been significant research [2629] on Critical Success Factors (CSF)
required for the successful delivery of P3 projects, focusing primarily on project
outcomes. This is complemented by recent research [30,31] differentiating the
latter as product success and identifying additional CSF related to project
management success and identify a number of factors contributing to efficient
delivery of the product over three phases of the project: Initiation and Planning
(when the project goals and requirements are determined), Procurement
(including qualifying short-listed consortium, bid development (referred to in
this paper as the Pursuit Phase) and selection of the successful bidder), and
Partnership (referred to herein as the Post-Award Phase and including detailed
design, construction, operations and transfer).
Of the project management success factors summarized by [30], those
potentially enabled by use of BIM include effective construction cost, time and
quality management; safety management; material/resource utilization, conflict
management, facility management, and interface management in P3 partnership,
and life-cycle cost; and of these, effective phase-based evaluation are life-
cycle cost are most critical to success.
3 Survey methodology and results

An online survey was developed based on a similar BIM use survey performed
by [32], but expanded and adapted to the P3 context. This survey had a very
small target population: those who had already used BIM for P3 project delivery
in Canada, and to obtain the highest-quality feedback, it was designed in three
sections. Part 1 (50 respondents) collected demographic and BIM experience
data. Those with adequate experience (No. 39) proceeded to Part 2, which
queried the extent of use of BIM Execution plans, perceptions of risk and their
frequency of use of BIM in P3 projects. Those with too little P3 project
experience (No. 15) were given an alternate set of questions regarding the
barriers to this implementation, while the remainder (No. 24) proceeded to
Part 3, which focused on perceived benefit and frequency of use of BIM
elements, coordination roles, handover effectiveness, risk, and BIM Execution
Plan use. To attract those qualified to proceed to Part 3, survey invitations were
sent directly to BIM managers of firms with completed P3 projects along with
the general memberships of two BIM industry associations: CANBim and
buildingSMART Canada. The survey was also distributed through social media
(LinkedIn and Twitter) to recruit more BIM practitioners to participate. While
the total number of Part 3 respondents was relatively small, given the small
population from which this sample is drawn, it is statistically significant. Of
more importance, these respondents were highly experienced (80% with 5+
years experience; 40% with 10+ years), had delivered an average of six or more
projects using BIM and represented a broad cross-section of consortium partners
(5% architects, 40% engineers, 10% architecture & engineering firms, 35%
general contractors and 5% subcontractors).
To identify the most beneficial use cases for P3 projects, respondents were
asked to rank their perceived benefit of each in both pursuit and post-award
phases. These were compared with a similar question on frequency of use, as
presented in Figure 2. Not surprisingly, perceived benefit was higher post-award
when detailed design, construction and/or operations were underway, but there
are three outliers to this trend. Construction Coordination, Hazard Identification,
and Risk Assessment were ranked more highly during pursuit. As these three are
tied to schedule and risk, they have a high potential to affect the total cost of the
project and may explain these results. This interpretation will be verified in
follow-up interviews with the survey respondents.
Comparing frequency of BIM use cases with handover effectiveness from
both design to construction and construction to operations also provided insight
on use case selection. 20% of respondents reported a very effective handover
from design to construction, and each of these reported that they always (95%
of the time) used BIM for design reviews, 3D coordination, construction
simulation and construction coordination. Conversely, respondents reporting
very effective handover from design to construction only occasionally (25%),
rarely (5%) or never (0%) used BIM for maintenance scheduling, space tracking,
disaster planning, or hazard identification. Responses regarding construction to
operations handover were not statistically significant for any use case.
When considering the creation of BEPs, however, several correlations arose:
first, whenever the O&M partner was typically (75%+ of the time) involved in
the preparation of the BEP, respondents unanimously ranked the handover as
effective or very effective. Second, the involvement of both the design and
construction team in the BEP development showed that in a majority of cases
(66%), handover was similarly effective from design to construction.
Perceived use case benefit vs. utilization rates.

Figure 2:
4 BIM Execution Plan development framework

To begin with the end in mind, all members of the team must understand the
project goals and the eventual end-uses of the BIM model in order to set it up
properly to allow these end-uses. In addition to these overall project goals,
short-term goals for each phase must also be determined by the team. During the
pursuit stage, these focus on the submission of the lowest qualified bid
(cost-effectiveness and compliance) without wasted effort (efficient delivery).
After a successful bid, these extend to providing the client with the promised
design at a minimum cost and schedule, again with the minimum effort required.
Activities that reduce budget and schedule risk, allow for cost saving
innovations, enhance coordination, improve design quality, and streamline team
communication contribute to these goals. Each of these activities is supported by
well-planned BIM execution, particularly with regard to the selection of
value-adding use cases, identification of data required by each party,
coordination and communication protocols, clear definitions of model element
ownership, and model handover between phases.
To facilitate coordination, it is important to document the expected life-cycle
of each building element in terms of ownership, use cases and LOD over each
phase of the project, noting that each model will be eventually handed over from
the designers to constructors to O&M partners to the end-user. Element
ownership can be tracked using an element ownership matrix (Table 1). In this
matrix, elements (e.g. site, structure, substructure, envelope, mechanical system,
etc.) and their sub-elements (e.g. substructure footings) are listed in the rows.
Each is assigned an owner (O) who is responsible for its design development and
coordination with the larger project, requiring input (I) from those partners who
will inherit or otherwise use or rely on the element, and flagged to make those
who would be affected aware (A) of by changes to the element. The model
elements include. An example of sub-elements could be ductwork and pipework
under mechanical system.
Table 1: Element ownership matrix.
A S M E C GC SC() O&M etc...

Model Element 1
Sub-element 1 I O A A I I A
Sub-element 2
I O A A A I I A
Etc... I I I O I I I A
A=architect, S=Struct. Eng., M=Mech. Eng., E=Elec. Eng., C=Civil Eng.,
GC=general contractor, SC()=sub-contractor(specify); O&M=facility manager,
etc...
Table 2 provides the proposed BEP framework (based on [10], defining each
individual BEP element, while the BIM process map indicated in Figure 3
provides an illustration of how these BEP elements are used to support the
project goals. Given the accelerated schedule and tight budget typical of P3
projects, it is critical that re-work is kept to a minimum throughout the design
Table 2: BIM Execution Plan framework.
Element Description
BEP overview Describes purpose of the BEP and who is involved in
developing and revising it. Survey results indicate that input
from design, construction, and O&M partners are correlated
with efficient model and project handover.
Project Project number, project name, client name, project location,
information critical milestones, and project schedule.
Project Define the project deliverables and key metrics to define project
deliverables success including links to compliance documents and project
requirements
Project goals Defines project goals during each project phase
Key team and Project manager, BIM manager, and discipline leads for
project contacts architectural, structural, and MEP design, other consultants,
general contractors, sub-constructors, and facility manager
Organizational Develop an organizational chart for all personnel involved with
roles the BIM models, whether in an own, input or aware role
(refer to Table 1)
BIM process Visual representation of how BIM will be used throughout the
diagram process (e.g. Figure 3)
Technology Identify software to be used, hardware requirements and
infrastructure network/cloud connectivity to facilitate model sharing and
handover
Model structure Define model components or multiple models (e.g. architectural,
structural, MEP, fabrication) and how they will interface with
one another
Collaboration Define model management procedures, e.g. file structures,
procedures permissions, model upload and information exchange schedule
if not centrally hosted
BIM and facility Identify 3rd party data required for BIM (inputs) and end-user
data (owner/O&M partner) data management systems (outputs) to
requirements ensure compatibility
BIM information Define level of detail for each component at handover and any
exchanges information exchange standards (e.g. Construction Operations
Building information exchange (COBie, [33]) being used and
required interfaces with 3rd party software (analysis, fabrication
or operations)
BIM uses* Identify the most beneficial use cases for this phase (refer to
Figure 2) and additional data/information and BIM LOD
required to implement each
Model quality Defines ongoing model quality control procedures, e.g. design
control* review scope and frequency, clash detection, etc.
*
Repeated at each phase.
Figure 3: BIM process diagram.
and construction process. One way to minimize re-work is to stage the inclusion
of data in the model. This is done by limiting the LOD of BIM elements while
the potential for change to that element is high. Curves showing the relative
potential for an element to change over the project and the corresponding
recommended LOD for that element are indicated in Figure 4. While some
Magnitude of Potential Change LOD

Potential for Design Change
200 600
500
150
400
LOD
100 300
200
50
100
0 0
Figure 4: BIM LOD as a function of potential for design change.
geometry must be modelled accurately at early stages (e.g. room layouts) to

resolve the design quickly, many elements (particularly service distribution) can
be represented conceptually in BIM (LOD 100) or modelled with approximate
geometry (LOD 200) until the rate of design change slows. Identifying those
elements requiring higher levels of development (LOD 300+) because of their
effect on other systems is a critical step in developing the BIM Execution Plan,
and a LOD matrix should be created reflecting each phase, containing the
elements and sub-elements in rows and the LOD for each phase in columns.
5 Recommendations and conclusions

BIM is a recognized tool to facilitate improved communication and coordination
among a distributed project team such as a consortium bidding on and delivering
a P3 project. Given the budget constraints need for an accelerated schedule, it is
critical that BIM be used as efficiently as possible in these projects.
Using BIM to extend building models beyond 3D, implementing cost
estimation, construction scheduling and engineering analysis, the design and
construction processes can be streamlined and delivery efficiency improved. To
take best advantage of this tool, teams need to identify those use cases most
appropriate for their projects and within their capabilities to properly deliver.
Early identification of these use cases, informed by the normative literature
(Section 2.1) and survey results (Figure 2) included herein, allow teams to plan
the BIM execution to facilitate these use cases and identify the necessary
information and interfaces required.
The involvement of both design and construction personnel improved the
handover effectiveness from design to construction, and similarly the
involvement of involved the O&M partner in the BEP development for projects
improved the handover effectiveness from construction to operations, and the
ongoing participation of these members in the BEP development is critical to
optimizing project success.
This paper has proposed a BIM Execution Plan development framework
outlining key elements required to support P3 project delivery, supplemented by
a representative BIM Process diagram, an ownership matrix and
recommendations for the staged inclusion of data in the BIM model. This
framework is intended to assist companies with the development or modification
of BIM execution plans specifically for P3 project delivery in an efficient
manner.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Canada BIM Council (CanBIM) and
buildingSMART Canada (bSC) for their assistance with survey dissemination.
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Section 4
BIM and collaborative
working and practices
BIM: postgraduate multidisciplinary

collaborative education
M. Mathews
School of Architecture, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland
Abstract
BIM technologies and processes are steadily increasing in the design and
construction industry. The amount of undergraduate courses delivering BIM based
applied and theory courses is also on the rise. These students will be entering a job
market where their skillsets in digital modelling and collaborative practice will be
in demand. However, existing AEC (architectural, engineering, construction)
professionals are recognising the changes happening in the industry. Each domain
is influenced and challenged by BIM. The traditional process and workflows will
change as BIM adoption grows. AEC professionals are seeking out training and
education courses to upskill. Perhaps the greatest challenge faced by professionals
seeking to move their work to BIM is the conceptual move away from pushing
data out to the stakeholders in a traditional detached procurement process in favour
of bringing the stakeholders to the data in a collaborative process. Collaboration
is not something that comes easy in a design and construction industry that has its
roots in a division of intellectual effort over technical know-how going back over
500 years. For PG (postgraduate) students who have been taught in domain based
silos then professionally educated within demarcation boundaries of ones
discipline based on a hierarchical system of design responsibility, the idea of
setting this to one side so that you open yourself to a collaborative process is a
daunting prospect. Specialist education programmes must be developed to teach
such professionals how to collaborate. AEC professionals can take full advantage
of the technologies and the integrated collaborative process it promotes. This paper
will report findings on a case study of postgraduate multidisciplinary collaborative
learning module in the School of Multidisciplinary Technologys CPD BIM
programme in the Dublin Institute of Technology.
Keywords: BIM education, BIM postgraduates, BIM multidisciplinary
collaboration, BIM learning environments.
doi:10.2495/BIM150121
1 Introduction
Tobin [1] states the long-term impact of any innovation is often not understood
when it initially emerges, a fundamental transformation of design services also
occurs as BIM models proved increasingly valuable for numerous uses beyond the
mere drawings they made possible. Bruffee [2] had a theory that college and
university teachers have been taught to think about what they know and how they
know it drives the way they teach it. He states teachers can change the way they
teach only by changing what they think about, what they know and about how they
know it. In terms of collaborative learning it is legitimate to ask if the methods of
teaching and learning currently used in higher education are suitable for a
collaborative pedagogy. If one examines the current methods of teaching and
learning in the built environment you see many references to education silos
(Macdonald [3]), these tend to be proliferated by colleges, schools and
departments. The individual lecturer who knows their subject well is not inclined
to open themselves to areas where they are not experts and have to rely on a
colleagues subject area. Educators can exist themselves in silos in terms of their
own practice and follow a pattern by which they teach the way they were taught.
Students too have expectations coming to college, They come from an education
system which is predominantly traditional in its teaching and learning where the
teacher stands in front of the class and delivers knowledge which they are
expected to listen, note take, revise and rote learn. This paper investigates a
methodology of teaching and learning which breaks away from the traditional and
makes use of a constructivist paradigm which more closely aligns to work practice
but in itself can influence further workplace education. A flipped classroom to
foster creative and critical thought.
2 Literature review
2.1 Why the need for collaboration over cooperation in the

design and construction industry
The design and construction process is by its nature highly dependent on

interdisciplinary teamwork. The nature of this teamwork in traditional
procurement has been at best cooperative, often enforced through binding
contracts. Cooperation can be defined within the Built Environment as, individuals
and or practise firms who exchange relevant information and resources in support
of each others goals to attain their own goal, In this case getting rewarded for their
professional input. This cooperation is a contradiction by its nature and inevitably
as is evidenced leads to conflict, leading to litigation. Collaboration on the other
hand is working together in a joint intellectual effort to create something new in
support of a shared vision. In terms of the built environment the group share the
spoils and share the risk. Collaboration is a behavioural choice, as well as a
cognitive capability [4]. This behavioural choice is often referred to within the
BIM domain as a paradigm or culture shift. The key attribute of BIM project team
(project-based organisation) is cross-functional and cross-cultural assembly
embraced by modernised technology (Hossain et al. [5]) while the major purpose
of implementing BIM, is to attain a collaborative project delivery process by
unifying people, process, and technology (Hardin [6]).
2.2 Educational culture change to teach a collaborative skill-set
Postgraduate students have been educated in domain based silos. The fundamental
problem is that both the educational system and professional practice of the
disciplines responsible for building design and construction are split into
increasingly specialized and fragmented components professional and
knowledge silos, within which architects, engineers, and construction managers
fail to communicate and collaborate effectively (Vassigh [7]). Students will have
been exposed to different methods of teaching ranging from didactic traditional
lectures, problem based learning, lab-based demonstration, group activity or
constructivist facilitator style. What these have in common is the individual
assessment result from the effort reinforcing the individual nature of study.
Postgraduates will enter into the workplace where there are demarcation
boundaries of ones discipline based on a hierarchical system of design
responsibility. In essence they will slip into a comfort zone of competencies and
take on the cooperative methodological ethos. As a culture we are were ambivalent
about turning anything over to anyone else. We are highly individualistic theres
positive reinforcement for not collaborating where talent is centered on making
a personal reputation collaboration will get the back of the hand (Hall [8]). It is a
legitimate question to ask if traditional teaching methods are suitable for a
collaborative pedagogy. Collaborative learning represents a significant shift away
from the typical teacher centered or lecture-centered milieu in college classrooms
(Goodsell et al. [9]). This learning is an active, constructive process that is
inherently social. In collaborative learning situations, students create something
new with the information and ideas. For postgraduate AEC professionals who seek
to embrace BIM they will have to set aside their conceptions of education and
professional practice and open themselves to learning about a collaborative
process through a collaborative pedagogy. This can be a daunting undertaking.
Educators must respond to the complexity of the task by developing specialist
education programmes.
2.3 Collaborative learning in education and in the workplace
An examination of the NTL learning pyramid, Magennis and Farrell [10] indicates
that the 3 highest rated teaching methods for student learning retention are group
discussion, practice by doing and teaching from and by peers. All methods suitable
for collaborative pedagogy. Blooms Taxonomy, Bloom and Krathwohl [11] refers
to higher order thinking skills in the zones of analysis, synthesis and evaluation
which match the requirements of QQI Level 8 [12] learning outcomes.
Collaboration is a purposeful relationship, collaboration describes a process of
value creation that traditional structures of communication and teamwork cant
achieve (Schrage [13]). New novel teaching methods must be developed that
combine the higher order cognitive domains with the suggested higher rates of
learning retention learning methods.
Figure 1: Matching retention to cognition and vice versa.
2.4 Reacculturation
Foundational and non-foundational education theories are two different ways of

thinking about knowledge (Bruffee [2]). Foundational refers to learning as
cognition. The cognitive understanding of knowledge is foundational because it
assumes that there is a theory, a structure, beneath knowledge on which all
knowledge is built. Non-foundational understanding of knowledge is an
alternative to this traditional cognitive idea. It asserts that people construct
knowledge from a variety of languages available to us. The knowledge is not
absolute, it is local and ever changing, building up layer upon layer and is
constantly reconstructing your knowledge. The school of thought called non-
foundational social construction would believe that knowledge is a community
project, interesting in terms of collaboration where the language is one
constructed, owned and spoken by that community (Bruffee [2]). This is so
prevalent in this age of instant and global communication that communities of
collaborators are already all around us. Internet based gaming is an organic
growing community to which there is a new language of developing knowledge.
Moving and changing from foundational to non-foundational education is a
process that Bruffee calls reacculturation. He defines this as a complex and painful
process that involves the student or practitioner giving up, modifying or
reconstructing the language, values, knowledge from the community they come
from and become fluent instead in the language and so on of another community.
This community is new, and the fear of the unknown can drive people back into
their comfort zone so that collaboration gets distilled and loses out to cooperation.
Cooperation is a failsafe but in essence a failure because no new knowledge is
being generated just old knowledge regurgitated.
2.5 The nature of collaboration
Schrage states that there are two types of collaboration, Conceptual Collaborations
and Technical Collaborations, technical collaboration seeks to solve the problem
the conceptual collaboration identifies. In a design and construction project the

stakeholders will be active in both zones. The skillset that each brings to the
collaborative will be called upon as the problem requires with each stakeholder
assuming a lead role within their area of expertise developing what Fong calls
Boundary Crossing leading to knowledge sharing, knowledge generation,
knowledge integration to collective project learning (Fong [14]).
3 Methodology
A qualitative case study methodology has been used to examine both the teaching
methods and the learners experience resulting from the module. A hallmark of case
study research is the use of multiple sources, a strategy which can enhance data
credibility. Case studies present data that is usually gathered through a variety of
means including, but not limited to interviews, observations, audio and video data
and document collection. The goal of collecting data through a variety of means
is both to enhance the theory generating capabilities of the case, and to provide
additional validity to assertions made by either the researcher or the participants
in the case itself (Patton [20]).
The author used seven methods of data collection that were bound up with the
students collaborative learning activities.
1. Observation of collaborative groups in class;
2. Video recording of group collaborative meetings using Google Hangouts;
3. Recorded discourse on the groups website;
4. Reflective writing by the students;
5. Recorded discourse on Google +;
6. Assessment and presentation of group collaborative project;
7. Module end interviews of a sample cohort of students;
Figure 2: Collaborative groups in studio.
The aim of this research is to report findings from evidence provided from a
multidisciplinary collaborative module that was part of a CPD diploma in BIM
Technologies in the Dublin Institute of Technology. The collaborative learning
was driven by a teaching pedagogy that aimed to promote a high level of cognitive
learning and creation of new knowledge within the collaborative group.
Collaborative learning is rooted in a socio-cultural model of educational

psychology described by Vygotsky [16]. The socio-cultural model focuses on how
social interaction affects cognitive development, but rather than focusing on an
individuals actions, the emphasis is on the role of interactions with others.
Analysis of the data sets was carried out at project end. The data sets of the project
and were compared, criticised and reflected upon.
3.1 The teaching method
The CPD module has a 10 week contact period with students attending on Friday
evenings and Saturday mornings. Forty six students were split up into groups of
5/6 with as best as possible distribution of the domain specific professions in each
group. It was necessary to provide the students with tools that would allow and
enhance their collaboration, to create a shared space. Shared space is the new
dimension of BIM, collaboration its a dimension embracing simulation, discourse
and memory, stakeholders have equal access to the shared space where the shared
space is used to create shared understandings. The shared space becomes a
collaborative environment (Schrage [13]). The author chose to use the Google
Suite of applications which are free to all who have a gmail address and a profile
set up on Google +. Google Circles was used to create a group and class
communication platform. Google Sites was used to create a group website to
record the groups discourse on their learning journey. Google Hangouts was used
for off campus co-located conference meetings. These video meetings were
recorded and uploaded via YouTube on to the group websites. Google Drive was
used to store and share documents. The other piece of technology required for the
BIM collaboration was a BIM Server to provide for the workshare central model.
The College of Engineering and Built Environment ICT technicians developed in
conjunction with the author a Citrix driven virtual desktop for Revit Server
allowing student groups to create and upload a Revit Central model from which
local copies are downloaded to students local hardware for creating and editing
purposes.
The students had two opportunities during the module for self and peer
assessment. This was carried out at the midpoint and end of the module. The
student groups were provided with a live brief this was a website created by the
author containing a set of tasks to be completed by the group on a weekly basis.
This allowed the author to direct the learning somewhat remotely. This was done
purposefully so as to hand authority for the learning to the student group. The first
6 tasks were designed as a method to get the student group to establish their
communication and discourse platform, start building trusting relationships and
apply themselves to creating a knowledge community. For the final task, students
were given a design and building project on which they had to apply their
collaborative skillset. The size of the building project and the timescale were
purposefully chosen to intensify the collaboration. Students were clearly informed
that the resulting building from the collaboration was not the goal. The recording
of the group discourse of their learning journey on the group website was the goal
and the assessment reflected this. Flipped learning is a pedagogical approach in
which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual
learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic,
interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply
concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter [17]. Most research on the
flipped classroom employs group-based interactive learning activities inside the
classroom, citing student-centered learning theories based on the works of Piaget
(1964/1967) and Vygotsky (1978) (Bishop and Verleger [18]). The theoretical
foundations used for justifying the flipped classroom typically focus on reasons
for not using classroom time to deliver lectures. The importance of these student-
centered learning theories to the flipped classroom cannot be understated. Without
these, the flipped classroom simply does not exist (Bishop and Verleger [18]). The
flipped classroom is a suitable approach for a multidisciplinary collaborative
learning environment.
4 Findings
4.1 Stage 1: creating a collaborative learning environment
The physical space plays an integral part in collaborative learning, modern

technology supported learning environments use a variety of computer mediated
communication methods to support collaboration among a community of learners
(Jonassen and Rohrer-Murphy [19]). DIT was able to provide a large computer lab
with 48 fixed PCs, 2 interconnected projected wall screens, and room around for
breakout spaces. Students are expected to engage in first person learning and used
the PCs to elicit an instantaneous response to a question. This knowledge is then
shared with the group members. The flipped classroom approach allows the
students to build their own understanding which is reinforced by the group
discourse.
4.2 Stage 2: collaborative group forming
46 postgraduate students from diverse disciplines, architecture, architectural

technology, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, quantity surveying
and construction management were divided into collaborative working units. The
driver for the formation of the units was to have as far as possible a member from
each of the disciplines involved in each unit. The group were briefed by the module
leader (the author) and asked to leave their preconceptions behind and open
themselves to an environment where as Bruffee [2] states, collaborative learning
will give students practice in working together when the stakes are relatively low,
so they can work effectively together later when the stakes are high. The author
observed the interaction of the group and took notes following the class. The
students were ask to the other members of their group and introduce themselves,
then find a shared space within the studio to sit and open a dialogue and get to
know each other. The student groups first task was to create a communication
platform using Google + circles. So each group created an interconnected circle
and the class as a whole created a circle.
4.3 Stage 3: the live brief with tasks
The author set flexible boundaries of the constructivist learning approach by way
of a live brief. This brief was a Google website the author created that set out
the learning outcomes and the tasks for the collaborative units to tackle. The tasks
were set to engage the group in three areas, creating a collaborative platform for
discourse, knowledge development of the culture of BIM and a multidisciplinary
collaborative BIM building project. Underlying the three areas is the singular task
of culture change, re-acculturation, the moving from one community and
embracing the language, ethos and culture of another community.
Figure 3: Module live brief website.
4.4 Stage 4: discourse and the building of a collaborative team
The second task for the groups was to build a hosting platform to record the
discourse and evidence their learning journey using multimedia methods of
collaborative writing, illustration, snipped photos of design progress, links to
reference material, video tutorials. The groups did this by creating a website
individual to each group using Google Sites.
Figure 4: Group website recording their learning journey.
4.5 Stage 5: co-location technology
For a part time module like this is was necessary to provide co-location facilities.
This took 2 forms. A collaborative conferencing facility and a Revit Server for
Central Models. Students used Google Hangouts to video conference during the
week. These online meetings were recorded and placed on their group website as
evidence of their learning journey. The recorded video conferences provided the
author with a method of observing the group dynamic in action and provided much
evidence of the reaccultration developing.
4.6 Stage 6: collaborative building project
The second half of the module had the student groups tackle a design and construct
digital building project using their combined BIM knowledge and discipline
skillsets and drawing upon the collaborative skills and technologies they had
developed so far. The building project was provided by a local authority who had
planned to build a Music and Cultural Centre in the Naul, a village in north county
Dublin. The project was shelved due to the economic downturn but the LA were
able to provide a site, a client requirement (EIR) and a planned accommodation
brief. Because of the different build-up of each group the resulting BIM would
have different flavours some with BIM electrical elements, some with BIM
mechanical elements, some with BIM contractor elements, all with BIM
architectural elements. All members of the team were given leeway to contribute
to all stages of the development of the digital building reflecting Fongs boundary
crossing and Bruffees new community of meaning making.
5 Discussion
It became clear to the author from reading the literature that the education models
underpinning the collaborative BIM courses are underdeveloped. These are
underdeveloped for several reasons. The main reason being that this is new and
there are few 3rd level institutions providing this kind of education. The author
recognized a unique opportunity developing in the College of Engineering and
Built Environment in DIT. The opportunity to pursue new pedagogic practice by
combining collaborative learning theory underpinned by a robust information
technology platform and most important an institution willing to respond to a
growing demand from industry allowed for the development of this collaborative
BIM module. The learning outcome of this constructivist educational model was
to break down the barriers that exist between the disciplines in the design and
construction industry, get the student participants to open themselves to stepping
outside of their community and in a safe unrestricted environment to construct a
new community of collaborative professionals using non-foundational teaching
and learning theory. Using a set of tasks within the live brief website as a vehicle
to transport the student from one community into another to reacculturate as
Bruffee proposes. Using the suite of Google apps to record, illustrate and reflect
on their discourse has supported the author to develop A Pedagogy for
Postgraduate BIM Reacculturation. Further research is planned to examine the

students experience of reacculturation.
References
[1] Tobin, J., Measuring BIMs Disruption AECbytes. www.aecbytes.com/
buildingthefuture/2013/BIMdisruption.html
[2] Bruffee, KA. Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence,
and the authority of knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2715
North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD, 21218-4363, 1999.
[3] Macdonald, JA. A framework for collaborative BIM education across the
AEC disciplines. 37th Annual Conference of Australasian University
Building Educators Association (AUBEA): pp. 4-6, 2012.
[4] Collaboration, from the Wright Brothers to Robots HBR.
https://hbr.org/2015/03/collaboration-from-the-wright-brothers-to-robots
[5] Hossain K, Munns A, and Rahman M. Enhancing Team Integration in
Building Information Modelling (BIM) Projects. BIM Management and
Interoperability. ARCOM Doctoral Workshop on BIM Management and
Interoperability ed. Professor D Boyd, Birmingham City University pp. 78-
92, 2013.
[6] Hardin, Brad. BIM and Construction Management: Proven Tools.
Methods, and Workflows. 2009.
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http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~abehzada/documents/Vassigh&Newman&Behz
adan&Zhu&Chen&Graham.AJCEA.2014.pdf
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http://www.qqi.ie/Pages/National-Framework-of-Qualifications-
(NFQ).aspx
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Random House Inc., 1991.
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empirical study of the processes and their dynamic interrelationships.
International Journal of Project Management. pp. 479-486. 2003.
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& YS Lincoln. pp. 443-466, 2005.
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processes. p. 143, 1978.
[17] Flipped Learning Network. 2011. http://flippedclassroom.org/
[18] Bishop, JL, and Verleger MA., The flipped classroom: A survey of the
research. ASEE National Conference Proceedings, Atlanta, GA, 2013.
[19] Jonassen, DH, and Rohrer-Murphy L., Activity theory as a framework for
designing constructivist learning environments. Educational Technology
Research and Development. pp. 61-79. 1999.
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Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
[21] https://sites.google.com/site/cpdbimtechcollaboration/
[22] https://sites.google.com/site/dt775group1/
Launching the innovative BIM module for

the architecture and built environment
programme in China
L. Tang, R. Jin & K. Fang
Department of Architecture and Built Environment,
University of Nottingham Ningbo China, China
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM), the booming digital technology in the
global architectural, engineering, and construction (AEC) industries, is changing
the project management not only from the technological perspective but also the
way of team collaboration. As academia staff in the AEC field, the authors have
been working on exploring the implementation of BIM education in the university
curriculum, equipping students with the initial BIM knowledge, and further
training students to prepare themselves in the future AEC job market. The newly
created BIM module in the university recruited final year students from multiple
disciplines, including architecture, civil engineering, and architectural
environmental engineering. A real-life project was used in the module to enable
students from different backgrounds to work in a team by utilizing the BIM as the
teamwork tool. Students group work of applying BIM is presented in this study.
Discussion from student group presentations sparked insights on how to overcome
potential barriers when replacing the traditional 2D system with BIM. This study
is developed to provide an example and initial thoughts of how the university
education could be updated to meet the AEC industry need.
Keywords: BIM, AEC, education, collaboration, training, Revit, module.
1 Introduction
China, a continuously booming construction market, which accounted for 47.9%
of the Asia-Pacific construction value in 2013 according to MarketLine [1], is
demanding the adoption of BIM in the building industry. The recently published
doi:10.2495/BIM150131
national BIM survey report by Shanghai Construction Trade Association (SCTA)

& Luban Consulting (LC) [2] indicated that though BIM implementation in
Chinas construction industry was largely limited in clash detection and take-off
estimate, both clients and contractors had high expectations of BIM input into their
projects. Multiple recent investigations (e.g. Shenzhen Exploration & Design
Association (SZEDA) [3] and SCTA & LC [2]) indicated that there were
insufficient qualified BIM staffs in Chinas AEC project management. The gap
between insufficient well-trained BIM personal and the growing demand for BIM
usage remains to be filled in the coming years.
Adding BIM in the curriculum is not simply changing the engineering tool from
2D Computer Aided Design (CAD) to 3D visualization, but more significantly,
the way of collaboration, communication, and coordination among project team
members. This study aimed to explore the BIM education through university
course, with the overall goal to provide students in AEC disciplines with not only
BIM software skills, but also the collaboration experience through teamwork.
Students group projects were described throughout the multidisciplinary
collaboration involving subjects in architecture, civil engineering, and
architectural environmental engineering. Their feedback to this newly launched
BIM module was summarized. Finally, suggestions for further enhancing the BIM
education in China were provided.
2 Background of BIM education

Lack of BIM personnel was perceived by over 67% of Chinese industry
practitioners as one major obstacle in widening the usage of BIM in AEC fields
according to the newly released survey report from SCTA & LC [2]. Similarly,
lack of expertise within the project team and the organization was also ranked as
top reason for not using BIM in the U.K. industry survey report from Eadie et al.
[4]. In recent years, the BIM practice has been extended in multiple areas including
but not limited to vertical BIM, horizontal BIM, heavy BIM, and green BIM,
etc. (Rahman et al. [5]). The diversified BIM areas and new BIM movements have
created a greater demand on competent BIM professionals and college graduates
with relevant BIM knowledge (Jvj and Salin [6]). Educational institutions play
a key role in the BIM transition (Jvj and Salin [6]). Insufficient resources and
university conservations are key barriers to promoting engineering education to
meet the demands (Trine [7]).
In the recent survey conducted during March of 2015 in Beijing, China to a
London-based international engineering firm, researchers collected 42 responses
from the firms Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) department. Among
the survey responses, over half of them had never used BIM in their projects, and
only 19% of these MEP engineers had learned BIM in college, and the rest survey
participants adopted BIM for the first time in the work or internship. When asked
how easy it was to learn a new BIM software tool, close to 75% of respondents
claimed that it was difficult or very difficult to learn BIM tools. This could be
due to the fact that most MEP engineers learned the traditional 2D Computer
Aided Design (CAD) in school and was not aware of BIM. It is not uncommon
that experienced engineers or designers have been used to working with 2D
drawings and are reluctant to switch to BIM (Gong [8]). Considering the
international background of this surveyed firm and their industry-leading
technologies in China, it is fair to confer that there is still a large potential for
enhancing BIM usage in the near future of Chinas AEC industries. The low
percentage of survey participants stating that they had used BIM in college would
indicate the importance of college BIM education to work as the pre-career
training to future AEC personnel. College graduates equipped with BIM
techniques could also reduce the industry investment in BIM training in the long
run.
The engineering professions nowadays call for integrated ways of working, and
collaboration is considered the key to successful project delivery (Jvj and Salin
[6]). The market survey of Eadie et al. [4] to UK BIM users showed that
collaboration is key to successful BIM was listed as the top impact of BIM. BIM
education cannot be approached in the way adopted for CAD, as BIM is not simply
a tool for generating drawings but also a comprehensive method for information
management and analysis, as well as collaboration and teamwork (Sacks and Pikas
[9]). Therefore, BIM education should not only impart software related knowledge
to college students but also deliver the teamwork and collaboration experience.
This is confirmed by Mathews [10] that the new collaborative learning
environment simulated in BIM work could prepare and equip students with
collaborative problem-solving skills. The construction industry needs graduate
engineers equipped with knowledge and skills (Pikas et al. [11]). Russell et al.
[12] concluded that personal BIM skillsets have a significant impact on a students
career opportunities. Currently, the BIM education and training for AEC subjects
within universities in countries like China is still not widely implemented. Some
of the existing studies of BIM education worldwide are summarized in Table 1.
Implementation level of BIM education in universities may vary from country
to country and in different schools. Some universities (e.g. Jvj and Salin [6])
may have started the brainstorming of how to incorporate BIM in education and is
still undergoing the exploration stage of further adopting BIM in certain subjects
within the engineering programme. Other schools (e.g. Nawari [13], Kim [15] and
Livingston [17]) has utilized BIM as an assistance tool in enhancing students
learning in certain subjects such as cost estimate, 3D visualization to replace 2D
drawings, and structural design. There are also institutions at an active explorative
stage of adopting case studies to provide students with collaborative teamwork
practice (e.g. Mathews [10] and Sharag-Eldin and Nawari [16]). The trend of BIM
education, as suggested by Pikas et al. [11], should be implemented at the
programme level rather than an isolated course or module It has been realized from
both industry and academia that BIM in AEC education has become a necessity
(Solnosky and Parfitt [14]). Its effects on the education have not been thoroughly
studied although BIM has proven to provide positive opportunities to advanced
education (Solnosky and Parfitt [14]).
Table 1: BIM education implemented in universities.
Study Institution Implementation of BIM education Achievement/feedback/findings from BIM teaching

BIM was utilized as the tool to teach the essential aspects
BIM teaching is not similar to CAD. BIM provides a
of structural design and to assist in understanding the
Nawari [13] University of Florida collaborative environment that enhances the learning of
interrelationship between building systems and structural
structure engineering.
patterns and organization.
The architectural engineering department of PSU has BIM has been adopted at the programme level to allow
Solnosky and Penn State University adopted BIM since 2006. By 2014, a multitude of courses multi-disciplinary collaboration crossing four different
Parfitt [14] (PSU) involving BIM was offered at both in both undergraduate subjects. PSU is moving forward with further
and graduate levels. developments of BIM.
Dublin School of BIM has the potential to assist cross-disciplinary
In 2013, a case study of BIM-based collaborative
Architecture, Dublin teamwork in a problem-solving collaborative process.
Mathews [10] learning environment was conducted to assess
Institute of Technology, This case study would support further exploration of
architecture students group design project.

Ireland using BIM in a built environment curriculum.
Starting from September, 2012, OpeBIM was launched to OpeBIM recruited a wide range of industry lecturers and
invite industry speakers to give lectures to university stimulated the academia staffs to explore using BIM as
(Jvj and Salin Metropolia University of
educators, with focuses on introducing BIMs functions the education tool. The wide scope of BIMs possible
[6]) Applied Sciences, Finland
and brainstorming BIMs potential in engineering applications remained the brainstorming stage and would
education. undergo a long process to achieve them.
In the autumn of 2009, BIM was first adopted as the BIM assisted students in effectively learning the
Kim [15] California State University
integrated learning tool in a construction course. construction details and material quantity take-offs.
Starting in 2009, BIM was incorporated in design studio The explorative BIM education in both institutions
Kent State University
Sharag-Eldin and at KSU and graduate architecture programme at UF showed the potential of BIM in implementing integrated
(KSU) and University of
Nawari [16] throughout BIMs application in real-life capstone project delivery (IPD) transformation in AEC education
Florida (UF)
projects. environment.
Back in 2008, BIM had been utilized as a transformative BIM was being continuously implemented as the
technology in the architectural curriculum at MSU. BIM education tool to generating construction documents.
Montana State University
Livingston [17] was being utilized as the 3D visualization tool to depict Architecture students were being educated on how to use
(MSU)
building systems integration and to achieve BIM to illustrate construction details and system
comprehensive design. integration in a 3D environment.
3 BIM module at University of Nottingham Ningbo China

(UNNC)
Compared to the active implementation of BIM education in the US and Europe,
China, the giant market of AEC industries, is facing the gap between the urgent
industry needs of BIM professionals and lack of education resources in
universities. University of Nottingham Ningbo China (UNNC), as the first
international-based university built in China, has been providing British education
modules to both domestic and international students since it was founded in 2004.
The Department of Architecture and Built Environment (ABE) has been keeping
investigating effective teaching in preparing students with state-of-the-art
knowledge and technologies that would enhance students competence in their
future career in AEC industries. In the autumn of 2014, the ABE course at UNNC
obtained the unconditional full validation from The Royal Institute of British
Architects (RIBA) Education Committee. This was a key milestone for the course
to be the first Internationally RIBA-validated China. The first BIM module at
UNNC was also launched in the same semester to recruit students from multiple
disciplines including architectural environmental engineering, architecture, and
civil engineering to enable the cross-disciplinary collaboration. This module
aimed to provide students with understanding of how BIM as well as other
related digital technologies is rapidly contribute to change management practices
on advanced construction projects.
The BIM module was open to multiple disciplines within the Faculty of Science
and Engineering at UNNC. In total 30 students were enrolled in this module. The
majority of them were in the final years undergraduate study, with their own
background in construction engineering, structural engineering, architectural
design, or building services engineering. None of them had learned BIM
beforehand. Like other peer schools in China, CAD was the instruction tool to
generate engineering drawings in the UNNC course. The module was designed to
achieve these learning outcomes (LO) in accordance with the Architects
Registration Board (ARB [18]), the British authority that prescribes the
qualifications and practical experience required for UK registered architects. Items
within the General Criteria (GC) and Graduate Attributes (GA) are included in the
benchmarking of qualifications in ARB. For example, GC2 was defined as
Adequate knowledge of the histories and theories of architecture and the related
arts, technologies and human sciences. GC2 could be further divided into three
subcategories, namely GC2.1 until GC2.3.
LOs of this BIM module are listed below:
1. Know the main types of BIM and other related digital technologies used for
design, work-flow planning, co-ordination and communication on site
(GC2.1);
2. Articulate the major benefits that are claimed for the use of BIM and that are
driving their development moving from 2D to 3D and multidimensional
design and construction environment (GC3.1; GA1.1);
3. Demonstrate familiarity with current ideas about information overload and

the value of information within organizations (GA1.5);
4. Appreciate the characteristics of organizational approaches to understanding
use of these technologies (GC6.1; GC6.2; GA1.3; GA1.6);
5. Apply these approaches to assessing the positive and negative impact of these
technologies on different stages of the real-life projects (GC8.1; GC8.2;
GC8.3; GC9.3; GC10.2; GA1.1; GA1.2; GA1.3);
6. Understand how these technologies are changing the management and
delivery of projects (GC11.3; GA1.3).
To achieve the LOs, the module consisted of lecture, BIM labs, and group
presentation. Weekly lectures were delivered to students on multiple BIM
extended topics presented by guest speakers from both academia and AEC
industries. Guest speakers shared their BIM related experience with students, such
as cost estimate, IFC standards, 5D BIM, challenges of BIM in real life, etc. A
four-week training session was provided during the autumn semester of 2014 to
students with skill-sets of Revit Architecture, Structure, and MEP. In total four
BIM labs were provided for each student to go through the series of Revit-based
building models. Students were required to build a dream house involving
topography, architectural elements, structure, and MEP systems.
By the end of the four-week training period, group project was assigned to each
five-member student team to adopt Revit as the BIM tool to provide the 3D files
of architecture, structure, and MEP for a teaching building under construction in
the UNNC campus. Each team consisted of students from different disciplines.
Therefore, the roles of each team member were easily defined. The architecture
student played the role as architect to create the 3D architectural model, the civil
engineering students then generated the structural form in Revit Structure. The
environmental engineering student used Revit MEP to add building services
facilities based on the previous models created by other team members. The Revit
system ensured that all team members worked in a close collaborative
environment. The construction engineering student finally generated the take-off
estimate using the quantities of elements generated in Revit. Figure 1 displayed an
example of the group project delivery process from one student team.
Figure 1: Group project process.
Each part displayed in Figure 1 is further provided with an example in Figure

2.
(a) Architectural form. (b) Structural form.
(c) MEP system. (d) Quantity take-off spreadsheet.
Figure 2: Group project of the real-life building project.
At the end of the group project each team presented their work with each
member presenting the individual contribution to the teamwork. During the
presentation, students shared their experience of how BIM impacted the project
collaboration, the pros and cons of using BIM as compared to 2D CAD, and the
project delivery process. The group presentation was peer assessed apart from the
assessment of three academia staffs at UNNC. Students gained their initial
experience of adopting BIM to replace the existing 2D CAD drawings. The
advantages of BIM over CAD from the six teams are summarized below:
Reduction in the confusions of construction details which could occur in
CAD;
Saving time in take-off estimates and assistance in checking the cost list;
Better visual representation of project and construction elements;
Easier exploration of different design options and concepts with the owners
budget.
The disadvantages of BIM were also presented and summarized as below:
Not user-friendly in generating certain elements (e.g. stairs and railings);
Requiring all project members to have the skill-sets of the same BIM tool; It
could be extended from this statement of potential barriers in the real world if
not all project team members are using the same BIM tool, or some of them
do not have the BIM skill. Assuming that if some engineering staffs are still
using 2D representation, while other peers may have adopted 3D BIM, the
translation between 2D and 3D would be time-consuming;
Some small errors detected when using Revit such as faade walls;
Cost errors.
Table 2 and Table 3 described how this BIM module provided students with
qualifications according to items in GC and GA.
Table 2: General criteria mapping based on existing module learning outcomes.
ARB I, P
Brief description of how the ARB general criteria are
general or
achieved/evidenced
criteria A
BIM was introduced and discussed during the lectures as compared
to CAD. Specifically, students were exposed to the main types of
BIM and other digital technologies used in the building design and
GC2.1 I
management on jobsites. Students were provided with the picture
of how the BIM is developed and applied under the traditional
design and construction culture and social background (LO1).
The lecture of sculpture followed by hands-on work in a 3D model
trained students with the skill-sets of 3D technology. Through the
GC3.1 A BIM essay writing and group practice, students were reinforced
with the understanding and experience of the benefits of using
BIM (LO2).
The lecture of Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) System
introduced students how the roles of architects were moving
towards more collaboration with other project team parties. In the
teamwork environment of the group project, students practiced
GC6.1 A
using BIM to improve the coordination, collaboration, and
communication among group members. Group presentation
delivered the understanding of the duties and professionalism of
architects (LO4).
Through both the IPD lecture and BIM group project, students
gained both theoretical knowledge and practical experience on the
GC6.2 A role of architects within the project team. Students were asked in
their final group presentation specifically of how the trends of
using IPD and BIM impacted the roles of architects (LO4).
The group project in this BIM module used a real-life project in
the UNNC campus. Students were trained with the skills of
GC8.1 A investigation, critical appraisal, and decision on architectural form,
structures, and materials with the assistance with BIM technology
(LO5).
Students applied their knowledge from previous modules into the
comprehensive group project by using BIM as the approach. They
GC8.2 A
assessed BIMs impact on different stages of the project, including
architectural, structural, and MEP design (LO5).
The lecture of commonly applied building materials (i.e. concrete,
wood, and steel) was introduced in the lecture. BIM was adopted
GC8.3 A to visualize the material and systems. Students explored and
mastered the skills of building the system on the selected materials
in BIM (LO5).
Table 2: Continued.
ARB I, P
Brief description of how the ARB general criteria are
general or
achieved/evidenced
criteria A
The building service (MEP) design was integrated to the group
project. Students added the MEP system after the architectural and
GC9.3 A structural design stages. BIM was used as the tool to detect potential
spatial clashes, which may not be found in traditional 2D design
(LO5).
Cost estimate was part of the module and group project. Students
performed the cost estimate during the group project in the BIM-
GC10.2 A driven system and truly understood the impact of BIM in cost
estimate by utilizing the quantity information generated from the
BIM system (LO5).
Students were introduced in the lecture in light of the IPD compared
to the traditional business model and in the building industry. By
recruiting BIM as the tool in the project delivery process, students
GC11.3 A
gained the experience of how BIM, as the emerging trend, was
changing the way that the design and construction is managed and
delivered (LO6).
Note: I: introduction, P: practice, A: assessment.
4 Findings and discussion

The BIM module at UNNC provided students with initiatives to design their own
sample projects through lab activities. Later the group project was assigned to
enable the inter-disciplinary collaboration. Students were trained with real-world
problem solving skills and critical thinking apart from the teamwork skill-sets in
BIM environment. Student presentations also sparked some thinking of adopting
BIM in the local AEC industries. For example, would it be much more efficient in
project delivery if all parties agreed on the same BIM tool? Some other issues have
also been thought of in the future BIM education at UNNC, for instance, whether
BIM should be introduced in the earlier years of undergraduate course or pending
until students have gained the knowledge in their own disciplines.
This BIM module worked as a guide to inspire students future career in the
AEC industries, especially for those who have interests in pursuing BIM related
career. It is suggested that students BIM learning should not end with the module,
but continue in their future work. Some students adopted BIM in their final year
research project during the same semester. It is indicated that BIM education
would expand students horizon in both job search or academia research.
The BIM education implementation could vary in different institutions, but
generally, each institution may develop the BIM education programme from
brainstorming by inviting industry speakers, starting BIM in a single coursework,
subject or module, motivating cross-disciplinary collaboration, moving forward to
multiple modules at the programme level, and further expanding to BIM training
to industry professionals. The BIM education at UNNC is currently under further
Table 3: Graduate attributes mapping based on existing module learning

outcomes.
ARB I, P
Brief description of how the RIBA graduate attributes are
graduate or
achieved/evidenced
attributes A
Using BIM in the design stage could achieve various benefits
such as automatic low-level corrections when changes are
required, and earlier collaboration of multiple design disciplines.
Students applied the professional practice and academic
GA1.1 A
discipline in architecture by utilizing BIM in generating the
design proposals. They learned how the BIM impact the design
stage by incorporating BIM into their previously learned body of
knowledge (LO2, LO5).
Students were encouraged to apply various communication
GA1.2 A methods and techniques to present their final project. Revit was
the tool adopted for visualization and communication (LO5).
Guest speakers from both academia and AEC industries were
invited to provide students with the picture of teamwork in a
project team from planning, design, construction, and post-
GA1.5 I
construction. Students gained the knowledge of the context of
the architect, who was in close collaboration with the
construction industry (LO3).
This BIM module was designed to provide the cutting-edge
technological education to students who were entering the job
market. Through the lectures, real-life project teamwork and
assessment, students gained the understanding of how BIM had
been changing the traditional project delivery process and inter-
GA1.6 A
organizational collaboration. Upon the completion of this
module, students was equipped with the emerging BIM
technology and further identify their learning needs for
professional development in the future design and construction
industry (LO4).
Note: I: introduction, P: practice, A: assessment.
development. The experience of BIM education at UNNC could be shared with

other peer schools in China and to deliver BIM to a wider coverage of AEC
graduates and industry personnel.
5 Conclusion
The first BIM module launched at UNNC serves as the milestone in the BIM
education in Chinese institutions. The evaluation of the module and student
feedback motivated the researchers to further update BIM in the future education.
Compared to developed countries such as US, BIM education is still limited and
more training resources are in urgent need to meet the rising AEC market
demands. The educators in this BIM module at UNNC believe that BIM should
not be taught like 2D CAD, which had a high emphasis in software skill teaching,
but instead encouraging the collaboration of student from different disciplines.
Students should be motivated to apply BIM in an active way by seeking solutions

for problems encountered in teamwork.
6 Recommendations for future research

The goal of BIM education at UNNC would be to expand it from a single module
to the whole programme, and to provide training to local professionals considering
the booming local BIM market. Continuous BIM education will be conducted in
the coming school year. The BIM education will be updated according to student
feedback. Future BIM education at UNNC will target on other modules and extend
to post-graduate programmes.
References
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Involvement matters: BIM implementation

at project level in the AEC industry
K. Brthen1 & A. Moum2,3
1
Fafo, Norway
2
SINTEF Building and Infrastructure, Norway
3
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway
Abstract
In recent years enabling technologies such as building information modeling
(BIM) has appeared in the architecture, engineering and construction industry.
Despite that both the industry and researchers have devoted considerable resources
in the development of numerous aspects of BIM, the fundamental implementation
process at project level is still poorly understood. In this paper we investigate a
real life project taken from Statsbygg, The Norwegian directorate of public
construction and property. We use a theoretical framework to examine which
factors are significant for successful BIM implementation at the project level. The
case study deals with Statsbyggs request of using BIM and Lean-construction-
inspired work principles in the design phase of a medium sized refurbishment
project. The analysis finds that a successful implementation largely depends upon
a participative and co-operative process. This means that significant project
participants must be involved in a discussion of a BIM-implementation-plan which
should reflect interests and goals of the involved parties.
Keywords: BIM, case study, change process, implementation, project level.
1 Introduction
The rapid development of information and communication technology has
provided some new promising digital tools for the industry. In recent years
enabling technologies such as building information modeling (BIM) has appeared.
Here BIM is a term referring to three-dimensional computer-aided and product-
oriented design technologies and processes in the architecture, engineering and
construction (AEC) industry. With the use of BIM a network of interdependent
doi:10.2495/BIM150141
actors can collaborate to develop a model of the planned construction works [1].
In other words, in this paper, BIM is defined broadly as a process and technology.
One of the most striking arguments for using BIM in the AEC-industry is that it
has the potential to improve the collaboration among the actors involved in the
building process which is expected to lead to increased efficiency, productivity
and reduce costs. Despite that both the industry and researchers have devoted
considerable resources in the development of numerous aspects of BIM, the
fundamental implementation process is still poorly understood. Implementation of
innovations such as BIM involves organizational change and is a demanding
process [2]. Construction has some particular characteristics, which makes it
different from other areas of industry. These characteristics are of importance for
how organizational change is carried out. For instance, the construction industry
contains numerous of different firms and professions. Construction projects are
often organized as separate projects, with few standardized tasks, and rarely the
same staff. Regularly people from different firms work together in one specific
project, but will not work together again. This complexity is likely to be of
importance for how BIM is implemented. Harty [3] points out that: The complex
context of construction work is characterized by inter-organizational
collaboration, a project-based approach and power distributed amongst
collaborating organizations. This means that the implementation of BIM at this
inter-organizational level is placed beyond the control of a single actor who can
ensure a unitary implementation and use of BIM [3]. Previous research has mainly
studied implementation at industry or country level, or in a single firm. However,
considerably fewer have studied implementation at the project level. By this we
refer to examinations of what is happening when BIM is to be implemented into
a project organization consisting of different firms. In this paper we want to map
out different driving and restraining forces affecting the BIM implementation. The
following research question will thus be examined: What factors were important
for BIM implementation at the project level in the case scrutinized? This means
that we are not going to study the effects or consequences of implementation, but
rather examine how the actual implementation was done. By the term
implementation we mean activities putting the use of BIM into effect.
In this paper an explorative case study from Statsbygg, The Norwegian
Directorate of Public Construction and Property, is investigated. Statsbyggs field
of responsibility is to provide appropriate, functional premises to public sector
enterprises. This means that Statsbygg will provide guidance in the purchase and
leasing of premises and, in respect of new buildings, act as building commissioner
on behalf of the Norwegian government. The case deals with a refurbishment of a
public building where Statsbygg acted as building commissioner. In this case
Statsbygg requested the use of BIM including some Lean-construction-inspired
principles in the design phase. In this case study, which later will be described in
detail, Statsbygg took up a central role in the formulation of how BIM should be
used in the project. This can probably be attributed Statsbygg aspiration to be
driving force in the development of the Norwegian industry in several areas, BIM
included.
This paper is structured as follows: First, Lean-construction will be presented

briefly, then the theoretical framework, as well as methodological considerations
will be outlined. Next, the empirical material regarding the BIM implementation
will be accounted for. Finally follows a discussion and some concluding remarks
concerning the findings generalizability.
1.1 A short note on BIM and Lean-construction
Above, BIM was said to be a term referring to three-dimensional computer-aided

and product-oriented design technologies and processes [1]. Lean-construction
can be defined as a ...is a way to design production systems to minimize waste of
materials, time, and effort in order to generate the maximum possible amount of
value [4]. In this context it is important to emphasize that Lean-construction
refers to the entire AEC-industry and not only the construction phase of a building
project. Lean-construction and BIM are not dependent on one another i.e. Lean-
construction practices can be adopted without BIM, and BIM can be adopted
without Lean-construction. Nevertheless, in earlier research and in this paper it is
assumed that the potential for improvement of a construction project are enhanced
when their adoption is integrated [5].
2 What characterizes successful change processes?

There exist many different theoretical perspectives on organizational change. The
theoretical framework used in this article has not originated in one specific
tradition, but is based on different studies and traditions. The framework used is
to a large extent inspired by work done by colleagues in a number of studies of
change processes both in public and private sector [68]. In these studies change
processes has been analysed in different cases such as implementation of lean in
ship building projects, new working arrangements in Norwegian municipalities as
well as implementation of Last planner systems in the construction industry. It is
a common assumption that managers have a special responsibility for change
processes. However, it is more questionable whether there are always managers
who in fact initiates and carry out the changes. Nevertheless, in the framework
presented in this paper it is first and foremost a focus on managers ability to carry
out planned changes [9]. In this paper a BIM implementation (defined as both
technology and process) will be looked upon as a change process. The applied
framework does not give exact answers to how a change process should be carried
out, but it rather consists of some factors that have shown to be relevant for
whether a change process succeeds or not. The framework will be used to examine
what factors have been prominent in driving or restraining the BIM
implementation in the investigated case study. The framework consists of the
following three factors: 1) a clearly stated purpose, necessity, and goals, 2)
commitment, cooperation and involvement and 3) management support. Each of
the factors will be discussed in detail in the next sections.
The first factor, a clearly stated purpose, necessity, and goals have shown to be
of crucial importance in several studies. This factor is partly about communicating
to all actors involved in the change process what should be done and why it should
be done. Changes that are perceived as important and necessary by managers,
enthusiasts, R&D units, etc. are not always viewed in the same way by the troops
on the ground. Central in this context, is that it exist a general agreement on that
something ought to be done [10]. A clearly specified purpose and a perceived need
for change are consequently essential for the involved actors motivation in a
change process, but also to be able to formulate operationalizable and achievable
goals [11]. Although the main purpose of a change may be clear i.e. the
introduction of BIM, it is also important that those who are involved and affected
by the change have a meaningful understanding of the goals for the initiative. This
is a prerequisite for both support and legitimacy and to increase the possibilities
for those involved to be goal-oriented. A well-known pitfall is vaguely formulated
goals, making it difficult for the involved parties to work targeted. Another danger
if the goals are not formulated sufficiently clear is that it could lead to a form of
false agreement agreement based on an ambiguous content. Concerning this
study, a clearly stated set of goals, is about formulating specific goals for how the
BIM to be used in the project. This may be e.g. goals about to how to work with
the BIM, how to make different types of checks etc. In other words, it is important
having operational goals which the parties involved can work towards.
The second factor is about commitment, cooperation and involvement. One of
the most essential aspects for a successful change is establishment of employee
commitment. This has been particularly essential within the Norwegian context,
where the idea of employee involvement and participation has been significant for
a long time [12]. Commitment is about acceptance of the content of a change
process by all involved actors, leaders as well as people on the ground.
Commitment can be formalized through written formal agreements such as
contracts and other forms of agreements. But just as important is what we can label
as a form of social approval by the affected parties. This is about a positive
assessment of the change processes and an acceptance and support of both goals
and strategies. It is in other words not only those participants who have formally
undertaken to use BIM, but also about the different actors acceptance and
adherence to goals and strategies. Involvement often provides greater legitimacy
and an opportunity to deal with positive opposition and prevent destructive
opposition. This is about getting all involved parties engaged in the
implementation process. This requires a general agreement on the goals and
conformity between goals and means. Involvement is to a large extent about
information, communication, participation and influence. It is crucial to involve
affected actors and listen to their opinions and allow them to have an impact on
the process [13]. This is particularly significant when it comes to the use of BIM
in project organizations due to actors across organizational boundaries that are set
to work together towards common goals.
The third and last factor is management support. It is significant that leaders in
a change process motivate to keep up the work for working further efforts. This
could be done by showing interest, requesting results and in this way keep up
the pressure for change. Management support is in other words important to
provide legitimacy for the change process but also to ensure access to essential
resources such as equipment and training, see e.g. [9].
To sum up this theory section, with the current level of BIM maturity
implementation frequently involves a process of change. This kind of
implementation has little to do with specific concepts or techniques. It can rather
be seen as a general organizational change process that requires a development
strategy and commitment and participation from all actors as well as management
support. Change process without such a basis is likely to fail [8].
3 Methods
In this paper we investigate a BIM implementation process at the project level to
gain knowledge about the factors that were important in this process. To shed light
onto such a complex phenomenon, a case study seems like an appropriate strategy.
According to Yin [14], a case study consists of an in-depth inquiry into a specific
and complex phenomenon, set within its real-world context. Case studies are seen
as suitable to answer how and why questions and allows for the investigation
of many variables consequently generating in-depth knowledge. This case study
is based on qualitative data which are generated from semi-structured interviews
with leaders and hands on project participants; this includes both people from
Statsbygg and the design team. The purpose of the interviews was to get
informants' own assessments of the project and how the implementation and
planning of BIM had occurred. Consequently, all quotes used in this paper are
translated from Norwegian to English by the author. As a part of the data collection
we also observed several types of meetings, i.e. design meetings and different
types of plan meetings. Observational studies involve making field notes based on
a detailed observation of behaviour, talk, interaction, practices etc. In this study
we have chosen a non-participant strategy. Such a strategy implies that we were
not a part of the activity taking place at the meetings, but simply visible observers.
In addition documents have been used as a supplement to other data types
generated through interviews and observation.
4 The case: BIM implementation at the project level

First in this section, Statsbyggs role in the Norwegian construction industry will
be discussed. Secondly, the empirical material of the BIM implementation process
will be presented.
4.1 Prolog: the case company and project organization and the SamBIM
research project
Statsbygg has a large area of responsibility which includes acting as a building

commissioner. Statsbygg has for a long time been a driving force on the use of
BIM in the Norwegian construction industry. Already in 2008 Statsbygg launched
its first BIM manual and the same year they demanded the use of BIM in a pilot
project in western Norway. Statsbygg has ever since been a premise setter in the
development and implementation of BIM in the Norwegian industry. Statsbygg is

also one of the industry partners in an ongoing Norwegian research project called
SamBIM (Collaboration with BIM as a catalyst) financed by Norwegian research
council. This research project is based on a joint effort of Norwegian industry and
research partners. In this project several actors from the construction industry
wants to try out new forms of organization and technologies such as building
information models. The aim of the project is to increase value creation and
innovation in the society, the AEC-industry and the companies involved by
developing and improving BIM-supported processes and collaboration in real-life
projects. The case study that forms the basis for this paper was one of Statsbygg
contributions to this research project. This project was chosen by Statsbygg
because it was supposed to start up in appropriate time, and that project
management wanted to participate.
In the following sections we will take a closer look at the implementation of
BIM including some Lean-construction inspired methods in a construction project
where Statsbygg acted as the building commissioner. The case deals with a
refurbishment of a public building in Oslo. The building was constructed in 1974
and has remained largely unchanged since that time. The project involved
construction of 1700 m2 and rehabilitation of 4900 m2.
4.2 Elevated BIM ambitions
We wanted to try out something more in this project we had higher BIM
ambitions than usual (Statsbygg employee).
Already in the pre-design phase, it was decided by Statsbygg that this project
should be a part of the SamBIM research project. As a result of that decision,
Statsbygg wanted higher BIM ambitions than normal for the design phase (the
schematic and preliminary part of the design phase according to the Statsbygg
projection model). After the project was out to tender, some of the project
members from Statsbygg suggested that as a part of the elevated BIM ambitions,
it would be interesting to try out some Lean-construction-inspired principles in the
design phase as a part of the BIM-plan. This was certainly not enshrined in the
tender documents which were sent out some weeks in advance. Basically, the idea
was to try out co-location of the design team a few times week in a common office
together with some working methods based on lean thinking. The latter was not
particularly specified or discussed in Statsbygg at that time. However, these
thoughts about co-locating the design team together with some new working
methods represented something new for Statsbygg. At that time Statsbygg was
more or less unfamiliar with this kind of working, but still something they wanted
to get more experiences with from their perspective as a building commissioner.
Especially they wanted to gain more knowledge about whether such workings
methods could lead to a better and faster design process.
Based on a competitive tendering a design team was selected. The chosen
design team was a constellation of several small and medium sized Norwegian
firms based in the Oslo area. In interviews, Statsbygg has explained that this group
was chosen largely based on their extensive BIM knowledge. The proposed
solutions, the teams previous experience and the cost level also played a role in
the decision. After the contract was signed and project was started up, Statsbygg
arranged several meetings where issues relating to the project in general and the
use of BIM specifically were discussed. Those meetings were initiated by
Statsbyggs project manager and assistant project manager, as well as so-called
change agent. The change agent was a Statsbygg employee who had a special
responsibility for SamBIMs activities internally.
4.3 Co-location and deciding of the new working methods
In one of the first meetings the design team was presented to Statsbyggs aspiration
to try out co-location of the design team in a common office as part of the BIM-
plan for the project. In this meeting Statsbygg presented the suggestion in an open-
ended way. Put another way, Statsbygg did not come up with any set options on
how this should be done. Rather, they welcomed an open and involving discussion
with the design team on how the co-location could be done and how the working
plan could be set up. This proposal was mainly well-accepted by the parties
involved, and after some meetings Statsbygg and the design team agreed to try the
following BIM-plan for the design phase:
The design team and representatives from Statsbygg was going to be co-located
one to two days per week in an office close to one of the architects office. This
form of working was according to several of my informants inspired by Lean-
construction and principles taken from so-called Virtual Design and Construction
(VDC). VDC is a label used by the CIFE center at Stanford University for a
concept partly influenced by Lean-construction. It exists several touch and
overlaps between Lean-construction and VDC methods. An important common
feature is the focus on activities that bring value to the project and minimize waste
activities, a focus on pull mechanisms and place the customer in the center, to
name a few similarities. A variety of methods and techniques have been developed
under the VDC-umbrella. Two Lean-constructions tools or methods originating
from VDC was planned to be used in this case, namely Integrated Concurrent
Engineering (ICE) and big room-organization. ICE involves co-located, parallel
design sessions where central goals include better collaboration, faster schedules
and better quality. With so-called ICE sessions, all relevant actors are gathered in
a big room where they work simultaneously using computers, common databases
and SMARTboards. In this case the big room was planned to be furnished with
desks around a SMARTboards in a relatively large open office. In addition it was
planned to furnish two adjoining offices for separate meetings, phone calls etc. As
a part of the BIM-plan which included co-location, Statsbygg and the design team
agreed upon a weekly schedule. The weekly schedule meant that every Wednesday
all disciplines should be present when asked for or clearly needed, on Thursdays
everyone in the team and the representatives from Statsbygg as the owner should
be present the whole day. Additionally, on some Thursdays the team also intended
to have meetings with the users representatives.
The intention with this form of working was to strength the interdisciplinary
collaboration and to speed up the design process and reduce response latency. As
part of the try out, the design team and Statsbygg planned to use a planning tool,
a so-called planning matrix. The matrix was planned to function as a schedule
between the co-located meetings. The matrix consisted of a whiteboard organized

by disciplines, dates and activities. Post-it notes in different colors should be used
to allocate tasks. In relation to this planning tool it was also planned to use
something usually referred to as action items. Action items are created during
meetings when it is discovered that some kind of action is needed. The action
required is then documented as an action item and assigned to someone, usually a
member of the group. The person to whom the action is assigned to is then
obligated to perform the action and report back to the group on the results. The
team hoped that the planning matrix combined with the use of action items should
lead to an effective planning and execution of the design phase with BIM.
4.4 Creating the rules of the game
As a part of the meetings between the design team and Statsbygg, the different
actors had several discussions about what could be referred to as ground rules for
working. By ground rules we simply mean guidelines for how the team envisioned
how they should work together. One of the meetings was organized and labeled as
a collaboration workshop. This workshop was arranged before the project
formally started. The purpose of this workshop could be said to be twofold. The
workshop was partly about the design team doing a practical exercise to solve
some technical challenges regarding to interoperability, exchange software tips,
etc. But this was also about defining more specifically how BIM should be used
in the project. Perhaps more important, the intention of the workshop was also
about working out a collaboration strategy. In an interview, one of the
informants from Statsbygg emphasized that this strategy was not a pure BIM
strategy in the traditional manner. The central distinction between BIM strategy
and collaboration strategy according to the informant was that the latter should
focus more on the social sides of collaboration; How the actors should act
together the rules of the game and not just the technical parts of BIM. A central
part of this strategy was to assign responsibilities and let everyone in the team
know their role, what it entailed, and how it is related to the needs of the rest of
the team. This was about raising awareness to that even though the team consisted
of individuals who had much knowledge of BIM, it did not necessarily mean that
it constituted a brilliant design team. To use a metaphor from the sports:
Regardless of individual talents, a dream team needs a decent tactical plan to
benefit from the individual skills.
4.5 Epilog: The project got a quick end
[I had] expectations for the big room. Too bad we did not get chance to try it out
in full (member of design team).
The quote above is from an interview with one of the designers and illustrates
the projects fate. When the project had been going on for some months and the
participants had gained some experience with the working methods, the project
was terminated by Statsbyggs principal. This was done due the lack of financial
appropriations over the central government budget, and consequently not for
reasons associated to the project per se. This makes it difficult to say anything
about effects or results of the successful BIM implementation. However, this is

not the purpose of this paper.
5 Discussion
In the next sections, the theoretical framework will be used to examine what
factors have been prominent in driving or restraining the BIM implementation in
the case study presented in this paper. The framework will hopefully help to shed
light on some of the factors which was important for the successful outcome.
All interviewed actors had some experience with BIM from previous projects.
Most of the informants were therefore quite aware of what kind of benefits the use
of BIM could bring. Based on the interviews it seems clear that the vast majority
of the design team had a good understanding of why BIM should be used and it
should do in this project. The projects purpose and goals connected to BIM was
specified to a certain extent in the Statsbygg BIM-manual and tender documents.
These topics can partly be found in the first factor in the theoretical framework,
about having a clearly stated purpose, necessity and goals. However, considerably
fewer in the design team and Statsbyggs people had any experience with Lean-
construction and VDC methods. In interviews and observations of meetings the
informants stated that in the early stages of the design phase, it was some
uncertainty about what co-location meant in practice. As described in the empirical
section of this paper the ideas linked to co-location was something that came up
more or less by a coincidence internally in Statsbygg; the co-location were
presented as an alternative approach to work with BIM after the job was put out
to tender. In the interviews some of the informants from the design team were
critical to the fact that this was not specified in the contract documents. However,
the data shows that BIM in combination with the new working methods was
considered interesting because such methods were thought to be the next big
thing by the design team. Despite little formalized information about purpose,
goals etc. the working methods were perceived as innovative and consequently
something the design team wanted to try out. In some of the interviews it was
pointed out that neither Statsbygg nor the design team had any clear vision about
this new work method, beyond hoping it would lead to better collaboration and
faster design phase. Despite some initial critical remarks, the data indications that
it was established an early consensus about implementing BIM including the
innovative working methods. This can probably partly be attributed to the fact that
team had a good knowledge of some parts of BIM from previous projects.
However and just as important as the knowledge level, the data indicates that
willingness to implementation can be linked to the design teams extensive
participation and co-determination in the process of defining what and how it was
actually going to be tried out. This is in accordance with the second factor in the
theoretical framework, which is about commitment, cooperation and involvement.
This means that the team itself together with Statsbygg was given the opportunity
to formulate how the design phase should be organized as well as deciding the
rules of the game. This was done in the initial meetings, before the actual work
had started. Two informants put it this way:
The collaboration workshop was very good. We got a nice discussion on

some technical challenges. The meetings where we discussed how this VDC-
thing should look like were crucial. I think we came up with a pretty good
solution (member of design team).
We did not have any clear perception on how this was going to be. We had
some general thoughts, but nothing specific. I think it was a good thing that
everyone contributed to the plan (Statsbygg employee).
In this involvement process Statsbyggs project manager and assistant project
manager, as well as the change agent played a key role. Those persons, who all
can be said to have a managerial role in the project, took initiative and opened for
a participatory process. In this process ideas and suggestions was welcomed and
had a real impact on the final decision about how the design phase should be
organized. Those three persons also played an important role for motivating the
involved actors to come up with ideas and drive up the pace. They also played a
significant role in providing the project with extra financial resources in order to
finance hiring of the big room facilities, access to internet, buy SMARTboards etc.
These issues are in accordance with the frameworks third factor which underscores
the importance of managerial support for a successful change.
Our informants claimed that the implementation process should be considered
as successful because Statsbygg and the design team succeeded to put BIM into
effect. Based on this assessment the analysis finds that a successful
implementation of BIM depends more or less upon all the three factors specified
in the theoretical framework. In the case, factors related to commitment,
cooperation and involvement, as well as managerial support appear to be the most
prominent. Managerial support was in this case important for motivation and for
providing financial resources. The analysis also finds that a successful
implementation of BIM depends upon a participative and co-operative process.
This means that project participants must be involved in a discussion on how BIM
should be implemented and used. The analysis points out that these kinds of
discussions and can ensure the needed support for an innovative and unfamiliar
BIM-process.
Even though the theoretical framework points out some important factors, it is
nevertheless reasonable to assume that some other factors also may have had an
impact on the successful implementation of BIM. In the following, we will briefly
discuss two other possible factors. The first factor is about the importance of
enthusiasts, while the other factor deals with Statsbyggs distinctive role in the
Norwegian construction industry. By the term enthusiast we mean persons who
are characterized by their passion for the sake and for being a driving force in
the process. In the observational studies and in some of the interviews we were
told about a couple of persons from Statsbygg and the design team who had played
a significant role in the implementation process. These individuals were
particularly innovative and knowledgeable individuals who willingly shared their
insight with others and were important partakers in driving the process forward.
Despite the fact that these persons influences are not captured by the theoretical
framework, their vital role for successful BIM implementation should not be
underestimated. Secondly, the projects status as a research project connected to
SamBIM may also have had an impact on the result. The encouraging basis of
being part of a large research project may have contributed to the positive view on
the project by the involved actors as well as led to higher efforts. Certain parts of
our data material indicate that several participants found it interesting to be part of
a pioneering project such as this. Additionally, the fact that Statsbygg is an
important actor in the Norwegian construction industry may also have led to a
more well-disposed design team compared to a situation with a building
commissioner being of lesser importance. The desire of having a good relation to
Statsbygg should probably not be underestimated.
5.1 Concluding remarks
The analysis finds that a successful implementation depends upon a participative

and co-operative implementation process at the ground level. Without
involvement and participation organizational change and development will
probably be met indifference and apathy or at worst resistance. This is in
accordance with other studies in the construction industry [8] as well as other
industries and the public sector. Based on this we regard the importance of
participation and involvement for successful organizational change as a somewhat
robust findings. Due to the construction industrys characteristic features, e.g.
inter-organizational relationships and project-based work, aspects related to
participation and cooperation seems avoidable in change processes and
organizational development. This implies that significant project participants
should be involved in a discussion of a BIM-implementation-plan which should
reflect interests and goals of the involved parties. The analysis points out that these
kinds of discussions can ensure the needed support for an innovative and for some
unfamiliar BIM-process. Consequently, the findings of the case study indicates
that it does not exist a generic best practice way of implementing BIM. Instead
each process must be tailored by the involved actors through involvement and
participation. This may imply that BIM implementation at the project lever in the
AEC-industry without such basis is more likely to fail rather than to succeed.
However, further research from other projects and countries is needed in order to
provide a clear answer to this question.
References
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in Engineering 25(2), pp. 69-76, 2009.
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and ICT Learning from Practitioners Stories, NTNU: Trondheim, 2008.
[3] Harty, C., Innovation in construction: a sociology of technology approach.
Building Research & Information, 33(6), pp. 512-522, 2005.
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lean construction (Chapter 14). Design and Construction: Building in
Value, eds. B. Hellingsworth, R. Best, & G. de Valence, Butterworth-

Heiemannn: Oxford, pp. 211-226, 2002.
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report 2010:31: Oslo, 2010.
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collaborative main contractor subcontractor relationships in Norway.
Heriot-Watt University: Edinburgh. 2013.
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ikke klarer endre en organisasjon. Magma, 1(1), pp. 9-25. 1998.
[10] Kotter, J P., Leading change, Harvard business school press: Boston, 1996.
[11] Cummings, T., & Worley, C., Organization development and change.
Cengage learning: Stamford, 2014.
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[14] Yin, R. K., Case study research. Design and methods. Sage: London, 2003.
An examination of clients and project teams

developing information requirements for
the Asset Information Model (AIM)
D. Navendren, L. Mahdjoubi, M. Shelbourn & J. Mason
Abstract
The client brief not being met by the final construction project could be due to a
lack of clarity and collaboration causing substantial difficulties. As the final end-
product on a construction project is most heavily influenced by decisions made in
the earliest stages, there lies an important necessity on clients clarifying their
requirements collaboratively with the project team from the start. The impact of
collaborative work from the genesis of a project is stressed especially with the
implementation of Building Information Modelling (BIM) on projects,
particularly with the UK government mandate to adopt BIM Level 2 by 2016 on
all of its projects. The crux of enabling the realisation of BIM Level 2 lies in the
clients and project team understanding how the Asset Information Model (AIM),
1 of the 8 Pillars of Level 2 BIM, is informed by the client requirements formed
collaboratively with the team. This paper sets out the investigation of the
collaborative development of information requirements for the AIM by the client
and project team. This investigation is informed by the findings of a pilot study,
involving 10 design firms, where qualitative semi-structured interviews were
conducted to determine designers perceptions, attitudes and experiences of BIM
implementation, especially at the early stages of the design process. This paper
reports the results of the pilot study outlining challenges faced by designers in key
thematic areas. Team-oriented challenges highlighted collaboration and clarity of
client requirements as key problematic areas.
Keywords: clients, project team, collaboration, Building Information Modelling
(BIM), BIM Level 2, Asset Information Model (AIM), information requirements.
doi:10.2495/BIM150151
1 Introduction
Poor client leadership and team fragmentation have been heavily criticised as it
leads to the client brief not being met, forming poorly informed decisions, delays,
overspend, waste, disputes, inefficiencies, and overall dissatisfaction of the
construction project [13]. The necessity for collaboration between the client and
team from the genesis of the construction project was brought to light [4, 5].
Wolstenholme et al. [6] stressed that implementing these recommendations for
improvement will have long-lasting, positive effects on the construction industry
and working practices.
A significant Government Construction Strategy was published in 2011 with
the aim to enhance collaboration between the client and project team with the
means of adopting Building Information Modeling (BIM) Level 2 on all of its
projects by 2016 [7]. The Asset Information Model (AIM), 1 of the 8 Pillars of
BIM Level 2, is required to be developed collaboratively by the client and project
team [8]. This study sets out an examination of client and project teams developing
information requirements for the Asset Information Model (AIM). The sections
that follow encompass a background literature review on BIM Level 2,
collaboration between the client and team from the start of a construction project,
and the developing information requirements for the AIM. Subsequently a
research framework intended to be adopted for this study, based on findings from
a pilot study, will be proposed.
2 Literature review
2.1 The importance of client and project team collaboration
Porwal and Hewage [9] explain that clients have a pivotal role in adopting BIM as
they are the driving force behind the facility, as the initiators, financiers,
commissioners, owners, users or a combination of the previously mentioned [10].
Rowlinson [11] and Newcombe [12] explain that the industry usually typecasts
clients into three categories: the public sector, the private sector and mixed;
furthermore, clients can be grouped into uninformed, partially-informed, and well-
informed clients referring to the frequency of procuring projects from very rare,
sometimes to very often respectively.
Kamara et al. [10] assert that the initial project expectations to the final project
results are founded upon the client requirements, which need to be clearly defined
from the outset. Appiah [13] agrees that clients need to initiate the construction
process with a clarified understanding of their own expectations.
The client requirements feed into the work needed to be carried out throughout
the project stages by the team; Brandon and Lu [14] support that the client and
project team must work collaboratively to set up the initial brief with a clear
project strategy and comprehensible specifications.
Crotty [15] concludes that BIM provides the necessary integrated platform,
where the project specifications and brief are formed by the client and project team
collaboratively from the earliest stages if a construction project.
2.2 BIM providing a platform for collaboration
BIM is a means to managing construction projects through collaboration [16]. The

UK BIM Task Group [17] explains that the movement to adopt BIM Level 2 by
2016 is to modernise the construction sector over the subsequent years. Similarly,
Saxon [18] deduces that the construction industry has a strong basis for BIM-
driven development, concluding that adopting BIM throughout the entire project
lifecycle presents an opportunity for economic growth that can be realised by 2020
as the improvement in collaboration will lead to the reduction in time, cost and
risk.
Azhar and Cochran [19] define BIM as a process where client requirements are
used to build up a shared model that is data-rich, object-oriented, intelligent and
a parametric digital representation of a construction project, utilised by all project
stakeholders. An enormous benefit of BIM implementation is early collaborative
decision-making between the client and project participants leading to numerous
benefits including the following: greater integration between the various
disciplines forming a construction team, a strong link between design decisions
and costs, early virtual prototyping, simulations and improved visualisations,
optimal asset performance, feedback of data, waste reduction in the construction
process due to detailed asset and lifecycle planning, decreased errors in
documents, reduction in capital costs, improved construction outcomes, higher
predictability of performance [2022].
To assist clients and the project team with correct BIM implementation from
the outset of a construction project, publications such as the BIM execution plan
were released to give guidance on how to formulate and communicate client
specifications and purpose of the BIM models within tender documents for the
designers and constructors [17]. The need for clarity of this process resulted in the
8 Pillars of BIM, which were constructed by the UK Government [23, 24].
2.3 The 8 Pillars of BIM and developing information requirements

for AIM
Each of the 8 Pillars cohesively inform the implementation of BIM to its maximum
benefits [23, 25]: PAS 1192-2:2013 is a publically available specification detailing
how to digitally manage a project; PAS 1192-3:2014 is a specification about how
to digitally manage an asset; PAS 1192:5 is another specification regarding
information security; BS 1192-4 is a British Standard including information about
effectively sharing information digitally; the BIM Protocol is a document that
deciphers the important legal matters underpinning BIM; Government Soft
Landings specifies a graduated handover of projects with targets to measure the
progress; Digital Plan of Work is a cohesive plan of work that spans across all
disciplines involved in a project; and Classification which clarifies how
information and processes surrounding BIM are classified. BIM Level 2 lies in the
clients and project team understanding how the 8 Pillars interact together. Below,
Figure 1 defines the interactions of parts 2 and 3.
Figure 1: Relating PAS 1192-2:2013 and PAS 1192-3:2014 [26].
As presented in the above figure, all output models are substantiated by the
Plain Language Questions (PLQ). Bryde et al. [27] explain how the Pillars of BIM
interact: PAS 1192-2 informs the Project Information Model (PIM) during the
construction phase and PAS 1192-3 respectively informs the Asset Information
Model (AIM) for the operational phase. These models are verified against the
Employers Information Requirements and Organisational Information
Requirements, which in turn constructs the Asset Information Requirements
(AIRs). To fulfil the objectives within the PAS and BS documents, the
classification scheme is compelled to be proficient in encapsulating all information
and data within the Common Data Environment (CDE) across the Digital Plan of
Works.
Birchall and Harris [26] encourage that the requirements informing the AIM in
particular put forth the potential to eliminate waste from the project processes
generating better project outcomes. The immense positive potential for the
operators of the asset is generated as facilities management are engaged with the
project from its genesis, promoting a relationship with the client from the earliest
stage, thus a competitive edge is created for the facilities managers and supply
chain as problems and risks are resolvable earlier on [28]. Moreover, Mohandesa
et al. [8] support that the focus on the project itself and end users created by the
information requirements specifying the AIM produces an overall improved end-
result; it is evident that the development of the information requirements for AIM
by the project team is an important factor that influences the entire project.
2.4 Research gap
Volk et al. [29] confirm that the BIM movement will progressively affect the
construction industry and practices globally, increasing the need for research in
this area to resolve any arising problems and provide guidance. Although BIM has
been researched extensively over the past few years [30], there are research gaps
needing to be filled.
Walker [31] describes that BIM implementation involves clients and project
teams working collaboratively from the genesis of a construction project to
produce information requirements that feed into the AIM, which critically impact
the project end results. To implement BIM correctly, an all-inclusive decision-
making process is needed where all team members are feeding into the project
expectations and requirements [10, 32]. The importance of client and project team
collaboration from the earliest stages of a project has been stressed by many
including Lew and Lentz [33], Mileham and Currie [34] and Uher and Loosemore
[35]. Simultaneously, the importance of the project team developing information
requirements to produce the AIM has been highlighted by several including,
Birchall and Harris [26], Mohandesa et al. [8] and Arayici and Coates [28].
Despite research efforts, there is a research gap regarding the culmination of
these important topics, scrutinising the collaborative development of information
requirements for the AIM project by the client and project team from the earliest
stages. This study will aim to fill this key research gap by proposing a research
framework that is likely to include questionnaires and case studies.
3 Proposed research framework

This study adopts a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches,
resulting in a mixed method research approach; this is to obtain instrumental and
intrinsic insight into the research topic as elucidated by Johnson et al. [36].
The mixed method incorporates quantitative research, which gives the
opportunity to discover correlation, emerging patterns and causal relationships,
but can be very general and doesn't allow for in-depth exploration of the social
aspects [37]. This is counteracted by qualitative research which is based on
perceptions, impressions, experience and trends offering the opportunity to
produce results that have great depth but cannot apply extensively across the
industry [38]. Undertaking the mixed method approach therefore gives
opportunity for an in-depth exploration through qualitative research whilst
producing results that also apply extensively across the industry due to the
incorporation of quantitative research.
The case study approach was chosen as it facilitates a more in-depth form of
research, which gives an opportunity to discover both the hard and soft aspects
involved in process change and organisational relationships; Yin [39] accentuates
the aspects of case studies being flexible, meticulous, systematic, narrow and in-
depth investigation, descriptive, focused on themes and able to provide more
realistic responses than a statistic study these are all supportive of the type of
research that needs to be conducted.
The case study research will involve selecting projects and collecting data
through documents, models and undertaking observations and semi-structured
interviews to accumulate peoples perceptions, ensuring that similar matters are
discussed and collected data is akin, thus comparable. Patton [40] expresses that
semi-structured interviews provide a greater focal point than a casual interview,

but proffers autonomy and flexibility. Direct observations provide an overview of
sampled situations therefore the researcher cannot participate and become
immersed in the context [41]. As a direct observer of situations like client and
project team meetings, Yin [39] advises that the researcher remains purely
observant without participation, unobtrusive, unbiased and detached.
Yin [39] supports that case studies provide intensive conclusions with great
depth, rather than extensive conclusions; therefore it is a strong form of
exploratory research which will be undertaken for this study, seeking to investigate
processes and collaboration between clients and project teams in the development
of information requirements for the AIM. However due to the mixed method
approach, the questionnaires will provide broad findings across the industry [42],
uncovering patterns and correlations about the topic on a larger scale across the
construction industry.
However, due to the nature of in-depth research studies, there are some
inevitable limitations that must be considered at this stage. Case studies are found
objectionable as the intense exposure is said to create biased findings however
case studies are also most suited for capturing social processes and relationships
[39]. To overcome the data being limited, the research will include two or three
case studies rather than a single-case study in order to compare and contrast whilst
capturing a wider scope of clients and project teams. Another limitation of the case
study approach highlighted by Piekkari and Welch [43] is the potential lack of
appropriate case studies. To avert this shortcoming, adequate preparation and
prior-communication with professionals in the industry will be undertaken to
ensure that pre-selected construction projects with good access are available for
investigation, in the case that the questionnaires do not result in a selection of
suitable case study options.
3.1 Pilot study
A pilot study was conducted where qualitative semi-structured interviews were

adopted to collect data from design firms regarding the challenges of
implementing BIM. The research strategy of interviews was chosen to explore the
designers' perceptions, attitudes and experiences. For the pilot study, invitations
were sent to design firms (i.e. architectural and engineering) in London, UK. From
the 60 invitations to participate, 10 firms confirmed. Table 1 depicts the profiles
of the firms and interview participants.
The participants interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, cross-
checked iteratively, coded with the use of QS NVivo 10 which led to the
generation of themes, including team oriented challenges which are explored in
the next section.
3.2 Findings and discussion
The analysis resulted in the classification of challenges faced by designers in key

thematic areas including design-specific challenges, team-oriented challenges,
project-related challenges, industry-related challenges, BIM-specific (technology)
Table 1: Profiles of the 10 interview participants.
FirmsBIM
Sizeof Roleof participant
Participant Typeofdesignfirm usage
firm* withfirm
experience
StructuralCAD
A Engineeringdesign Large 7years
technician
Architecturaland Digitaldesign
B Large 7years
engineering representative
C Transportsystems Large None Structuralengineer
Applications
Architecturaland
D Large 9years administrator and
engineering
BIMmanager
E Architectural Small 1year Architect
Engineering
services,facility
Engineeringand
F managementand Large 12years
energydirector
energy
management
CADanddesign
G Architectural Large None
manager
H Architectural Large 2years BIMmanager
Architecturaland BIMmanagerand
I Medium 0.5years
interiordesign designteamleader
J Architectural Small 1year Architect
*Firm size: Micro < 10 employees, Small < 50 employees, Medium < 250 employees, and Large 250
employees [44].
challenges and BIM cost challenges. The team-oriented challenges, highlighted by

the designers, concerned working with other project participants. The team-
oriented challenges included: a lack of understanding by clients regarding the
brief, specifications and requirements for the BIM model as well as a lack of
collaborative work amongst the team from early design stages.
Participant D commented that the clients need to be further educated on BIM
so that they know what to expect, but currently they dont understand enough
whilst Participant I was concerned regarding collaboration that some clients have
no specific requirements for models used for facilities management.
When discussing ways of addressing these challenges, Participant F responded
that clients need to understand what they want and need from the BIM model and
what benefits and pitfalls are involved within the different routes and
specifications. There are a lot of client groups out there which are very up-to-
date. Furthermore Participant B suggested that clients ought to increase clarity,
collaboration and communication, as the standards out there need to be pushed
by the client. The client must specify their requirements and that would take all
the ambiguity out of it. Within literature, similar issues have been explored where
client uncertainty has been noted by Cabinet Office [7].
The challenges faced by designers regarding BIM implementation forms the
basis for further research to discover the means of overcoming the challenges.
Leading from these findings regarding the need for clarity and collaboration
between the client and team, the proposed research strategy for this study was
developed. As the development of information requirements for the AIM should
be done collaboratively by the client and the team from the start of the construction
project, the proposed study will focus on this area.
The contribution of this study will be an output of the identification of criteria
for the collaborative development of information requirements for the AIM by
clients and project teams from the earliest stages of a construction project, the key
challenges and how to overcome them. A by-product from this is the development
of a briefing guide for clients and project teams alike, providing advice and insight
on good and bad practice with a matrix of recommendations and criteria for the
development of information requirements for the AIM from the earliest project
stages. This can provide guidance for all project team members adopting BIM;
advice for clients and project teams developing information requirements for the
AIM; and knowledge that can be utilised by various stakeholders from the
government, industry and university teachers and students delivering and learning
material related to the topic.
4 Conclusion
The need to manage complex information within a project throughout its different
stages handled by the client and project team, calls for a collaborative platform
[44]. The UK Government recognised this need and mandated the adoption of
BIM Level 2 by 2016 to manage project information collaboratively and
simultaneously resolve problems ingrained within the industry [45]. The
previously conducted pilot study confirms that clarity of the client brief and project
team collaboration from the genesis of the project is necessary to implement BIM
correctly and mitigate the current challenges being faced by project team
disciplines.
The collaboration between the client and project team is pivotal in the
development of Information Requirements that feed into the AIM, 1 of the 8 Pillars
of BIM Level 2 [8]. The study proposes a research strategy of questionnaires
followed by case studies to examine client and project teams developing
Information Requirements for the AIM from the earliest stages of a construction
project.
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A BIM-based supply chain model for AEC

E. Papadonikolaki, R. Vrijhoef & J. W. F. Wamelink
Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment,
Department of Real Estate and Housing,
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Abstract
This paper proposes a model to integrate the construction Supply Chain (SC)
through Building Information Modelling (BIM). The various information flows in
the construction SC are vague. BIM is an aspiring integrator of information that
could potentially improve such multi-disciplinary information flows. The paper
presents a method to bridge information gaps and integrate the team using BIM-
based SC modelling. After a literature review, the modelling method is presented.
The model merges product and process models to social networks in a graph-based
framework to represent a BIM-enabled SC. Although, BIM-enabled SC
Management (SCM) is not widely applied, there is increasing interest from many
stakeholders to engage in both BIM and SCM. The paper uses a real-world case
as a proof of concept. The model analyses the actors interactions, identifies
bottlenecks and increases the collective understanding about the project.
Keywords: supply chain (SC), building information modelling (BIM), modelling
and simulation (M&S), graph-based model, case study research.
1 Introduction
Currently the Architecture Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry is
complex due to the fragmented delivery processes, the building challenges and the
large number of project stakeholders [1]. Building Information Modelling (BIM)
is able to counterbalance such organisational, operational and technical
complexities in the AEC Supply Chain (SC). Simultaneously, SC Management
(SCM) has already proven effective in managing the material, information, cash
and work crew flows among a set of strategically aligned companies. SCM
establishes long-term trusting relations among the various SC partners by
doi:10.2495/BIM150161
rendering mutual profits (London [2], Vrijhoef and Koskela [3]). Hence, BIM
technology and SCM theory are alone both quite beneficial for the AEC.
BIM is a technology-driven approach that supports the AEC, by collecting and
representing building project information and managing the information flows.
For Eastman et al. [4], BIM is an integrative technology with parametric
intelligence. Among its accredited benefits, there are technical benefits, such as
visualisation, automatic generation of drawings, code reviews, construction
sequencing as well as operational benefits, such as cost and time reduction,
negative risk reduction and scope clarification (Azhar [5], Liu et al. [6], Barlish
and Sullivan [7], Bryde et al. [8]). Therefore, BIM undoubtedly reduces the
technical and operational challenges of the construction industry.
However, the impact of BIM on the organisational challenges of the AEC SC
is not thoroughly studied. BIM adoption and SCM approaches are only
conceptually but not substantially combined in research. While Arayici et al. [9]
and Sebastian [10] report on the changing dynamics in the roles of the stakeholders
induced by BIM, its adoption within extended SC project teams, is not sufficiently
investigated. Moreover, nowadays the project risks are indistinguishable due to
multiple interactions among the SC actors [11]. This study researches the BIM-
enabled interactions among inter-organisational SC teams and proposes a socio-
technical approach for integrating BIM and SCM.
This paper presents a dynamic SC model using BIM as an integrator of
information. It merges the technical, operational and organisational aspects of the
AEC SC by combining BIM technology and SCM theory. Plus, it analyses the
complexities of the products, operations and collaboration in a real-world case
study. The rest of the paper contains the background, methodology and results
from the test case study along with discussion and conclusion.
2 Background
2.1 BIM technology for SCM research in AEC
BIM technology has been linked to a variety of management approaches by

exploring its built-in features in the software applications such as Autodesk
Revit, Bentley Architecture, Graphisoft Archicad, Nemetschek Allplan and many
others or by developing state of the art solutions. At the same time, SCM is
successful only if the individual project management approaches of all the
stakeholders are fruitful and not necessarily vice versa. Therefore, the internal
managerial activities of an organisation are very crucial for the success of SCM.
Supply Chain thinking emerged from the areas of Operations Research (OR)
and logistics, approximately in the mid-80s (London and Kenley [12]).
Christopher [13] considered the SC a set of flows: downstream flow of material,
upstream flow of transactions and bidirectional flow of information. Later, he [14]
regarded a SC as a network and not a chain, since the multiple organisations that
form it, generate different and multiple information streams simultaneously. Thus,
a SC is a complex and distributed network of many organisations.
Therefore, apart from the already researched flows of material, cash and
information, the network of actors or stakeholders is additionally crucial for SCM.
This literature review analyses BIM through these four areas of SC flows:
Material flow;
Cash flow;
Information flow and
Stakeholder network.
2.2 BIM in support of the material and cash flows
BIM supports the material flows in construction by reinforcing the existing and
establishing new communication protocols and feedback mechanisms between the
design and construction teams. For example, BIM ensures accurate feedback
channels in remote construction projects [15] or monitors the supply chains by
integrating tracking technologies to enhance the visibility during the material
delivery [16, 17]. Ergo, BIM is a multi-faceted integrator of processes for the
monitoring and control of materials in the SC.
Likewise, BIM is used for calculating the cash flows and strengthening the
feasibility and control of project cost analyses. The project benefits of BIM include
cost reduction, enhanced control and time savings according to Bryde et al. [8].
Forgues et al. [18] claim that the cost estimating processes have changed
enormously after the introduction of BIM. However, the BIM-based cost
estimating processes do not completely replace the traditional methods as
Hartmann et al. [19] point out. Thus, BIM apart from being a structured tool for
controlling the material flows also sufficiently manages the SC cash flows.
2.3 BIM in support of the information flows and the actors network
By definition, BIM facilitates and regulates the information flows. It offers

methods for product modelling, interoperability and distribution of project
information among the extended SC team. BIM ensures standardised product
information with the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) model. Likewise, it offers
collaboration via online platforms and improves the traditional data management.
While the centrality of the BIM models is questionable, Van Berlo et al. [20]
propose workarounds that offer decent BIM interoperability. Hence, the
information flow, a core aspect of SCM, is sufficiently supported by BIM.
Sebastian [10] claims that BIM adoption causes changes not only in the
products and processes, but also in the roles of contractors, architects and clients.
The project team has been enlarged and parties that used to be supportive now play
a dominant part in design and construction, such as property developers and
facility managers. BIM adoption affects all the SC actors and it offers a potential
for connecting the information flows throughout the project life cycle. Still, the
exact impact of BIM and the new roles are not defined yet and the supply chains
adopt new technologies without making the necessary managerial shift.
2.4 Gaps in the use of BIM for SCM
Undoubtedly, the construction SC faces many challenges due to its unique main
product. The AEC SC is a loosely interrelated system, and thus unreliable and
inefficient, although it is central to the capital market and national economies.
Azambuja and OBrien [21] claim that the lack of sharing accurate, controllable
and integral information among those organisations is responsible for this
fragmentation of the industry. Hence, regulating the information flows by
evaluating the options offered by BIM is essential for construction industry.
All the aforementioned benefits from BIM adoption in several SCM flows,
suggest a positive impact from BIM-enabled SCM. However, there are yet
unresolved issues, e.g. the actual BIM collaboration process among all partners
and the establishment of a consistent information flow. Another problematic area
is the large number of involved stakeholders, which should be managed in a
structured manner. In the next sections, the paper will tackle these practical issues
by proposing a modelling framework for the integration of BIM and SCM.
3 Methodology
3.1 Starting point
This study investigates the organisational, operational and technical facets of the
AEC SC using Modelling & Simulation (M&S). M&S was chosen as a natural
methodology to integrate SCM and BIM. On one hand, modelling is among the
main approaches for quantitative SC research as Seuring et al. [22] note.
Simulation is the executable version of the model that provides dynamic insights
in its operation. On the other hand, the native file format of BIM, the IFC, is a
standard model of product information for AEC. BIM was initially introduced as
Building Product Model (BPM) and it is basically a product model. Ergo, M&S is
a suitable approach for combining SCM and BIM.
This paper proposes a multi-model system for combining SCM theory and BIM
technology. The multi-model approach responds to the system complexity by
assimilating many facets (products, processes and people). After all,
Papadonikolaki and Verbraeck [23] have previously underlined that the degree of
modelling complexity should be proportional to the degree of system complexity.
Thus, since a SC is a distributed system, could be also represented by a
composition of modelling approaches. This rationale is explained next.
3.1.1 Process and product modelling

Process modelling represents a roadmap of activities within a firm or a complex
system, e.g. the construction SC. This roadmap has a work breakdown structure
and order plan. Such models are either static or dynamic. Static models represent
only the structure of the system. The dynamic models represent the transformation
of the system during time. State machines, stock and flow diagrams, activity
diagrams and event graphs represent processes dynamically. Still, there is no
formal methodology for the simulation of a SC and it mostly depends on the

research domain and the chosen approach, as Reiner notes [24].
Product modelling refers to data specifications about a given artefact (physical
or conceptual). The area of data modelling was developed to formalise these data
logically (Eastman [25]). Dado et al. [26] state that the need to achieve a high-
level definition of the building systems, generated the area of product modelling
by using the advancements in data modelling. The IFC model is a construction
industry standard with definitions of mainly products, used for data modelling and
interoperability in many proprietary applications. But, since it is an Entity-
Relation model, it lacks time-awareness and it faces a process and data
dependency problem as Eastman [25] describes. Hence, the process and products
models alone do not correspond to all the various complexities of a distributed and
multi-faceted system, such as the AEC SC.
3.1.2 Social networks

The use of Social Networks is proposed to overcome these limitations of process
and product modelling. The actors increase the complexity of the system at both
intra- and inter-organisational level. Kornelius and Wamelink [27] suggested that
the interweaving relationships in such networks cannot be represented in a
bilateral basis. A Social Network (SN) composed of nodes (actors or stakeholders)
represents the interactions of the SC partners via information flows (lines, arrows
or edges). In this study, the organisation is considered the Unit of Analysis (UoA).
The SN models are based on Network Theory, (a subset of Graph Theory) and
offer visualisation. Pryke [28] performs SN analysis to visualise and explain the
information exchanges and the contractual relationships in construction.
Therefore, the SN models are capable to describe and analyse the organisational
and social complexities of the construction SC.
3.2 Implementation
3.2.1 Graphical representation

Graphs are flexible modelling tools that consist of nodes and connecting lines.
Graphs are popular in systems theory, software engineering and computer science.
The basic module of a graph is a triple that consists of two nodes (or vertices) that
are connected through an edge (line or arrow). Graphs are used in BIM research,
to represent the hierarchical data models, i.e. IFC. Also, graph theory is suitable
to exemplify SC research concepts, e.g. in the illustrations of OBrien et al. [29]
and London [2]. Thus, this graph-based approach can represent a complex system,
such as the AEC SC, both visually and analytically.
The proposed model is the synthesis between process and product models and
dynamic SN (UoA is the organisation) that combines BIM technology and SCM
theory in AEC in a multi-model graph. The building block of the proposed model
is shown in Figure 1. On top, it shows a fragment of the product model (the
occurrence entities of IFC) shown as product nodes of an object hierarchy chart
(white nodes). This product model gives information only about the content and
the structure of information, neglecting time sequence or social interaction. In the
middle, the process node (green node), connects with the product model, i.e.
IFC. At the lower part of Figure 1, the process node connects with the social
network or actor nodes (blue nodes). The arrows that join products to processes
represent the input and output (I/O). The arrows that join actors to processes
represent their interactions and are demarcated with roles inspired by Transaction
Theory. The outcome is a multi-model synthesis of the three models: the product,
process and SN model of the SC.
Figure 1: The building block of the graph-based model.
3.2.2 Tabular representation and analysis

The proposed model accumulates data from three sources: product, process and
social models. First, it uses data from the product model (i.e. BIM) in the form of
IFC files. The IFC files produced from all project actors are analysed with IFC
File Analyzer, developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) agency of the US Department of Commerce. The format of this analysis is
spreadsheet files. Second, the model uses data from the process model of the
project again in spreadsheets. Third, the model uses information about the
involved project actors. These different three data sources represent the product-,
process- and people-related information about a project, respectively, and are
combined in one relational database. This database is the basis for visualising and
analysing a construction project.
The graph-based multi-model framework for a BIM-enabled SC is dynamic
and created by the GEPHI tool. GEPHI is an open-source interactive visualisation
and exploration platform for networks and complex systems, dynamic and
hierarchical graphs developed by Bastian et al. [30]. This tool has a both graphical
and a database environment and enables data import and export through tabular
files. The aforementioned relational database is imported as a set of spreadsheets.
The spreadsheets are then combined in GEPHI by establishing their relations.
Finally, the data are exported to R programming environment for further statistical
risk analysis with R language, developed by RCoreTeam [31].
3.2.3 Model design requirements

The model uses BIM and SCM theory to propose a framework for SC integration.
The simulation analyses the system and produces an array of dynamic insights. To
guarantee its usability and usefulness, the theoretical input is combined with input
from practice. Before applying the model to real-world test cases, five guiding
model design requirements were drafted to ensure the adherence to the research
goals. These following modelling requirements describe how to apply the model
to real-world case studies as well as the desired output of this modelling study:
The model should contain the information flows from BIM applications.
The model should be applicable and extendable to different SC projects.
The model when applied to a case should analyse the project phases.
The model should produce quantitative results for further analysis.
The model and its output should be acceptable by the SC actors.
4 Data analysis and findings

4.1 Case description
The scenario test case is an ongoing real-world case of a BIM-enabled SC. The
project was selected because it is large scale and has a diverse team and various
technical risks. It is new construction of a multi-functional complex of 255
apartments, offices and shops, divided in 3 buildings. It has special energy
requirements (incorporation of renewable sources; geothermal and solar). Since it
is still ongoing, only the initial phases are simulated with the proposed model.
The project is located in Utrecht, Netherlands and consists of ten SC partners:
client, contractor, architect, structural engineer, facility manager, energy adviser
and four engineering and installation firms (HVAC). The architect, client and
heating firm are new and external to the SC. The rest have worked together in three
other projects, one BIM-enabled. The project SC is well defined but not yet
integrated. They have a no-blame culture during their daily interaction. They
have issued their own BIM protocol and hold fortnightly BIM meetings for
collaboration and informal weekly BIM sessions for training.
4.2 Case analysis
The modelled overview of the case is shown in Figure 2. It contains all the actions
and interactions among the modelling entities and illustrates the project
complexity. The product model is the list of IFC entities on the top. The process
model is an array of green nodes in the middle and the actors are the set of blue
nodes below. The links or relations among the different models, are shown
with arrows. The links between the product and the process nodes are input, means
or output (pink colour). The relations between the process and actor nodes have
notations from Transaction Theory, e.g. initiator, enabler and executor (blue
colour). Since the case is ongoing, the last phases are not yet modelled.
4.3 Results
Apart from offering a structured model for representing the technical, operational
and organisational complexities of a BIM-enabled SC, this model offers a set of
dynamic insights into the SC. Figure 3 contains six analyses of the modelled test
case. Since the project is still ongoing, the estimations for the remaining phases
(from preparation to operation) appear as dashed lines in the diagrams of Figure
3.
Figure 2: Overall view of the model for the ongoing test case.
The following quantitative diagrams illustrate the project complexity in terms

of technical (a) and (b), operational (c) and (d) and organisational (e) and (f)
complexity. The model has 92 modelling entities: 10 actors, 10 phases and 72
product entities (Figure 3(a)). The technical complexity emerges from the
Preliminary Design phase when all co-makers input their entities in the BIM model
(Figure 3 (b)). While the first phases last quite long, the Definitive Design up to
Construction have pressing deadlines (Figure 3(c)). This becomes more intense
since the interactions among the SC actors also increase greatly then (Figure 3
(d)). Regarding the organisational complexity, the various SC actors are active in
different degrees and thus their interaction is complex and fragmented (Figure
3(e)). The roles of each SC actor are grouped as active (initiator and executor) or
passive (enabler) (Figure 3(f)).
5 Discussion
5.1 Social impact
The proposed model analyses a BIM-enabled SC, focusing on interactions and

roles. The model combines BIM technology and SCM theory and integrates the
products, processes and people. The model conformed to the previously set
requirements (section 3.2.3) and performed the following actions in the test case:
Integration of product data from BIM (IFC) to structure the information.
Scalability of the model according to various tasks and projects.
Monitoring of the SC project phases, the requirements (I/O) and roles.
Quantifiable analyses of the SC project in tables and diagrams.
Pending dissemination and validation since the project is still ongoing.
Figure 3: Diagrams extracted from the model for analysis of the product (a) and
(b), process (c) and (d) and organisational (e) and (f) complexity
respectively.
The BIM-enabled collaboration lacks trust as Miettinen and Paavola [32] and
Cao et al. [33] claim. Mutual trust and enhanced commitment to the SC are also
primary goals of SCM. The narratives from the test case confirm that the BIM-
enabled collaboration was smooth even though the SC composition was not
uniform. In particular, the architect and client played central roles to the project
(Figure 3(e) and (f)) even though they were external to the SC. Plus, the model
analysis confirms Shi [11] that the actors interactions increase greatly even
though the time pressure increases (Figure 3(c) and (d)).
The SC stakeholders interact in a complex manner. The existing BIM-based
collaboration tools only emphasise on access to information, but do not support an
analysis of the actors interactions. These unclear and unregulated interactions
among the actors result to poor information management. With this model, SCM
theory supports a method to enrich BIM practice by emphasising on the
interactions and roles and inspiring mutual commitment and responsibility.
5.2 Technical considerations
Although the IFC is used in BIM applications as a standard product model, the
need for even greater standardisation is evident. Ontology-based knowledge
structures re-emerge, due to the standardisation of the Web Ontology Language
(OWL) in 2009. Semantic Web applications are used to improve the redundancy
of the IFC, the complexity of the semantics, to compensate for the information
loss (Pauwels et al. [34]) and to enhance interoperability (Venugopal et al. [35]).
In the proposed graph-structured model, the information is organised in RDF
triples (Resource Description Framework) for future semantic web integration,
taking the relevant state of the art in research into account (see again Figure 1).
The model collects product information from BIM via the IFC. However, the
IFC has often being accused of losing the reliability and integrity of information.
In the proposed model, the occurrence entities of IFC are used for providing the
structure of building information and not for detailed geometric, material or energy
information. Currently, the model uses a rudimentary analysis of the IFCs
performed by the NIST IFC File Analyzer. In the future, a more sophisticated tool
or a specialised filtering algorithm will be implemented.
6 Conclusion
The adoption of BIM is fragmented and applied in an ad-hoc manner, despite its
acknowledged benefits and the advancements in computing infrastructure.
Likewise, although SCM in construction becomes a hot-topic after recognising its
financial returns, the AEC SC is inefficient, unreliable and fragmented. The
proposed multi-model framework for SC integration identifies and analyses the
organisational, operational and technical complexities and utilises the full
potential of BIM technology and SCM theory, by using BIM as an information
integrator and SCM as a trusting collaboration environment respectively.
Building product and process data (to represent the state and time changes
respectively) combined with stakeholders information (to represent the
interactions among the SC partners) are joined to a structured representation and
analysis framework for the AEC SC. In a real-world case study, the model
performed dynamic risk analyses and offered an overview of the SC collaboration.
This BIM-based SC model includes an analysis of the building information flows
from each actors BIM model and an analysis of the project phases. Additionally,
it includes soft parameters and identifies the projects risks focusing on the
interactions and roles of the participants. In the future, the model will be applied
to additional real-world cases for calibration in order to establish a promising
framework for the integration of BIM-enabled SC partnerships.
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Communication framework to support more

effective onsite construction monitoring
R. Y. Shrahily, B. Medjdoub, M. Kashyap & M. L. Chalal
The Creative and Virtual Technologies Research Lab,
Nottingham Trent University, UK
Abstract
The UK construction industry has recently witnessed an increasing demand for
cost-reduction strategies due to the strict government regulations on BIM
implementation. This adoption will certainly lead to a continuous work
improvement, better project delivery and communication. Although the UK
government has set a target of 1520% saving on the costs of capital projects by
the full implementation of BIM level 2 in 2016, this figure is unlikely to be met
since the majority of construction companies are still spending approximately 20
billion per year on rebuilding and repairing the construction defects caused by
miscommunication. This research addresses the problem of communication using
traditional methods (i.e. communication through paper-based documents and
drawings) and its impact during the construction phase in relation to clash
detection. Next, we will present a communication framework using advanced
visualisation technique such as augmented reality (AR) combined with a BIM
model with an easy access to the IFC file on site for a compliance checking
between the BIM model and the actual construction site. Subsequently, site
inspection can be performed more efficiently, and with more reliability.
Furthermore, early warning on future occurring clashes can be given. To reach our
objectives, the research has been designed using real case scenario, following two
phases of implementation. The first phase include the communication study and
consists of determining users requiring assistance with regard to site monitoring
and inspection, whereas the second, built on the results of the first phase to specify
and implement the mobile AR system.
Keywords: building information modelling, augmented reality, communication
studies, IFC file, tracking sensors, work breakdown structure, organization
breakdown structure, construction responsibility assignment matrix.
doi:10.2495/BIM150171
1 Introduction
Due to the complex and diverse nature of construction industry, which is described
as one of the vital sector in the UK, an approximate of 20 billion per year is being
spent to rebuild and fix construction defects [1]. This is mainly caused by
communication and collaboration failure between stakeholders. According to
Project Communication Handbook [2], communication in this context simply
means the information exchange focusing on creating an understanding
environment between the groups working on construction site. This can be done
by various ways such as exchanging calls, 2D drawings, text-based documents,
onsite meetings, etc. It is generally believed that successful projects, usually have
a high level of communication standards contributing to the overall project.
Overall, lack of communication can be summarised as follows [1]:
1) Missing details in 2D execution drawings, where owners, contractors,
designers and others share the responsibility to highlight errors that may
lead to extra costs;
2) The extra time workers need to unexpectedly spend on site to understand
unclear drawings;
3) Finally, the unavailability of critical information that is essential to
complete the building task [1].
To reduce costs in the construction industry, UK government is committed to
implement the BIM level 2 target by 2016. Thus, construction industry is required
to keep pace with this objective. The reason behind this huge effort according to
McNell et al. [3] is that BIM has reduced the overall construction costs
dramatically and Giel et al. [4] estimated this saving by 1540% since 2006.
However, to meet this goal, the main causes of construction defects need to be
identified. For those reasons, the undertaken research aims to address a prominent
aspect related to the construction defects and communication issues which is based
on identifying the widely employed communication methods. Furthermore,
defining the nature and frequency of construction defects occurring at different
construction phase.
2 Methodology
The focus of this research is to develop a communication framework for detecting
construction defects on site using BIM enhanced with mobile visualisation system
using AR.
Qualitative methodology with actions research principles was chosen because
the essence of this study is not only to understand the needs and obstacles facing
different construction groups but also improve their working conditions Koshy [5].
A minimum of two iterations is adopted, starting with a general communication
studies, followed by observation undertaken on construction site. This will be vital
to identify potential AR system users. Afterwards, workshops will be held to allow
participants from different backgrounds to assess and suggest improvements to the
developed communication framework. Finally, these outcomes in addition to
participants comments will be utilised to improve the framework.
3 Site communication methods studies

To develop the knowledge of communication process, the Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS) and Organization Breakdown Structure (OBS) are used in this
research to represent the construction processes as well as communication systems.
WBS objective is to demonstrate how the project components are related and help
to schedule different processes [6]; whereas, the purpose of OBS is to help assign
duties or responsibilities to different working groups in relation to the scheduled
processes. The outcomes resulting from the WBS and the OBS is used as input to
define our suggested Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) framework in
order to represent communication tasks across the construction life-cycle. This
framework will be discussed in depth in the following sections.
Figure 1: Communication studies diagram.
3.1 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
WBS illustrates the necessary construction activities required for delivering the
overall project [6]. Its aims to simplify as well as to facilitate the planning of
different interrelated construction phases.
Based on a thorough investigation of literature review on construction
processes in the [7], we have identified ten construction phases in most
construction projects namely; site Preparations, Foundation work, Structure,
Building Envelop, Interior Construction, Doors/Windows Installation, Electrical
Installation, HVAC system, Building Services Installation and Finishing and
decoration, respectively.
Construction work breakdown structure.

Figure 2:
3.2 Organization Breakdown Structure (OBS)
The OBS is to describe the project team structure that groups personnel into small
units. Each one is connected to a single manger or supervisor. Units are, in turn,
subdivided into branches, which can be further subdivided again into sections with
different responsibilities in large projects [8]. This framework will provide an
adequate understanding of the group classifications and work responsibilities
figure 3.
The interest of this research is the teams operating on construction site directly
which are as follows; Client/Owner, Design Team, Structural Design Team,
HVAC Team, Task Manager/Foreman, Contractor, Site Manager, Workers and
Suppliers.
4 CRAM: construction responsibility assignment matrix

Notice; research used a modified framework of RAM to meet the construction
communication studys needs. In this study, the RAM is used to assign
communication methods for inspection role to the team work operating onsite. In
this contact it was called Construction Responsibility Assignment Matrix.
As described at an earlier stage, the RAM concept is an overlap between the
WBS and the OBS outcomes [9]. The information resulting from the RAM will
produce the raw material of the developed communication framework. To develop
our framework we have adopted three communication methods namely;
conventional drawings, onsite meetings, and text-based documents as indicated in
figure 4. Based on numbers use against the construction phases, it was concluded
that conventional drawings are the most used communication medium during the
construction phase. Onsite meetings came second during 5 different stages namely
Site preparation, foundation, structure, interior construction and building envelop.
The text document communication method is mainly adopted by suppliers and
contractors on site during 3 phases namely; windows/doors installations, electrical
installations, HVAC system for material inspection and in the phase of finishing
and decoration (see figure 5).
5 Conclusion
In this project we have suggested a new construction responsibility assignment
matrix to identify the relationship between the construction phases, the stakeholder
and the communication medium. This framework will be augmented with our next
research stage aiming at identifying the defects occurring onsite versus the
construction phases. This will help us to implement our AR visualization system
targeting the appropriate construction phase and the stakeholder involved.
Therefore, we will be able to augment the construction site with the next process
and to check the compliance of the site with the BIM model.
The construction organization breakdown structure.

Figure 3:
The Construction Responsibility Assignment Matrix.

Figure 4:
Figure 5: Showing the number of communication methods used to support on

site construction inspection.
References
[1] Charles, J. BRE guidance on construction site communication, 2004.
[2] Office of Project Management Process Improvement, Project Communication
Handbook, 2007.
[3] McNell, D. & Allison, H. & Black, W. & Cukrow, M. & Harrison, K. &
Sherred, T & Shirley, M. & Singh, R. & Wilts, D. BIM. infoComm,
International, 2008.
[4] Giel, B. & R, Issa & Olbina, S. Return on investment analysis of building
information modeling in construction, Conference paper.
[5] Koshy, V. Action Research for Improving Practice A Practical Guide, 2005.
[6] Rajani, T. & Shobha, V. Work Breakdown Structure of the Project,
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 2012.
[7] Abdul Kadir, M. Construction Planning and Schedulin: A case Study of

(Cadangan Membing Dan Menyiapkan Kulliyyah Untuk Universiti
Antarabangsa Malaysia), 2006.
[8] Korneva, D. Description of the Turnkey Construction Project System for
International and Russian Customers, 2012.
[9] Nevison, J. The Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) Assigning
Responsibilities for Deliverables to Roles, 2013.
Making collaboration work:

application of a Conceptual Design
Stages Protocol for pre-BIM stages
M. Leon1, R. Laing1, J. Malins2 & H. Salman1
1
Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and Built Environment,
2
Norwich University of the Arts, UK
Abstract
This paper presents the application of a Conceptual Design Stages Protocol during
feasibility stages within a multidisciplinary design team, for the purpose of
bridging the gap between ideas generation and their representation in later and
more advanced design stages. Increased effort during the early and conceptual
design is a prerequisite for effective and sustainable overall design and
construction. Consequently, shift of the effort towards feasibility stages aims to
tackle problems with workflow, education and organisation of design teams at the
very beginning of a project. Furthermore, the application of an organised process
during conceptual design could further support a multi-party agreement, hence
enhancing the potentials of collaboration and coordination for the entirety of a
project. This paper demonstrates the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol as an
organised process encompassing different professionals, technologies and means
for communication that has been tested in a conceptual stage study and the
outcomes have been incorporated within BIM. The impact of this Protocol on
designers cognitive, physical, perceptual and collaborative actions is presented
and the first pre-BIM Protocol is established.
Keywords: Conceptual Design Stages Protocol, pre-BIM stages, multidisciplinary
collaboration, multi-party agreement.
1 Introduction
This paper presents a study that examines and monitors a multidisciplinary team
of final year students of the Architecture Engineering and Construction (AEC)
doi:10.2495/BIM150181
industry from handing a design brief to undertake a feasibility work stage, up to

deciding on the final conceptual solution, followed by a final discussion and
feedback. The participants were asked to follow the Conceptual Design Stages
Protocol, to employ a computational design tool applicable on Tangible User
Interfaces (TUIs) and eventually to develop their conceptual solution and to make
the transfer to BIM programs and Revit.
The following section of the paper defines the setting of the study, its
components and structure, physical and digital design tools, and also provides a
short description of the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol. The third section
describes the different levels of analysis, from the activities mapping to analytical
actions coding. Finally, a short summary describes the key points of the particular
paper, together with the impact and contribution of the specific research.
2 Conceptual Design Stages Protocol and the

studys components
2.1 Conceptual Design Stages Protocol
Increased effort during the early and conceptual design is a prerequisite for
effective and sustainable overall design and construction especially due to the
2016 UK BIM mandate. BIM is changing the way we collaborate, thus shifting
the focus from the chain of activities to efficient collaboration and innovative ways
of co-creating, sharing and collecting relevant information among different but
project related disciplines [3, 4]. Therefore, shift of the effort towards the early
and conceptual design stages has the potential to lead to fewer problems during
the later and more complex design stages, while effective collaboration among the
different professionals and disciplines straight from the beginning of a project.
Leon [1] developed and tested this innovative Conceptual Design Stages
Protocol, a holistic approach to conceptual design integrating different opinions
and professionals, computer media and tactile technologies, organised
communication and spaces for ideation. This Protocol aims to be adopted by AEC
professionals during pre-BIM stages in order to address the lack of an organised
system for supporting the early conceptual design stages, thus enhancing
multidisciplinary collaboration and providing informed design solutions. The
steps of this process are presented in Figure 1; the Conceptual Design Stages
Protocol initiates with the team formation and the introduction of the brief,
followed by discussion of project requirements, solution synthesis and
brainstorming, solution evaluation, consensus and the final solution. Decision
points that consist of small milestones are also parts of this process; these
milestones reflect the shared views and agreements among the participants
regarding the project, for the purpose of moving forward the design. Feedback
loops allow the reconsideration of the achieved consensus in case this informed
compromise does not comply with the design brief requirements, the project
objectives and goals.
Furthermore, the development of this Conceptual Design Stages Protocol is
based on observed problems in the AEC design processes, in relation to workflow
Figure 1: The developed Conceptual Design Stages Protocol.
and project governance [57], education, design features and conventions [810]
and technology and collaborative software implementation [21, 22]. The
Conceptual Design Stages Protocol further includes aspects like team building and
design and communication management [1113]. The development of the
Protocol is influenced from relevant design processes already modelled according
to different perspectives, theories and industries, from engineering [68, 14] and
design [5, 15, 16]. It also clearly extends design processes within the AEC industry
[1720]. These design processes have supported the synthesis, development and
testing of a pre-defined and multidisciplinary Conceptual Design Stages Protocol
[1], which supports the multi-party agreement and multidisciplinary early
involvement for maximising the potentials of collaboration and coordination for
the entirety of a project.
The adoption of this Protocol also extended previous research on collaborative
design [2325]. The Conceptual Design Stages Protocol was evaluated within a
set of three experimental studies involving multidisciplinary teams of
professionals and last year students with experience in the AEC industry [1]. All
three studies were video recorded, they were simulating the process a team follows
after handing a design brief until the initial concepts are developed and they shared
the same structure.
2.2 Studys components
This paper is presenting the third research study according to [1] and based on the
aforementioned description. This study supported an evaluation of the Conceptual
Design Stages Protocol and the developed computational design tool.
2.2.1 Participants
The recruited participants for the specific study were comprised of last years
students of Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and Built Environment. The
team was comprised of five students, two architects, a quantity surveyor (QS), a
building surveyor (BS) and an architectural technologist (AT). They partially

knew each other from beforehand and they were all about to graduate while all of
them had already some professional experience in practices. The purpose for
recruiting students for this study was also to monitor the professional silos and
how communication flows would be affected by multidisciplinary collaboration.
2.2.2 Study structure and brainstorming tools

The study was divided into three parts and two further stages within the second
part, as illustrated in Figure 2, while it was being moderated by the researcher [1].
The study initiated with an introduction to the design task and a short icebreaker
for the participants to familiarize themselves, followed by handing the design brief
and explaining the conceptual design task. The moderator also introduced the
Conceptual Design Stages Protocol at that stage and provided instructions
regarding its application for the whole study duration. The design brief that was
provided was about a small educational building to facilitate for the students
capacities, thus allowing them to complete the task within the given time
limitations. The brief was not lacking information though. The design brief was
formed into a project execution plan and it included the involved parties, budget
restrictions and scope of the project with the deliverables, the project description
and the space requirements. Furthermore, site and area information was also
provided together with number of expected occupants and information on some
basic regulations to comply with.
Figure 2: Studys structure: parts and stages.
Relevant educational building examples were also presented during the design
brief introduction and the participants initiated immediately the design process and
inspected the design brief, the maps and data provided in the execution plan/brief.
The parts and stages had certain time slots/duration and the study moderator was
informing the group on their available time to complete the task within three and
a half hours. Detailed description of the study structure is provided in Figure 2.
The participants were provided with a range of physical and digital tools. The
digital means and physical design mediums were utilised at different stages of the
study. The conceptual design took place during the second part of the study, by
utilising physical means during the first stage (the current paradigm of conceptual
design), and afterwards by making use of digital means and a specifically
developed design software during the second stage. The transfer of these decisions
into BIM occurred during the third part of the study, as illustrated in Figure 2.
The physical design mediums included drafting and drawing tools, a flip-chart
painting surface, tracing paper, pencils, markers and maps of the area specified in
the design brief. Moreover, brainstorming tools were also available, like post-its
and a magnetic board with hexagonal pieces for mind mapping purposes. A laptop
was provided with Internet access and relevant software was installed, i.e.
Microsoft Excel for calculations, Revit and AutoCAD.
A TUI was used for the second stage of the study, which was a MS PixelSense
with a specifically developed conceptual design application. This conceptual
design application applicable to a computer mediated environment (TUI) was
employed to be a facilitator for collaborative design, thus helping
multidisciplinary professionals work together efficiently and effectively by
supporting ideation processes. This augmented reality environment aimed to
further support collaborative design and extend relevant research in the field, from
the Electronic Cocktail Napkin [30], to more recent multi-sensory input [31, 32].
Further details on the specific application can be found in [1, 2].
3 Studys results
The analysis of the study involved examining audio and video recordings of the
whole duration of it. Two different methods were applied for the analysis of the
audio and video; the activities mapping and the protocol analysis. The first method
allows mapping the evolution of the design process of the studies within time [26].
The second one is a macroscopic analysis for identifying participants problem
solving and cognitive actions, identifying collaboration actions and monitor
participants interactions with computer media and physical design mediums, a
methodological approach first established from Gero and McNeill [27] and further
adapted from Gabriel and Maher [28] and Gu et al. [29]. As a result, observations
on the effectiveness of the intended use of the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol
and the impact of the computational design tool on conceptual design could be
mapped and monitored.
3.1 Protocol analysis: activities mapping
The first level of analysis focuses on mapping the activities that the team followed
within the duration of the study. Based on that method, an activities map was
created, as presented in Figure 3. The chart followed the step of the given
predefined Conceptual Design Stages Protocol and it monitored how closely the
team of participants followed the Protocol or whether they adapted it to their
requirements.
Figure 3: The design activities progression during the study.
Shortly after the introductory first part of the study, the second part initiated
with the participants having already familiarised themselves with the available
design mediums, they were examining the details of the design brief and taking
notes of information they considered important. During the beginning of the first
stage of the second part, communication was limited to individual inspections of
the design brief. Soon after, the architects and AT started designing while the QS
and BS were exploring aspects relevant to cost. The discussions were following a
system synthesis and brainstorming process straight for the beginning, with
discussions about forms, shapes and spaces connections and locations being
discussed from the start, accompanied by sketches and notes. The team
commenced the study with a holistic approach to their conceptual design process
by considering multiple steps at the same time, including discussing on possible
solutions, sketching and synthesising their ideas and afterwards comparing them
to the objectives as set by the design brief. They did not question the design brief
and, additionally, they did not add further information to it or try to clarify aspects.
Communication among the participants was intense straight from the beginning as
well, with all the different disciplines participating and questions being asked
among them for clarifications on topics like the budget, the buildings potential
shapes and building regulations.
The moderator prompted the participants to utilise the MS PixelSense for their
design explorations during the second stage of the second part of the study. The
team had already found a basic form, an initial budget and other design details,
features relevant to the circulation space, interior space and cost limitations. An
introduction to the TUI assisted the team to make a smoother transition to the
design environment and they initiated using the design application with a great
ease. The team kept analysing the conceptual ideas during that stage, with a greater
multidisciplinary communication this time, since the table top environment
allowed for an easier shared understanding of the designs. Both 2D and 3D
visualisations of the ideas together with intense dialogues among them assisted in
communicating the concepts of the design and promoted questions and further
clarifications of the developed ideas, together with greater elaboration on non-
clarified topics, regarding the levels, peoples flow and constructability.
Perceptual activities were enhanced due to shared understanding of the ideas
through the MS PixelSense and collaboration was promoted. During that stage,
many different issues with their concepts were resolved, design decisions were
taken and by the end of that stage they were ready to make a leap in design and
transfer their concepts in BIM software.
Eventually, the third part of the study was focused on finalising the conceptual
design, transferring the information into BIM and reflecting back on the whole
duration of the study. During this part, intense negotiations took place among the
different disciplines for finalising design, constructability and cost, while design
problems occurred due to the greater detail of design. These problems were
acknowledged as part of the detailed design and soon after the study came to a halt
since the conceptual design was completed.
The team was comprised out of last year students, and the limitations on their
experience was evident from the beginning, with the process initiating straight
from the system synthesis and analysis instead of clarifying their objectives and
constraints from the beginning. They managed to cover up though since during the
brainstorming process they were making often iterations between brainstorming,
reflection of the design brief and possible restrictions. The open communication
among them also made up for the lack of experience; the design was partially led
by the architects but with open and free communication and collaboration among
the different disciplines and a clear appreciation and acknowledgement of the
multidisciplinary input.
The process was linear but it did not initiate from deciding on objectives and
constraints as such, since the participants did not elaborate on the design brief in
the beginning, rather they instantly started brainstorming on potential design
solutions. The design objectives and constraints as specified from the project
execution plan were guiding their decisions during the first half of the first stage.
Soon after though, the team members were adapting that information according to
their professional viewpoints and were adjusting the design objectives to their
project. A reason for that is the lack of experience among the design team
members. Multiple steps were being undertaken though simultaneously, including
brainstorming and evaluation of their ideas while moving between deciding on

design aspects and synthesising information. This process lasted for whole second
part of the study and the final design consensus among the team members was
achieved during the middle of the third part of the study.
3.2 Protocol analysis: actions coding
The second level of analysis is providing feedback on the participants interactions

among them and with the physical and digital media together with their cognitive,
perceptual, conceptual and physical actions during each stage of the study
according to the structure presented in Figure 2.
A comparison of the activities duration in the two stages of the second part of
the study showcased the differences between the use of physical design mediums
and digital media. The conceptual design and collaborative activities were quite
intense overall. The comparison between the two stages is presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Comparing actions duration for first and second stage of the study.
The participants followed the process of Conceptual Design Stages Protocol

overall. The team moved quickly to the brainstorming steps and the dynamics of
the participants led them to separate to two smaller teams, the one of the designers
and the one of the surveyors. This separation lasted for parts of the brainstorming
session and the reason was for them to tackle faster the project requirements and
face simultaneously design, cost and constructability issues. The process did work
and the two smaller teams were coming together quite often to share opinions and
understanding and to decide on different aspects of the project. Collaboration,

negotiations and decisions on various new and developing ideas together with
intense design and inspection were the most prominent aspects of that stage, with
durations that were lasting for 58% of the time for collaboration, 52% for
negotiations, 32% for decisions making, 53% for design and 43% for inspection
of design elements. Moderators activities were quite low and subtle during that
stage (lasting for 2% up to 8% of the time) and the process was moving forward
rapidly and smoothly.
Overall during the first stage, the participants decided on various aspects of the
project but the finalisation of their ideas occurred during the second stage, while
using the MS PixelSense. The majority of the actions had an increased duration
within the second stage, with the peak of percentages including collaboration,
lasting for 69% of the stage duration, design and elements inspection with 64%
and 80% accordingly, greater negotiations (52%) and brainstorming (53%). The
participants focused around the tangible design surface that led to more active
collaboration and vigorous ideas exchange while designing new and developed
concepts. The actual design process on top of the TUI promoted their ideation
process and the simultaneous multidisciplinary discussions. However, during that
stage a number of technical problems occurred, which led to a greater interference
of the moderator, with 21% of the time required for clarifications and 31% for
promoting their design process and asking them to participate. Furthermore, the
multidisciplinary dialogues even though intense, they were stalling at points, again
an aspect that required the moderator to support the group for keeping it in track
with the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol.
The study concluded with questionnaires intended to provide feedback for the
overall study process and the participants experience. Participants were pleased
with the study and the percentages of their satisfaction (with a maximum of 100%)
were quite high for all the different aspects that were asked. Their unanimous
greatest positive feedback came from the acknowledgement that the group
benefited from multidisciplinary working (100%), followed by the effectiveness
of the group decisions (96%) and the efficient contribution from all the team
members (96%). The lowest feedback was on group organisation (76%); the team
was happy with the teamwork but realised that they could have been even more
effective during the study. Furthermore, they were happy with the end solution
they produced and they believed it answered the design brief.
The second part of the questionnaire was focused on the use of the Conceptual
Stages Design Protocol. The average feedback was very strong and the participants
found the overall collaborative Protocol efficient, useful and helpful. The greatest
levels of satisfaction (100% and 96%) were observed regarding the details
included in the design brief for the required task, the use of the evaluation tool for
assessing the produced conceptual design, the steps that were guiding them during
the process and the fact that the Protocol was a realistic description of reality for
conceptual design. Very positive feedback was monitored in relation to the
usefulness of various aspects like the brainstorming tools, the design Protocol in
its current form and the assistance it provided for collaboration. The smaller
percentages of satisfaction (76%) were related to the use of examples in the
beginning of the process and the project specifications, the reason being that they
were already looking for relevant examples themselves and that they did not
consider that they had enough time to further adapt their project to strict
sustainability specifications.
4 Conclusions and discussion

The analysis showed that the application of the Protocol for pre-BIM phases led
to enhanced collaboration among the participants and improved cognitive and
conceptual activities. The process allowed for the promotion of ideation together
with advanced solutions in a reduced amount of time, and an increased satisfaction
of the participants demonstrating that the Protocol makes a significant
improvement of the design process and leads to more effective teamwork and
communication.
The presented study evaluated the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol and the
developed computational design software. The whole duration of the study was
closely monitored and the impact of the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol and
TUIs was examined. Furthermore, the participants provided feedback regarding
the process and the design application and they were comprised out of last year
students with a limited professional experience.
Regarding the application of the Protocol, it was apparent that they followed it
quite close and they reached a final result through intense collaborative,
conceptual, perceptual and physical activities. Communication was strong
throughout the study and the discussions were flowing among the different
disciplines, with a limited number of clashes and a more cooperative approach.
Design was informed from the multidisciplinary feedback and the participants
were reaching out to their colleagues for sharing opinions, information and ideas
and getting feedback. As a result, the designs evolved constructively up to the
beginning of detailed design within Revit.
The application of MS PixelSense for design purposes further supported the
design process, thus providing the suitable environment for an uninterrupted
engagement with the evolution of the conceptual stage. The participants were
enthused with the capabilities of the TUI and they found potentials for its
application within the construction industry for supporting a smoother and instant
collaboration. Additionally, the comments were supported from the protocol
analysis results that demonstrated the enhancement of design, collaborative and
cognitive activities compared to the first stage when using physical design
mediums. The TUI eventually promoted a smooth design and cognition
continuum, thus encouraging the finalisation of their conceptual design.
The fact that the participants were students led to a more active approach to
design and collaboration; the participants had no barriers during the collaboration
that was open and unrestricted. Furthermore, they started designing from the very
beginning of the study, which allowed ideas exchange for a great number of
potential design solutions within the multidisciplinary context.
Overall, the Conceptual Design Stages Protocol is highly adaptable and it
represents a collaborative design process that could be applied at any point within
the different stages of design. Additionally, the type of participants could further
adapt according to the type of procurement utilised for a project. The duration of
this process and its milestones are not restricted but it could be modified according
to the requirements of a project. Regarding the application of the process, it could
be facilitated by design, collaboration or project managers and it could easily be
integrated within an ongoing or a new project.
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2013.
Analysis of collaborative design and decision

making through argumentation applied for
pre-BIM stages
M. Leon1 & A. Toniolo2
1
Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and the Built Environment,
2
Department of Computing Science, University of Aberdeen, UK
Abstract
The early design stages are the most vital for the development of the design of a
building project and the decisions taken during these steps are significant for the
further progress of the project, regarding aspects like cost, performance, reliability
and sustainability. Being able to trace backwards the thoughts that led to these
decisions at any point of the design process provides clarity and transparency
during the decision making process. Additionally, monitoring the design steps and
decisions can lead to further observations on the effects of the design decisions
during the early design stage, thus leading to a more sustainable and holistic design
approach. This paper claims that efficient monitoring of the decision steps can
be achieved employing a computational model of argumentation. Argumentation-
based reasoning helps identify the rationale for a decision (i.e. arguments) and
the relationships (i.e. attacks and preferences) between conflicting issues involved
in making decisions. Our approach provides a method to rigorously trace the
resolution of conflicts by extracting the set of acceptable arguments that led to
a decision, and may eventually assist designers in analysing complex collaborative
decisions within a pre-Building Information Modelling context.
Keywords: collaborative design, argumentation, pre-BIM, decisions, conflicts.
1 Introduction
Increased multidisciplinary effort during the early design stages of the

Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry is a prerequisite
doi:10.2495/BIM150191
for effective overall design and construction stages, especially due to the
Building Information Modelling (BIM) mandate in 2016 [1, 2]. BIM is changing
collaboration processes and it is shifting the focus from the chain of activities to
efficient collaboration and to innovative ways of creating, sharing and collecting
relevant information among different but project related disciplines [3]. Shift of the
effort towards the early and conceptual design stages has the potential to lead to
fewer problems during the later more complex design steps and the most important
requirement is the effective collaboration among the different professionals and
disciplines.
The method suggested by Leon [1] for tackling problems with workflow [46],
education [7] and organisation involves the development of an organised protocol
that includes aspects like team building [8] and design and communication
management [9]. Furthermore, design processes that have been modelled
previously according to engineering [10], design [4,11,12] up to the AEC industry
[1315] have supported the synthesis, development and testing of a predefined
and multidisciplinary Conceptual Design Stages Protocol (CDS Protocol) [1].
CDS Protocol supports the multi-party agreement and multidisciplinary early
involvement for maximising the potentials of collaboration and coordination for
the entirety of a project.
Leon [1] proposed this novel CDS Protocol to be adopted by AEC professionals
during pre-BIM stages in order to address the lack of an organised system
for supporting the early conceptual design stages, enhancing multidisciplinary
collaboration and providing informed design solutions. The CDS-Protocol initiates
with the team formation and the introduction of the brief, followed by discussion
of project requirements, solution synthesis and brainstorming, solution evaluation,
consensus and the final solution. Decision points identified in this process
reflect the shared views and agreements among the participants regarding the
project, for the purpose of moving forward the design. Feedback loops allow the
reconsideration of the achieved consensus in case this informed compromise does
not comply with the design brief requirements and the project objectives.
The adoption of this protocol was evaluated within a set of experimental
studies involving a diverse team of professionals with experience in the AEC
industry. The analysis showed that the CDS-Protocol for pre-BIM phases led
to greater collaboration among the participants and enhanced cognitive and
conceptual activities. The process allowed for the promotion of ideation together
with advanced solutions in a reduced amount of time, and an increased satisfaction
of the participants demonstrating that the CDS-Protocol makes a significant
improvement of the design process and leads to more effective teamwork and
communication.
Interestingly, the CDS-Protocol proposed by Leon [1] takes into consideration
how the design process evolves in the light of new information introduced by
the professionals, which arises from previous experiences, knowledge, expertise
and design attributes. This incremental addition of information and collaborative
reasoning moves the process forward to fulfil the design requirements. However,
in a team context, professional opinions and requirements may be conflicting and
new information may also be conflicting or incomplete. Domain knowledge may

be not be aligned among professionals due to their different expertise and together
these issues may impede to establish agreements on the design solutions.
In this research, we propose the use of argumentation-based reasoning to
investigate how requirements, expertise and information flow contribute towards
informed design decisions. As argued in Leon et al. [16], this is an iterative method
of updating the solution space in the light of new constraints, goals and alternatives
evaluation. Argumentation provides a natural way to model this process. The aim
of computational models of argumentation-based reasoning is to represent and
analyse positive and negative reasons (i.e., pro and con arguments) for accepting
or rejecting a controversial standpoint [17]. In particular, we are interested in
modelling the process of decision-making by identifying reasons for a decision and
methods to analyse relationships between conflicting issues and establish how the
agreement has been achieved. We believe that argument-based practical reasoning,
in particular, is suited in the BIM context, as it focusses specifically in the study
of how to decide on a course of action in order to manage interdependencies and
avoid conflicts with others commitments [18].
In this paper, we propose an initial study to understand the potential of
argumentation-based reasoning in analysing the difficulties that arise during the
collaborative reasoning process of early design stages. The support is provided
via a graphical representation of arguments previously used for argument analysis
(e.g., [19]), combined with autonomous support for identification of supported
design solutions through argumentation-based reasoning [20]. This approach
maps different solutions, and supporting and conflicting relationships between
alternatives. This is a systematic method to record important elements of the
reasoning processes involved in the stages of identification of design solutions
highlighting the fundamental pieces of information, requirements and constraints
that underpin this decision, and what alternative solutions were considered to
improve future design. This method applied in large scale studies, such as in [1],
would also be helpful to inform elaborations of the CDS-Protocol by identifying
issues discussed in the process that could be further protocolled to improve
the effectiveness of collaborative teamwork and avoid controversial and time-
consuming discussions.
2 Research context: conflicts during collaborative design
This paper is focusing on obstacles that occur during collaborative design

processes, especially issues with informed collaboration, identification of
argumentation workflow and careful documentation of disputes during
collaborative design. Quite often collaborative design is hindered by heavy reliance
on expensive and time consuming processes, poor incorporation of some important
design concerns (typically later life-cycle issues such as environmental impact), as
well as reduced creativity due to the tendency to incrementally modify known
successful designs rather than explore radically different and potential superior
ones [21, pp. 201]. Furthermore, and according to Randy [22], obstacles that
may appear during the collaborative design process are issues of workflow,
education and different design and engineering backgrounds of the professionals,
technological challenges arising with different types of software, team working,
cost and responsibility. These issues can be further distilled into misunderstandings
and failures of cognition distribution that lead to problems within teams and
projects that could be successfully tackled by establishing a shared understanding
for harmonic communication.
2.1 Errors during collaborative design
Errors limit a task performance and can be costly; on the other hand errors
have potentials of informing about problems within organisations, they promote
learning by making professionals adapt to changes and they can reveal issues
within processes that were considered standardised [23]. Errors can arise
from the interactions between members of design teams, professionals and
the use of technological tools and professionals and formal organisation, as
reported by Busby [23]. These errors among professional interactions occur
due to misinformation and miscommunications, like failure to involve relevant
professional bodies, not informing about problematic situations and effects of
different design actions and verifying decisions. Additional reasons include lack
of projects scope definition and strategies information according to the involved
stakeholders, and lack of understanding in the design processes among different
professionals. Further failures appear when professionals interact with design
representations and involve misuse of design features and conventions, lack of
suitable review of the designs, problems with use of appropriate software, lack of
relevant guidance for occasional users and no feedback for adapting software use
according to issues previously occurred. What is more, errors that are the result
of interactions between professionals and organisations/practices or with external
environment might result due to incorrect work allocation and due to mistakes with
work conventions for the required activities. The absence of suitable professionals
for tackling the appropriate design problems and of notification mechanisms for
changes in plans and designs can also lead to errors and mistakes. Eventually,
complications with involved professionals on their relevant task goals combined
with lack of planned synchronisation are also potential problems for prompting
errors during design processes.
2.2 Conflicts during collaborative design
Conflicts are an additional important issue during collaborative design, due to

the socio-technical dynamics and interactions that affect projects progress [24].
Collaborative design encompasses a deep human aspect where objectification is
not always achieved; neither is decisions transparency and removal of judgmental
elements among team members, thus resulting in conflicts among team members.
As a result, conflicts within a team undertaking a project of the built environment
could be a rather expensive issue, since it can potentially lead to delays and/or
terminations of collaborations, a costly problem of the AEC industry [25]. High

costs for changing partners and apprehension of clauses within contracts for
legal sanctions are additional consequences of conflicts. Subsequently, effective
conflicts management is essential during collaborative design and the clash of ideas
can actually promote ideas generation, especially during the early design stages.
Conflicts identification and management can achieve insight and information
among the involved parties regarding the core of the project; it can create a
cooperative context between the participants and re-build the relationships on a
new constructive basis by bridging the gaps between the different perceptions
of the involved stakeholders [25]. The ways that can be achieved incorporate
identification of conflictual events and transparent analysis of different perceptual
ideas about the project. Conflicts management initiates with the identification of
the issues that led to the conflicts, either by interviewing the different participants
or by data resources, while conflicts can be interpreted according to perceptions
and processes of the involved sides. The next step would initiate with assessing
these differences in opinions according to projects governance mechanisms, which
are case dependant and might include among others mechanisms of incentives,
authority and trust. These mechanisms could also be comprised of formal
aspects like contracts, official and unofficial agreements, patterns of behaviour,
organisational procedures and informal aspects like trust and ease of adaptation.
2.3 Handling conflicts via argumentation-based reasoning
Modelling how decisions are made in a collaborative design process is a

complex task as there are a lot of interdependent issues that lead to a solution.
Computational models of argumentation have the potential to make this process
more transparent, allowing a retrospective understanding of how conflicts were
resolved.
Argumentation theory has increasingly received attention in Artificial
Intelligence as a mechanism to represent autonomous reasoning under incomplete
information [17], by providing methods for identifying acceptable arguments and
their supported conclusions. An argument is considered accepted if its supporting
arguments (i.e., pros) are defended against attacking arguments (i.e., cons).
Arguments represent defeasible logical inferences; consider argument A1 , We
should elevate the building on stilts to control humidity (adapted from a study
of Leon [1]). An attack is an argument A2 , An elevated structure will reduce
the ability to access the building; hence, we should not elevate the building. The
elevation of the building cannot be accepted since A2 attacks A1 . However, in the
light of new received information the conclusions may be reconsidered. If A2 is
attacked by a new argument A3 , The building is on a slope and a ramp may lead
to the entrance, which will not impede the access, claim A1 , defended by A3 ,
may be reinstated.
The potential of argumentation for design purposes has been discussed in
Fischer et al. [26], showing that solutions to the design tasks are dependent upon
the argumentative discussion over design issues. Extraction and identification of
arguments have also been considered in previous research to support the analysis
of discussions between professionals. Stumpf and McDonnell [27] employed
schemes (i.e., patterns of reasoning) to model shifts on the problem framing. Both
studies, however, do not consider a computational model of argumentation, rather
a method to record positive and negative reasons for a solution. In a more recent
study, Baroni et al. [28] building upon [26] proposed a system to estimate the
level of support that each solution received by different designers. These methods
examine problems based on matrix-based resolution processes and are mainly
geared towards the identification of a solution scored against a number of criteria.
In this research, we are interested in analysing the reasoning process, without
constraining the core creative phase of design, where new information and
alternative solutions developed in collaboration are continuously added to the
process. For this purpose, we use of argument diagramming [19], a method to
construct a graph of boxes representing premises and conclusions of arguments
and arrows representing pro/con relationships among arguments in order to show
an overview of the chain of reasoning among AEC professionals. The resulting
map is evaluated via a computational argumentation model to suggest supported
conclusions [20]. This analysis makes the decision process more transparent
highlighting reasons for conflicting opinions between professionals so as to inform
future decisions.
3 Methodology
During this research, we analysed a number of segments from the two studies
that have been used to test the effectiveness of the CDS Protocol [1]. The
studies focused on testing the collaborative design processes during feasibility and
concept stages involving multidisciplinary design teams that developed a design
concept for an educational office building. The participants in both studies were
design professionals with experience in the AEC industry, including two to three
architects, a quantity surveyor, a building surveyor, a structural engineer and a
construction manager. In the first study professionals followed an unstructured
conceptual design process, while the second study was performed following the
recommended CDS Protocol, thus making use of a managed facilitation process
throughout the design project. Our objective is to further analyse the resolution
of conflicts in these studies via the methodology presented in this section. This
analysis supports new elaborations of the CDS Protocol by identifying stages
where more controversial issues arise. Our analysis may also be accessed by
professionals, in the form of a graph, to inform the subsequent stages of the design
process.
Our methodology involves three phases: data extraction and transcription,
argument diagramming and argument evaluation. This has been developed with a
preliminary study of the segment of discussion from the analysis of [1] (Table 1).
The data extraction and transcription phase is focused on the identification of
stages of collaborative design that involve debate over options as well as creation
of new solutions. The studies raw data are collected according to protocol analysis
as described in [1]; the studies are video recorded and divided into smaller units
(segments). These segments are divided according to subjects intention and to the
theme of the content [29, 30]. In the studies, each segment includes a description
of what is happening together with the applied actions codings. The coding
categories include collaboration actions, perceptual and conceptual actions, and
physical actions. In Table 1 we only report the action description used to model
the reasoning process; we will consider dialogical aspects in future research.
The argument diagramming phase consists of identifying sentences that
represent premises and conclusions of an argument. The graph format employed
is that of [20] where the graph explicitly shows the kind of relationships between
these sentences and can be easily translated into a formal model of arguments.
Definition 1 An argument graph consists of a set of nodes that contains sentences
pi , a set of link nodes of type Pro and Con indicating a supporting and conflicting
link respectively, and a set of edges that connect nodes.
An edge of the graph is represented textually as 7. In the figures nodes are
boxes, pro-links are + circles and con-links are circles. An argument
is of the form A1 : [pa , . . . , pm 7 Pro 7 pr ] composed by a Pro-link that
has pa , . . . , pm as incoming nodes, premises of A1 , and an outgoing node pr ,
conclusion of A1 . A Con-link is an attacking relationship between arguments.
Definition 2 Given A2 : [pb , . . . , pn 7 Pro 7 pq ], A1 attacks A2 if the
conclusion of A1 conflicts with: the conclusion of A2 , [pr 7 Con 7 pq ] or
conflicts with a premise of A2 , [pr 7 Con 7 pi ] and pi {pb , . . . , pn }.
In the argument evaluation phase, a method to map such graph to an
argumentation framework and extract sets of acceptable arguments is employed.
The objective is to identify in an automatic way a node that contains a sentence that
may or may not be supported. In the figures, we will indicate supported sentences
with V and non supported sentences with X. Assume that a set of acceptable
arguments in the mapped argumentation framework is j = {Aa , Ab , . . . }.
Definition 3 Given j = {Aa , Ab , . . . }, a function eval (pi ) returns an
assignment for a sentence pi such that: eval (pi ) = V (supported), if pi is a
conclusion of Ak j ; eval (pi ) = X (unsupported) otherwise.
In the analysis, a supported sentence indicates an accepted solution, or a reason
for a solution to be accepted.
4 Study
In this section, we describe the results of the analysis performed according to our
methodology of two segments of discussion proposed in [1].
In Figure 1 we show the argument graph extracted from the segment in Table
1. We may observe a typical instance of practical reasoning [18], where at first
a solution (i.e., large quantity of windows) is proposed, then analysed via the
chain of arguments on the left-hand side of the graph, and finally refined with
an alternative solution (i.e., reduced number of windows in certain rooms). The
automatic evaluation is shown on top of each box where, in this case, the labelling
Table 1: Glazing dialogue. Participants: Architect 1 and 2 (A1/A2); Project

Manager (PM); Quantity Surveyor (QS).
A1: Comments about the materials, adds that they all agree about their
preference to large glazing-covered areas and Nordic design inspiration
A2: Argues that too many windows might be a problem
PM: Adds that too much glazing can cost a lot and might cause problems to the
construction
A1: Replies that you can shadow it, thus providing solutions
PM: Talks about problems with glare
A2: States that some rooms can have controlled shading while others can be
more or less glazed depending on the heating loads and working needs.
QS: Agrees and further comments on it
GOAL V V IMPLICIT DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE
A1: the windows of BuildX

The nordic design has a
should be in nordic design + lot of windows
inspiration
+ +
IMPLICIT SOLUTION X SOLUTION V
V We should build BuildX - A2: We should build
- with a lot of rooms that BuildX with some rooms
A2: Too much glass is have plenty of glass with lots of glass and
problematic some other less
-
+
CRITERION V CRITERION V SOLUTION X
PM: Too much glass
PM: Too much glass - A1: We can shadow
generates problems
costs too much the glass
with construction
-
CRITERION V
PM: but this generates
glare problems
Figure 1: Glazing argument graph.
corresponds to the decision that the designers have reached suggesting that our
approach may be suitable for analysing the decision-making process.
An initial distinction between type of sentences used to evaluate different
solutions may also be identified. These sentences correspond to elements derived
from practical reasoning schemes such as goals, actions (i.e. design solutions)
and values (i.e. design criteria) [18]. We have included additional nodes to
make explicit the common domain knowledge (i.e., a nordic design requires
a lot of windows), and the inferences that led to the discussion of the left-
hand side solution (i.e., windows require a large quantity of glass). These nodes
act as unstated premises and conclusions that are necessary to comprehend the
connections between the design goal and the solutions. The initial set of type
of sentences for design may be classified as: domain knowledge often implicit;
design solutions in the graphs, they are identified with sentences from practical
reasoning for actions, e.g. We should do . . . ; design criteria used to comment
on choices; and design goals.
IMPLICIT SOLUTION X IMPLICIT SOLUTION V

A1: We should adopt this design
A1: We should adopt a design
[drawing of prefabricated models
with a building closer to the
on top of some pillars on a hill,
ground
with a ramp connecting all areas]
+ +
in
SOLUTION X SOLUTION V
DIALOGICAL ACT
A1: We should use stilts
-
- underneath the prefab
A1: We should not use stilts +
underneath the prefab models,
models
- CRITERION V
X A1: The new design has
+ the same benefit in terms
- PM: The pillars should
- of insulation
V
not be underneath the
prefab
X CRITERION CRITERION X
A1: This is easy and it is A1: This is a more
A1: they could be fast to construct risky design for water +
useful leakage CRITERION V
+ + - - A1: You can use thermal
energy from the ground to
CRITERION V V CRITERION CRITERION V CRITERION V better insulate
PM: it would be good A1: they provide A1: There are however A1: There is less
for insulation and shadow in the more benefits in the external envelop so
avoid damp summer months other solution less interface with the
exterior
Figure 2: Pillars argument graph.
The study of how preferences among criteria led to a decision is out of the scope
of this initial research. This interesting aspect will be further investigated in future
research as the discussion among professionals is often interleaved with seeking
agreement over those criteria. The annotation of type of sentences in combination
with labelling supported argument may offer a clearer analysis of what kind of
knowledge has contributed to the resolution of conflicts towards an agreement on
a design solution. For example, a solution with a large quantity of windows is
deemed not acceptable due to issues in handling too much glass, glaring and costs.
The graph in Figure 2 represents the chain of reasoning on a second segment,
which is an extended version of the dialogue presented in Table 1. As in the
previous study, we may observe the presence of similar types of sentences and
different solutions. In this segment, we see some intent of architect A1, who is
trying to lead the design, to persuade the other participants. A1 moves a number
of defences in support of the use of pillars: by suggesting a reason for accepting it
(e.g., it is easy to construct); by attacking and defending it to prevent a refusal of
the initial design; and by responding to a question that challenges the design (the
sequence on the left-hand side). Dialogical acts will be subject of future studies
as they are fundamental to better analyse interpersonal reasoning. Interestingly,
we may also notice the collaborative attitude of the professionals, where an
antagonist such as the PM changed role and complemented A1s defence for the
challenged solution, in relation to the building sustained by pillars being suitable
for insulation.
5 Discussion
The technological advances promoted with the application of BIM enable
simulations of the built environment projects, from the concept stages, which is
the focus of the research in [1], to the cost, constructability, and time and site
organisation of the projects. However, the possibility of mastering the diversity
of technical languages and seeking the multiplicity of professional viewpoints
from the early design stages can produce informed results that are less prone to
errors and costly design iterations at later and more advanced stages. An informed
and transparent collaboration and communication within the AEC industry can
promote understanding and solution finding, as it is showcased in this paper.
Additionally, the behavioural parameter is an issue to the collaboration processes
between the multidisciplinary design teams and, as a result, the design process
is critically affected by issues of communication, social processes, negotiation
and reflection. Consequently, a rigorous monitoring and analysis of the decision
steps through argumentation processes could provide valuable clarity to the
decision making process, prevent construction related legal disputes and eventually
support multidisciplinary collaborative team work, thus smoothing and promoting
collaborative BIM.
In future research, we will explore characteristics of the discussion that may
need further formalisation to improve our method of analysis, considering for
example the introduction of argument schemes [27]. Further research may focus
on argument mining, a method to extract arguments from text that may allow us to
study collaborative design processes using our methodology in large-scale studies.
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Streamlining Building Information Model

creation using Agile project management
S. Suresh Kumar & J. J. McArthur
Department of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, Canada
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) offers tremendous advantages to multi-
disciplinary teams from a coordination standpoint throughout the project lifecycle.
That said, there are potential pitfalls with the use of BIM if coordination and
communication between the disciplines is not properly managed, resulting in re-
work and inefficiencies in delivery. Agile project management techniques, widely
adopted within the software industry to allow incremental development of
products, have great potential for application to BIM model development
throughout the project lifecycle. These techniques focus on simple and regular
communication between core project members and stakeholders, regular priority
identification to set the goals for the next phase (Sprint) and incremental product
development. Applied to BIM model development, these techniques provide a
framework for multi-disciplinary coordination and interface management and
reduce re-design and abortive effort from miscommunication and poor task
sequencing.
This paper presents two case studies to demonstrate the effectiveness of this
approach. In the first, an Architectural BIM model was created at schematic design
and these techniques were used to guide the development of the design and the
associated BIM model. In the second, a BIM model was created during the
operational phase of a building to consolidate the data from a variety of facilities
management and operations systems (maintenance, asset management, health and
safety, sustainability and space planning). In each, the various stakeholders are
consulted to set priorities for model development, which are incrementally
implemented. These case studies demonstrate the benefits of using an Agile
approach to BIM and inform the framework presented in this paper.
Keywords: BIM, Agile project management, multi-disciplinary design.
doi:10.2495/BIM150201
1 Introduction
The diversity of use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in design and
construction has been well-documented [1, 2]. BIM has multiple definitions but is
well-summarized as an integrated model in which all process and product
information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all
relevant building actors [3].
While guidelines exist for BIM planning, e.g. [4], the step-by-step process for
designing a building using BIM model is not prescribed. It is the goal of this paper
to present a framework that guides the managed and integrated development of
Building Information Models (BIMs) for both design and operations applications.
This paper proposes the application of Agile [5] project management
techniques, particularly a modified Sprint process, to BIM in order to maximize
collaboration, documentation and lifecycle data management, design refinement
and interactive distribution (end-user feedback). To demonstrate this
methodology, two case studies have been developed: the architectural design of a
multi-use library complex from schematic to detailed design, and the development
of a Sustainable Operations BIM for an academic building at Ryerson University.
2 Literature review
While BIM has been used for a wide range of use cases and project activities, in
this paper we have considered BIM in three key roles: (1) as a visualization/
communication tool (including inter-discipline coordination); (2) as a design and
analysis tool; and (3) as the repository of project life-cycle information. Research
has demonstrated that BIM is an important visualization and coordination tool [6,
7] as well as stakeholder communication [8] and collaboration [9]. As such, it
provides a means for the transfer of both geometric and non-geometric data to a
wide array of stakeholders and project participants and facilitates collaboration
throughout the project life cycle. Design is a primary function driving BIM
software, while analysis using BIM has become widely adopted, particularly to
improve the sustainability of a building during the design phase [10, 11] and is a
topic of current research e.g. [12] as it improves the triple bottom line of a building
project [13].
Over the building life cycle, BIM enables the transfer of information between
stakeholders (summarized in [14] and can be structured to provide stakeholders
with a useful repository of both geometric and non-geometric data [3, 14, 15].
The Agile methodology is based on a set of values developed at a meeting of
software developers in 2001 [7] to provide a more participant-centric, flexible and
iterative approach to software than more traditional sequential approaches. The
core values of the Agile movement are summarized as individuals and
interactions over processes and tools, working (software) over comprehensive
documentation; customer collaboration over contract negotiation, and responding
to change over following a plan [7]. Agile enablers [16] have substantial overlap
with architectural design practice, such as obtaining regular customer feedback,
focusing on clarity and simplicity in communication, and communication through
visual rather than written means [17]. A case study [18] investigating BIM
implementation into lean architectural practice integration with energy assessment
tools (analysis), coordination and concurrent work (communication), virtual
reality (visualization) and flexibility to satisfy customers as key benefits.
Other research [19] characterized building design by iteration (rework) and
found that accelerating the design cycle involves either faster iterations using
improved coordination tools, integration of engineering analysis, and eliminating
unnecessary activities; and/or fewer iterations, through activity decoupling and
improved activity sequencing. Faster iterations (Sprints) are enabled by the use of
BIM as a design, analysis and coordination/communication tool, while Sprints
decouple and improve the sequence of activities to reduce the number of iterations.
This approach, while originating within the software development field, is
being increasingly considered for adoption in other fields [16], and is similar to
the lean construction and Agile manufacturing approaches used in the industry.
Agile manufacturing is the ability to thrive in a competitive environment of
continuous and unpredictable change, requiring quick reactions and driven by
customer-designed products and services [20], which has strong parallels with
the building design process. Other enabling elements of Agile Manufacturing
overlapping with BIM include concurrent engineering, computer-aided drafting,
manufacturing, and engineering (CAD/CAM/CAE), and rapid design and
prototyping [21]. Because of its strong emphasis of collaboration and
responsiveness, there is no single fixed set of processes that define Agile, however
a key technique of interest to this paper is the Sprint, an iterative process whereby
the end-product is defined based on a number of desired functionalities (called
user stories) and each iteration (Sprint) focuses on the delivery of one or more
of these functionalities to maximize utility for end-users, within a set of
constraints. The two goals of this process are to achieve customer satisfaction and
risk management. The former is addressed partly by delivering the highest-value
functionality first, while the latter is achieved by considering deficiencies to avoid
late side-effects (changes) [22].
3 Agile BIM development

BIM can be used in three complementary ways: visualization, design, analysis and
documentation, and these can be effectively used as part of an iterative approach.
Each design iteration focuses on either adding a new design element, refining
design elements (based on analysis), removing design element(s) and/or increasing
level of detail of design element(s).
Regular meetings with the client follow a loose Sprint meeting structure
including presentation of progress, client feedback and evaluation stages referred
to in Figure 1. Each Sprint iteration is focused on one or more of three types of
tasks: (1) the addition of a new design element, (2) the refinement (or deletion) of
an existing design element, and (3) increasing the level of detail (LOD) of a design
element in the model. In the case of a successful sprint phase future priorities were
identified and new goals were set for the upcoming sprint phase. In the case of an
unsuccessful sprint phase past measures were reviewed and future goals were set
based on the information gathered from the re-tracing of steps.
Figure 1: Sprint process diagram.
4 Case study: design

The design phase case study considered the design of a multi-use complex
incorporating an office, library and community facilities through detailed design.
This design process was intended to provide a real, workable building design for
an actual site in Toronto, Canada, and occurred within an academic studio
environment from September 2014 through April 2015. The schematic design
stage occurred from September-December 2014 and design development started
in January 2015.
Early in the design development stage, significant changes (removal of an
exterior courtyard, modification of entrance locations; and revised floorplans)
were made to the building as a whole, whereas the latter part of this period focused
more on element refinement as illustrated in Figure 2. This case study is focused
primarily on the refinement of one particular element, a large external stair
highlighted in Figure 2(b), that was brought from LOD 100 up to LOD 400 over
this period.
30% 45% 60% 60%
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2: 3D views of library at various stages in design.
4.1 Communication and collaboration techniques
The Architectural designers interacted in three key ways: stand-up meetings every
12 days; client meetings, and (3) input from other disciplines. Stand-up meetings
were either short (510 minutes) or design charrettes (30 minutes to 2 hours). The
goals of these meetings were to arrive at solutions for issues addressed, determine
the schedule, and determine the LOD for the upcoming documentation.
Interaction with the client occurred in three different forms: collaborative
working sessions, informal presentations, and design reviews. Collaboration
sessions began with a presentation of the updated BIM model (live and printed
views) to evaluate the success of the previous Sprint. Next, further issues were
investigated, potential solutions discussed, and priorities set for the next Sprint. In
these sessions, BIM was used as both a visualization/communication tool as well
as a design tool for option investigation. During informal presentations, the
evaluation and priority-setting processes were the same, but BIM was used for
visualization and communication only. Finally, in formal reviews, additional
senior-level consultants provided feedback on the design progress, which
informed the next collaboration session. Agile checklists based on [26] framed the
above converstaions and were initially followed strictly for these meetings, but it
was soon apparent that the process was taking over, in conflict with Agile values
[7] and the process was modified to use these as guides to frame the conversations
rather than strict procedures.
Input from other disciplines and 3rd party analysis software used in this phase
included an energy analysis simulated in Revit (Figure 3) to analyse loads required
for the building to perform with the current envelope system, shadow studies to
document interior space experience affected by location and form of building as
well as input from a mechanical engineer to provide insight on best practice
choices for the mechanical system and layout used.
MONTHLY HEATING LOADS
MONTHLY COOLING LOADS LEVEL 3 OFFICE DAYLIGHT STUDY
Figure 3: Energy analysis and daylighting study.
4.2 Sprint structure
Due to the constant iteration and development that characterizes architectural

design, accelerated Sprints were used, each lasting 25 days. Each sprint phase
consisted of the presentation of the updated design in BIM to client, client
feedback, design development discussions and documentation thereof, and
priority-setting for the upcoming sprint phase. The designers then engaged in
stand-up meetings/sessions, documenting any design changes made. The
chronology and priorities from each Sprint are summarized in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Detailed design development of the stair component.
4.3 BIM evolution
BIM was used to develop and document the design. Several digital BIM tools and
non-digital representations of building information used throughout the process as
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Level of development progression.
Initial sprints included iterations of the stair form through Sketches and model
making for quick physical documentation of ideas. After agreeing on a sketch
form, this was refined using RhinocerosTM, a 3D form-generation software, which
allowed several iterations of design refinement during one Sprint. Once finalized,
this form was input to Autodesk RevitTM and the structural design of the stair was
realized. Next, the model complexity was increased to incorporate material
properties for the stair and whole building. 2D construction details were generated
in AutoCADTM based on sections output from the RevitTM model.
5 Kerr Hall East: existing building sustainable operations

Kerr Hall East is an 11,187m2 (120,370 sf) academic building at Ryerson
University, consisting of 38% labs, 20% classrooms and 10% offices. It is the
eastern quadrant of the 1962 Kerr Hall building (Figure 6), which has undergone
more than 20 partial renovations.
Figure 6: Kerr Hall archival photograph [27].
The client was the Campus Facilities and Sustainability (CF&S) team, who
required comprehensive (as-built) building information. In addition, multiple
systems and software for each type of campus information (building assessments,
maintenance records, health and safety, sustainability, space reporting, etc.) were
used, complicating data acquisition for decision-making and planning. To address
these needs simultaneously, a BIM for Sustainable Operations is being developed
as a pilot study for the whole campus.
The operations BIM study considered the modelling of an existing building at
Ryerson University. As this building had already been constructed and operational
for over 50 years, the BIM development did not incorporate new design elements
per se, instead, the Sprint approaches consisted of (1) identification,
implementation and evaluation of new use cases, (2) refinement of the use case
implementation approach, and (3) increasing the level of detail of a component in
the model. The timeline indicating the collaboration meetings, informal
presentations and formal reviews of the BIM are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Sprint timeline.
To obtain demonstrate value to project stakeholders as early in the process as

possible, the Sprint process (Figure 1) was applied to the BIM development. The
Sprints for this project lasted an average of one month, due to the extensive site
surveys and stakeholder coordination required to obtain the necessary data and
information for each use case. Six Sprints formed the early work on this model,
each starting with a collaborative brainstorming session with CF&S staff to
identify and prioritize beneficial use cases for the BIM an ending with a
presentation of the updated model incorporating the new use case. These were: (1)
Development of preliminary 3D BIM with simplified geometry (extruded
floorplans); (2) Use case 1: space reporting and utilization, incorporating attributes
and fields to allow reporting through the centralized space management system;
(3) Data collection micro-Sprints (three, each lasting 1 week with lessons learned
between each to optimize each successive Sprint); (4) Use case 2: health and safety
asbestos survey results included; (5) Use case 3: sustainability planning
quantity of light fixtures and calculation of potential energy savings from retrofit
within BIM; and (6) Use case 4: as-built model (excluding concealed elements).
6 Results
These case studies demonstrated several benefits from the use of Agile
methodologies for BIM model development, particularly in improving
communication within the team and with external parties, improving efficiency by
minimizing re-work, and reducing client-driven design changes late in the process.
6.1 Case study #1: design BIM development
This case study demonstrated several benefits of Agile Project Management

techniques to develop the BIM model. Agile BIM enabled clear communication
with the client, and the use of BIM as an integral part of the Sprint process
provided a multimodal means to communicate the design intent and progress to
the client, resulting in increased precision and consistency in client feedback and
direction. The Sprint structure guided client conversation to set priorities and
enhance productivity of each Sprint cycle. This increased the level clarity in
meetings allowing the client and the designer to achieve a more thorough
understanding of the design due to the information provided. The use of multiple
BIM for production benefited client and designers conversation. The Agile
Structure allowed client input periodically resulting in clearer communications
between client and designer. Ultimately, this reduced re-work and the need for
multiple design changes as the client was able to provide input throughout the
development phases of the design. Integration of multidisciplinary elements, (e.g.
HVAC, sustainability, etc.) was also facilitated by the use of BIM during Sprints
focused on this coordination.
Lessons learned from this case study indicated that potential disadvantages of
this approach are demonstrated by the early misapplication of the Agile checklists
for the Sprint meetings. This was a result of a lack of familiarity with Agile
methods, particularly applied to architectural design, by both parties. This issue
can be mitigated by training participants on a fluid use of these tools as guidelines

rather than fixed structures, such that they shape these conversations. A
recommended revision to this checklist is included in Section 7.
6.2 Case study #2: operations BIM development
The outcome of this case study was a high level of engagement and client
satisfaction. At the final review for the case study project, the client expressed
desire to expand the project not only to include the rest of Kerr Hall, but to
implement the operations model across the University campus (39 buildings). This
high level of engagement was a result of the teams ability to quickly and
efficiently create a model that implemented multiple use cases that met the
immediate needs of the client.
Because of the use of targeted Sprints, the project ran very efficiently. There
was minimal re-work and the total effort to create the model to, with all data
collection requiring 150 hours and modelling approximately 250 hours to achieve
the results presented in this paper. Because data collection was done in Sprints,
these were carried out very efficiently and the documentation (sketches on
floorplans and over 2000 photographs mapped to room layouts) has proved
valuable for model development beyond the original use cases. Substantial time
was spent setting up the model properly and matching with existing CAD
drawings, and this has minimized re-work for element modelling. Client-driven
changes have also been minimal as each Sprint resulted in a usable model
addressing a priority use case, and to date there has been no duplication of effort
in the model creation.
6.3 Recommendations and conclusions
This paper has demonstrated the benefits of the Agile process applied to the
development of BIM models in the design and operations stages. Based on this
success, further research into the application of this approach for the development
of construction BIM models (i.e. clash detection, fabrication and as-built models)
is warranted and anticipated to have similar positive results.
The following questions have been developed from lessons learned in these
case studies to guide the Sprint and stand-up meetings. Note that these are not to
be considered prescriptive, but are rather to stimulate collaboration and problem-
solving discussions by team members.
Sprint Meetings Stand-up Meetings

What was the primary goal of the What are the outstanding issues for
last Sprint? resolution?
What issues arose during the last What arose from the last
Sprint? How were these issues tied collaboration session with the client?
to other design issues? Are other Are there any issues that may affect
disciplines or systems affected by other disciplines or systems?
the changes made?
What new issues require discussion How will tasks for this Sprint be
during this collaboration session/ assigned amongst the team?
meeting?
What are the priorities for the next What will each team member have
Sprint? How will success be ready for the next stand-up meeting?
measured?
Are there any other issues What level of development will be
(backlog) requiring attention? produced for revised BIM elements?
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Ryerson University Campus Facilities and
Sustainability Team for their cooperation and input to Operations model case
study, and Professor Jeff Geldart and Alvin Tanako from Ryerson University for
their participation and valuable contributions to the design case study.
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BIM-GIS Community of Practice

P. A. Corcoran1, D. A. Bruce1, A. Elmualim1, D. Fong2,
T. McGinley2 & B. Stephens3
1
School of Natural and Built Environments,
University of South Australia, Australia
2
School of Art, Architecture and Design,
3
Facilities Management Unit,
Abstract
The digital recording of spatio-temporal information within Building Information
Modelling (BIM) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) has mainly been
the preserve of experts, but with the advent of more user friendly technologies,
more non-spatio-temporal information experts are beginning to realise the benefits
that the use of spatio-temporal information can bring.
A burgeoning area of interest has been the technological interface between BIM
and GIS but allied to this are the collaborative interests of the people, who exhibit
varying levels of BIM-GIS exposure, involved with such developments. A
selection of staff at the University of South Australia (UniSA) developed a
collaborative exercise to introduce BIM and GIS into university business
processes with a view to incorporating more use within the Facilities Management
Unit (FMU), whilst simultaneously widening the role of spatio-temporal
information in both teaching and research.
The participants decided to operate within a Community of Practice (CoP) i.e.
an arena that provides both a context and environment where people can come
together to share ideas, talk about practices and learn together. On reflection, the
participants thought a CoP was a suitable vehicle to explore BIM-GIS
collaboration and through this discovered that, although they had differing
standpoints in relation to the perceived interface between BIM and GIS, they
shared similar aspirations as to the usefulness of BIM and GIS working together.
There have been issues to address e.g. finding time to participate in the CoP, but
doi:10.2495/BIM150211
nevertheless, through the creation of wayfinding project, the CoP aims to

showcase and expand BIM-GIS collaboration into other areas of university.
Keywords: collaboration, university, spatio-temporal information.
1 Introduction
Location and time are significant factors for many businesses. Building
Information Modelling (BIM) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have
enabled the efficient digital portrayal of spatio-temporal information and
consequently opened up new analytical possibilities for such businesses, thus
increasing the importance of such contemporary technologies in modern societies.
Although it can be inferred, through the writings of Bergin [1] and Tomlinson [2],
that BIM and GIS had similar origins, epochs and founders during the 1960s, the
systems have diverged somewhat into separate industries. However, with the
development of disruptive technologies, such as Google Earth, many more people
are engaging with spatio-temporal technologies (Corcoran [3]) and consequently
being exposed to the inherent opportunities that engaging with spatio-temporal
information presents. Nevertheless, there are still many businesses that do not
maximise the use of spatio-temporal information for competitive advantage: to
become more visible to such entities it could be worthwhile for those involved
with BIM and GIS to consider working more collaboratively, thereby generating
some economies of scale to expose even further the benefits that using spatio-
temporal information can bring.
Within this ideal of cooperation, educators could have a pivotal role due to their
position in educating and influencing the future spatio-temporal information
leaders. However, as with other industries, the education sector needs to operate
within political and fiscal restraints, and consequently expansion of such
worthwhile endeavours would have to be undertaken as efficiently as possible. To
this extent, the use of a Community of Practice (CoP) is potentially beneficial, as
such an informal forum engenders an egalitarian environment where, as Wenger
[4] noted, volunteers mutually engage on a joint enterprise and use their shared
repertoire. Such a gathering of personnel began in 2014 at the University of South
Australia (UniSA), where a CoP involving representatives from the Facilities
Management Unit (FMU) met with academics from Architecture, Construction
and Geospatial to explore BIM-GIS collaboration. Introducing, developing and
expanding a CoP into a BIM-GIS collaborative environment though, could pose
issues due to the participants differing standpoints and aspirations and
consequently these may need to be addressed to ensure successful collaboration
efforts. This paper documents the development of this BIM-GIS CoP and
progresses onto how the members believed the CoP would expand its scope,
activities, and impact in the future.
2 Background
Whilst the fundamental building blocks of technologies such as BIM and GIS are
similar, the terminologies, applications and ownership of these are often
misunderstood and frequently contested. Fundamental components of BIM and

GIS consist of relational data bases, geometric description of objects and their
positions in space, time-stamping, visualization and a set of analytical techniques
which enable the user to ask spatio-temporal questions and model scenarios. What
connects the two technologies is space, time and, of course, computers. Modern
GIS had its origins in the 1960s when computers were applied to 2D
representations of various aspects of geography (Foresman [5]). The third
dimension was, and largely still is, managed as an attribute attached to a 2D
location. Information in databases was attached to the geometric primitives of
points, lines, polygons and cells; only in a few GIS systems did the geometric
primitive extend to volumes and the database include time as a primary coordinate.
Whilst GIS primitives have evolved with information now attached to objects,
much of the spatial reasoning and modelling is affected by the developmental
history. Interestingly, BIM has its origins in similar timeframe to GIS and even
shares an early founder Ian McHarg (Bergin [1]). However, the focus on
computerisation of architectural drawings and building objects through features
such as the Building Description System (BDS), which embedded building
information in databases, saw the two technologies diverge somewhat. The
essential focus in BIM on 3D also differentiated it from GIS and finally, a real
difference in reference systems means that in the modern versions of the
technologies there are some alternative approaches to very similar issues. With
respect to geometric reference systems, the GIS world utilizes X, Y, Z or
(longitude, latitude, height) coordinates relative to the centre of the Earth which is
defined by a geographical datum. These coordinates are projected into 2D map
projection coordinates (East, North) and Z, relative to a difficult to define vertical
datum, is added as an attribute. Whereas, in BIM, geometric reference systems are
frequently local, either to individual building objects or to building sites. In
essence, it could be argued that GIS is the outside world whereas BIM is inside.
Both technologies make strong use of topological mathematics in spatial analysis,
but in general the two differ in relation to the way in which time is encoded and
analysed. Given the common origins yet different histories, contemporary users of
the two technologies, who plan to work collaboratively, face some interesting
challenges, especially when the technologies are to be utilized by a diverse group
of professionals.
During the past four decades there was an ambition in social science and
engineering towards multi and interdisciplinary research. However, there was
criticism of such research approaches. According to Maruyama [6] social
scientists were actively, and only reading and citing each others work, ignoring
the reality of belonging to a borderless crowd of humans exploring the same
reality. This has led to research work staying within a limited space due to
accreditation and professional certification (Maruyama [6]). In the built
environment, this can only serve to insulate researchers from one another.
Maruyama [6] argued for researchers to go outside the comfort of ones own
discipline and immerse oneself in the various concepts, theories and research
methodologies of other disciplines. This was seen as the way forward for
advancing a robust research in the built environment to meet societal needs.
However, the built environment is a complex social-ecological system where

multiple actors interact at different scales and various times (Moffat and Kohler
[7]). Contrary to this assertion, the research in the built environment is still being
produced in silos due to the various forms of protectionism and professional
certification. Hence, existing theories and methods are not capable for integrating
the complexity of the built environment in terms of spatial and physical, social and
time relationships. However, the advancement of various digital technologies
practices are paving the way for integrative methods for the built environment
research such as BIM and GIS. While all the methods are challenged with
methodological problems, it is also true that considerable progress appears to have
occurred in that last few years, and that practical tools may soon emerge for use in
daily practice (Moffat and Kohler [7]). In order to overcome the negative cultural
aspects of the silos research in the built environment, new concepts and
frameworks for socially integrating research teams, groups and organisations are
needed to harness the possibilities offered by the unprecedented advancement of
digital technologies. It is argued in this paper that the application of the concept of
CoP could provide the platform to support an integrative transdisciplinary research
in the built environment.
3 Community of Practice
CoP theory provides a system for comprehension of the complex social basis of
knowledge management and development (Wenger et al. [8]). The concept gives
organisations the ability to utilise their people and knowledge base to their fullest
extent achieving a persistent competitive advantage. Pfeffer [9] stated that
knowledge sharing is essential for the functioning of any CoP. The complexity and
fragmentation of the built environment makes communities of practice particularly
applicable.
A CoP can be described as groups of people who share a concern or passion
for something they do, and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly
(Wenger [4]). A CoP is closely linked to situated learning, where by learning is
continuous and dependent on the environment in which it takes place and looks to
surpass previous thinking that learning is the end point of knowledge transmission
(Lave and Wenger [10]). Situated learning leads to the immersion of the learner in
their subject which is known as legitimate peripheral participation (Wenger
[11]). Changing participation and identity within the CoP is an important factor
for as a new community member becomes acquainted with the manner in which
the community operates and accumulates knowledge, they progress from the
practice fringes to its centre. Participation shapes not only what we do, but also
who we are and how we interpret what we do (Elmualim and Govender [12]) so
learning as a fundamentally social process must be integral with social
participation (Peltonen and Lamsa [13]).
The fundamental difference between communities of practice and the research
teams and task groups commonly found within the industry is that the group is
linked via knowledge rather than a job. Consequently, such communities are
bound by the learning they have engaged in rather than their venture and it is the
knowledge contained within the community that makes being part of it valuable
(Wenger [4]). The benefits of communities of practice within research are wide
ranging, facilitating creation, accumulation and diffusion of knowledge. Work can
be achieved quicker and with a higher degree of competence within a dynamic,
evolving environment (Wenger [4]). However, the organic dynamism associated
with communities of practice makes them difficult to manage or create artificially;
nevertheless they function best when allowed to work without management, to
innovate and adapt (Peltonen and Lamsa [13] and Wenger et al. [8]). However,
research has shown that a top down managerial approach to communities of
practice can be used, providing it doesnt prevent knowledge being the groups
central binding force as opposed to task or objective (Thompson [14]). Alongside
the very positive influence communities of practice can have, it should be noted
that their intrinsic social structure can lead to conflict caused by an unequal
distribution of power. New members entering the community have potential to
upset dynamics due to a lack of consensual knowledge and divergent sense of
identity (Hislop [15]). A further criticism and pitfall to avoid is the unwarranted
transition of the community into a group think where all members are trying to
conform to set of socially implicit research rituals (Elmualim and Govender [12]).
4 Development of the UniSA Community of Practice

The UniSA BIM-GIS collaborative CoP first met in 2014 and initial dialogue
surrounded the background to each of the members area of interest, their
understanding of both BIM and GIS and their aspirations in regards to this
collaborative working environment, and finally, discussion as to any
apprehensions and difficulties in relation to engaging across a multi-disciplinary
environment. Each discipline (i.e. Architecture, Construction, Facilities
Management and Geospatial) detailed their standpoints and aspirations.
4.1 Architecture: standpoints and aspirations
Architecture believed that the use of BIM at the earliest stages of design, could not
only inform the design process, but could ultimately aid deciphering the running
costs of buildings over their lifetime. However, an architects perspective on the
BIM-GIS model was constrained by the scope of their involvement in the lifecycle
of buildings. For instance, whilst the as built model was an essential from the
Facilities Management (FM) perspective, it was normally not produced by the
architect. It was thought that one way to view these different perspectives on the
models in the lifecycle of buildings was through the Level of Detail (LOD) stages
of BIM (Figure 1). Consequently, it was felt that BIM LOD could provide a frame
to discuss enhancing CoP stakeholder perspectives on the use of BIM and GIS in
the design, construction, maintenance and operation of buildings. With this in
mind, it was interpreted that that BIM and GIS both were essentially similar asset
oriented information systems. However, it was felt that there was a scale difference
between the two information systems and as such, GIS could be seen as BIM LOD
000 or LOD 100. Viewed in this way, GIS could be viewed as a subset of BIM.
Figure 1: BIM LOD (McGinley [16]).
Architecture regarded this CoP as an exciting opportunity as it pointed to a

centralised and contextual information system for buildings that could enable the
development of other approaches such as mapping user behaviour on to the as built
model so that it could be analysed in future designs (McGinley and Fong [17]).
Architecture thought that a BIM collaborative approach was vital and could
ultimately offer the ability to map building typology through its usage by the
occupants to the BIM-GIS model. Consequently, the design of buildings could be
formally influenced by both client based programming requirements and previous
use data and case based reasoning (Aamodt and Plaza [18]). The ability to generate
a typology of building usage to inform future design was highlighted as being
invaluable for the design and would also inform the maintenance cost of buildings
over their lifetime. The use of Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) data over the
lifetime of buildings to capture occupancy traffic, services utilisation, power etc.
was considered to not only serve current buildings, but future buildings of its type.
4.2 Construction: standpoints and aspirations
Construction and project management has been seen as applied science. It had
been argued that most of the research in the field of construction was a derivative
from other disciplines, such as management and management science,
organisation theory, physics, building and indeed computer science and system
engineering. Together with the nature of construction as a project based industry,
this positioned the industry well to take advantage of the new technological
development such as BIM and GIS. However, the reality of the industry was
contrary to that due to its fragmentation and the wide criticism of the lack of
collaboration amongst its participating actors. The fragmentation was one of the
reasons for the acclaimed poor performance of the industry, worldwide. There
were mounting calls for the industry to change and embrace collaborative working
practices specially in integrating the facilities management processes into the
design and construction.
It was envisaged that digital technologies such as BIM would enable the
transformation of the industry through the adoption of collaborative working
practices. While social challenges have been posed in embracing collaborative
working, BIM was seen as enabler to that desired change and thus allow the
industry to deliver high performance on projects in all financial, time and quality
terms. This CoP project in particular, was seen by Construction as initiation to
further advance the sustainable management of built environments, not only on a
building by building basis but rather to include neighbourhood, precinct and city
levels. There were considerable implications of such aspirations in terms of
education and research. An integrative approach to research and education were

seen as vital to attain those aspirations, advocating inter and transdisciplinary
research work for the development of smart and sustainable built environments.
4.3 Facilitates management unit: standpoints and aspirations
Location has always been a key element in the management approach of UniSAs
FMU, informing management strategies and operational decisions. For example,
location has been inherent in FMUs site maintenance, asset management, lease
management, space management, construction project management, energy and
water management, cleaning, parking and security/access management. FMU has
explored the potential of both BIM and GIS and their respective abilities to
integrate the capture of not just the location and geography of things, but also the
relationships between them, to offer opportunities for more comprehensive FM
capability. Eliminating information silos and considering information holistically
was viewed as providing the potential to reveal previously undiscovered
relationships and patterns in data, resulting in greater insight and therefore more
effective management strategies.
FMUs interest in BIM resided in its representation of both the physical and
functional characteristics of a building. BIMs richness of information was viewed
as a method to increase both users and managers understanding of a building and
its interrelationships, thus greatly increasing the ability to understand the impact
of changes and problem solve issues. It was hoped that using BIM as a
management information tool would increase the likelihood of predictable
building performance and the opportunity for a whole of life approach, thus
maximising efficiency and minimising expenditure over a buildings lifecycle.
However, FMU faced challenges in ways to convince key decision makers as to
the benefits of both BIM and GIS. FMU viewed the CoP as an opportunity to get
visibility and traction in these areas outside the immediate FMU environment, to
the wider university environment. FMU welcomed the opportunity to utilise the
universitys research expertise and the opportunity to foster collaboration.
4.4 Geospatial: standpoints and aspirations
Geospatial initially believed that with the inherent spatio-temporal nature of GIS,
BIM was a particular strand of a GIS, or more appropriately a part of GIS without
the Geo prefix i.e. a Spatial information Systems (SIS). Indeed, many institutions
in Australia utilise such phraseology in the programs they teach (Corcoran and
Bruce [19]). Furthermore, the traditional graphical output from the profession i.e.
a map, has the definition of a graphical representation of spatial relationships
(Robinson [20]) a definition that could equally be applied to a BIM. Initially,
Geospatial observed that GIS was perceived by some members the CoP as related
to geographic objects which were relatively large in size and that it was not
appreciated that GIS was used at all scales, from sub mm to planetary. However,
on reflection within the CoP, the more overarching viewpoint came to the fore in
that it was probably not a matter of BIM versus GIS, or even BIM and GIS, rather
it was more that both of these areas existed within spatio-temporal environment.
The visibility in the use of GIS within Australia is problematical, a stance

emphasized by continuing low tertiary education enrolments (McDougall et al.
[21]), and consequently the Australian spatial industry needs a boost. The spatial
community is still relative young industry and as such, does not possess the weight
in numbers to push through its worth. Therefore, Geospatial hoped by
collaborating in this CoP, and as such working with Construction, FMU and
Architects, the sum of the whole would be greater than the parts. Furthermore,
the prominence of BIM and the importance of the construction industry to the
Australian economy could serve as a catalyst for increased use of GIS. In addition,
Geospatial aspired to the total integration of spatial information from all buildings,
underground assets, between building objects (car parks, roads, paths, trees,
drinking fountains, gates, signs, etc.), telecommunication routes, and so on.
5 Discussion
5.1 Development
From the standpoints and aspirations of the CoP members, it can be interpreted
that the CoP has developed for a common cause, and thus reinforced the belief that
CoPs can lever organisational ability to utilise their people and knowledge base to
their fullest extent. Each of the areas had different skillsets and ideas about BIM-
GIS interaction that alone would have not produced significant competitive
advantage. The CoP has reflected the notion about passionate people coming
together from different disciplines to share knowledge regularly, but without being
encumbered by strict outcomes or authoritarian regime. Such an outcome
reinforces theory that a CoP is more about enhancing knowledge rather than a
coming together to undertake specified tasks.
The CoP member standpoints have developed over time, as knowledge and
perspective has been gained about the other disciplines. For example, Geospatial
relinquished the perceived premier role that BIM is part of GIS, and moved to
stance where BIM and GIS are considered to be integral parts of a bigger spatio-
temporal universe. Similarly, Architecture and Construction have widened their
scope of BIM being predominantly predicated on building use (the aforementioned
inside), to a more holistic view that incorporates the exterior (outside)
environment that surround buildings. The CoP has displayed elements of situated
learning, particularly from the incorporation by the BIM advocates (namely
Architecture and Construction) of Geospatial and FMU into what could be referred
to as a UniSA BIM fraternity. As previously mentioned, the issues associated
with GIS use in Australia compared with the increased use of BIM, could quite
easily have manifested itself in an us and them scenario, but the positive and
inclusive manner in which the CoP has been conducted has aided the assimilation
of the GIS and FMU fraternity to which the CoP members now perceive they
possess a spatio-temporal fraternity. The participants continue to regularly
interact both inside and outside of the CoP environment. The unity of the CoP has
also transcended the hierarchy of its members, who range from junior lecturers
through to Professors. As espoused in the literature, it is recommended that there
is no formal management imposed on a CoP and every member is equal, and this
has been displayed thus far on the development of the BIM-GIS CoP. As such,
this has also alleviated the concern of uneven distribution of power, and the
members are confident that if and when the CoP expands further, these intrinsic
values will be upheld on the acceptance of new members.
However, not all the points issued in literature have been realised thus far in
the CoP. One such factor is Wengers [4] idea that work can be achieved quicker
in a CoP. Currently, the BIM-GIS CoP is still in its formative stage after nearly a
year of operation and this is a frustrating point, which if continued for much
longer, could pose more of an issue. By definition, academic life is dominated by
research and teaching outputs, and when research time is at a premium and
membership of the BIM-GIS CoP is voluntary, there could be tendencies for
research to be concentrated in directed, known and own safe areas, thus
safeguarding output. Consequently, the opportunity for new exploratory research
methods and projects has been restricted. Furthermore, Architecture,
Construction, FMU and Geospatial are geographically dispersed around UniSA
Campuses, so the opportunity to maintain liquid networks is minimal and as such
meetings could benefit from being on a more formal calendar basis rather than an
ad-hoc approach.
From a BIM-GIS content perspective, it has been apparent that CoP members
have had differing opinions of what BIM is, what GIS is, and what collaboration
may mean. In essence such viewpoints have thus far negated any concept of
developing the group think scenario noted by Elmualim and Govender [12] as
discussion and views are still fiercely discussed. Furthermore, issues arose as to
the scale of BIM implementation, i.e. on one side of the spectrum, was an entire
rollout of spatio-temporal information across the university and the other end of
the spectrum was within the scope of the CoP members work areas. Due to
financial restrictions and political factors e.g. working across different schools and
divisions within UniSA, an implementation spanning the whole university was not
deemed possible. Therefore, the CoP members decided to build upon their new
knowledge and understanding and trial a pilot project focussing on a specific topic
that could collaboratively utilise the skills base of the entire membership.
Consequently, the CoP decided to design, build and showcase a university
wayfinding tool that could combine the outdoor environment (i.e. GIS focussed)
with the more indoor environment (BIM focussed). Such a tool could have
multiple benefits to FMU such as (a) Improved student, staff and visitor
experience through ease of locating their destination quickly and easily, (b)
Improved accessibility management through clear understanding and
communication of accessible pathways and (c) Capacity to publicise the
availability of university facilities and destinations, such as food services,
galleries, public clinics, bank outlets (ATMs), bookable facilities, etc. Within the
wayfinding project, another issue was the differing skill sets of the members, i.e.
some had technical expertise, others portrayed conceptual prowess, business
strategic thinking and others were in effect the ultimate customer i.e. FMU. To
address such issues, CoP members decided to share their knowledge both in
meetings and at workshops e.g. in the use of Revit software. The wayfinding
project was in essence a proof of concept about the CoP in that it would verify the
direction of the CoP, develop an understanding of each of the members specialty
areas and thus foster an arena of trust and mutual respect where the subject matter
could flourish with minimal impediments. However, given the differentiating
factor of a CoP being about knowledge gained rather than undertaking a job at
hand, it is important to note that the way finding project was a project created by
the CoP members, and not from an exogenous force. Due to time constraints, the
wayfinding project has yet to be completed, but it is envisaged that this should be
in the near future. Finally, part of the process of addressing issues was reflection
on the CoP as a whole and, in effect, the paper presented here is the output of such
a process and is a vehicle for the members to reflect over the CoP existence, assess
the CoPs goals, effectiveness and future directions.
5.2 Expansion
To expand the CoP, it is critical that the seed planted in the pilot wayfinding
project is grown and penetrates throughout FMU, and that it is seen to be an
integral part of FMU operations. From such a positive position, it may well be
possible then to lever additional funds, time and commitment for extra personnel
to allow the use of spatio-temporal information to percolate into other areas of
FMU to begin with, but ultimately to other areas of the university and become
embedded in many university business processes. UniSA promotes industry
engagement and orientated teaching and the use of BIM within this context is
highly applicable as more firms involved with buildings move towards the
incorporation of BIM into their workflow. Therefore, it is imperative that the
university reflects this trend and thus incorporates the skill sets of its researchers
into the teaching environment. As such, to achieve such an expansion to the BIM-
GIS CoP, the leaders of the respective teaching areas will need to engage in dialog
to assess how to further incorporate spatio-temporal into teaching, and in doing so
assess existing teaching capabilities e.g. the possibility of experts teaching across
schools and divisions whilst simultaneously reviewing degree programs to assess
where such courses/subjects/modules could fit. Such programs that need to assess
the impact of BIM-GIS could include Engineering, Property, Planning, Surveying
(e.g. 3D cadastre) and Environmental. To reflect the combined nature of spatio-
temporal, as opposed to separate BIM and GIS, there could be moves towards an
underpinning first year course introducing the philosophy of spatio-temporal
activities that could then be streamed thereafter in subsequent courses. This would
engender an environment where the students cannot only do spatio-temporal
activities but have the ability to think critically about the direction in which such
learning/ doing should go. The CoP will periodically review its Raison d'tre for,
as the expansion of BIM-GIS goes more mainstream, it may begin to become more
project management led and thus leave the confines and essence of being a CoP.
6 Conclusion
The BIM-GIS CoP brought together staff within UniSA that believed
commonalties existed and that opportunities could be realised for UniSAs
operational business activities as well as teaching and research. The voluntary and
egalitarian nature of a CoP lent itself to such an environment where staff were
pursuing collaborative efforts within BIM-GIS, up and above their normal targeted
work outputs. The CoP members displayed varying standpoints and aspirations
but displayed a consensus that BIM-GIS collaboration was advantageous. Initially,
variance seemed to stem from the natural affinity with respective working
environments, namely Architecture, Construction and FMU focused more on the
built building environment (possibly constituting an interior view), whereas
Geospatial especially with the prefix of Geo i.e. meaning Earth, portrayed a
more global exterior view. However, through CoP discussions, members soon
formed the collective opinion that as both BIM and GIS capture/create, store,
manage, analyse and present data, its not so much a collaboration of BIM and
GIS or BIM v GIS, it is more of a blurring of scale, as they are both are concerned
with spatio-temporal relationships whether that be in a building or outside or both.
The CoP has engendered a social learning arena where disciplines and hierarchies
have been transcended, but it has not been without its challenges. Having sufficient
time continues to be the premier bane of the BIM_GIS CoP, especially when
competing interests come to the fore that result in other management led and
project oriented tasks taking priority. Nevertheless, the worth of the social learning
contained in the CoP enables the community to move forward, albeit not at the
pace that Wenger [4] envisaged. A successful wayfinding project could be a
critical component in the expansion of the CoP, as it could showcase not only the
BIM-GIS collaboration but also how this was efficiently and effectively achieved
through the use of a CoP. Consequently, the worth of using the CoP approach to
multi-disciplinary research can be further acknowledged and endorsed as a
valuable, worthwhile and effective method.
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Managing expectations of BIM product

quality: a lemon market theory view
C. Merschbrock & C. Nordahl-Rolfsen
D epartment of Civil Engineering and Energy Technology,
Oslo and Akershus University College, Norway
Abstract
There is an increasing uptake of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the
architecture, engineering, and construction industry. At the same time, it is evident
that many firms struggle to work based on the new technology and that only few
highly IT-literate firms succeed in reaping BIMs benefits. Thus, for many firms,
BIM systems adoption ends in disillusion as to what can be achieved by using the
technology. What complicates matters is that BIMs are only found dysfunctional
after having been in organizational use. Thus, BIMs value for an organization is
hard to distinguish before purchase. This article proposes, based on Akerlofs
(1970) theory of the lemon market, a conceptual model explicating factors
affecting buyers initial quality expectations in BIM software purchase. Our
findings are derived from data on a construction project executed by a Norwegian
timber-frame construction company having heavily invested in computer
numerical controlled (CNC) production machinery and BIM systems. This work
is important to manage organizational expectations related to the initial adoption
of BIM. Moreover, it highlights that construction firms trust in vendors claimed
product quality, IT-literacy, and experience matter when purchasing BIM
software. Taken together, our results suggest that quality uncertainty related to
BIM purchase can lead companies into financial turmoil. Especially small and
medium sized contractors appear to be exposed to information asymmetry when
purchasing BIM software.
Keywords: decision making, lemon market theory, BIM, software purchase,
information asymmetry.
doi:10.2495/BIM150221
1 Introduction
In recent decades, Building Information Modelling (BIM) has been one of the
major topics in architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) research [1, 2].
In case studies of BIM use, scholars find BIM to be an effective tool for improving
project delivery [3, 4]. Project level implementation of BIM appears to be
positively influencing project cost, time, communication, and built quality [3].
However, research indicates that reaping BIMs benefits is not easy to achieve and
that many firms miss out on the advantages BIM has to offer [2, 5].
This is partly due to BIM solutions not living up to the industrys vision of their
use as inter-organizational collaborative tools [6], and issues related to the new
ways of organizing required to create interoperable processes of information
exchange and storage [7]. In addition, high investment costs are associated with
BIM purchase and deployment [8]. The high upfront investments, in conjunction
with firms not being able to use BIM to its fullest, frequently result in frustrations
[9].
Thus, for many firms, BIM systems adoption ends in disillusionment as to what
can be achieved by using the technology. Moreover, BIMs benefits become only
tangible once firms pass through the wilderness of adoption [10]. This implies
that BIMs are only found dysfunctional after organizations have spent
considerable resources on system adoption and implementation. While few cases
of actual BIM system retirements or even bankruptcies are reported in
literature, we find plenty accounts on limited organizational use and value of BIM
[11, 12].
Buying BIM software is often a matter of trust as opposed to a well informed
decision. BIMs value for an organization is hard to distinguish before purchase.
Consequently, marketing and selling of BIM products should be supported by
rigorous cost/benefit analysis justifying upfront investment [3]. The BIM software
market is characterized by informational gaps between buyers (AEC firms) and
sellers (software vendors). Imperfect information distribution between sellers and
buyers, which is the case in BIM, is widely referred to as information asymmetry
[13]. The term lemon market has been coined to refer to such markets [13]. A
lemon is an informal term used referring to a car that is found to be defective
only after it has been bought.
Following up on the call to undertake more fine grained analysis of the use of
BIM by Bryde et al. [3], we conduct a study inquiring into the mismatch between
initial user expectations and the actual performance of BIM products. The research
question asked in this article is:
What factors affect quality expectations in BIM software purchase
and what are the implications of this?
To answer this research question we ran a series of interviews in a construction
project at largely executed by a timber-frame contractor having heavily invested
in BIM technology and CNC (computer numerical controlled) fabrication
machinery. Understanding how BIM based work functioned at project level,
several project team members such as the architect, the consultants, and client
were interviewed as well. Lemon market theory (LMT) guided our analysis.
Our findings show how the timber frame contractor struggled in achieving
benefits from utilizing BIM. This work is important to manage organizational
expectations related to the initial adoption of BIM. Moreover, construction firms
trust in vendors alleged product quality, IT-literacy, experience, and awareness
of their market environment have been identified as influential when purchasing
BIM software. Taken together, our results suggest that quality uncertainty related
to BIM purchase can be reduced by increasing the industrys IT-literacy, since
informed buyers are better buyers.
The remainder of the article is structured as follows. The second section
introduces the LMT perspective supporting our analysis. The third section
introduces the residential construction project and the professionals interviewed.
The fourth section presents the findings based on the concepts important in LMT.
The fifth section proposes a conceptual framework and presents both, the practical
and theoretical implications of the study. The sixth section presents the
conclusions and implications of our work.
2 Theoretical lens
In 1970 George Akerlof published a groundbreaking paper entitled The Market for
Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism addressing the
consequences of information asymmetry [13]. Akerlof claimed that in markets
where it is impossible to assess the quality of a product/service upfront, where, so
to say, the seller of the product has more information than the buyer, the market
will gradually deteriorate and maybe even eventually disappear altogether. The
theory derived from this work is referred to as lemon market theory (LMT). While
most LMT research has been undertaken in the used car market [14], it has been
applied to the study of other markets. Examples include the area of information
systems [15] where e-markets, e-commerce, and e-auctions have been studied [16
18]. Given that it has been used in the realm of information systems before, LMT
was considered a good fit for our study.
The main concern of LMT is that the quality of a product is un-assessable
beforehand, thus giving sellers incentives to present their products/services as
being of higher quality than they actually are. Akerlof coins the term cost of
dishonesty to refer to the costs and adverse effects endured by buyers due to
information asymmetry and dishonesty. He argues that the cause of information
asymmetry lies in imperfect information distribution between sellers and buyers.
In this situation, the sellers have more information than the buyers about the true
quality of the goods from the market as a whole and buyers are led to believe that
all goods in the market have the same good average quality. This leads to better
quality goods not being traded in the market because their value may not be
obtained. Consequently both the average quality of goods and the size of the
market tends to fall [19].
Here lemon market theory is operationalized for analysing an example of BIM
software purchase. The BIM market is characterized by software vendors releasing
myriads of new products while common file exchange standards still emerge.
Moreover, any IT implementation process is more than a software purchase; it
disrupts the usual way of getting things done [20]. Thus, it can be considered
difficult for buyers to judge BIM quality beforehand. The main independent
constructs of lemon market theory are:
alleged product quality by selling party
expected/perceived product quality by buying party
actual quality of the product
perceived cost of dishonesty
We apply the aforementioned four main concepts of LMT to the BIM context
of purchase and deployment. Doing so enables us to explore whether information
asymmetry between buyers (AEC firms) and sellers (software vendors) exists.
3 Method
A case study was performed to explore whether a lemon market in the conjunction
with the use of BIM in the building industry exists. The study covers the
construction of a residential project executed by a timber frame contractor. The
setting of the case study was a wood-frame, multi-story, low energy housing
development in the Bergen area of Norway. The project comprised the
construction of three apartment buildings consisting of one hundred apartment
units.
The buildings design is characterized by an extensive use of furbished
prefabricated elements (e.g. wall panels including installations and finishes).
These elements were produced based on advanced computer numerical controlled
(CNC) fabrication machinery and BIM systems. The concept of CNC involves
automated milling tools such as drills and saws being controlled by programmed
commands describing a series of movements and operations. The concept of BIM
has been defined as a digital representation of physical and functional
characteristics of a facility [21].
The contractor executing the job was founded in 2001. The contractor actively
participated in national Norwegian as well as European research projects to
improve performance in the wood-based building industry. Despite receiving
much recognition in the form of awards for their innovative products and
solutions, the company struggled and had to declare bankruptcy in the end of 2012.
The case study and interviews presented in this article were performed just four
month before the bankruptcy happened. This is why the analysis part of the paper
focusses foremost the contractors use of design and production systems.
The project case was carefully chosen based on three selection criteria: (1) the
project participants should resemble a typical project constellation in the
construction industry (e.g. client, architect, engineers and contractors); (2) the
design stage had to be completed at the time of data collection; (3) BIM technology
had to be deployed in construction design. The criteria were selected to be able to
provide a holistic account of construction design activity, to understand the
perspectives of the actors involved typically in such activity, and to place BIM, as
technological artefact, at the core of our study. By choosing interviews as the
means of data collection we aim to gain an understanding of the phenomena by
asking those experiencing them. The data has been collected based on 10 semi-
structured interviews with design professionals. These design professionals all

worked in the residential construction project. The interviews were conducted
between September 2011 and May 2012. We presume that the case represents a
typical situation in the construction industry with regards to the actors involved
and their digital modelling practices. An overview of the interviewees professions
and their roles in the project can be found in table 1.
Table 1: Professions of the 10 informants interviewed.
Person interviewed Services provided

Timber frame builders CEO
Timber frame builders design manager
Design, production, and installation
Timber frame builders drafter
of all wooden components
Timber frame builders production manager
Structural engineer for wooden structures
Engineering design manager (for HVAC,
structural, electrical) Architectural, structural, fire-
Geotechnical engineer protection, geo-technical and HVAC
Fire protection engineer design
Architect
Client representative (CEO) Client
4 Findings
The analysis part of the paper is structured as follows: first the claimed,
expected/perceived and actual product quality of the BIM design system used to
prepare the shop-drawings for the prefabricated wooden components used by the
timber frame contractor are presented. Second, a presentation of the perceived cost
of dishonesty viewed from the buyers perspective is presented.
Alleged product quality by selling party. The software vendor, namely
cadwork Software GmbH, placed several product quality claims prominently on
their web-site. First, it is claimed that the software would provide buyers with the
possibility to seamlessly integrate design and production processes. Moreover, the
software is described as having an easy-to-handle user interface: Consistency
from planning to production, flexibility and easy-to-handle user interface are
features that have made cadwork stand out more than 20 years. Let us convince
you. [22]. The vendor claims that once purchased the system would prove to be
a solid investment: Our clients are present in most European countries, the United
States, Canada, Russia and other parts of the world. Our international presence and
know-how guarantee for a solid investment [22]. Moreover, the system is
supposed to ensure worry- and hassle-free site-installation and production of
timber elements: Each client has different requirements, but all have the same
goals: plan quickly, reliably, detailed, and efficiently and ensure a worry and
hassle free production and installation on site [22]. In addition, the vendor
claimed that Building Information Modelling data could be used straightforwardly
in production: Send production data directly from your building information
model (BIM) to the current machining centres and or assembly lines [22].
Expected/perceived product quality by buying party. The founders of the wood-

contracting company had prior experience from working in advanced oil and gas
projects. They worked together in a company specialized on subsea pipe handling
when they had the idea of starting up a small, but innovative wood-construction
company. The idea was to create a similar production and design environment to
what is the norm in advanced mechanical companies. Based on prior experience
they decided to operate based on object based design systems similar to what is
used in mechanical engineering. Moreover, they decided to equip their production
hall with advanced, robotic CNC mills allowing for automated machining of
wooden components. Thus, the initial expectation in the software purchased was,
that once it had been installed the system would allow for a smooth operation and
data flow throughout the company. Moreover, the technology was placed at the
core of the business: This company is based on technology, its based on 3D
models, that is the whole idea (Timber frame builder, CEO). The CEO continued
and stated that the initial idea was to reuse information from sales, to design, to
production and assembly, and efficiently curb unnecessary rework. Or in the
words of the CEO: when we started using that program we had a lot of
expectations. Thus, the initial expectations by the buyer were in line with what
has been the alleged product quality by the seller.
Actual quality of the product. The wood contractors did not find the quality of
the product to be standing up to the initial claims by the seller: You dont get the
benefits that are supposed to be there (CEO). The product left the buyers with
lots of good and bad experiences and frustrations and some hope for the future
(Timber frame builder, design manager). While the system was generally
considered to be technically sufficient for design and production of timber frames,
the firm noticed that they were unable to effectively reap the benefits of BIM. To
illustrate this, the timber frame designer stated that the software has not been
updated for some time and people struggle using it.
Moreover, the software used by the contractor did not allow for the expected
reuse of data throughout the supply chain from sales, to design, to production and
assembly. The CEO stated that information exchange in projects was not
significantly improved by BIM deployment but rather resembled the traditional
information exchange or the same old thing as he put it. The information
exchange with other project partners usually did not work sufficiently well: Now
it feels like it always has been, that somebody might have different models and
might have been working on the faade of the building, and they are doing that in
SketchUp because that is easier for this, or they write something in a pdf and send
that over, and then he is doing these changes to the model and then it comes back,
and its not working. (Timber frame contractor, CEO).
One reason for BIM not living up to initial expectations of improved
information exchange was the limited interoperability of the contractors design
system with other systems used by project partners upstream in the supply chain
(e.g. architects, consultants). The following quote illustrates this: cadwork is a
small margined software from Germany, maybe its big down there but if I ask
somebody [in Norway] about are you familiar with cadwork? nobody is. []
most people have heard about Revit and nobody heard about cadwork. Its like the
video tapes in the eighties beta and VHS and Phillips and everybody knows
that beta was the best quality, Phillips was the best technology but VHS was the
best known system like Autocad. How project partners where unfamiliar with the
design system used by the timber frame company follows from the statement made
by the engineering design coordinator: I knew what the architects use and I know
what we use, but what the timber frame contractor uses, I havent got a clue.
Perceived cost of dishonesty. The timber frame firms main focus was: to build
small residential construction projects (Timber frame builder, CEO). However,
we see that no matter how hard we try pressing the price if we design a good house
based on BIM, we always lose to the competition (Timber frame builder, CEO).
Thus, the company perceived that it was difficult to compete by using BIM and
advanced CNC machinery in the Norwegian market for small family homes. They
were repeatedly outcompeted by competition relying on on-site production and
not using advanced technologies. This is illustrated by the following quote: they
[other contractors] have their car and some tools and just do all the work on site,
the buildings are getting wet, they do not document anything (Timber frame
builder, design manager) leaving the timber frame contractors CEO repeatedly
asking and answering the following question: How can we compete with these
companies? It is impossible.
Consequently, the timber frame contractors board of directors decided to
gradually retire the system and replace it by a more widely known and used
system, namely Revit. The company had purchased two Revit licenses and had
begun training several employees in using the software. This was done because
the CEO wanted to cut down on some of the tedious work and make the design
programs easier to use. Moreover, the CEO pointed out that the company was in
a state of financial hardship which can partially be attributed to BIM deployment.
The following statement by the CEO confirms this observation: We have
problems, we have a lack of money and a lack of sales, and we are struggling to
survive! The CEO continued to state that the high fluctuation of employees in
small contracting firms posed challenges especially considering the staff training
required for operating advanced design and production systems like BIM.
Moreover, he pointed out that appropriate communication and information
exchange is a major challenge when seeking to work profitably based on BIM. As
of August 2012, shortly after the interviews presented here were held, the timber
frame contractor filed for bankruptcy.
5 Discussion
The research question asked at outset of this article was: What factors affect quality
expectations in BIM software purchase and what are the implications of this? The
main constructs of lemon market theory, introduced in section two, were used to
structure the findings. Below the findings are briefly discussed, before a
conceptual model elaborating the factors found influential in BIM quality
expectations are presented.
From the findings of the case it follows that the timber frame contractors
adopted a business strategy entirely focused on 3D modeling and object based
design. This signifies that initial product quality expectations by the buyer were
relatively high. Choosing a so-called big bang adoption can be viewed as a risky
strategy for a contractor, since organizational effects of IT are difficult to foresee
due to computing infrastructure, the interplay of conflicting objectives and
preferences, and choice processes [23]. Moreover, the temporary nature of
construction projects where nobody feels responsible for long term investments
in ICT facilitating what is best for the project hinders the use of advanced systems
such as BIM [24]. What complicates matters is that newly adopted systems may
become obsolete for the next project because there will be a new constellation of
actors with (maybe) new versions of ICT applications [24].
The BIM vendors alleged product quality contributed to raising high initial
quality expectations. The claims of BIM being a solid investment allowing for
seamless integration of design, construction, and manufacturing were trusted by
the buyer. Arguably, the buyers trust in product quality resulted from not having
prior experience from working based on digital design systems in the construction
industry. The contractor was not in a position to foresee the challenges emerging
in BIM-based design and construction work. This indicates that the contractors
decision to adopt BIM was subject to quality uncertainty and largely a matter of
trust. Trusting vendors product quality claims has been identified as a core driver
for purchasing decisions in lemon markets [19].
The identified perceived actual quality of the product indicates that BIM in this
case turned out to be a lemon similar to what has been argued by Akerlof. This
is signified by the perceived costs of dishonesty incurred by the contractor,
namely: BIM and the advanced production machinery failing to deliver expected
benefits. Moreover, choosing such advanced design and production methods
proved to be challenging in the context of the Norwegian family home market.
According to the contractor, having a business model focused on advanced design
technology proved dysfunctional. Based on this, the claim by the vendor that BIM
would be a guaranteed solid investment can be rejected for this context.
5.1 Contributions to research
Apart from presenting an early application of lemon market theory to the context
of BIM purchase in the architecture, engineering, and construction industry we
contribute a conceptual model derived from the findings of the present case study
(see figure 1). First, as argued above, it can be claimed that the contractor trusted
the acclaimed product quality by the seller. Second, the contractor had neither
construction experience nor BIM experience. We argue that the combination of
the aforementioned resulted in distorted product quality expectations by the buyer.
Managing or reducing quality uncertainty would require buyers to obtain an ability
to make informed decisions. Based on our findings we argue that trust in BIM
vendors, BIM experience, and construction experience are all influential for
reducing quality uncertainty and for arriving at realistic BIM product quality
expectations.
The conceptual model presented in figure 1 can be seen as a post hoc
rationalization derived from a single case study. While we claim that the present
case represents a typical project in the construction industry, further work should
put the suggested model to a test in other project settings. While we argue the three
factors, namely: trust, BIM-, and construction-experience, were influential for
initial BIM quality expectations in this case project, there may be other factors at
play which lay beyond the scope of our study. In addition, further research should
validate the relational links depicted in our initial model, namely: (H1) High trust
in BIM vendor increases inaccurate product quality expectations; (H2) High BIM
experience decreases inaccurate product quality expectations; and (H3) High
construction experience decreases inaccurate product quality expectations.
Figure 1: Factors affecting BIM product quality expectations.
Further research should go beyond identifying factors preceding buyers

distorted BIM expectations and also explore the organizational implications of
these. Our study opens up for several intriguing research avenues. First, there
appears a need for inquiries into BIM system retirements where one system is
replaced by another or BIM is abandoned altogether. Second, is BIM system
retirement a wide spread phenomenon in the industry? Third, is small and medium
sized construction firms exposure to distorted BIM expectations and their
ramifications higher than those of larger corporations?
5.2 Contributions to practice
The case has shown that BIM systems proved challenging for a contractor working
in the Norwegian market for family homes. The challenge lay within competition
from contractors working on a low tech approach without using advanced
systems. This indicates that BIM does not yield unconditional positive
implications for all types of construction projects [12]. According to the
contractor, residential homes in Norway can be built without creating much
documentation. It appears that Norwegian municipalities should increase their
control of construction documentation making BIM a more useful tool.
Contractors should also consider adopting systems widely used and known in
the industry to reduce their exposure to interoperability issues. Last, implementing
BIM throughout the entire company and all projects leaves contractors with a
limited capability to respond to situations where project partners operate based on
older technology.
For now, especially small and medium sized contractors executing simple and
industry standard types of projects are well advised to carefully manage their
expectations in what can be achieved by adopting BIM technology. The case
presented here indicates that in cases where BIM turns out to be a lemon and
does not deliver expected results small companies can run into financial problems.
Distorted BIM quality expectations can be mitigated for by adopting a critical view
to vendor claims, prior experience from working based on BIM, and construction
experience. A thinkable response to the information asymmetry involved in BIM
software purchase could be the formation of industry BIM clusters where
experiences made with different solutions could be shared.
6 Conclusion
Based on a lemon market theory study of a case of a timber-frame construction
company, this article has provided an initial conceptualization of the factors
affecting BIM product quality expectations. Our analysis shows that (1) trust in
BIM vendor; (2) BIM experience; and (3) construction experience are influential
for initial expectations in BIM product quality. The work presented in this study
is important to manage organizational expectations of what can be achieved by
adopting BIM technology. The case further illustrated that BIM does not yield
unconditionally positive implications for all types of construction projects.
Moreover, BIM may turn out to be a lemon not delivering the acclaimed and
expected organizational results. Especially big bang adoptions of BIM in all
projects appear risky and may lead companies into financial problems. Further
research should continue exploring the factors important for managing
organizational BIM quality expectations. Moreover, there is need for work
exploring the organizational implications of distorted BIM quality expectations.
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BIM methodology as an integrated approach

to heritage conservation management
A. L. C. Ciribini, S. Mastrolembo Ventura & M. Paneroni
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture (DICATAM),
University of Brescia, Italy
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is enabling the dissemination and
improvement of strategies for planned conservation. Through the implementation
of BIM models in two case studies, different both in terms of size and scope of
restoration and refurbishment, it was possible to assess the suitable ways for
collecting and managing heterogeneous data generated by various disciplines.
Furthermore, the collaboration amongst various stakeholders involved in the
conservation process was investigated. Issues of integration and interoperability
over the phases of the conservation process were analysed: starting from the
architectural survey, carried out by laser scanning technology combined with the
traditional survey, as far as the management of data as a function of future
maintenance phase. Using these technologies, problems related to the building
information model of the current condition of heritage buildings and the
information exchange between different software environments were observed.
Applying BIM workflows on restoration and refurbishment projects allowed to
evaluate the potential of these technologies for different stages of the process:
survey, design phase, monitoring work progress and evaluation of proposed
amendments and changes. It was also possible to deal with safety management.
Finally, the possibility of applying the 4D BIM technology, which combines the
3D BIM model to the construction work plan, has been analysed.
Keywords: BIM, BHIMM, BIM survey, interdisciplinarity, interoperability,
planned conservation, sustainability of buildings.
doi:10.2495/BIM150231
1 Introduction
The implementation of the BIM methodology within refurbishment and
restoration projects is becoming more and more appreciated at international level.
It is the same in Italy, where it has been adopted in the conservation process of the
Lirico Theatre of Milan [1] and in the study of the spires of the Cathedral of
Milan [2].
So far, the focus of the research on BIM for existing buildings has been set on
the survey process, not only geometrical, but also aimed at acquiring data on the
state-of-the-art condition. The importance given to the survey process is steadily
increasing because it tackles maybe the most critical issue in the field of
conservation and refurbishment: the reliability and objectivity of input data.
However, it is essential to realise that the targets of the refurbishment or restoration
project, collected in the BIM execution plan (BEP) as result of the employers
information requirements (EIR), deeply affect the survey process. The terrestrial
laser scanning (TLS) methodology itself, which is often referred to as BIM
surveying, is currently one of the main matter of interest of the research. This
methodology guarantees an accurate and rapid survey, but it still requires a great
effort of point cloud processing in BIM environment and it cannot supply the
alphanumerical information needed to enrich the so-called asset information
model [3].
The asset information model has to represent the shared starting point for the
development of an integrated design process, even if it may be affected by the lack
of a common semantics caused by the typical fragmentation of the Architecture,
Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry. Moreover, in the field of the
architectural heritage it is essential to realise the importance of a maintained
information model, used as common database for all the actors involved, owners,
designers, contractors and facility managers. Of course it is necessary to keep the
model updated, if possible also with several monitoring campaigns [4].
2 Case studies introduction

The University of Brescia is one of the academic participants at the Italian
Research Programme of National Interest (PRIN) named Built Heritage
Information Modelling/Management BHIMM, supported by the Ministry of
Education, University and Research. The main aim of the research project is to
introduce a new and innovative methodology, based on BIM, capable of
improving the current sustainable reservation policies of the architectural heritage,
including monitoring, management and retrofit. The Research Unit of the
University of Brescia is involved in work packages related to methods and
technologies dealing with the automated surveying, information modelling and 4D
and 5D planning-related methodologies of refurbishment and restoration
construction sites. In order to identify a shared workflow able to support the
conservative process during the entire project life cycle, two case studies, different
both for size and for scope of restoration and refurbishment, have been analysed.
The former concerns the refurbishment of a typical Milanese farmstead (Case
Study 1: CS1), an architectural heritage masonry structure with wooden trusses

currently subjected to a change of use and previously subjected to a not
conservative restoration project. The latter case study concerns a two-floor precast
concrete school built in the sixties (Case Study 2: CS2) with the aim to use the
building information model of the existing building to support in the future a
possible energy restoration project, figure 1.
Figure 1: State-of-the-art of CS1 and CS2.
According to the BIM requirements, the case studies have been differently
approached [5]. A common requirement for both of them was to provide an
interdisciplinary database, which would collect all the information scattered in
several documents and would supply a base for all the phases of the conservative
process. A detailed analysis of the benefits related to the implementation of the
BIM methodology in a restoration process, both during design and construction
phases, was needed for CS1. In CS2, the Research Unit digitalised the original
project of the sixties and is currently implementing an optimised BIM to BEM
(Building Energy Modelling) workflow in order to support a future energy
restoration project.
The information model of the Milanese farmstead was carried out based on the
traditional survey of the state-of-the-art and 2D detailed drawings of the
renovation design provided by the designers. The CAD to BIM process was not
easy to be applied because of an evident lack of consistency of the traditional 2D
documents. BIM Surveying technologies were needed to validate the traditional
survey.
In order to produce the building information model of the precast school, the
Research Unit had to perform a thorough research in the historical records of the
town council, owner of the building. In this case it was essential to identify the
construction techniques used and to check the consistency between the project and
the as-built. Moreover, in order to correctly support a future energy analysis, it
was essential to characterise all the materials employed in the construction,
including their thermal properties.
3 Methodology
3.1 BIM surveying
In Case Study 1, the Milanese farmstead, the implementation of the BIM

methodology started with the so-called BIM Surveying. The group of Topography
of the University of Brescia conducted the state-of-the-art survey with Faro Focus
3D terrestrial laser scanner (TLS). The exterior of the farmstead were detected
with the laser mounted on a mobile vehicle carrying the Stop&Go mode.
Subsequently scans were geo-referenced to be semi-automatically aligned by
calculating the centre of point clouds over a known point by total station
measurements. Static laser scanning with reference target spheres was necessary
due to the vegetation that covered part of the exterior.
In Case Study 2, the precast school, 32 scans, at resolution of about
6mm@10m, were registered to survey the schoolyard, external walls, the technical
room containing MEP equipment and a few classrooms on the ground floor and
on the first floor. To automatically align the scans of the interiors, target spheres,
carefully distributed in the survey area, were utilized, figure 2.
Figure 2: BIM surveying with Faro Focus 3D TLS.
This methodology guaranteed various benefits, like the generation of 2D

measurable views comparable with the traditional CAD documentation and useful
to check the consistency between the project and the as-built represented by the
points clouds. Moreover, thanks to photos registered by the TLS during the scan
process, it was possible to evaluate the conservation conditions of surfaces. For
these reasons, this methodology proved to be a precious support to the research.
3.2 Building model preparation
3.2.1 Development of a common BIM environment

Simultaneously with the BIM surveying campaign, the Research Unit set up the
parametric models in the BIM authoring tool Autodesk Revit 2014. First of all, it
was necessary to create a common work environment that would guarantee
collaboration between all the stakeholders. It was essential to allow everyone to
work, at the same time, on a constantly updated model. Therefore a web-based
central file was created as distribution point for sharing work in the team and
thus allowing the members to save their own local copies of the file [6]. In this
way, users can work locally and then save changes back to the central file for other
users to see their work. The model was subdivided into worksets, a collection of
building elements such as walls, doors, floors, stairs, pipes. Users have the option
of checking out entire worksets or individual elements in a workset. All other
team members may view these elements, but are unable to change them,
preventing possible conflicts.
In order to simplify the information management, the Project Browser was
customised, creating different views for each discipline (such as architectural
plans, sections and prospects, mechanical and plumbing views, structural plans).
Disciplinary and coordination view templates were set up to easily manage the
visualisation of parametric elements. In particular, all BIM objects that did not
belong to the discipline of the view were made transparent or hidden, while the
others were highlighted using a predetermined colour code. Moreover, a view
template was carried out, which allowed the team to visualise simultaneously and
clearly all the buildings elements, figure 3.
Figure 3: Project browser and view template.
According to CS1 BIM requirements, the model was enriched with layouts of
construction phases and health and safety plans. Phase filters were set up in order
to easily show up the components belonging to the construction phase analysed
[7]. In this way, it was possible to visualise, highlight or hide the parametric
elements that would be built, demolished or temporarily positioned in every phase.
3.2.2 Implementation of the alphanumeric informative content

Models were enriched, directly in the BIM authoring tool, with alphanumerical
attributes. The parameters were identified thanks to an accurate analysis of the
historical documentation and of the records concerning the conservative process,
from survey to maintenance. These attributes, shared through the entire life cycle,
have the role of simplifying the management of the project in all its phases. BIM
requirements to optimise the process and to introduce a replicable methodology
were defined in collaboration with the other Research Units and academic
participants.
Construction and facility management phases were evaluated for the Case
Study 1, the Milanese farmstead. Parameters such as Manufacturer, Expected
Life, Warranty Certificate and Installation Date were added to the information
model. Product sheets were linked to every object as hyperlink attributes to be
used during the facility management phase. Moreover, the model was enriched
with parameters that keep track of construction techniques and design variations
eventually proposed. Parameters such as Building Code, Item Number and Bar
code were included in the information model to ensure the traceability of elements
both during construction and facility management phases. The model was also
implemented with information extracted from construction health and safety plans
and construction plan of work in order to define construction phases and
requirements and to improve health and safety management. These settings are
preparatory to the creation of a 4D model that combines BIM model with the plan
of work to simulate the planned construction processes [8]. Moreover, an
attributed named Activity ID was added to each element to automatically link
the parametric object to the plan of work, created in Primavera P6 Project
Management, during the 4D modelling phase.
According to CS2 BIM requirements, a link to the original documents of the
digitalised project was added in order to create a coherent database. Thermal
properties were defined to correctly implement the BIM to BEM workflow.
All alphanumerical attributes embedded to the BIM were shared parameters,
in order to customise schedules and to filter all the elements according to the
attribute values.
3.3 BIM library
At this point, the modelling phase started. First of all, it was essential to carry out
a customised BIM library, indeed the software used provides a wide range of BIM
objects, but they were not suitable to achieve the research targets. The issues
recorded during this phase reflect the complexity of parametrising historical
elements in a software developed to model new buildings. This phase proved to
be very time and resource consuming, indeed the uniqueness of each element of
the building involved the need of achieving a very high degree of parametrisation.
In addition, the lack of information of the traditional documents used as input
made it more difficult to manage the alphanumerical attributes.
3.3.1 BIM library: Case Study 1 the Milanese farmstead

Modelling issues concerned the typical irregularities of the structural and
architectural elements of historical buildings. For example, the state-of-the-art of
CS1 contained structural columns which sections were not regular. It was
necessary to parametrise the dimension of the angles beyond the dimension of the
sides and the height. Another issue came up during the modelling of the windows
that, according to the design, would have been replaced in the restoration process.
Using Revit as BIM authoring tool, the model of the windows includes the
openings that cut their hosts, in this way, when the window is removed also the
opening is removed and the software automatically places a filler in its place. It
was not acceptable in this case because it was necessary to visualise and analyse
every construction phase, including the ones in which there was only the opening
without the window installed. By using other BIM authoring tools it might be not
a problem. In this case, in order to resolve this issue, it was needed to model two
different BIM objects, one for the opening and all that would have not been
removed, like the windowsill, and one for the frame, the shutters, the sashes, the
hardware and the glazing that would have been replaced. Moreover, to model the
splayed windows and doors it was necessary to parametrise, in the model of the
openings, the angles of the splay, along with their length and height, figure 4.
Figure 4: Parametric model of the splayed window.
Another issue was revealed during the modelling of the external tapered walls.
The team identified two options to model them: either to use the ability of the
architectural column to integrate itself with any wall or to model a so called in-
place element. The former solution combines two different elements of the model
to generate the needed profile in the floor plan, but the utilised BIM authoring tool
allows users to define only walls as host of windows, thus columns are not
modified by the placement of the windows. While the latter option uses a particular
type of Revit family, created to manage elements that need unique geometry and
that the users do not expect to re-use. The use of in-place elements can increase
the file size and downgrade software performance, therefore they must be utilized
the least as possible. Moreover, in certain cases, windows placed in these walls are
incorrectly positioned and the related openings do not make a hole through the
entire width of the wall. Other modelling solutions are currently studied to
improve the modelling workflow of irregular elements since they are characteristic
of historic buildings, an important part of the Italian cultural heritage. A BIM
library for the design phase was also developed and enriched with alphanumeric
attributes and 2D details to be used when high level of details is necessary.
Finally, a construction BIM library including parametric objects such as the
temporary equipment that would have been utilised on the construction site, such
as construction machineries, protective devices and construction offices. In order
to allow the Research Unit, at a later stage, to evaluate spatial conflicts on site,
specific alphanumerical parameters, like the radius of action of the tower crane
and other machineries, were linked to these elements.
3.3.2 BIM library: Case Study 2 the precast building school

Likewise, BIM objects for the school model were created, from the structural
elements of the building as far as the prefabricated panel employed in the
construction of external walls.
Concrete piers and beams of the foundation were parametrically modelled, as
well as steel columns and beams of the structural framework. Based on the
construction details of the original paper drawings, precast elements of slabs and
precast concrete panels of the external walls were also modelled. The external
precast panels were modelled as curtain wall panels: in this way, the external walls
were modelled as curtain walls which grid was given by the dimensions of the
panel, figure 5.
Figure 5: Parametric model of precast concrete panels.
Internal and external stairs were modelled too. In the former case, the stair
object had a unique geometry and an in-place element was modelled. In the latter
case the stair object was modelled with the proper family class.
The BIM library included all the MEP elements of the building, such as
radiators, specific pipe connections, lights, electrical sockets.
3.4 Interoperability
One of the main themes of the research project is interoperability between actors
involved in the project and between BIM authoring and BIM-based analysis tools,
essential requirement to ensure an effectively integrated conservation process. An

information model effectively exportable as IFC (Industry Foundation Classes)
was created. IFC is the neutral format developed and promoted by the International
Alliance of Interoperability (IAI), today BuildingSMART ensures interoperability
thanks to the possibility to share BIM data between BIM tools of different software
houses. Interoperability improves data flow and cooperation between
stakeholders, reducing the loss of information. The alphanumerical attributes
linked to BIM objects were introduced in order to be properly read, thanks to IFC
format, in software for BIM-based analyses, like 4D modelling and model
checking. Since the first interoperability tests, it was clear that the quality of the
IFC files exported depended on the BIM authoring tools and some of them can be
considered more interoperable than others. Moreover, it is essential to carefully
set up the export options in order to guarantee a reliable data exchange.
4 Achieved results
Terrestrial laser scanning was used to carry out an accurate geometrical survey
which allowed the Research Unit to model the as-built of both case studies and
compare it with the traditional documentation, figure 6.
Figure 6: Comparison of point clouds and BIM of CS2.
It was possible to test the suitability of the chosen BIM authoring tool,
originally developed for modelling new buildings, for the implementation of the
BIM methodology for architectural heritage and eventually analyse its limits. A
customised BIM library was successfully produced, although sometimes a
compromise with the actual capability of the BIM authoring tool was necessary.
Several BIM objects were created in their proper family class and they were
correctly classified in the framework of the open and neutral data format IFC. Each
element was carried out achieving a high level of parametrisation. In this way,
most of the BIM objects could be re-used to model future case studies. A rich set
of parameters that guarantees the simplification of the information management
throughout the entire project life cycle was studied. The customised BIM library
and the embedded parameters allowed the digitalisation of the state-of-the-art of
both case studies, figure 7. The restoration design of CS1, including the design
variations proposed by the construction company, was modelled. It was possible
to transfer all the graphical and alphanumerical information contained in
traditional documents in the BIM, generating a truly interdisciplinary database for
both case studies. These parametric models would allow everyone to easily found,
at the right moment, the needed information, simply querying the model instead
of analysing several disorganised documents.
Figure 7: State-of-the-art information model of CS1.
BIM-based construction site layouts were modelled including geometrical and

alphanumerical information in order to support and validate the construction
phase. The dynamic evolution of the construction site layout, which often changes
to satisfy the needs of the construction process could be better understood and that
allows parties involved to work with more awareness and thus to be able to
optimise management and to prevent several issues [9].
5 Conclusions
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is about to become a standard in the AEC
industry for the entire project life cycle, from design to construction and operation
of new buildings. Built Heritage Information Modelling and Management
(BHIMM) is becoming an important topic as well. While not widespread, the
implementation of the BIM methodology within refurbishment and restoration is
more and more appreciated at international level, especially where historic
buildings represent an important part of the architectural heritage as it is in Italy.
The research project presented in this paper considers benefits and limits of using
BIM for the refurbishment and restoration process. Modelling issues revealed
during this research need to be resolved and they probably reflects the traditional
processes of each disciplinary knowledge, not fully integrated with the others
involved in the construction life cycle. A new design approach can be introduced
by implementing the data flow thanks to software interoperability. Moreover, BIM
can be used as the basis for either structural or energy future conservation and
rehabilitation processes, but it also contributes to the digitalisation of traditional
documentation, especially when it was produced even before the CAD era. The
translation of a multitude of traditional documents into a single and coherent
federated model can significantly improve the entire process.
6 Future works
Currently the Research Unit of the University of Brescia is investigating advance
technologies of BIM Surveying, Information Modelling and 4D & 5D planning-
related methodologies of refurbishment and restoration construction sites.
The Department of Information Engineering is studying image-based 3D
reconstruction to be applied during the surveying phase. The aim is to obtain high
quality 3D models directly from images captured by common digital cameras. The
study aims to the segmentation of the point clouds in coherent regions in order to
select by mouse parts of the model belonging to the same architectural or structural
element. Selected parts have to be automatically reconstructed. Currently
appropriate segmentation techniques that divide the model into consistent regions
have been identified and implementation has been 90% completed [10].
Advance modelling solutions are currently studied to improve the modelling
workflow of irregular elements characteristic of historic buildings, an important
part of the Italian cultural heritage. The aim is to reduce the amount of time and
resources spent on modelling complex parametric objects that sometimes require
a compromise with the current BIM authoring tools capability.
Interoperability and BIM-based analyses are currently evaluated. BIM to BEM
data flow is being analysed in order to allow the future use of the precast school
information model for energy analysis. In CS2 the interoperability between the
BIM authoring tool used and the most performance energy analysis tools is
currently investigated. Exportation through IFC and gbXML format has been
tested to translate information about thermal characteristics of materials and
energy zones. The Research Unit is also investigating the benefits of 4D modelling
in the management of refurbishment and restoration projects. Most of the time,
this kind of projects reveal serious issues in the construction phase that can lead to
the failure of the project. The research aim is to show up these unforeseen issues
in the early phase of the design, when it is possible to apply cheap and effective
solutions. Furthermore, the team is analysing the role of 4D BIM technologies in
the evaluation and decision procedure concerning both the design and
management of conservation construction site layouts. In addition, the influence
of 4D BIM in the iterative process that allows the project manager to carry out the
plan of work is currently analysed.
References
[1] Bim e laser scanning per il restauro del Teatro Lirico a Milano;
Ingegneri.info, Canale Restauro, Online: http://www.ingegneri.info/bim-e-
laser-scanning-per-il-restauro-del-teatro-lirico-a-milano_news_x_
21629.html
[2] Fassi, F. et al., A yard of the future: the main spire of Milan Cathedral. Proc.
of the Built Heritage 2013 Monitoring Conservation Management Conf.,
eds. M. Boriani, R. Gabaglio, D. Gulotta, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, pp.
591-598, 2013.
[3] Manning, R., The Asset Information Model using BIM, BIM Task Group
Newsletter 42nd edition, pp. 28-57, 2014.
[4] Client Guide to 3D Scanning and Data Capture, BIM Task Group, 2013,
online: http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Client-
Guide-to-3D-Scanning-and-Data-Capture.pdf
[5] Common BIM Requirements 2012 Serie 1 General Part, Finnmap
Consulting Oy et al., online: http://files.kotisivukone.com/
en.buildingsmart.kotisivukone.com/COBIM2012/cobim_1_general_
requirements_v1.pdf.
[6] Autodesk Wikihelp 2014, http://help.autodesk.com/view/RVT/2014/ENU/
[7] Del Giudice, M. & Osello, A., BIM for Cultural Heritage, International
Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Sciences, XL-5/W2, pp. 225-229, 2013.
[8] GSA BIM Guide For 4D Phasing, GSA BIM Guide Series 04, U.S. General
Services Administration Public Buildings Service Office of the Design &
Construction, online: http://www.gsa.gov/graphics/pbs/BIM_Guide_
Series_04_v1.pdf
[9] Common BIM Requirements 2012 Series 13 Use of Models in
Construction, Lemminkinen Talo Oy et al., online:
http://files.kotisivukone.com/en.buildingsmart.kotisivukone.com/COBIM
2012/cobim_13_bim_construction_v1.pdf
[10] Mauro, M., Riemenschneider, H., Signoroni, A., Leonardi, R. & Van Gool,
L., A unified framework for content-aware view selection and planning
through view importance, Proc. of the British Machine Vision Conference,
eds. M. Valstar, A. French & T. Pridmore, BMVA Press: Nottingham, 2014.
Section 5
BIM-facilities
management integration
Scan to BIM: the development of a clear

workflow for the incorporation of point
clouds within a BIM environment
R. Laing1, M. Leon1, J. Isaacs2 & D. Georgiev1
1
Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and Built Environment,
2
School of Computing Science and Digital Media,
Abstract
The emergence, in recent years, of technology to support the use of data rich
models within architecture, has significantly aided the uptake of building
information modelling. Simultaneously, there has been a rapid expansion in the
capabilities and widespread use of 3D high definition laser scanning technology.
Although laser scanning has often been associated with industries outside of
architecture and building (including heavy engineering and oil and gas
installations), the potential to record the existing built environment is clear.
Indeed, well-established concepts within building and materials conservation
concerning the importance of being able to accurately monitor and recognise the
importance of surface characteristics, are well suited to the use of scanning to
capture geometrical idiosyncrasies as well as designed detail. Likewise, the ability
to capture structures which are well outside the physical reach of the expert, makes
the accurate recording of large scale buildings and streetscapes possible, and at a
speed and level of accuracy which was not feasible even 15 years ago. This paper
concerns a series of workflow stages which are required to incorporate the output
of laser scan data within a BIM environment. Although it is possible to import
point clouds within industry standard BIM software, in order to make best use of
the highly accurate and often massive data files a certain amount of post-
processing and modelling is required. We describe a process whereby cloud data
can be transformed to produce representative surface meshes, and explore how the
resultant models can be linked with meta data within the BIM environment. The
development of methods to help the incorporation of already existing
doi:10.2495/BIM150241
environments within BIM will be of great value within FM, building conservation
and new design alike. Therefore, the refinement and adoption of clear methods to
support such work is a vital step towards BIM maturation.
Keywords: BIM scanning, models contours, 3D scanning, BIM.
1 Introduction: previous work

1.1 Technology and 3D models reconstruction for BIM
3D models acquisition produced from laser scanners and photogrammetry provide

content rich information of the as-built conditions. They are becoming a standard
practice in construction, heritage conservation and facilities management, within
a range of different industries, from oil and gas and heavy engineering to AEC
industry. Relevant developed technologies include photogrammetry, image based
sensing technologies and 3D remote sensing technologies, like Global Positioning
systems (GPS), Global Navigation Satellite System, Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) and Laser Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) [13]. Even
though the produced data from the aforementioned methods include potential for
their incorporation to more advanced data viewing or processing systems and
software, limited progress has been observed regarding the automated process of
that data. As a result, significant research has been monitored on developing
processes and algorithms for processing 3D data.
Previous research on reconstruction of as-built BIM models from 3D scanned
data showcase the difficulties with transferring the information in a fast and
accurate way. Tang et al. [4] describe how the manual methods of transferring the
information to BIM are time-consuming, prone to errors and eventually lack
accuracy.
Manual creation of BIMs initiated with 3D data collection through laser
scanners followed by pre-processing, or else data alignment and registration, with
manual removal of unwanted data and possible conversion in surface
data/triangular mesh. The actual creation of BIMs according to the 3D scanned
data is comprised of establishing topological relationships among the building
components, modeling the geometric components based either on cross sections
with surface extrusion, or on fitting geometric primitives to the 3D data. However,
a range of problems have been observed with this method, including issues with
transferring the models across a range of software, thus data interoperability
problems, and lack of accuracy when transferring the data.
As a result, relevant and developing research for automated 3D data
reconstruction suggests a range of methods including subdividing the overall
process into geometric modelling, object recognition and object relationship
modeling for transferring 3D measurements into as-built BIMs [4]. These methods
can be further subdivided into a number of automated processes like shape
representations [5], relationship representations [6], automated geometric
modelling [7], planar and curved surfaces modelling, object recognition and
relationships modelling.
1.2 Heritage 3D scanning
This paper focuses on the automated geometric modelling, especially in relation

to scanning heritage sites. Laser scanning has been developing into a standard tool
for cultural heritage and research applications have been ranging from heritage
preservation and site conservation to architectural heritage [810]. Sites and
structures, statues and monuments with historic significance can be monitored in
their existing situation, hence allowing relevant professionals and organisations to
keep a record of their evolution over time. What is more, the case studies described
in this paper are related to the city of Aberdeen and the town of Elgin since they
are urban integrated monuments and sites that require further understanding in
relation to the impact of changes in the city to the relevant heritage.
2 Case studies
The surface based non-parametric geometric modelling or surface reconstruction
is the applied method during the 3D scanned data analysis and meta-processing.
Relevant research in the field is related to geometric surface reconstructions [11,
12], where the 3D point clouds are translated into polyhedral solids involving the
shape changes of an object at the boundary of the mesh growing area and to create
a priority queue to the advancing front of the mesh area according to the changes.
The mesh growing process is then driven by the priority queue for efficient surface
reconstruction [11].
The case studies presented here are interesting in that they collectively
demonstrate a progression of workflows, including the use of scan data as a
template, the use of raw data to help produce virtual surface models suitable
for use as objects within BIM software, and the extraction of surface data (contour)
in relation to an urban park.
The workflow concludes with the extraction of models using a laser cutter, in
an attempt to bridge between virtual and tactile modelling.
2.1 Environmental modelling
The first case study described in this paper was derived from a scanning project
undertaken to record a complex urban area, which included both natural landscape
and examples of the built environment dating back many centuries. Although the
initial purpose of the scanning activity was to record a monument located at the
top of an urban hill, the capabilities of the scanning equipment are such that the
range and detail of the resulting point cloud also incorporated data pertaining to a
number of municipal buildings constructed from the early 1800s up to the late
1970s. Streetscapes 3D scanning had a high level of complexity, it required a great
number of scanning positions that incorporated rich architectural details, different
natural elements and multiple street levels. The process of the specific project is
described in detail in [13] and it is illustrated in Figure 1.
The specific research made use of a Leica C10 3D scanner (Figure 2), for
providing a rapid and accurate understanding of the built environment, not only in
Figure 1: 3D scanning of urban environments.
Figure 2: Scanning statue (Leica C10 scanner).
relation to buildings but also with a focus on monuments and landmark. The
particular scanner is suitable both for interior and exterior scanning with high
definition scanning capabilities, and has a scanning range of up to 300 m [14]. The
end result consists a point cloud that represents the collected (scanned) points
without connecting them or creating a 3D model or mesh. The collected data are
dense, precise and highly accurate, hence allowing for comprehensive acquisition
of range point clouds.
Whilst the scan information relating to the older buildings and monuments
located within the site was extremely complex (due to irregular surfaces and a
vernacular and unplanned approach to the arrangement of buildings), an obvious
way in which the process of converting scanned data into a format usable within a
BIM software environment was suggested by the geometrically regular, and
rectangular, design of the municipal structures. The first example is a 3D scan of
a main street in the town of Elgin in Scotland.
The particular data comprised of the 3D scan output, the point clouds. Although
high in accuracy, the data lacked information pertaining to the geographical
location of the data, or the height of the structures in relation to standard horizontal
points. Therefore, it was essential to insert horizontal levels to which the BIM
model itself could refer to. Figure 3 illustrates the integration of buildings and
structures as captured with the laser scanner followed by data rich representative
elements, which in this case are Revit developed models of the scanned
environment. It is important to acknowledge that during this process a significant
degree of knowledge on the part of the building model and also on the part of
models user was required.
Figure 3: Scan data imported to Autodesk REVIT, for use as a template.
2.2 Surface and solid modelling
A second project, following the environmental modelling, focused on scanning

architectural heritage in the city of Aberdeen. During this project, the researchers
were engaged in developing geometrically accurate virtual models of six statues
located in the city centre. The intended use was to provide information for a public
exhibition for displaying the statues and highlighting them within the urban
context. Therefore, the focus was on specific monuments and not on navigable
space as the previous environmental modelling project was.
A thorough scanning process was followed, with at least four separate setups
required for each statue, in order to ensure that all the information was collected.
A brief description of the process is as follows: after the scanning locations
selection and the separate setups, for each position a low resolution scan took place
initially, followed by a high resolution one. This information was imported to the
scanner software, where the identification of common points between scans took
place, where it became possible to establish the relative position of each scan, a
process called alignment and points registration. The point cloud data was
analysed afterwards for surface modelling and developed into solid meshes, while
the process is depicted in Figure 4.
Figure 4: 3D scanning of monuments.
Although solid meshes can have less detail than the original point cloud, they
have the benefit of not deteriorating when viewed in an interactive context. From
a first persons perspective, when a user or environment camera approaches an
object in a point cloud it will gradually dissolve into constituent points. This
breakdown can reduce the realism of the environment or model for a non-expert
viewer. In contrast a solid mesh will retain its solid appearance, although the
texture resolution may be reduced [12]. Figure 5 shows how the appearance of the
horses head changes between the two techniques.
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Point cloud and solid mesh representation. (a) High detailed point
cloud, dissolves on approach. (b) Lower detailed solid mesh, retains
solidity but loses definition.
The first stage in generating a solid mesh from a 3D scan is sub-sectioning and
cleaning. Generally the point cloud will contain a fair degree of noise. Excess noise
will prevent an accurate solid mesh being created as algorithms used are, for the
most part, unable to discriminate between the clusters of noise and solid surfaces.
This noise can come from a variety of sources, particularly in urban environments
where people, vehicles and even precipitation will cause partial shadows or point
clusters within the cloud data. Figure 6 shows the impact of snow in the centre of
the scan on the noise present within the scene.
Once the cloud has been cleaned and isolated it can be imported into the
Meshlab software (http://meshlab.sourceforge.net/) where the generation of the
solid mesh is performed. Meshlab contains a number of methods that allow us to
further clean, simplify, extract and generate surfaces for our point cloud.
The point cloud can be simplified using Poisson Disk Simplification. This
allows a target number of points to be set to which Meshlab will try to reduce the
point cloud. A Poisson disk point set is a uniformly distributed set of points in
which no two points are closer to each other than a given minimum distance [6].
Figure 6: Noise, in this case snow, must be removed before surface creation.
This allows the overall shape of the cloud to be retained whilst reducing the
number of points. To generate a surface we need to calculate the normals for the
points in our cloud to ensure that the resulting surface is orientated in the correct
direction. Meshlab provides a method to compute the normals based on the
neighbouring points. The setting used for the neighbourhood will depend entirely
on the quality of the scan and the type of object being represented. If for example
it was a large flat surface, a large neighbourhood would be most efficient. For a
higher detailed object, like the statues, a smaller neighbourhood of around 1520
will create a truer representation of statue, whilst smoothing out the majority of
the noise.
Poisson Surface Reconstruction can then be used to create a surface between
points that are a specific distance apart, creating a solid surface over the point
cloud. The Poisson algorithm takes a number of parameters which define how the
surface creation is performed. The Octree-Depth affects the detail of final mesh, a
higher number here will provide a more detailed but more complex result and will
take much longer, and higher processing power, to create. The Solver-Divide
parameter allows for some saving in memory whilst mesh processing. Finally, the
Sample per Node parameter determines how many points are calculated as a node,
generally smoothing the surface and again removing some noise and detail. At this
stage, fine detail can be lost since the Poisson algorithm cannot distinguish
between residual noise, fine surfaces and fine detail. The image below shoes how
the parchment the statue is holding is lost in the final mesh as the point cloud
representing this object had tightly packed points which were ultimately smoothed
out. The difference can clearly be seen when comparing the original statue with
the solid mesh in Figure 7, below. This can be solved by creating a number of
surfaces that use different Poisson parameters and merging the results until the
desired detail is achieved.
Figure 7: Untextured mesh, highlighting missing structures due to smoothing.
The resultant solid mesh at this stage (Figure 7) is untextured. The Leica
scanner is able to capture full colour from the original scene and store this in the
point cloud. Using parameterisation we can transfer the colour from the original
cloud to our new solid mesh. Because the mesh is a simplified version of the point
cloud it will not contain an exact location for every point in the cloud,
parameterisation will apply texture coordinates from the original cloud to the
nearest possible point on our new mesh giving us a detailed texture that reflects
the original scanned scene as illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Statue converted to surface model.
2.3 Extraction of contour data
A final approach to analyse and develop 3D scanned data into a BIM model
includes the extraction of contour data, which can be utilised afterwards for 3D
milling and cutting. The specific approach is a meta-analysis of the environmental
modelling process from the site in Elgin. During the specific project, an assembled
point cloud was imported to Revit, which was considered as a unified object from
the software, as depicted in Figure 9.
Afterwards, a number of sections were drawn in the model, with 1 meter
distance in between them, thus slicing the contour lines of the site (Figure 10). The
plans acquired from this process provided the descriptions of the sites topography
and it became possible to draw around the dots and obtain the different levels as
layers. A post production process followed, where these lines where inserted into
different types of software in a proper scale and the layers/contour lines became
recognisable. Following the particular output, the drawings were exported back to
AutoCAD and prepared for laser cutting. Eventually, the end result is presented in
Figure 11.
Figure 9: Environmental modelling Figure 10: Addition of level

imported into Revit. indicators within RIVIT.
3 Conclusions and further research

The case studies presented here highlight that although it is not possible to fully
automate the process of incorporating the output of laser scan data within a BIM
environment, it is still possible to break down this process into a number of
automated steps. Some of the steps in each of the work flows do still require some
knowledge of the structure being scanned and there is also a degree of
subjectiveness in the quality of the output. However, it is argued that if the
workflows demonstrated here are followed, they will speed up and improve the
accuracy of 3D scanned data transfer for meta-processing. The presented
techniques work on a range of different environments from smaller city features
such as the statues to larger city scapes and land forms.
Figure 11: Model of the environmental scanning data.
Laser scan data provide very highly accurate representations of real world
environments without the need for complex 3D modelling and object generation.
The complexity of the point clouds currently precludes their automated
incorporation into BIM environments whilst still maintaining all the detailed
information they contain. As user engagement in planning and design increases it
is likely that laser scans will be used in more non-standard environments, such as
game engines. Further research is therefore required to develop more automated
work flows that require less user interaction, whilst still maintaining control over
the resulting output.
References
[1] M. Golparvar-Fard, J. Bohn, J. Teizer, S. Savarese and F. Pea-Mora,
Evaluation of image-based modeling and laser scanning accuracy for
emerging automated performance monitoring techniques, Autom. Constr.,
vol. 20, pp. 1143-1155, 12. 2011.
[2] F. Bosch and C.T. Haas, Automated retrieval of 3D CAD model objects
in construction range images, Autom. Constr., vol. 17, pp. 499-512, 5.
2008.
[3] F. Bosch, M. Ahmed, Y. Turkan, C.T. Haas and R. Haas, The value of
integrating Scan-to-BIM and Scan-vs-BIM techniques for construction
monitoring using laser scanning and BIM: The case of cylindrical MEP
components, Autom. Constr., vol. 49, Part B, pp. 201-213, 1. 2015.
[4] P. Tang, D. Huber, B. Akinci, R. Lipman and A. Lytle, Automatic
reconstruction of as-built building information models from laser-scanned
point clouds: A review of related techniques, Autom. Constr., vol. 19, pp.
829-843, 11. 2010.
[5] N. Amenta, S. Choi and R.K. Kolluri, The power crust, unions of balls, and
the medial axis transform, Computational Geometry, vol. 19, pp. 127-153,
7. 2001.
[6] H. Hoppe, T. DeRose, T. Duchamp, J. McDonald and W. Stuetzle, Surface

reconstruction from unorganized points, in 19th Annual ACM Conference
on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques SIGGRAPH 1992;
Chicago, IL, USA, pp. 71-78, 1992.
[7] Cline, D., Jeschke, S., White, K., Razdan, A., & Wonka, P. (2009, June).
Dart throwing on surfaces, Computer Graphics Forum, vol. 28, no. 4, pp.
1217-1226. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
[8] A. Hakonen, J. Kuusela and J. Okkonen, Assessing the application of laser
scanning and 3D inspection in the study of prehistoric cairn sites: The case
study of Tahkokangas, Northern Finland, Journal of Archaeological
Science: Reports, vol. 2, pp. 227-234, 6. 2015.
[9] S. Al-kheder, Y. Al-shawabkeh and N. Haala, Developing a documentation
system for desert palaces in Jordan using 3D laser scanning and digital
photogrammetry, Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 36, pp. 537-546,
2. 2009.
[10] K. Lambers, H. Eisenbeiss, M. Sauerbier, D. Kupferschmidt, T. Gaisecker,
S. Sotoodeh and T. Hanusch, Combining photogrammetry and laser
scanning for the recording and modelling of the Late Intermediate Period
site of Pinchango Alto, Palpa, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science,
vol. 34, pp. 1702-1712, 10. 2007.
[11] X. Li, C. Han and W.G. Wee, On surface reconstruction: A priority driven
approach, Comput.-Aided Des., vol. 41, pp. 626-640, 9. 2009.
[12] Fabio, R. (2003). From point cloud to surface: the modeling and
visualization problem. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote
Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 34(5), W10.
[13] R. Laing, M. Leon, L. Mahdjoubi and J. Scott, Integrating Rapid 3D Data
Collection Techniques to Support BIM Design Decision Making, Procedia
Environmental Sciences, vol. 22, pp. 120-130, 2014.
[14] Leica ScanStation C10. 04/04, http://www.leica-geosystems.co.uk/en/
Leica-ScanStation-C10_79411.htm accessed April 2015.
3DIR: three-dimensional information

retrieval from 3D building information
modelling environments
P. Demian1, K. Ruikar1 & A. Morris2
1
School of Civil and Building Engineering,
Loughborough University, UK
2
Centre for Information Management,
Loughborough University, UK
Abstract
More and more information is being packed into Building Information Models
(BIMs), with the 3D geometrical model serving as the central index to lead users
to the many other types of building information. The Three-Dimensional
Information Retrieval (3DIR) project investigates information retrieval from such
environments, where information or documents are linked to a 3D artefact. In these
situations, the 3D visualisation or 3D geometry of the building can be exploited
when formulating information retrieval queries, computing the relevance of
information items to the query, or visualising search results. Following reviews of
literature in BIM/CAD and information retrieval, a clear gap was identified in the
practice of information retrieval from BIM/CAD systems. End users were
consulted to ascertain the precise user requirements in such an information
retrieval system. Scenario-based design was adopted to design a software
prototype. The 3DIR system was developed as an add-in under the Autodesk Revit
BIM platform. The 3DIR prototype creates an index of all text data attached to the
3D model. The user is able to search for information by selecting specific 3D
objects, by keyword and by specifying particular 3D regions of the model.
Relationships between 3D objects are also used to rank search results. Search
results are displayed by highlighting 3D objects in the 3D model. Findings from
the evaluation of the prototype demonstrate its usefulness but suggest directions
for future development. It is concluded that a tight coupling between text-based
retrieval and the 3D model is extremely effective in 3D BIM environments.
Keywords: information retrieval, document management, 3D models.
doi:10.2495/BIM150251
1 Introduction
In building modelling environments, more and more information is being
crammed into 2D/3D building and product models. This is particularly true given
the rise of Building Information Modelling (BIM) (Eastman et al. [1]). The Three-
Dimensional Information Retrieval (3DIR) project investigates information
retrieval from these environments, where information or documents are linked to
a 3D building model. In these situations, the 3D visualisation or 3D geometry of
the building can be exploited when formulating information retrieval queries,
computing the relevance of information items to the query, or visualising search
results. Managing such building information repositories in this way would take
advantage of human strengths in vision, spatial cognition and visual memory
(Lansdale and Edmonds [2], Robertson et al. [3]).
Information retrieval is associated with documents, although a critic might
argue that documents are relics from the pre-BIM age that are no longer relevant
in the era of BIM. However, the challenge of information retrieval is pertinent
whether we are dealing with documents which are coarse grains of information or
building object parameters/attributes as finer grains of information. As noted in
section 2.2, Demian and Fruchter [4] demonstrated that traditional retrieval
computations can be applied with good results to 3D building models where
textual or symbolic data are treated as very short documents.
This paper describes the findings of the 3DIR project whose aim was to develop
an information retrieval toolset for documents/information linked to 3D building
models. This aim was achieved through the following objectives:
To review the applicable techniques from the fields of BIM, information
retrieval and information visualisation, particularly those techniques which
exploit strengths in visual human cognition.
To document formally the requirements in such a software toolset.
To develop a software prototype and evaluate it, thereby validating the
proposed theoretical coupling between 3D geometry and linked
nongeometric information.
2 Background and related work

Building design, construction and operation are information intensive activities.
For example, even over a decade ago in the UK construction industry, on average,
one computer-aided design (CAD) document was produced for every 9m2 of
building floor space (Gray and Hughes [5]). Several others (Leslie [6], Veeramani
and Russell [7], Ugwu [8]) have reported on the problem of information
overload in the construction sector.
Information retrieval techniques have been used in civil engineering to retrieve
reusable designs [4] and to retrieve contextual information from past projects to
improve the accuracy of future cost estimates [9]. Beyond text, Brilakis and
Soibelman [10] automatically identify particular features in construction site
photographs with a view subsequently to using information retrieval techniques to
manage photograph collections. Bridging textual and geometric content, Caldas et
al. [11] propose techniques for automatically classifying construction documents

based on project CAD components. Lin and Soibelman [12] augment standard
information retrieval techniques with formal representations of domain knowledge
to improve the performance of a search engine for online product information.
Rezgui [13] similarly uses domain knowledge to formulate an ontology that
informs the indexing and retrieval of construction content.
None of the studies encountered in the literature specifically exploit 3D data
and 3D visualisations for information retrieval. This approach lies at the
intersection of four academic fields: (1) BIM and CAD, (2) information retrieval,
(3) information visualisation and (4) human cognition and how particular strengths
can be exploited.
2.1 BIM and CAD
The state of the art in digital content management in building design and
construction projects is being transformed by the emergence of Building
Information Modelling [1]. Whereas CAD models classically attempted to model
the geometry of buildings or building components in two or three dimensions (e.g.
Eastman [14], Emmitt and Ruikar [15]), Building Information Models attempt to
model nongeometric content as well. This content includes the nongeometric
attributes of physical building components (such as the cost of a component) as
well as nongeometric entities. For example, Building Information Models can
include entities to model the processes of design (Austin et al. [16]) and
construction (Koo and Fischer [17]) and the organizations (i.e. teams and
individuals) that execute those processes (Kunz et al. [18]). In addition, building
information modelling is not limited to the design and construction phases but can
be extended to cover the entire life cycle of constructed facilities, from
briefing/programming, through design, to facilities management and even
disposal.
In the context of the 3DIR project, it is noteworthy that, although as noted
above CAD and BIM models nowadays include both geometric and nongeometric
information, the geometric 3D model of the building is central, and is expected to
serve as a visual index that leads to the additional nongeometric content. This
approach often fails because such systems do not exploit human abilities in spatial
cognition and visual memory. Nongeometric content does not leave enough
information scent [19] in the geometric CAD model that enables the information
forager to find it. This concept served as an important point of departure for the
3DIR project.
2.2 Information retrieval
Information retrieval (IR) is concerned with systems that help users to fulfil
their information needs, in particular computations to quantify the relevance of
information items based on user queries [20]. Demian and Fruchter [4]
demonstrated that traditional IR techniques could be applied to retrieve
information from Building Information Models and product models; the
semantic information attached to 3D objects could be treated as very short
documents and standard text document computations employed, giving reasonable

retrieval results. As noted in the introduction to section 2 and in section 2.1,
information retrieval has recently been applied in managing the vast volume of
information accumulated in building design, construction and operation.
2.3 Information visualisation
Visualisation has been defined as the use of visual representations to amplify

cognition (Section 1 of [21]). Information visualisation (IV) in particular refers
to the visualization of abstract data, unrelated to physical space. Such data (e.g.
financial data, abstract conceptions, hierarchical and network data structures) have
no obvious spatial mapping. One important branch of IV is the visualisation of
collections of documents (Section 6 of [21]). Efforts to visualise document
collections range in scale from visualising the whole internet (Section 6.1 of [21]),
through visualising smaller document collections in information workspaces
(Section 6.2 of [21]), to visualising an individual document (Section 6.3 of [21]).
In construction, Wu and Hsieh [22] identified the lack of a single interface which
combined and visualised the information from the disparate project sources as an
important cause of work breakdowns. They go on to propose the Project
Information Integration Management Framework (PIIM Framework),
operationalised in a software prototype in which data is presented in conjunction
with the 3D model. Shaaban et al. [23] propose different approaches for the
application of IV in architecture. They present the task-driven approach as the
most effective, which places the users task and information needs at the centre,
and considers his/her visual and cognitive processing.
2.4 Human cognition
Applying IV and IR in BIM environments requires an awareness of human visual

cognition. Managing such document or information repositories linked to a 3D
artefact can exploit human strengths in vision, spatial cognition and visual
memory. In studying the psychology of personal information management,
Lansdale [24] observed the importance of visual properties in the acts of recall,
recognition and categorisation. With this understanding of the psychological
fundamentals of information management, Lansdale and Edmonds [2] went on to
develop a computer system for filing information based on a personal history of
events; importantly, this system allowed for search and recognition based on visual
attributes. In trying to establish a stronger link between psychological
experimentation and system development, Lansdale et al. [25] developed theories
of spatial cognition and applied them to the design of pictorial databases which
allow the user to search by spatial or visual queries. Similarly, early research by
Robertson et al. [3] showed that users were able to retrieve electronic documents
much more effectively when thumbnails were arranged visually than when
documents attributes were listed textually. More recently, Christmann et al. [26]
performed user tests with prototype interfaces for browsing photographs and found
that interfaces were more effective when they used a 3D layout with perspective
than a simple 2D visual layout.
The literature reviewed in section 2 highlights the promise of systematically

applying IR and IV techniques in BIM environments to exploit human cognitive
strengths and facilitate more effective information management.
3 Research method
Following reviews of literature as presented in section 2, a clear gap was identified
in the practice of retrieving information from BIM/CAD systems. To ascertain the
precise user requirements of such an information retrieval system, workshops were
convened at a large multinational contractor and a renowned architectural practice
in London. Scenario-based design (Rosson and Carroll [27]) was adopted to design
a software prototype. Data collected and analysed from these workshops were fed
into the scenario-based design. The 3DIR system was developed as an add-in
under the Autodesk Revit BIM platform. This was later presented to the industry
partners in evaluation workshops. Although the ultimate aspiration is for any
software development to remain platform independent and avoid favouring any
particular commercial BIM environment, it was found that the Autodesk Revit
Application Programming Interface (API) provided excellent opportunities for
development and research prototyping.
4 Needs analysis
The ICT Director of Architects, an international architecture practice based on
London, was interviewed. The ICT Director spoke strategically about the shift
from CAD to BIM (and, indeed, from hand drafting to CAD), the cost of software,
the potential productivity gains and measuring the Return on Investment of these
new tools. Architects had just adopted a new commercial BIM platform and,
despite the software being perceived as extremely expensive, the productivity
gains were evident: its taken a fraction of the time to produce the information
we would normally produce with 2D drawings.
Following the interview with the Architects ICT Director, two architects
joined the conversation and a focus group discussion was held. The architects
echoed the productivity gains enabled by the new BIM platform. They noted that
the BIM information architecture enabled much more information to be included
almost effortlessly in the model. The information bearing capacity of the new 3D
models was used as an important communication medium for collaboration. This
contrasted with the pre-BIM days described by the ICT Director: in those days,
we could still put some data into our models, but nobody did it because we had
nobody to share it with. Beyond including data within models, all focus group
participants acknowledged the difficulty of linking external documents to BIM
models. If those links were in place, however, the focus groups could clearly see
the possibilities for improved information retrieval.
In addition to the interview and focus group at Architects, a focus group was
convened at Contractor, a major UK contractor. The participants from
Contactor did not feel that documents were going to remain relevant in the
new era of BIM. They did acknowledge that models were becoming more and
more information-rich, but not with traditional documents. Interoperability was an

urgent issue which emerged repeatedly in that focus group. Contractor teams
extensively used extranets on their projects. The participants identified the
disconnection between 3D models and other project documents in extranets as a
major obstacle to retrieving information, either from the documents or from the
3D models. Models in the extranet rarely contained links to other external
information.
5 Prototype development
The needs analysis exposed the complexity of information management in BIM
environments. The assumption made at the outset of the 3DIR project was that
links existed in standard practice between 3D components and textual information
or documents. The needs analysis demonstrated this this assumption was
questionable, although the situation rapidly changed as the research progressed.
Even though links between documents and 3D components remain rare, as noted
from the literature: the textual, numerical or symbolic parameters given to 3D
components in most BIM information architectures can be considered as non-3D
information linked to 3D components. Isolating the challenge of exploiting such
links for information retrieval, the following salient requirements (R) were
distilled from the needs analysis:
R1. When formulating queries, users need the ability to search by keyword, 3D
volume, by selecting a set of components from the model, or by any
combination of these.
R2. When selecting a component or set of components from the model within
which the user wishes to search, users would like the option of searching
beyond this selection, based on relationships between components.
R3. When visualising search results, users need to retain the standard text-based
listing, but would also like search results somehow superimposed on the 3D
model.
These requirements emerged when the findings from the needs workshops were
used to formulate fictional archetypal problem scenarios (Rosson and
Carroll [27]). Those in turn were developed into activity scenarios, information
scenarios and interaction scenarios, culminating in a usability specification.
Through this process, requirements R1, R2 and R3 were translated into the
following corresponding system usability specification items (S):
S1. Multiple search modes are needed:
a. Clicking on a single component or collection of components should
display all the textual information (whether parameters or external
documents) linked to that/those component(s).
b. The system should allow the user to filter the search by keyword, by
selecting desired 3D components or by specifying a 3D volume.
S2. Hops function: with a single component or collection of components
selected, the system should give the user the option of searching or hopping
outside this selection to related 3D components up to a specified maximum
number of hops away. Search results can be ranked by hops.
S3. Text search results listing is needed, together with as many visual
representations of search results as the API allows:
a. Text listing.
b. Retrieved 3D components are selected.
c. Retrieved 3D components are isolated, i.e. all other components in the
model are temporarily rendered invisible.
d. Retrieved 3D components are highlighted by insetting a phantom
coloured shape above them. The colour of the shape can be used to
denote the type of information retrieved (i.e. format of file or type of
parameter) and the size of the shape can be used to denote the relevance
according to the text retrieval computation.
A prototype was developed under the Autodesk Revit platform. Revit is a
common commercial BIM platform and, as noted in section 3, upon reviewing
common BIM platforms, was found to have a powerful Application Programming
Interface. The source code was writing in C# using the Revit .NET API. The
Apache Lucene open source library was used for the text indexing and search
functions.
6 The 3DIR prototype

3DIR is developed as an add-in to Revit, and therefore (once installed) appears in
the add-ins ribbon of the standard Revit interface. The 3DIR toolbar consists of
three tools: Index, Search and About. The first step when searching a building
model using 3DIR for the first time is to index the model using that icon on the
3DIR toolbar. This will create an index of all text terms from the 3D object
parameters or linked text documents. Once an index has been created, the Search
tool can be used which brings up the dialogue box shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The 3DIR tool. Screenshots showing the interface and the software
functions satisfying the specifications (S) which emerged from the
scenario-based design.
As the user enters keywords in the text box, search results are listed in real time
in the dialogue box. In the example shown in Figure 1, the keyword roof is
entered and search results listed related to the roof of the model. The search can
be processed either on the whole building model if nothing is selected, or limited
to the selected objects. As the object selection in the model changes, the search
results are updated dynamically. The user is also able to limit the search to a
spherical volume. Selecting a search hit from the list (e.g. the Roof Assembly
item) will optionally select (or highlight) the Revit element containing that
search term (i.e. the red roof graphic from the model), isolate it (i.e. temporarily
hide all other items in the model) or identify the object by displaying a coloured
balloon next to it in the building model. Figure 1 shows an example search for
roof. The three options for displaying the selected search result(s) appear on the
right hand side of the figure.
7 Prototype evaluation
A further workshop and demonstration was held at the offices of Architects to
evaluate the prototype and validate the principle of tighter coupling between the
3D model and nongeometric information. The feedback was positive, although
several improvements and future developments were proposed. The three
participants were asked to complete a simple software usability assessment by
Brooke [28]; their scores are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the participants
generally agreed with the positive statements and disagreed with the negative.
Strongly
5
Agree
4
Strongly
0
things before I could get going
Disagree
4. I think that I would need
1. I think that I would like to
5. The various functions in this
inconsistency in this system
8. I found the system very
9. I felt very confident using the

7. This system is easy to learn
use this system frequently
3. I thought the system was

unnecessarily complex
10. I needed to learn a lot of

system were well integrated
2. I found the system
6. There was too much
cumbersome to use
technical support
easy to use
system
Figure 2: Interface usability scores (3 participants).
It was felt by the Architects team that the system was very useful at what it
attempted to do. The information inside the model was often not textual, and links
to external text documents remained rare. The future development most strongly
proposed by the participants was to establish such links automatically, particularly
links to email repositories to record design rationale as the model developed.
8 Conclusions
The 3DIR prototype creates an index of all text data attached to the 3D model
(mostly as text properties of 3D objects). External text documents linked to 3D
objects (using, for example, the URL type of object property in Revit) are also
indexed (but those are rarely established in practice). The user is able to search for
information by selecting specific 3D objects, specifying a spherical region of the
model and/or entering search keywords. To compute relevance based on textual
data, the Vector Space Model is used through the Apache Lucene library.
Relationships between 3D objects are also used to filter and rank search results,
whereby relevant information items linked to a related 3D object (rather than
information linked directly to a 3D object selected by the user) are still retrieved
but ranked lower. Search results are displayed by highlighting 3D objects in the
3D model. Findings from the evaluation of the prototype demonstrate its
usefulness but suggest directions for future development. It is concluded that a
tight coupling between text-based retrieval and the 3D model is extremely
effective in 3D design environments.
Acknowledgements
Our colleague Dr Ann OBrien is an original member of the 3DIR team and
contributed to the work presented here but unfortunately passed away before this
paper was written. The 3DIR project was supported by a Brian Mercer Feasibility
Award from the Royal Society, with further support from the Enterprise Office at
Loughborough University and funding from Universitys Higher Education
Innovation Fund. Autodesk provided support through membership of the
Autodesk Developer Network. Software development for the prototype was by
Neil Sutton at Adris, part of the Graitec group. Loughborough University alumnus
Tom Claridge wrote his undergraduate dissertation in the topic of 3DIR, and in the
process provided research support for the project. The 3DIR team is grateful to the
contractor and architecture offices for their support during the requirements
gathering and prototype testing phases of the work. 3DIR is available for free from
the Autodesk Exchange for Apps at: https://apps.exchange.autodesk.com/RVT/en/
Detail/Index?id=appstore.exchange.autodesk.com%3a3dinformationretrievalforr
evit_windows32and64%3aen.
References
[1] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R., & Liston, K. (2011). BIM handbook:
A guide to building information modeling for owners, managers, designers,
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Section 6
Interoperability
issues and BIM
BIM for Infrastructure: integrating spatial

and model data for more efficient contextual
planning, design, construction and operation
M. Suchocki
Information Systems Panel, Institution of Civil Engineers, UK
Abstract
Global GDP is forecast to double between 20102030, with existing civil
infrastructure determined unable to handle an anticipated resultant 50% increase
in usage. The global infrastructure investment required across land transport,
telecoms, electricity, and water sectors to meet GDP and usage growth is
calculated at around $53 trillion. This is at a time when the resources required to
deliver such investment are similarly coming under pressure.
This quandary of trying to meet increasing infrastructure investment with a
shortfall in resource suggests new ways of working needs to be adopted. Emerging
Building Information Modelling (BIM) for Infrastructure solutions are extending
the industrys capability by focusing on exploiting the value of data rather than the
execution of routine activities such as drawing during professionals daily work.
These solutions can provide more efficient infrastructure development, with fewer
resources, reduced timescales and improved outcomes.
The paper will illustrate how professionals such as geospatial practitioners,
architects, and engineers are beginning to leverage BIM for Infrastructure to
collaboratively understand existing urban and natural environments, conceptualise
new infrastructure, analyse alternatives, visualise proposals and pass approved
options on to full design development. Processes for data continuity through the
entire capital project lifecycle into operation will be described and aspects such as
interoperability and exploitation of multiple data sources will be covered.
Keywords: BIM, infrastructure, mandate, interoperability, geospatial.
doi:10.2495/BIM150261
1 Introduction
Infrastructure investment of around $53 trillion is forecast over the next 15 years
linked to an expected doubling of global GDP [1]. This investment spans across
land transport, telecoms, electricity, and water sectors amounting where the
existing civil infrastructure is deemed unable to handle an anticipated 50%
increase in usage, let alone a doubling or tripling of passengers and freight during
a 20 year period.
The most recent ICE State of the Nation report [2] stated that if the UK is to
rise rather than fall in World Economic Forum rankings (currently 28th, down from
24th) the approach to delivering and maintaining infrastructure requires attention.
The National Infrastructure Plans published in 2010 and 2013 have advanced the
way Government and industry engage on infrastructure but gaps remain around
ensuring the correct level of investment in maintaining existing assets as well as
delivery of new infrastructure. The report also identified that engineering skills are
in increasing demand across the UK economy in terms of both the number of
engineers needed and the breadth of capabilities.
The Royal Academy of Engineering [3] estimated the cross industry number of
UK Science Engineering and Technology (SET) professionals to be 3.6M with a
further 850,000 needed to meet UK demand by 2020. The resultant need for over
100,000 annual SET graduates is however not served by current UK output of only
90,000 per annum.
Delivering the required infrastructure investment with a constrained resource
cannot be achieved without adoption of new working practices and technologies.
Construction 2025 [4] delivered a vision of achieving 33% reduction in costs, 50%
faster delivery, 50% lower emissions and 50% improvement in exports to help
meet the growing global demand in the construction sector. This was deemed
achievable by making improvements in many areas such as the attractiveness of
the sector, BIM adoption, embracing sustainability and clear leadership.
BIM is clearly a key enabler of change and can provide a high proportion of
the improvements if correctly adopted. However within the infrastructure sector,
BIM remains something of an enigma with poor understanding of the technology
as well as the processes to be used in its application.
2 What is BIM for Infrastructure?

The ICE Information Systems panel [5] and BIM Action Group view BIM as the
purposeful management of information through the whole life cycle of an
infrastructure asset. It necessitated adopting a managed approach to collecting and
using information across the life-cycle of a built asset, using technology
throughout for the preparation of graphical models and associated information.
The managed approach is perhaps the most important concept to understand
as it introduces the greatest process change into design, construction and operation
of a built asset. Simply using new 3D technology in design does not provide
BIM, it is instead principally down to controlling who prepares information, how
it is prepared, what gets prepared and at what phase; that is what provides the
foundation for BIM. Moreover, it is only by changing the process of designing,

constructing and operating assets that significant benefits can be achieved,
otherwise only incremental improvements can be delivered as the majority of work
gets delivered using traditional approaches with no opportunity for improvement;
you cant keep doing the same thing and still expect a different result.
2.1 How should BIM be applied to projects?
There are clearly multiple options available to a design and construction team
when selecting the BIM technologies for an infrastructure project. Adopting good
practices coupled with industry standards is a logical recommendation and may be
a requirement when working for certain public or private clients.
For example the UK Government BIM initiative has sought to introduce BIM
in order to add value to centrally funded public sector investments. The initiative
has seen all parts of the industry engaged and led to a significant amount of
supporting material being developed. For projects the most important guide is PAS
1192-2:2013 [6], which details how BIM can be applied to a capital investment
irrespective if it is a building or infrastructure scheme.
Determining what information is required by phase is the starting place and the
PAS 1192:2 fundamental principles of Level 2 information modelling include:
a) originators produce definition information in models which they control,
sourcing information from other models where required by way of reference,
federation or direct information exchange;
b) provision of a clear definition of the employers information requirements
(EIR) and key decision points (as shown in Figure 1);
c) evaluation of the proposed approach, capability and capacity of each supplier,
and their supply chain, to deliver the required information;
d) a BIM execution plan (BEP) that includes a master information delivery plan
(MIDP);
e) provision of a common data environment (CDE) to store shared asset data and
information;
f) application of the Level 2 processes and procedures;
g) information models developed using a mixed set of enabling tools.
This is all applied against a structured information delivery lifecycle that seeks
to have a body of information grow over time, rather than a typical saw-tooth of
information creation and recreation caused through poor collaboration between
participants and across phases of work.
3 An approach for infrastructure

Applying the PAS 1192:2 principles to a typical infrastructure project requires
confirmation of the type of information that needs to be created by phase and by
participant. This should be coupled with understanding the art of the possible and
potentially introducing radical change to the design and construction process to
leverage opportunity from new technologies and ways of working.
Figure 1: The PAS 1192:2 information delivery lifecycle.
Contractual and commercial implications may play a part where specifically

defined obligations for roles under say the NEC3 [8] family of contracts or from
the Construction, Design and Management (CDM) Regulations [9] need to be
performed; the CIC BIM Protocol guidance [10] should be applied to identify what
if any modifications are required to contracts or role profiles when adopting BIM.
Collaboration between disciplines has historically suffered from poor ability to
share data from one application to the next. This results either in incomplete or
incorrect data sharing or a need to fully remodel a design. It is therefore important
that a project team use the PAS 1192:2 principles and/or apply the CPIx Protocol
[11] to identify the technologies, data formats and workflows across disciplines
and phases to mitigate data exchange issues from the outset.
3.1 Integrating BIM and GIS during early project development
Infrastructure projects uniquely can start by leveraging available data for an area
under inspection that is either owned by the client, in the public domain or can be
acquired from a data provider. For example Ordnance Survey in the UK offers
data sets that include:
raster data at a range of scales
terrain data at a range of scales
topographic data that now includes building heights
postcode boundary coverage data
vector data of urban and rural environments
Such data can be immediately used, searched, filtered and displayed within GIS
and engineering software to gain an understanding of a region. This data can be
supplemented with further coverage data such as land ownership, sites of special
scientific interest, pre-determined corridors, flood extents, and aerial photography.
Local surveys frequently need to be undertaken in the region of preferred
options to supplement the geospatial data sets. The data can be acquired using
traditional techniques such as field surveying with total stations to accurately
record positions of specific structures, edges of highways, manhole locations or
natural items such as extent of watercourses, trees or hedgerows. Increasingly
point cloud data acquisition is being used from laser scanners or through
photogrammetric image transformation taken either at ground level or with aerial
views from UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) or aircraft. This point cloud data
can be readily used within many software platforms to provide a highly accurate
real world context to supplement transformed geospatial data sources and early
conceptual design proposals.
A number of technologies can now transform this comprehensive mix of base
data to create three-dimensional representations such as in Figure 2, of a region
applying realistic styles to buildings or converting single vectors into realistic
roads, rail lines or utility pipe networks. Designers and engineers can then plan
new infrastructure or modifications to existing against a full context without
necessitating local detailed surveys until early options have been confirmed or
eliminated against known constraints.
Figure 2: Autodesk InfraWorks existing condition model prepared using

geospatial source data prior to conceptualising new road options.
The latest technologies also allow for concept design options to be analysed
and infrastructure proposals to have immediate engineering rules applied
constraining proposals to those that are technically viable. For example such early
optimisation for highway vertical alignments, junctions, bridges, surface water

drainage and culverts can be carried out within Autodesks InfraWorks
technology. This approach immediately reduces downstream effort by focusing on
appropriate design options from early phases as well as carrying out preliminary
analysis.
Preferred option concept models can be used within design review meetings,
planning consultation activities, shared with stakeholders for viewing on the
Internet or on mobile devices. This can confirm the appropriateness of proposals
and significantly improve potential for planning approval.
3.2 Model data during detailed design
Once preferred options have been approved, projects will move into one or more
design phases. For infrastructure, design has historically been dominated by two
dimensional views in plan, elevation of cross-section of a scheme. A three-
dimensional model of a proposal would typically have been developed for a
highway or rail alignment, however this would not have been directly linked to the
cross-sections that would have been developed using calculation at specified
intervals and requiring complete rework should the profile change.
Civil BIM solutions now provide the ability to create rail profiles, engineering
structures, highway alignments and go beyond simple 3D geometry to integrate to
other required model views as well as holding or calculating further attributes for
sections or point locations. Such models can be created from simple alignments,
such as the options developed during conceptual designs, and enhanced to apply
all engineering constraints needed for a viable scheme including; horizontal
profile, vertical profile, junctions, super-elevation, cross-section changes,
drainage and structures. These fully developed designs can then be exported for
re-integration into a fully aggregated view with the geospatial and local survey
data used during initial option selection.
Where structures and buildings are defined within an infrastructure scheme, the
same mix of technologies used within vertical building projects can be applied.
These BIM technologies are generally more mature with a number of vendor
solutions available for architectural modelling, structural design and analysis,
building services design and analysis, data aggregation and visualisation.
3.3 Construction and operation
BIM technology is fully applicable within the construction and operational phases
of built assets. The previously described design and geospatial technologies as
well as prepared data need to be utilised but also supplemented with solutions for
asset data capture and management. Increasingly mobile field based solutions are
being leveraged to ensure the data is available or can be directly updated at the
work site.
Linkage of model data developed during design into construction execution
permits significant improvements in productivity and accuracy include setting-out
positioning based on model coordinates and plant automation typically using GPS
rather than ground based positioning. This eliminates a significant amount of
setting-out effort such as placing markers, profile boards or road-pins (now

forbidden for use on Highways England schemes) and the associated risk of errors.
Following construction, verification of as-built vs. designed can also be executed
using capture of specific points or using laser scans.
Progress reporting using mobile field based reporting, laser scanning or
photo/video captured by UAVs is increasingly being adopted, particularly for
large projects such as infrastructure schemes. Actual project progress can also be
compared against four-dimensional sequence simulations prepared from models
linked to project plans.
Field based data capture is significantly accelerating the time for snagging and
commissioning activities. Use of flexible forms allows any required information
to be checked or recorded on mobile devices, supplemented with photographs and
linked to specific locations or objects within a model.
This same approach is being adopted by facilities and asset managers to take
data into the field when carrying out inspections as well as planned or reactive
maintenance. Asset managers are also able to identify data omissions or errors that
need correcting to have a complete overview of managed assets. This working
approach is no longer limited to models associated to single large assets e.g.
buildings or structures, but can now work across long infrastructures enabling civil
owner operators to leverage the same benefits.
3.4 Data management
The common data environment requirement within PAS 1192:2 is crucial to

correctly managing information through both the capital and operational phases of
infrastructure assets. This is not necessarily a single technology, however clarity
over what constitutes the primary source of truth needs to be determined by the
participants in the development or operation of assets.
An infrastructure project may have data stored in one or more geospatial
systems, on network drives, document management systems and in internet based
collaborative working platforms. Data from a mix of these sources will be
leveraged during design development and the users need to be confident of the
origin of the data, the version and its appropriate usage.
The transition of data from work in progress, to shared and, once deemed
appropriate for a given use, to published is a principle that all project participants
must understand. Where data is stored and in what formats should also be clarified
to avoid risks such as data duplication, misuse, or lack of use.
3.5 File formats and interoperability in relation to BIM for Infrastructure
3.5.1 Infrastructure design

Typical civil design 3D data formats include DWG, DGN, GENIO string files and
LandXML. These are not specifically BIM formats but do permit geometry to be
transferred between different vendor applications to recreate designed alignments
and carry out subsequent design procedures. Some formats can also include
additional attributes linked to specific discrete objects or object families.
The use of open standards is desired by many clients and project teams to avoid
prescribing proprietary formats and increasing choice of technology solutions.
Within the infrastructure sector it is unlikely that any single format can be adopted
due to the large variety of disciplines that contribute to scheme development.
The E57 file format is supported by many software platforms as it provides a
compact, vendor-neutral form for storing point clouds, images, and metadata
produced by 3D imaging systems, such as laser scanners or from photogrammetric
processing of image data captured by ground based digital cameras or UAVs.
ISO15926 is an international set of standards for the sharing, exchange, and
hand over of information associated with the engineering, construction, and
operation of industrial assets typically process or power plants. This has been
applied effectively for the preparation of standard catalogues that allows all
manufacturers to provide their information in an open common format that can be
exchanged into proprietary formats of existing 3D systems.
Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) from buildingSMART where version IFC4
has been registered as ISO 16739:2013 [12] can allow geometric and attribute data
to be transferred between different technologies consistently. The IFC schema is
mature within building design however the support for infrastructure is currently
limited to solid model or surface geometry exchange; this will improve in coming
years as there is a joint buildingSMART and Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
initiative underway to develop IFC alignment (version 1.0 was released in March
2015), IFC bridge and IFC road definitions.
LandXML is an XML data file format containing civil engineering and survey
measurement data commonly used in the Land Development and Transportation
Industries. It was developed over a decade by a community of volunteer
organisations and individuals with schema version v1.2 published in 2008. The
LandXML.org organisation is currently working on LandXML v2.0 to incorporate
3D road model improvements, enhance 3D/volumetric parcel support, improve
intelligent construction data flow and add flexible road template definitions.
The Finnish transport authority in 2014 specified that data submissions on
projects would use the LandXML v1.2 Inframodel 3 (IM3) extension that provides
additional aspects such as missing descriptive information, source data attributes,
design parameters, cross section properties, landscape features, pipe networks and
street furniture. IM3 is also the baseline for buildingSMARTs Model View
Definition for LandXML.
COBie as described within BS1192:4 [13] is an open schema that can be used
to transfer data from a design for validation processes and additionally population
of asset management systems. COBie can be mapped to infrastructure but there
are currently no live examples where this format has been used to exchange data
during a major infrastructure project or consistently into operational activities for
an asset owner. There are however efforts underway, principally led by the UK
Environment Agency, to determine infrastructure client data requirements during
a project lifecycle and into operation, which are then mapped into a COBie
template that the supply chain must seek to populate either automatically from
BIM technologies or with manual data entry.
Interim Advice Note 184/14 [14] from Highways England published in 2014 is
a draft standard for BIM and CAD data use. It acknowledges that challenges exist
for the supply chain in the adoption of BIM and that HA will need to adopt a
pragmatic but progressive approach to BIM. However CAD and model formats
previously referred are stated as appropriate with little concern over data
interoperability where the process has been clearly defined by a project team.
3.5.2 Geospatial formats

Geospatial applications use and generate a range of raster and vector data. This
data can be provided as files or increasingly served from databases where
information is only provided for a specified area under inspection or query.
Formats developed by the OGC are very widely adopted within the geospatial
sector and include the Geography Markup Language Encoding Standard (GML),
Web Map Service (WMS), Web Feature Service (WFS) and CityGML. OGC data
formats are the basis for Ordnance Survey Mastermap as well as other commonly
available datasets.
Interoperability challenges from the use of geospatial formats are relatively
rare, with the majority of applications able to read and create both proprietary and
open data formats.
4 Resource challenges
As identified in the RAE Jobs and Growth report [3] there is an anticipated
resource shortage across Science, Engineering and Technology sectors that will
benefit from but also negatively impact BIM adoption. BIM is however proving
an attractive capability for existing and new entrants into the construction sector.
Application of innovative technology, structured data usage and efficient
processes permits the construction industry to position itself as a sector that can
retain employees and encourage others to join.
It is particularly important to attract young people into the industry at school
and undergraduate level. There are efforts in progress by professional bodies such
as the Institution of Civil Engineers [15], individual companies and technology
vendors [16] to raise the profile of the sector using BIM as a key factor to
differentiate how the industry operates today.
There remain challenges with BIM education as professional accreditation has
yet to embrace BIM as a required capability. As a result University undergraduate
tuition of BIM is inconsistent. The BIM Academic Forum (BAF), a sub-group of
the UK BIM Task Group, has undertaken an exercise to understand how BIM is
currently taught in courses [17] revealing a range from well-developed course
structures linked with industry to no awareness of the topic by some.
The BAF has also worked to develop a framework for required outcomes for
any organisation delivering BIM tuition in association with the BIM Task Group
[18]. As these recommendations get adopted there is likelihood that, coupled with
the forecast high investment in infrastructure schemes, the construction industry
will develop into a front running sector in a new digital economy encouraging and
attracting young people to join.
5 Summary
BIM for Infrastructure is not an aspiration; it is a managed process for leveraging
available technology to understand the context of a project, explore and assess
options, fully design preferred proposals and efficiently execute the construction,
providing a comprehensive accurate set of data to the owner and operator of the
delivered assets. It increases certainty, better meets client expectations, allows for
more rapid execution and, because of process benefits such as elimination of
errors, proves cost effective.
The temptation to immediately start engineering solutions in familiar
technologies should be avoided; project teams should instead apply best practices
such as the guidance prepared for the UK Government BIM initiative to firstly
plan a project by identifying what information is needed, when and by which party.
The clarified requirement will then help the selection of the specific technologies
to be adopted.
The rapid innovation occurring in the technologies for construction should be
considered as an enabler and driver of change. Using traditional tools and
processes eliminates the opportunity for any improvement because only known
workflows and outcomes can be achieved. Although adopting new ways of
working does introduce risk due to lack of familiarity and confidence in the
approach, provided the process of adoption is managed and monitored, these risks
can be controlled.
Determining the data formats frequently causes project teams confusion and
concern. During the execution of projects it is entirely reasonable to adopt
proprietary formats determined by the identified data requirements and chosen mix
of technologies during the initiation phase of a project. Where there are concerns
with specifying proprietary formats e.g. data submission requirements by a client
or identified issues with exchanging data between systems, open formats should
be used wherever they are appropriate. The specification of data and file formats,
both open and proprietary, does require careful consideration to avoid introducing
additional complexity, effort and risk of error.
References
[1] Strategic Transport Infrastructure Needs to 2030, OECD, March 2012.
[2] State of the Nation, Infrastructure 2014, Institution of Civil Engineers,
London, June 2014.
[3] Jobs and growth, Royal Academy of Engineering, London, September
2012.
[4] Industrial Strategy: government and industry in partnership, HM
Government, July 2013.
[5] ICE, https://www.ice.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/information-systems-
panel
[6] PAS 1192:2 Specification for information management for the
capital/delivery phase of assets using building information modelling, the
British Standards Institution, February 2013.
[7] Government Soft Landings, http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/gsl/

[8] New Engineering Contract, https://www.neccontract.com/
[9] The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015, Crown
copyright 2015.
[10] Outline Scope of Services for the role of Information Management (the BIM
Protocol), Construction Industry Council, London, February 2013.
[11] CPIx Protocol, http://www.cpic.org.uk/cpix
[12] ISO 16739:2013, Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) for data sharing in the
construction and facility management industries, ISO 2013.
[13] BS1192:4, Collaborative production of information; Part 4: Fulfilling
employers information exchange requirements using COBie Code of
practice, The British Standards Institution, September 2014.
[14] Interim Advice Note 184/14, Highways Agency Data & CAD Standard,
Highways Agency, August 2014.
[15] ICEs Manifesto for Infrastructure 2015, Institution of Civil Engineers,
London, 2015.
[16] Autodesk Education Community, http://www.autodesk.com/students
[17] Current Position and Associated Challenges of BIM Education in UK
Higher Education, BIM Academic Forum, March 2015.
[18] Learning Outcomes Framework v1.0, http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/
education-and-training/
Building Information Modelling: a study

into the suitability of BIM within projects
with construction values of less than 5M
R. Watt
Brunel University, UK
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is gaining momentum to soon become the
construction industrys chosen methodology for delivering projects. However,
studies have shown that the implementation rate of BIM in smaller consultancies
is notably lower when compared to larger ones. One of the main reasons for
resisting implementation is the perceived notion that lower value projects are not
suitable for the use of BIM. With this in mind, this study aims to determine if
projects with a lower construction value are suitable for the BIM methodology.
A data set has been generated that included individuals who have and have not
implemented BIM within their workflow, the results of which have been collated
from questionnaires and interviews. From the data set, conclusions were derived,
which make up the findings of this report.
The study found that there is a clear relationship between the individuals
experience of BIM and their perceived impression of BIMs suitability within
smaller valued projects. Individuals and companies who have fully implemented
BIM within their workflow highlighted significant advantages and frustrations,
that are valid, both on smaller and larger valued projects. Within the experienced
community of BIM users, it is evident that BIM has been and can successfully be
used on projects of any value, providing that the methodology is managed
correctly.
Keywords: Building Information Modelling (BIM), low value projects,
implementation, client demand, capital cost.
doi:10.2495/BIM150271
1 Introduction
The use and awareness of Building Information Modelling (BIM) has been
growing throughout the construction industry over the years [1]. The methodology
of BIM is set to replace the paradigm of information transmittals of two-
dimensional Computer-Aided Design (CAD) drawings and specifications [2]. The
methodology of BIM will provide a system whereby all of the information to
design, construct, use and maintain a building is contained within a singular
information model, rather than information contained in many mediums [3].
BIM has been hailed as providing many advantages, with the top two being
better collaboration and cost savings, as outlined within the Governments
Industrial Strategy report on BIM [4]. The Government has set the target that all
government-funded projects shall be fully collaborative with 3D BIM by 2016,
which equates to a BIM Level 2 [5].
This study set out to determine if BIM Level 2 is suitable for smaller valued
projects and to find evidence regarding when and where BIM is not suitable in
relation to project value.
1.1 What is BIM?
The Government explains BIM as being a collaborative way of working,

underpinned by the digital technologies which unlock more efficient methods of
designing, creating and maintaining our assets [4]. BIM is a methodology,
generally only becoming possible due to the advancements with computers and
software, even though the basics of BIM were outlined in the late 1970s [6].
BIM is a methodology of transferring information through the use of a
collaborative model referred to as a virtual prototype [6]. The model itself is rich
in data and carries all the information for the project from conception through to
demolishment of the building [6].
This is a significant change from the previous methodology of transferring
information through the use of two-dimensional drawings and hard-copy
specifications. BIM allows for this information to be replicated using a single
model to generate 3D drawings, sections and schedules. By editing one of the
items within the model, all other information will be changed simultaneously [6].
The methodology of BIM outlines four levels, starting at level zero and ending
at three. The levels are as follows:
Level Zero: Unmanaged CAD in 2D.
Level One: Managed CAD in 2D or 3D to an agreed structure.
Level Two: Managed 3D with data attached to the model following an
agreed standardised structure. Models are separate from each discipline.
Level Three: Fully integrated model with all the disciplines [5].
1.2 Background to the project
There are a number of publications that highlight the advantages of BIM and claim
significant savings by the use and implementation of BIM throughout the
workflow.
The examples given in the literature are often referencing large developments
such as hospitals, airports and large office blocks. There are a limited number of
publications that directly reference the use of BIM within small projects. With this
in mind, this study was set up to provide a better understanding of BIMs
suitability in relation to smaller projects.
1.3 Scope of the study
The study set out to investigate if or when BIM becomes unsuitable on smaller
valued projects by focusing on the following points:
What impression do people have of the BIM methodology in relation to
lower value projects?
What are the key advantages and disadvantages of BIM and are they
experienced on lower value projects?
What are the key areas of resistance and motivation towards the
implementation of BIM?
Is there a point where the BIM methodology becomes unsuitable to use on
a project?
Based on the above, the project title of a study into the suitability of BIM
within projects with construction values of less than 5m was chosen.
1.4 Clarifications
1.4.1 Reference to BIM

For clarification, when the report refers to BIM integration, it is with reference to
Level 2, unless otherwise stated.
1.4.2 Lower value projects

The study has outlined a project value range of up to 5M but this should be used
as a guide only. The main purpose of the selected range is to exclude large
developments such as hospitals, stadiums or airports, where many examples of
BIMs use have been provided in other studies and publications. Therefore, when
this study references a lower value project, it is effectively comparing that project
with the high value projects stated above.
1.4.3 Suitability
For the purpose of this report, if the BIM methodology can be adapted to suit the
project and to achieve a net positive impact, then BIM can be deemed suitable for
the project.
2 Literature review
The purpose of this literature review is to provide background information relevant
to the studys title. Based on the studys scope, two main topic areas have been
outlined and they are as follows:
Current perception of BIM on lower value projects; and
Scalability.
Following the literature review, this review will summarise its findings and
outline questions that this study should aim to address.
2.1 Perception of BIM on lower value projects
The NBS report outlined that, within their sample, only 35% of small practices
with six or fewer personnel are using BIM, whereas in larger practices 61% are
using BIM [1]. However, one of the contributors to the report outlines that, in
practice, BIM should be easier to implement within a smaller company due to their
relative agility [1]. This means that, if in theory, it is easier to implement BIM into
a smaller practice then there are likely to be other factors contributing to the low
perception of BIM, rather than just the relative implementation cost.
The perception that BIM may not be suitable for lower value projects is
outlined in the authors foreword of the publication BIM in Small Practices:
Illustrated Case Studies by Klaschka [7], by stating, Myth 1 BIM is for large
projects. No! Examples in this book include residential conversions, extensions
and a self-build house. The author indicates that the general perception of BIM
in the wider community is that it is not suitable for smaller, lower value projects.
He is keen to point out that this impression is unjustified.
Based on the literature, it is understood that the overall impression with regards
to lower value projects could be deemed to be relatively low, when compared to
the impression of its suitability on larger valued projects.
2.2 Scalability
2.2.1 Areas of support

An article by Dawes [8] indicated that companies were able to scale down their
role within the design team to suit smaller projects, without losing the merit of
using BIM. Dawes article is concentrated around a 12 million residential
development, with varying sized buildings within the development. She noted that
they had to make extensive changes to their standard BIM documentation over the
course of the project. However, she highlighted that the majority of the amended
information could be reused within further projects. Thus, meaning that they are
now able to achieve greater efficiencies on their future projects.
Further support for BIM within smaller projects can be found in an article titled
BIM Application for Integrated Design and Engineering in Small-Scale Housing
Development: A Pilot Project in the Netherlands [9]. The document concluded
that Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) had a much greater integrated design
process and were able to carry out clash detection throughout the design process.
David Miller of David Miller Architects has been an advocate in the use of
BIM and Revit for many years [10]. Within an article for NBS, titled BIM From
The Point Of View Of A Small Practice [10], he outlines how his practice has
rolled out the use of BIM. In general, his practice budgets 10,000 per workstation;
he notes however, that the added advantages of increased efficiency and added
value quickly outweighs the increased capital expenditure. From the text, it is not
clear what sized projects he believes that these advantages occur within, but the
comments are reflective of an architecture firm of 14 employees. Based on the
practice size it can be assumed that he has found the use of BIM to be a positive
experience on various size projects.
In an article published within the International Journal of Project
Management, the authors indicated that, within their investigation of 35 case
studies, ranging from project values of 12 million to 1,715 million Euros, no
strong pattern emerges in respect of the type or size of building, which BIM is
more or less beneficial [11]. This further supports the notion that BIM can be
suitable on all projects and is not limited to large developments.
2.2.2 Areas of resistances

As highlighted within the Perception of BIM on Lower Value Projects section
of this study, a text outlined the following Myth 1 BIM is for large projects.
No! Examples in this book include residential conversions, extensions and a self-
build house [7]. It is clear that the author is stating two key points: the first point
is that there is an impression that BIM is only suitable on larger projects, and the
second point is that this impression is unjustified. In the same manner, the
Architectural Evangelist reiterates: Often misquoted, BIM is only for large
projects with complex geometries [12].
2.2.3 Summary
We can conclude from the studys literature review, that there is evidence that
BIM has been scaled down to be suitable on smaller value projects. Contrary to
this, we have seen that there is evidence to suggest that the overall confidence of
BIM within smaller projects is low. However, there was insufficient evidence to
indicate where and when BIM becomes unsuitable in relation to a projects value.
2.3 Literature review summary
The literature review has highlighted that the current perception of BIM is
generally positive, but there is still a lot of uncertainty about its use. There are
traces of evidence to suggest that if you are not a BIM expert, then your perception
of BIM suitability reduces significantly when faced with lower value projects.
BIM will require a large change in a buildings workflow, a large change in the
way that buildings are designed and a change in how they are built. It will require
all teams to work more efficiently to ensure that BIM implementation is achieved.
This has the potential for information to be shared more easily, at a quicker rate
and at a magnitude that has never been seen before. This can lead to further
opportunities to add other areas of value that have not been available before the
implementation of BIM.
Throughout the literature review there was insufficient evidence to demonstrate
that BIM is unsuitable on lower valued projects; however, there also appears to be
a strong uncertainty for its application on such projects.
2.4 Questions raised from the literature review
The review outlined that there appears to be a disparity between the overall
construction industrys impression of BIM within smaller projects and published
findings. The first question raised is: Is there a clear relationship between the
perceived suitability of BIM on lower value projects and an individuals
experience of BIM?
There appears to be a lot of material that promotes the use of BIM, however
there is not much evidence on why companies have not implemented BIM. Thus,
the second question raised is: What are the main reasons why
companies/individuals are not currently using BIM on lower value projects, and
what evidence is available to support the resistances?
The review outlined that there are case studies that show benefits for the use of
BIM, but the case studies did not highlight the negatives. This leads to the third
question: What have been the main advantages and disadvantages for
implementing BIM on lower value projects, and overall would companies or
individuals recommend BIM on lower value projects?
The following study will aim to answer the above questions, together with the
overall question: When does BIM become unsuitable for use based on project
value?
3 Data acquisition
To provide a better understanding on the suitability of BIM within lower value
projects, a data set has been generated with both primary and secondary data. The
following section will outline the sources of the said data.
3.1 Primary data
Primary data was generated by the following:

Individual Surveys: Forty-one of the estimated one hundred participants
returned a compliant individual survey. The respondents came
predominantly from architects and building services engineers from
various size consultancies with a broad range of experience in using BIM.
They ranged from individuals who have not yet used BIM to ones who
have fully integrated it within their workflow.
Project Surveys: The respondents from the individual survey were asked
to respond to a project specific survey. Four compliant responses were
returned. It is noted that this data set is not sufficient to draw specific
conclusions, however the comments made and examples given were
highly useful when supporting theories and conclusions.
Interviews: Four individuals who are either BIM managers within their
company or hold a senior position. Each interview was carried out over
the telephone, with set questions to allow for comparisons between
respondents.
3.2 Secondary data
NBS National BIM Report 2014 [1]: The secondary data set was introduced into
the study to allow comparisons between the primary and secondary data. The
purpose of this is to identify if this studys findings run in parallel to a wider survey
that did not concentrate on lower value projects but rather the whole construction
industry.
4 Data analysis
4.1 Introduction
The following section will analyse the data that was obtained and aims to provide
a better insight into the literature review questions as well as the overall studys
title.
The sections have been split into the following headings: Data Validation and
Quality, Literature Review Questions and Discussion of Results.
4.2 Data validation and quality
The data obtained was processed under the following processes: data validation,
data segregation and data error checks, prior to its inclusion within the study.
The quantitative data obtained within the individual surveys was segregated
between individuals who have implemented BIM (73% of 41) and those who have
not (27% of 41). The qualitative data was analysed using the methodology of
Grounded Theory [13] from which theories were drawn.
Data from within the study predominantly came from independent primary
sources. The respondents had no direct initial gain in relation to the results of this
study. The data was obtained in a scientific nature with careful consideration of
limiting data error. The data set and sectors were of a suitable size and nature to
provide a good, unbiased, diverse response.
4.3 Literature review questions
Following a literature review, three main questions were derived (refer to section
2.4). This subsection will address the questions.
4.3.1 Question 1
Is there a clear relationship between the perceived suitability of BIM on lower
valued projects and an individuals experience of BIM?
Throughout the data set there was a constant trend that a persons impression
of BIM was lower on many factors, such as: perceived capital cost, client demand
and project productivity. The latter provided a key metric since it indicated their
clear swing of opinion. The individuals who have not used BIM believed that BIM
was unsuitable on lower value projects, whereas individuals who have
implemented BIM thought the opposite. This strengthens the trend that the more
BIM experience a respondent had, the higher their impression of BIM would be,
in relation to its suitability in smaller value projects.
Based on the studys findings, the following statement can be derived: The
perceived suitability of BIM within lower value projects is proportional to an
individuals experience.
4.3.2 Question 2
What are the main reasons why companies/individuals are not currently using
BIM on lower value projects, and what evidence is available to support the
resistances?
The questionnaires highlighted that the main reason for the non-
implementation of BIM to date is that there is a perceived low client and design
team demand. This is coupled with a significant learning curve and high perceived
capital cost. BIM implementation has therefore not been their priority. Underlying
this, is their perceived impression that BIM is unsuitable for smaller valued
projects (discussed above). Throughout the study however, no evidence was given
to indicate that individuals have validated their impressions by testing the BIM
methodology within their workflow.
Based on the studys findings, the following statement can be derived: The
main reasons why individuals and companies have not implemented BIM within
their workflow is due to the perceived large learning curve, and the majority of
other resistances are ramifications stemming from the learning curve.
4.3.3 Question 3
What have been the main advantages and disadvantages for implementing BIM
on lower value projects and overall would companies or individuals recommend
BIM on lower value projects?
The data highlighted that one of the biggest advantages of using BIM was the
significant improvement of visualisations, which benefited the design team, client
and contractors. This means that even by implementing BIM Level One (refer to
Section 1.1) on a project, that project would receive significant advantages.
Even though most of the respondents that replied were from the design side of
the workflow, a number of advantages were directed towards contractors. One
aspect is that the contractor receives a fully quantified and accurate set of drawings
and schedules to a much higher level of quality and accuracy than previously
produced without BIM. This allows the contractor to tender the job at a higher
level of accuracy and therefore further reduce the risk to the project, which will be
beneficial to all parties.
One respondent highlighted that they would use BIM on any project, since by
investing in it early on in the process it will pay dividends by reducing risks during
the construction stage.
With regards to the disadvantages of using BIM, the majority of the factors
highlighted in this study were external to the methodology itself. There is a large
learning curve, both technically and in the way project designs are delivered. It
was highlighted multiple times that the current design fee and time structure has
not been changed to reflect the required upfront investment within the BIM design
process. However, some respondents felt that this was common on larger projects
and not limited to smaller valued projects.
The data analysis within this report noted that the majority of the disadvantages
highlighted would be reduced significantly or even eradicated once BIM
integration had been fully achieved.
4.4 Discussion of results
4.4.1 Size of company

The study found that smaller companies (110 employees) had a much higher
percentage of respondents who have not used BIM when compared to larger
companies (30+ employees). However, when the data is grouped together
differently in terms of people who have implemented BIM on most or all projects
and those who have not, the implementation rates are almost the same: 38%
compared to 41% respectively.
This finding contradicts the literature review where it was found that the
implementation rate of BIM in smaller consultancies is lower than in larger
consultancies. This could be because of the sample of respondents and/or
literatures definition of BIM implementation. The study found that there are a lot
more people in larger companies who are only seldom using BIM. However, it
does support the notion that it is easier and quicker for smaller companies to
implement BIM within their workflow, compared with larger ones.
4.4.2 Perceived client demand

From the individual questionnaire results, the study found that the perceived client
demand is low on both sides of the implementation spectrum. However, within the
project insights questionnaires, one key stakeholder who requested the level of
BIM was the client. These two results appear to contradict each other and dilutes
the perceived view that client demand for BIM is low. The project data set was
weak, so it is not possible to comment conclusively, but nonetheless, there is a
level of perceived client demand in other publications. The biggest client demand
highlighted within the literature review is the Government itself, requiring BIM to
be implemented by 2016 in their projects.
It is worth noting that just because current client demand may be low for a
product, it does not mean that something is not suitable. There have been many
examples throughout time that this is the case. One such example is Johannes
Gutenberg, who invented the printing press in the 15th century at a time when the
majority of the population was illiterate [14]. For the first time, books became
relatively affordable. People now had access to books; it motivated them to learn
to read, which in turn significantly increased client demand [14]. This may be one
of the reasons why, in the previous paragraph contradictions were found between
clients; some clients are illiterate in terms of BIM, do not understand it, and
therefore dismiss it, and there are clients that are literate in terms of BIM, have
seen the benefits and therefore demand its use. This could mean that when more
clients become literate in BIM, the clients demand will increase, which in turn
will increase the perception of the suitability of BIM, both on lower and higher
value projects.
5 Conclusions
The conclusion section of this study had been split into three sections: Limitations
and Further Study, Conclusions and Summary of Key Findings.
5.1 Limitations and further study
Further study into the workflow of smaller projects could be carried out. The study
could enquire into how previous projects have scaled down the BIM methodology
to suit the needs of their project, and what their major lessons learned through that
process were. At the same time, this will highlight a better understanding on the
practical aspects of the methodology. In particular, the added value and client
demand should be considered, since, ultimately, the clients requirements will
dictate the level of detail that will be contained within the BIM model.
5.2 Conclusions
Based on the data collected throughout the study, it can be concluded that
companies and individuals have not implemented BIM; not because of the
methodology itself, but because of the perceived learning curve and perceived
capital cost. Once over the learning curve and having outlaid the capital
expenditure, individuals and companies experience advantages that surpass their
investment.
The results indicate that it is easier and quicker to implement BIM within a
smaller practice. Larger companies appear to have a lot of personnel that are only
using BIM occasionally, which indicates it could be harder to fully implement
BIM within their workflow.
It was interesting to see the difference in opinion between individuals who have
and have not implemented BIM. In general, people who are not using BIM are
concerned about the lack of external demand and an increase in perceived capital
cost. Whereas, generally, people who have fully integrated BIM into their
workflow would recommend BIM on the majority of their projects, purely because
of the benefits they receive directly. Any other subsequent external benefits add
further value to the project.
Confidence of BIMs suitability dramatically increases once the project value
increases above 500,000. However, the study has not found evidence to suggest
that the BIM methodology is unsuitable on projects of any value. Most resistance
has been in the direction of its implementation; again relating to the learning curve
of the individual and industry. In other words, once fully integrated, the resistances
and disadvantages will be limited.
The methodology will need to be adapted to suit each project situation, no
matter what size or sector; similar to some other aspects of the construction
industry. Thus, this investigation can conclude that BIM Level Two is suitable for
all project values on the proviso that the methodology is changed to suit the clients
and project teams needs.
5.3 Summary of key findings
The studys key findings can be summarised as follows:

BIM is suitable on projects of all values, provided it is adapted to suit the
project. It is noted that project value is not the sole factor when considering
how BIM is going to be used; there are many other factors that will
influence the requirements of the BIM model.
The advantages and disadvantages of BIM are common to both large and
small value projects, with the learning curve being the key resistance to
implementation.
There is no justification for the slower rate of BIM implementation on
smaller projects. On the contrary, results and publications indicate it is
easier to implement BIM fully in smaller consultancies.
BIMs perceived suitability is proportional to the individuals experience
of BIM.
References
[1] National BIM Report 2014, NBS, Online. http://www.thenbs.com/
pdfs/NBS-National-BIM-Report-2014.pdf
[2] A report for the Government Construction Client Group Building
Information Modelling (BIM) Working Party Strategy Paper, BIM Task
Group, Online. http://www.bimtaskgroup.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/
BIS-BIM-strategy-Report.pdf
[3] Construction-Operations Building Information Exchange, East, B., Online.
http://www.wbdg.org/resources/cobie.php
[4] Industry Strategy Government and Industry in Partnership Building
Information Modelling, HM Government, Online. https://www.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/34710/12-1327-
building-information-modelling.pdf
[5] Building Information Modelling, Out-Law, Online. http://www.out-
law.com/en/topics/projects--construction/projects-and-procurement/
building-information-modelling/
[6] Building Information Modelling (BIM): Now and Beyond, Azhar, S.,
Khalfan, M. & Maqsood T., Online. http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/
index.php/AJCEB/article/view/3032
[7] Klaschka, R. BIM in Small Practices: Illustrated Case Studies. 134th Ed.
London & New York: Taylor & Francis, 2014.
[8] Dawes, L., BIM: Reducing Complexity without Losing Clarity, Online.
http://cic.org.uk/blog/article.php?s=2014-01-23-bim-reducing-complexity-
without-losing-clarity
[9] Sebastian, R., Haak, W., Vos, E., Tuckman, B., BIM Application for
Integrated Design and Engineering in Small-Scale Housing Development:
A Pilot Project in The Netherlands, International Symposium CIB-W096
Future Trends in Architectural, Management, Online. http://www.inpro-
project.eu/media/R_SEBASTIAN_BIM_Application_for_Integrated_D_a
nd_E_in_Small-Scale_Housing_Development_Pilot_Project.pdf
[10] Miller, D., BIM from the point of view of a small practice, Online.
https://www.thenbs.com/topics/BIM/articles/bimSmallPractice.asp
[11] Bryde, D., Broquetas, M. & Marc Volm, J. The Project Benefits Of
Building Information Modelling (BIM), International Journal of Project
Management, vol. 31, pp. 971-980, 2013.
[12] Bridging Gap between BIM & Residential Owners, Architectural, Online.
http://www.architecturalevangelist.com/building-information-
modeling/bridging-gap-between-bim-residential-owners.html
[13] What is grounded theory? Grounded Theory Online, Scott, H, Online.
http://www.groundedtheoryonline.com/what-is-grounded-theory
[14] The Impact of the Printing Press, SKWIRK, Online.
http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-56_u-422_t-1108_c-4280/the-impact-of-
the-printing-press/qld/the-impact-of-the-printing-press/renaissance-and-
reformation/the-reformation
Overcoming challenges in BIM and gaming

integration: the case of a hospital project
A. Figueres-Munoz & C. Merschbrock
Department of Civil Engineering and Energy Technology,
Abstract
Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a valuable technology for design in the
architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry. Creating BIM-based
computer games is a new application area of BIM technology that can provide an
additional dimension to its utility by allowing facility users and designers to visit
the facility before it is completed. Scholars report that BIM games can be used in
various areas such as construction site safety, building operation and design.
Besides, games can aid in communicating architectural concepts to people not
familiar with building construction. In this article, the integration of BIM and
gaming is explored by analysing some of the issues emerging when integrating
these technologies. A case study of a Norwegian construction project where a BIM
model served as a graphical environment to develop a staff training game has been
conducted. The findings are constructed by applying a relatively fresh theoretical
approach, namely: Alters Theory of Workarounds. The article explicates how
practitioners cope with BIM-gaming integration challenges. Moreover, the
consequences of their actions are elaborated. We find that existing approaches for
resolving interoperability challenges are not properly applied in practice. Finally,
we suggest key factors to improve BIM-gaming integration.
Keywords: BIM, gaming, integration, serious games, workarounds.
1 Introduction
Digital serious games have become a major trend in the global education market
[1]. Serious games are used with educational purposes in several contexts. Ratan
and Ritterfeld [2] report applications in academic education, military, and health,
among others. An example of the latter is the use of videogames to train healthcare
doi:10.2495/BIM150281
staff [3].The educational use of digital games has been a research topic for more
than forty years [4]. In that time, serious games have proved their value for
increasing learning [5].
Digital games have only recently emerged as an area within Architecture,
Engineering and Construction (AEC) research. Accordingly, this technology is
rarely applied in todays construction projects. To signify this, the Journal of
Information Technology in Construction recently ran a special issue on the topic
area [6]. It covered the use of digital games for academic education [7], building
design optimization [8] and staff training [4].
This current interest in gaming is fuelled by the increasing availability of digital
building design models. Building Information Modelling (BIM) systems are used
as platforms of IT tools employed to design virtual models seeking to present all
physical and functional characteristics of a building [9]. Not only does BIM drive
innovation in the industry, it yields also potential for combinatorial innovation by
combining it with other systems [10, 11]. BIMs integration with gaming
technology is an example of such combinatorial innovation. Here, BIM models
are used as 3D graphical environments in serious games.
On the technological side, BIM and gaming technologies use object-oriented
programming (OOP) making the combination feasible [12, 13]. However, BIM
has a legacy of integration issues, and there are challenges to combining these
technologies [1315]. These challenges are due to different data structures and
ways to store information within each technology. Distorted geometries, missing
textures or faults related to the overall organization of the model hierarchy are
examples of frequently reported interoperability issues [1318]. Thus BIM data is
not always correctly interpreted by game engines. A game engine can be defined
as the software used to produce and display images in real-time on the display
device of a computer game [8]. Interoperability issues have been reported as an
important reason for why integration of BIM and gaming is a challenging arena
[16, 17].
Promising early stage results for converting BIM- to gaming-data have been
achieved by developing dedicated software to undertake the translation [13, 16].
However, these systems are not yet commercially available and practitioners
address the lack of interoperability by resorting to workarounds, as taking
intermediary steps via other existing design systems to facilitate their file
exchange [13]. An example of this would be to transform a Revit file into a 3DS
file before importing it into Unity3D
.
This article sets out to give an initial understanding of the messy practice to
overcome the lack of interoperability in BIM and gaming integration. To do so we
ask the following research question in our inquiry:
How is BIM and gaming integration handled in practice and how
can this integration be improved?
To answer the question, we ran a case-study in a Norwegian hospital
construction project where BIM models of the new, yet unbuilt hospital served as
a base for developing a video game. The project was the first application of a BIM-
based game for professional training in a healthcare construction project in
Norway. Our analysis is guided by Alters Theory of Workarounds [19].
Applying this theory enabled us to uncovering some of the issues emerging in BIM
and gaming integration.
The structure of the article is as follows. First, we present Alters Theory of
Workarounds [19]. Second, we present the hospital case. Third, we present the
findings of our analysis based on the theory of workarounds. Finally, we discuss
the findings and provide practical suggestions of how to address BIM and gaming
integration.
2 Theoretical lens
The article explores the practical work undertaken by construction professionals
in their efforts to integrate BIM and gaming. Working based on BIM technologies
is often messy and requires practitioners to resort to workarounds reconfiguring
their work routines [14]. The theory of workarounds has been proposed as a novel
analytical approach enabling the study of digital, messy, and practical work [19].
Workarounds are defined by Alter as goal-driven adaptation, improvisation, or
other change to one or more aspects of an existing work system in order to
overcome, bypass, or minimize the impact of obstacles, exceptions, anomalies,
mishaps, established practices, management expectations, or structural constraints
that are perceived as preventing that work system or its participants from achieving
a desired level of efficiency, effectiveness, or organizational or personal goals
[19]. The concept of a work system in this context entails a system in which
human participants and/or machines perform processes and activities using
information, technology, and other resources to produce products/services for
internal/external customers [20].
The aforementioned theory has been deemed appropriate for our study since
the emerging practices in BIM and gaming integration can be viewed as
workarounds. The theory can be viewed as a process theory developed for
classifying workarounds, analysing how they occur, for understanding
compliance and noncompliance to methods and management mandates, for
incorporating consideration of possible workarounds [19].
The theory has its origins in loose coupling theory in which work is
conceptualized along five voices [21]. Alter defines in his own five voices to
classify workarounds. These are: (1) phenomena associated with workarounds; (2)
types of workarounds; (3) direct effects of workarounds; (4) perspectives on
workarounds; and (5) organizational challenges and dilemmas related to
workarounds [19]. The interplay between these workaround voices is depicted in
figure 1.
A staged research approach has been suggested for inquiries theoretically
informed by workaround theory. A workaround study should identify: (1)
intentions, goals, interests of each work participant; (2) structure, architecture and
characteristics of the work system; (3) perceived need for workaround; (4)
identification of workarounds by consideration of all knowledge available; (5)
selection of workaround; (6) development and execution of the workaround; (7)
local and broader consequences including advantages and disadvantages of the
Figure 1: The five voices of workarounds (adapted [19]).
workaround. Workarounds can occur as quick-fixes or improvisations lasting but

a few seconds as well as routinized workflows lasting years. It has been suggested
that workarounds may evolve from ad-hoc practices into systematized methods.
3 Method
A case study approach was chosen to explore BIM and gaming integration. A case
study allows for exploring sticky, practice based problems where the experiences
of the actors are important and the context of the action is critical [22]. Moreover,
it helps researchers in studying innovations put in place by practitioners [22].
Therefore, we considered this an appropriate strategy to answer the research
question: How is BIM and gaming integration handled in practice and how can
this integration be improved? We explore a healthcare construction project in
stfold, Norway. The project comprises the construction of several facilities
including buildings for the hospital itself and for services as laundry or central
sterilization. The use of BIM technology in the design phase was defined as a
strategic goal by the client in order to explore how to optimize facilities operation
by using available digital models. The client is the South-Eastern Norway
Regional Health Authority (Helse Sr-st). A county hospital agency, stfold
Sykehus, will operate the facilities. The projects gross floor area is 85,082 square
meters, and the cost estimate is 670 million. Prior to starting up the operation of
the hospital, roughly 2500 staff will complete a training program to become
familiar with the new work environment. Following the goal of optimizing
facilities operation, part of the training consists in playing the BIM based
computer game. An alpha version of the game was developed to explore the
possibilities of such a tool in the training, and to help the hospital management
decide to what extent the game should be developed further. Afterwards, a full
version consisting of three modules of the game targeting different staff groups
was developed.
This setting was found to fit the purpose of our article: (1) BIM and gaming
technologies were integrated to develop the staff-training programs, and (2) the
game had reached a stage near completion.
Data collection was carried out from April 2013 to May 2014. Nine semi-
structured interviews and one focus group interview were conducted, involving
altogether twelve individuals. Interviewees had either hands-on or managerial
tasks in developing or testing the serious game. Representatives of each
stakeholder group involved in the making of the game were interviewed. These
groups were: (1) the clients managers responsible for both the BIM model and
the development of the game, (2) representatives of the four firms involved in
developing the games alpha- and full-versions, and (3) a range of healthcare
professionals. Interviews details can be found in Table 1.
Table 1: Interviews conducted.
Affiliation Services provided Date

Responsible BIM
manager (architecture, April 2013 and
Client #1 (regional health authority)
engineering and March 2014
construction expert)
Responsible gaming
Client #2 (hospital) March 2014
manager
Developer #1 (alpha version, Firm #1) 3D artist in game design March 2014
Developer #2 (alpha version, Firm #2) CEO and game developer March 2014
Developer #3 (alpha version, Firm #3) CEO and game developer March 2014
March and
Developer #4 (full version, Firm #4) CEO
April 2014
Counsellor game design,
Healthcare professional #1 May 2014
experienced expert
Game testers,
Healthcare professional #2, #3, #4, #5, #6 May 2014
experienced expert
Interviews were conducted face-to-face and in two instances via Skype.

Interviews lasted on average forty minutes. All interviewees were informed about
the modalities of the interviews and gave their informed consent for the process.
The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded according to the concepts
relevant in the theory of workarounds.
In addition to interviews, complementary data about the project was gathered
from a game testing session and document analysis, e.g. trade press articles or
public announcements.
4 Analysis
In what follows, BIM and gaming integration is analysed for the alpha and the full
versions of the game. First, the workarounds practitioners resorted to are identified
and presented, guided by the steps provided in the workaround theory. Second,
these workarounds are classified according to the five voices of workarounds.
4.1 The alpha version- BIM and gaming digital integration
The county hospital agency to operate the facilities intended to explore the
possibilities of using gaming technology for staff-training purposes. The hospitals
intention was, put into words, to get a computer game as simple as possible for
those not familiar with computer games (Developer #3).
To that effect, they contracted three start-up companies anonymized here as

Firm #1, Firm #2 and Firm #3, all connected to a local business incubator. The
goal of all three companies was to collaborate according to their strengths to
efficiently create the computer game. Firms #1 and #2 would in the first place
build a Unity3D model (see Figure 2) to be used as scenario, and make it
interactive, i.e. allow objects to respond the actions or commands. An example of
that is to enable doors to be open and close. Then, Firm #3 would develop the
computer games plot on the Unity model provided by Firms #1 and #2.
Figure 2: Interventions for BIM to game integration.
The perceived need for a workaround arose when Firm 1 tried to directly import
the BIM model handed out by architects into the game engine. It was a 200MB
file and according to Developer #1, it appeared an importing size limit there. It
just did not work (...). There was too much information, a game engine just needs
what is visible, not everything lying inside the walls. Developers missed a clear
dialog with architects to ask for a simpler one matching their needs. Having access
to a simpler BIM model of the facilities would have eased the integration with
game engines. As Developer #1 puts it: Architects can easily select surfaces,
ceilings, interior claddings. And then just ignore the rest. Then save the model just
with this information, so we would get a much less extensive one. This one model
could be easily set into the game engine.
The initial selection of the workaround to pursue was a consequence of the first
attempt at importing the whole BIM model into the game engine and involved
Firms #1 and #2. The workaround procedure consisted in (1) dividing the Revit
model in smaller models, (2) removing all unnecessary information, (3) importing
these smaller models into Unity and finally (4) addressing manually faults in
textures and materials assigned to objects. The following quote illustrates how
tedious the last step was: When they (Firm #2) put this model in (the game
engine), it followed all materials and textures. Something as simple as a window
had three or four materials. So they had to go through it and (check the assigned
materials). Very time consuming. It was too tiresome ().Most of the work was
about cleansing the model (Developer #1).
This workaround enabled the digital integration of BIM and gaming
technologies. A broader consequence of this workaround, was reported by
Developer #3: the scene (resulting of importing the BIM model) was a big one,
whereas in gaming we prefer having scenes in a one room scale. After going from
a room to another room, these are dynamically created and removed to save
computing resources. Thus, using BIM models as a background for a computer
game requires a more powerful computer to manage the graphics.
4.2 The full version: BIM and gaming manual integration
Based on the learning from the alpha version, the hospital decided to commission
a new company, referred here to as Firm #4, with the development of the full
version of the game. This Firm counts with 20 years of experience in staff training
and game development. According to its CEO, Developer #4, stfold Hospital
wanted (us to do) a simulation of the workplaces to train staff () with a starting
point in the BIM model and architect drawings, (...) implementing the best existing
background information. The firms intention was, still according to its CEO, not
to optimize the game (development), but create reflexion in the user (Developer
#4).
The work system deployed this time had at its core a team of specialists within
gaming and healthcare. This team was set by the hospital as a link and main contact
between architects and game developers. The reason for establishing this link team
can be explained by the following quote of its leader, Client #2 describing his job:
I communicate the hospitals needs to those developing the game, and vice versa,
I am like a bridge in between, arguing and arranging meetings to make this as
smooth as possible. The setup seemed to engage Firm #4 in this collaborative
approach, as Developer #4 considers We both (the client and Firm #4) knew this
was something we made together, but they have a project leader who is always
available, that is essential to work this out.
A first contact with the BIM model made Developer #4 aware of the challenges
of integrating BIM and gaming. This first contact was described as bad, really
bad (). The problem is that the BIM model is built in a completely different way
and with a completely different starting point than what a game engine needs.
Furthermore, he pointed two main differences between BIM models and the
required input of a game engine: (1) the required level of detail in the geometry of
the environment, and (2) the modularity of the elements contained in them: (when
developing a game) you make just one window, () this window is then copied
thousand times, but is still the same one. The computer understands that. These
differences were perceived as obstacles hindering digital integration. The
perceived need for a workaround was made explicit in the following quote: you
could never upload the whole hospital (to the game engine). It would never work.
Only one potential workaround was identified, and thus selected. This
consisted in developing the game geometrical background manually, not
importing BIM data at all. As Developer #4 puts it: the BIM model became then
just a kind of 3D draft for us, and we build it (the game) up from scratch.
This workaround was a means of integrating BIM and gaming data allowing
practitioners to keep using established and well known work processes, yet it
required re-entering of geometry and materials information manually. Modelling
the geometrical background manually implied also that the game engine manages
to render only surrounding 3D geometry when moving around in the game, not
compromising computing resources.
4.3 Classification based on the five voices
A classification of the two identified workarounds can be found in Table 2. Alters

five voice classification [19] permitted the identification of phenomena associated
with each workaround, as well as their type, direct effects and perspectives. The
fifth voice in the theory, the organizational challenges related to workarounds,
accounts for the combination of the other four.
Table 2: Classification of workarounds according to Alters [19] five voices.
Phenomena Perspectives
Types of Direct effects of
Workarounds associated with of
workaround workaround
workaround workaround
Continuation of
Technology misfits work
Digital Obstacles inherent Creation of Creative act
integration in emergent process Overcome inefficiencies
inadequate IT Future
(alpha
Improvisation functionality Impact on improvement
version)
Agency subsequent
Substitute for activities
unavailable
Technology misfits or inadequate Continuation of
Manual resources work
Obstacles inherent
integration Resistance
in emergent process Create
(full version)
Agency inefficiencies
The two workarounds presented have many common features as they occurred
in similar contexts. Both can be associated with obstacles inherent to innovative
use of technology. Interoperability issues when trying to integrate BIM and
gaming technologies can be seen as a technology misfit. This misfit was addressed
differently in each workaround according to the firms goals and desires, what can
be considered an agency issue as suggested by Eisenhardt [23]. The workaround
executed by firms #1 and #2 to integrate BIM and gaming showed a certain degree
of improvisation, as these designed and executed the workaround at once.
More common features appear when defining what type of workarounds the
presented ones were. Both of them can be classified as an overall way to
compensate for an inadequate IT functionality, causing interoperability issues
when integrating BIM and gaming. Furthermore, they can be seen as a way to
substitute for unavailable or inadequate resources. However, slight differences
should be pointed out here. Game developers from Firms #1 and #2 explicitly
claimed the unavailability of sufficiently simplified BIM models, while game
developer in Firm #4 perceived these models were completely inadequate.
The most important direct effect of both workarounds is that they enabled
practitioners to continue their work. Other identified direct effects of the two
presented workarounds include the creation of inefficiencies as both entailed
tedious and time consuming processes to integrate BIM and gaming technologies.
In addition, the workaround related to the alpha version had an impact on the game
development as a big scene required more computing power.
The studied workarounds offer different perspectives. On the one hand,
digitally integrating BIM and gaming technologies regardless of the technological
hurdles can be argued as a creative act, opening up for further improvements.
Reflecting on how to face integration in the future, Developer #1 was prompted to
think of an improved workaround. The following quote shows his suggestion: I
would first have opened the (BIM) model in a 3D graphics program, looked at it,
and then take some kind of decision about what is easier (). It will take a long
time anyway. You have to find how to do it effectively. But do not take it into the
game engine before you have cleansed everything, systematized materials,
removed as much information as possible. On the other hand, undertaking
integration by manually modelling the geometrical background from scratch can
be seen as a form of disengagement with the opportunities of an emerging,
innovative practice.
The main challenge BIM-gaming integration offers is apparent, as the lack of
interoperability had be addressed by resorting to workarounds. The dilemma of
the organizations was either to undertake integration digitally, or manually.
5 Discussion
We have shown how practitioners resorted to workarounds to overcome
challenges BIM-gaming integration poses. In what follows, we discuss why digital
integration is preferable guided by Alters five voices and elaborate key factors to
improve digital BIM-gaming integration.
The reason practitioners should resort to workarounds to integrate BIM and
gaming technologies was their perception of the technology currently aiding this
innovation as constraining. They responded then with inertia and reinvention,
avoiding a digital integration of BIM data and gaming technology and keeping
using their work methods (inertia) or overcoming constraints by using technology
in unintended ways as uploading a too heavy file into the game engine
(reinvention). This finding is in line with former research by Boudreau and Robey
[24].
Practitioners were aware of the technological challenges they faced when
having to integrate BIM and gaming. They perceived an inadequate functionality
of technology. Having an earlier involvement in the construction design phase,
can make this perception different as practitioners could explore how to efficiently
approach integration, allowing them to communicate their need properly. Thus,
we propose that an earlier and more active involvement of game developers in the
construction design phase is factor to improve digital BIM-gaming integration.
Both manually and digital integration enabled their original goal, integrate BIM
and gaming technologies. However, these approaches required tedious and time-
consuming processes to success. Literature shows different workflows to
efficiently export BIM data into game engines [15, 17, 18]. These include several
software tools and multiple steps. Kumar et al. [17] found importing BIM data
directly into the game engine through a FBX file format to be the best workflow
when aiming to transfer as much information as possible. Recent research

recommends taking an intermediate step by importing BIM data to Autodesk 3DS
Max , and then to the game engine [15, 18] to overcome the reported inaccuracies
related to distorted geometries, missing textures and the overall organization of
the model hierarchy [1318]. This proposed workflow can be seen as a routinized
workaround as several researchers have tested and reported improvements to the
process, and illustrates that a digital BIM-gaming integration is affordable.
However, the lack of knowledge of up to date research made all practitioners in
the case study undergo a painful process. Those who digitally integrated BIM
and gaming came to a similar proposal just after improvising a more demanding
workaround, and those who undertook the manually integration never glimpsed
the effort-saving opportunities digital integration offers. Thus, we suggest that
another key factor to improve digital BIM-gaming integration is to establish a
mutual information between research and practice.
The digital integration of BIM and gaming technologies has proven its
suitability to evolve into a systematized method and gain from software
development. The last key factor to improve digital BIM-gaming integration is
then encouraging to use BIM technology during facilities operation phase, as this
would drive further required developments.
5.1 Contributions
This article contributes to research by providing an initial understanding of how

practitioners handled with a digital innovation in the construction industry,
namely, BIM and gaming integration. Provided that only one case study has been
analysed, further research is needed to validate our findings and provide an
exhaustive account on this topic. Moreover, we argue that Alters theory of
workaround useful to explore the messy practices around BIM-gaming integration.
This study contributes to practice as well. We have reported weaknesses of current
attempts to integrate BIM and gaming technologies, and suggested factors to
improve the practical integration. The AEC industry can gain from the learning
drawn from other professionals experiences and our conclusions.
6 Conclusion
This article aimed to cast some light to the messy practices to overcome challenges
in BIM and gaming integration. We have presented current approaches to BIM-
gaming integration and the consequences these entailed. Moreover we have
suggested how this integration could be improved. Technology aiding BIM-
gaming integration was perceived as constraining, and practitioners resorted to
workarounds to enable the use of BIM data as geometrical background for
computer games. Current approaches to do so consisted in either (1) digitally
integrate BIM and gaming regardless of the technological hurdles, or (2) in
manually re-entering information from the BIM model into gaming software.
Although both approaches entailed tedious and time-consuming processes, only
the digital integration resembles proposed workflows to efficiently integrate BIM
and gaming, and opened for further improvements. Key factors to improve BIM
and gaming digital integration are: (1) early and active involvement of game
developers in the design phase, (2) establishment of a mutual information between
research and practice, and (3) encouragement of the use of BIM during facilities
operation phase.
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Link between BIM and energy simulation

M. Senave1 & S. Boeykens2
1
Building Physics Section, KU Leuven, Belgium
2
Department of Architecture, KU Leuven, Belgium
Abstract
The emerging policies on building energy performance, developed by
governments to face growing environmental concerns, stress the need for means
to predict the future performance of a scheme in order to ensure that the as-built
project will meet regulations. Several methods may enable us to expeditiously
make the link between a Building Information Model (BIM) and energy
simulation tools during the design process. We can differentiate between
energy evaluations accomplished within the BIM software and those requiring
data transfer from the model to specific analysis tools. Likewise, we can make a
distinction between evaluations applicable during the concept and the design
phase. The intention of the research described in this paper was to gain insight into
the technical abilities and to point out issues concerning the relation between BIM
and energy simulation in the different stages of design, with an emphasis on the
conceptual stage. Hence a concise overview of the appropriate literature has been
made, followed by five case studies. We get acquainted with an arsenal of tools,
some of which still in a scientific stage, and see all kinds of promising
developments on the market, both from BIM applications and from energy
simulation tools. Software used includes ArchiCAD, Revit, Sefaira, the Space
Boundary Tool, EnergyPlus, SketchUp, Open Studio and the EPB software
imposed by the Belgian government.
Keywords: BIM, building energy performance (BEP), energy simulation
(software), interoperability, information query, data transfer, design stages
1 Introduction
Latterly, Building Information Modelling (BIM) has proven to be one of the major
innovations in the building industry. Being more than just a software tool that
improves the efficiency of design work, BIM is profoundly changing the
doi:10.2495/BIM150291
construction process and the way in which the partners of a building team
collaborate (Eastman et al. [1]). Around the world an increasing adoption by
architects and building companies can be observed (Bernstein and Jones [2],
ArchVision [3]).
Furthermore, we are faced with growing environmental issues, such as the
inevitable depletion of fossil energy reserves and the greenhouse effect. Under
growing scrutiny from the public opinion, governments impose restrictions on the
energy consumption of buildings. This enlarges the need for means to predict the
energy performance of building projects and to ensure they will meet regulations.
Building energy performance (BEP) tools are generally divided into two
categories according to the purpose of the calculation: design tools and simulation
tools (Maile et al. [4]). Design tools take worst-case scenarios into account to
determine the optimal size of HVAC systems. Energy simulation tools often
include dynamic calculations that consider a whole year. They can be used to
assess the energy demand, indoor environmental quality, carbon dioxide emission,
pay-back periods of energy saving measures, and so on. The results of these
calculations are a valuable source of information, not only to compare alternative
solutions in the conceptual phase or to check throughout the design process if the
energy performance is on track to meet regulations, but also for Model Predictive
Control in the operational phase. Although many cases are generally valid for a
link between BIM and BEP software, the focus in this research was put on energy
simulation tools.
The input data needed to endorse an assessment of the BEP include information
on the building envelope and thermal mass, weather data, information on the
building services, internal loads, operating strategies and schedules and simulation
specific parameters. At the start of a project the design team will focus on the
building and assume default systems with fixed efficiencies. In the later stages of
design rather fixed building parameters are assumed and emphasis is put on the
building services. Accurate input data are a prerequisite for the generation of
reliable simulation results. Furthermore, simulation software capable of using
these data to evaluate a particular design decision, analysis of the results that
focuses on the design decision and a competent user are required (Bazjanac et al.
[5]).
During the design process, the performance of a scheme might be optimized by
a sequence of analysis and feedback. BIM consolidates this iteration, since the
intelligent model serves as a common, continuously up-to-date database that is
steadily refined until the desired objectives are met (fig. 1). To this purpose proper
methods of deriving and converting the input for the simulation model are
essential.
The ideal and automated integration of multi-criteria design evaluation with
BIM is not fully implemented yet. Instead of automatically generating a Building
Energy Model (BEM model), manually re-entering of architectural and technical
information into static calculation or dynamic simulation software is common
practice: a highly inefficient working method, prone to errors. Moreover, Bazjanac
and Kiviniemi [6] states that a virtual model for energy assessment entails
Figure 1: BIM facilitates an iterative workflow. In this paper we will merely

focus on the aspect energy performance. Because of the mutual
influence of structure, cost, sustainability, etc. multi-criteria design
evaluation is, however, preferable.
divergent properties than one created from an architectural point of view. Hence
the data embedded in the BIM has to undergo a threefold transformation:
reduction, translation and interpretation. Such operations are time-consuming and
complex. Due to misinterpretations later reproductions might even be impossible.
Therefore, the transformation process should be automated and standardised.
The generation of an appropriate energy model and the subsequent evaluation
can be accomplished within BIM software. We categorise this integrated type of
energy assessments as internal. By contrast, external energy evaluations
require data transfer from the model to specific analysis tools.
BIM provides the building team with a substantial amount of information in an
early stage, so the enhancement of the performance of a scheme can be considered
at a time when the cost of changes is relatively low. Yet, even if the amount of
information available on the elements and objects (the Level of Detail) is high in
the conceptual stage, this does not necessarily mean that all these characteristics
have been analysed thoroughly and have been agreed upon, which is necessary to
obtain a high Level of Development (LOD). This might make the results of the
simulations in the conceptual and preliminary stages to exhibit a low reliability
and large dispersion.
The authors of this paper want to explore the technical viability and point out
issues concerning the link between BIM and energy simulation, emphasizing on
the conceptual stage. Primarily we contemplate the necessary data transfer
between the model and the energy simulation program. A building information
model usually is abounding in data which makes it difficult to be used straight
away. Which information stored in the model must minimally be handed over in
order to meet the needs of the energy simulation? How can we extract these data
from the model and introduce them into the analysis software? Secondly we
discuss the assimilation of BIM and the energy performance analysis into the
design process. Can a virtual building easily be evaluated against governmental
regulations and can one readily see the consequences of the adjustment of a
parameter on the energy consumption? Finally we consider the relation between
BIM software packages, increasingly providing the user with built-in modules for
energy evaluation, and BEP simulation software with improving graphical input
and visualisation of results.
Five case studies, selected on the basis of two criteria, were accomplished.
Firstly we differentiate between energy evaluations performed by tools external to
BIM software (case 1, 2 and 4) and those integrated within BIM (case 3 and 5).
The second criterion relates to the design phase in which the model is analysed:
evaluations made in the concept phase (case 4 and 5) or during the design stage
(case 1, 2, 3).
Most case studies are implemented on a detached house comprising two floors
and a flat roof. To ensure that the findings are not of limited validity, two variants
have been formulated: a house with a pitched roof and a terraced house.
2 Findings of the case studies

2.1 Case Study 1: external/design stage
energy performance evaluation according to the Belgian EPB regulation
The objective of this case study is to investigate if a BIM model containing

building elements of a higher level of development facilitates the calculation of
the BEP according to the EPB Directive that applies in Belgium. Both for new
buildings and renovations it is mandatory to use the EPB software tool to assess
the BEP, so authorities may verify compliance with the regulatory demands on the
degree of insulation and the use of primary energy. The programs file format is
not open, and there is no possibility to import CAD or BIM files. So the requisite
data on geometry, thermal properties of materials, building services, etc. should
be collected from the BIM model and entered manually in the EPB program.
BIM software packages offer several possibilities for extracting model data. To
obtain information embedded in a Graphisoft ArchiCAD 17 model, one can for
instance generate lists or schedules, create an IFC file or use the element
information tool. In this case study these data extraction methods are specifically
used to collect the necessary information for the EPB software. Two examples will
be cited.
EPB has certain rules for how the geometry of a building should be entered.
One of the principles is that the outer dimensions should be taken into account
(Vlaams Energieagentschap [7]). Extraction methods that can comply with these
rules had to be invented. As ArchiCADs integrated Energy Evaluation tool
utilises net room volumes, it was not directly applicable and several separate
ArchiCAD Zones and Morphs (freeform 3D volumes) had to be modelled just to
derive the required geometric data (protected volume, heat loss area, gross floor
area). This proved to be an intensely complex and inefficient task.
To determine the area of the window profiles, one could simply rely on the
Energy Evaluation tool, because it automatically provides this information. The
tool however uses another measurement method than the one prescribed by EPB:
it identifies the integral profile area, instead of solely the part between the reveals.
Consequently a schedule with the appropriate parameter as schedule field could
be used to list the correct window profile area.
The various analyses showed there is no single, fully automatic, adequate

method obtainable. At all times an amalgam of methods should be applied to
acquire the desired data. Part of the research findings have been summarised in
table 1, which indicates if the data needed for the EPB assessment could be
extracted from the BIM model in one way or another. For the extensive table we
refer to (Senave [8]). Alas, only a subset of the required information could be
derived directly from the virtual model. In a number of cases the information was
not readily available and had to be obtained through additional, time-consuming
and sometimes far-fetched modelling or the creation of new elements. In other
cases, the necessary information was not present. It could be a solution to attach
this specific information to the elements in the BIM model.
Table 1: Part of the research findings of Case Study 1; data query for the
EPB program.
This would fit the BIM philosophy (storing all information centrally and
accessible to all building partners) and make the model more of use for EPB
declarations afterwards, but appears in some cases to reach the limitations of the
available empty fields. Moreover, the form in which the data are available is not
always as desired, making additional operations indispensable. The difference
between the measurement methods available in the BIM software and those
prescribed by EPB plays a crucial role in this. Specific to ArchiCAD, the weak
link between the data disclosed by the Energy Evaluation tool in its Excel report
and the elements in the model (e.g. the lack of IDs) complicates the process.
Through a number of stop-gap measures, it is possible to export the majority of
the geometrical properties from the ArchiCAD model. The available data of the
technical installations could not be recovered. In spite of all data extraction
methods BIM software like ArchiCAD offers, this case study showed that a lot of
difficulties arise when a user tries to obtain specific data for an external energy
analysis. We therefore may conclude that this link and particular workflow, even
if technically feasible, certainly is not user-friendly and hence has little chance to
succeed.
2.2 Case Study 2: external/design stage from BIM to an

external Building Energy Simulation Program
In a second case study we investigate if the link between a BIM model and an
energy simulation package via the IFC standard is functioning properly. We
therefore examine the Space Boundary Tool (SBT), developed by LBNL (SBT
[9]). In this tool, meant to enable the transfer of BIM model data to EnergyPlus
(fig. 2), the principles of data transformation (see 1) have been implemented in a
clear and demonstrative way. We put the tool to a test by means of two simple
box buildings, developed within Graphisoft ArchiCAD 17 and Autodesk Revit
2014. When intending to perform energy simulations later on, one should keep in
mind some rules while constructing the BIM model. Besides general conventions
of energy models (Maile et al. [10]), the SBT and EnergyPlus also have their own
requirements and limitations (ODonnell et al. [11]).
Figure 2: The SBT, a middleware tool providing the link between BIM
and EnergyPlus through the IFC format (adapted from Maile et al.
[4, p. 33]).
A BIM model saved as an IFC with a certain Model View Definition can be
imported in the SBT, where the file is enriched with space boundaries. As for the
IFC model developed in Autodesk Revit, the SBT seamlessly recovered all space
boundaries. In the case of the ArchiCAD 17-IFC, the authors experienced some
problems concerning the definition of the windows. The content of the enriched
IFC file should thus be inspected.
The conversion of a BIM model into a model useful for energy evaluation
through an IFC file was a complex process because in addition to the well-
documented automatic operations (Bazjanac [12, 13]) a number of manual actions
had to be carried out. One step in the conversion process in which human
intervention is needed is the matching of the materials found in the IFC-based BIM
to corresponding materials in the EnergyPlus material library. For instance, each
layer of an ArchiCAD exterior wall construction has to be translated into a material
layer of EnergyPlus to constitute an equivalent wall.
The SBT only retrieves data concerning the geometry, materials and
constructions from a BIM model. Consequently it asks the user to manually
specify simulation and load characteristics and generates an IDF file. The
geometry present in this file can be inspected visually by opening it in SketchUp
(using the Open Studio Plug-in) or by requesting EnergyPlus to create a DXF
output file following the analysis. The user can add information on technical
systems, user behaviour and internal gains to the EnergyPlus input file later on.
A number of operations have to be executed to transfer the information
embedded in a BIM model into a BEM model in order to run one simulation. Next,
the BEM model can be developed further, it is, however, not possible to coordinate
these adjustments to the BIM model. The other way around, the BIM model may
be modified as the design evolves. But since it is not possible to automatically
synchronise the two models, one has to start from scratch again with the BIM to
BEM conversion.
Meanwhile, the developers of the SBT created a new, fully comprehensive tool,
Simergy, which furthermore enables to include information on internal loads and
HVAC systems in the simulation input file (Simergy [14]). This might make the
SBT redundant, but it remains an instructive demonstration of the data
transformation methodology.
2.3 Case Study 3: internal/design stage

energy evaluation integrated within BIM software
In an ideal world a variety of simulation and BIM software exists and the user can
link any of them through the IFC file format. However, this seems not
straightforward. Besides, BIM developers increasingly incorporate simulation
tools into their modelling packages, directing to a number of advantages, the main
one being the ease of working with only one software program. Graphisoft, for
instance, provided its software ArchiCAD 17 with the Energy Evaluation tool
which we will evaluate in this case study.
Abiding by some guidelines while modelling in BIM will advance the
generation of the energy model and will provide more profound simulation
prospects. These aspects concern e.g. the way the building envelope is modelled
or user zones are created. Once the desired architectural concept has been
developed in BIM, the Energy Evaluation tool automatically creates a
corresponding Building Energy Model. The hereby generated space boundaries
are listed as Structures and Openings, along with their unique geometrical and
physical properties, orientation and position relative to the thermal block to which
they belong. Apart from the automatically generated BEM geometry, that may be
checked visually, the accuracy of the non-visual properties of the space boundaries
should be verified. A distinction must be made between data taken directly from
the ArchiCAD model and which cannot be adapted (ArchiCAD model types), and
other parameters (Additional data types) for which Energy Model Review suggests
a rewritable value that should be inspected closely. We notice that Energy
Evaluation can increasingly capture all aspects of an energy simulation: in addition
to the building data, data on simulation parameters, operation profiles and heat
gains, climate and environmental conditions and HVAC installations can be edited
and assigned to thermal blocks. These are simplified data and there is a limited
number of parameters, but that should be sufficient for the intended purpose:
determining the primary energy consumption, CO2 emission and running costs.
The output files present the results of the energy simulation in a clear, graphical
way. They can be studied to check whether the results correspond to expectations,
previous findings and similar projects. Caution and reserve with respect to the
outcomes is appropriate, as these are in accordance with the data processing and
the assumptions made by the software package. Where necessary, the model or
simulation assumptions should be adjusted whereupon the procedure must be
repeated. A well-thought-out composition of the architectural model from the start
and a consistent modelling method afterwards remain important in order not to
introduce errors when making adjustments.
2.4 Case Study 4: external/concept stage tools for energy analysis

in the early design stages and their link with BIM
Given the benefits of an early design evaluation, software companies have

developed tools able to expeditiously assess the BEP based on a limited amount
of data. In this case study we investigate the value of these tools and how they
could be integrated in the BIM methodology. Successively, we will take a look at
the software of Sefaira, and examine the link between SketchUp and EnergyPlus
via Open Studio.
The developers of Sefaira focus on performance-based design during the
concept and preliminary design stages. The plug-in analyses a design modelled in
Trimble SketchUp or Autodesk Revit. Non-geometric design properties, such as
the performance of the construction components and HVAC systems, as well as
the internal gains, can be configured by the user. It is noteworthy that this
evaluation is based on value judgment rather than numerical values, which is
consistent with the reality in the conceptual design stage: one has a notion of the
level of performance to be achieved, but is not yet able to designate appropriate
materials or thermal values to it. The building performance is monitored and
analysed in real time as the design evolves. Fast and intuitive feedback on the
energy use intensity, the percentage of floor area receiving a certain level of
daylight and the specific heat gains and losses is given in the dashboard of the
plug-in. This enables the designer to automatically see the consequences of
modifications being carried out and to evaluate which building elements
energetically contribute most, so as to take mitigating measures. By adjusting the
model and setting parameters in straightforward way, different design options can
instantly be explored and a strategy can be developed to achieve the desired
results.
In the design phase, another tool of Sefaira, the web application, can be used
to execute more extensive, detailed evaluations and to compare design variations.
As part of a holistic view on the design, a daylight distribution map may be
generated illustrating the percentage of occupancy hours that an adjustable
illumination threshold is achieved. Other aspects like running cost, life cycle cost
or level of sustainability contributing to this approach are in prospect.
As always, the designer, aware of simplifications and presumptions affecting

the results, should do a critical review. The Sefaira software gives in that respect
some guidance by putting the results in perspective with other concepts and adding
rating scales.
The low-barrier program SketchUp is a preferred tool in conceptual design. It
also gradually takes on features of BIM software, by providing tools to enrich the
volumetric model with data or to use the conceptual model as input of BIM
software. Hence we will briefly review the Open Studio program, which links
SketchUp and EnergyPlus.
The designer starts configuring a model in the SketchUp interface. The Open
Studio plug-in hereby adds a number of palettes to the toolbar. In SketchUp, one
should decide in advance whether an architectural model or an energy model will
be constructed, according to the vision that both require a different model view. In
SketchUp, as opposed to BIM, it is not yet possible to derive an energy model
from an architectural model. A specific feature of an energy model is that the user
has to create volumes (Spaces), consisting of one or more rooms with the same
thermal characteristics, rather than building elements such as walls and roofs. By
selecting a particular element of the developed energy model, the designer can
read out and modify the information available on that element. It concerns both
data that the Open Studio plug-in automatically obtains through real-time analysis
and data that one may add via the SketchUp interface. Auditing these values and
being aware of their relative influence is crucial to interpret the analysis results
correctly. The different render modes that are available assist herein by applying
colour codes to the model, so one can visually verify whether all properties are
correct.
The building energy model is loaded in the Open Studio application, directly
from the SketchUp interface. The Open Studio application consists of a series of
tabs, which one can step through from top to bottom to enter additional input or to
inspect for modelling errors, in the run-up to the simulation. The user performs the
simulation from within the interface of the Open Studio application, or imports
the generated IDF file directly into EnergyPlus himself.
The strength of this Open Studio link is that it uses the well-renowned
calculation engine EnergyPlus and that it starts from SketchUp, a program which
is experienced as very convenient by most designers. However, it is unfortunate
that one has to create a specific energy model instead of deriving it from an
architectural model. Together with SketchUp, the Open Studio link loses its
usefulness in the advanced design phases. In a rapidly evolving world of software
the question is to which extent SketchUp will evolve to BIM software and whether
this Open Studio link will continue to be successfully developed.
2.5 Case Study 5: internal/concept stage mass modelling and

early energy evaluation within BIM software
Quick-modelling CAD tools main drawback is that the created Mass Model
eventually needs to be introduced or rebuilt in BIM software. The lack of
functionality for the conceptual design and the creation of free forms is in turn one
of the disadvantages assigned to BIM applications. Some BIM software
developers seized this lacuna as an opportunity to include the ability to create mass
models within their software.
In Autodesk Revit, the mass modelling tool emerged. This tool can not only
be used to develop non-standard objects, but also to perform volume and shape
studies in the conceptual design stage. A diverse range of forms and editing
options provides the designer with the flexibility he needs to develop his ideas.
Revit offers the possibility to carry out a first energy simulation on this conceptual
model, on the condition that additional information is provided, ranging from
building location and function to the level of insulation of the constructions and
the targeted percentage glazing. Several alternatives can readily be explored by
assuming other default values, without the need to remodel anything.
Subsequently the mass model may be integrated within BIM through a set of
Building Maker tools (fig. 3). These link Revit building elements to the surfaces
of the mass model, the latter remaining present and forming the basis of a more
extended BIM model. Even if one prefers an external CAD environment (such as
SketchUp or AutoCAD 3D) the as such created mass model may be loaded in
Revit at the desired instant. According to Autodesk, building a BIM model from
scratch belongs to the past.
More recently, Graphisoft provided its BIM software ArchiCAD with a tool for
freeform modelling, the morph tool. At the points which have been examined in
the context of this research the possibility to perform energy simulations, to
extract data relevant to an energy analysis and to administer the continuity of the
design this application appears to be less potent than the one in Revit. In
ArchiCAD it is not possible to convert the faces of an existing morph into building
model components. A conceptual scheme created with the morph tool or external
CAD software cannot be leveraged, it provides no more than a support when
creating a BIM model. Furthermore, a morph does not contain enough information
to endorse an assessment by the Energy Evaluation tool. Nevertheless, in the
foreseeable future ArchiCADs morph tool shall probably turn out to be equally
advanced as the one in Revit.
Figure 3: Operating the Building Maker tools, a volumetric model can be

integrated within BIM.
3 Conclusion
We may well conclude that a whole arsenal of tools exists to export data from a
BIM model in favour of an energy simulation model. Yet automating the transfer
to an application such as the Belgian EPB program is cumbersome, time-
consuming and may give rise to errors and misinterpretations. The development
of tools to accomplish dynamic simulations by specialised software like
EnergyPlus through the IFC standard is still in an experimental stage but offers
good prospects for the operation of extensive data exchange and analysis.
Likewise we see several promising developments on the market, both from BIM
applications and energy simulation tools.
References
[1] Eastman, C., Liston, K., Sacks, R. & Teicholz, P., BIM Handbook: A Guide
To Building Information Modelling for Owners, Managers, Designers,
Engineers and Contractors (2nd ed.), Wiley: Hoboken, 2011.
[2] Bernstein, H.M. & Jones, S.A. (eds.), SmartMarket Report: The Business
Value of BIM in North America. McGraw-Hill Construction: Bedford,
2012.
[3] ArchVision, Awareness and usage of BIM among architects is growing.
British and Dutch architects have the lead, http://www.arch-
vision.eu/persberichten/Awareness_&_usage_BIM_among_architects_gro
wing.British_&_Dutch_architects_have_lead.pdf, 2014.
[4] Maile, T., Fischer, M. & Bazjanac, V., Building Energy Performance
Simulation Tools a LifeCycle and Interoperable Perspective. Center for
Integrated Facility Engineering (CIFE) Working Paper 107, 2007.
[5] Bazjanac, V., Maile, T., Rose, C., ODonnell, J., Mrazovi, N., Morrissey,
E. & Welle, B., An Assessment of the Use of Building Energy Performance
Simulation in Early Design. Proc. of the 12th Conf. of the IBPSA, Sydney,
Australia, pp. 1579-1585, 2011.
[6] Bazjanac, V. & Kiviniemi, A., Reduction, Simplification, Translation and
Interpretation in the Exchange of Model Data. Proc. of the CIBW78 24th
Int. Conf. on Bringing ITC Knowledge to Work, Maribor, Slovenia, ed.
D. Rebolj, pp. 163-168, 2007.
[7] Vlaams Energieagentschap, Nota: Beschermd volume, verliesoppervlakten
en andere oppervlakten in het kader van energieprestatieregelgeving,
http://www2.vlaanderen.be/economie/energiesparen/epb/doc/berekeningbv
opp.pdf, 2014.
[8] Senave, M., Koppeling tussen BIM en energiesimulatie. [master
dissertation], 2014.
[9] Space Boundary Tool (SBT), https://gaia.lbl.gov/interoperability/SBT/
[10] Maile, T., ODonnell, J., Bazjanac, V. & Rose, C., BIM Geometry
modelling guidelines for building energy performance simulation. Proc. of
the 13th Conference of IBPSA, Chambry, France, pp. 3242-3249, 2013.
[11] ODonnell, J., Maile, T., Rose, C., Mrazovi, N., Morrissey, E., Regnier,
C., Parrish, K., & Bazjanac, V., Transforming BIM to BEM: Generation of
Building Geometry for the NASA Ames Sustainability Base BIM, LBNL
Report 6033E, 2013.
[12] Bazjanac, V., IFC BIMBased Methodology for SemiAutomated Building
Energy Performance Simulation. Proc. of the CIBW78 25th Int. Conf. on
Improving the Management of Construction Projects through IT Adoption,
Santiago, Chile, ed. L. Rischmoller, C.C. Mndez: Chili, pp. 292-299, 2008.
[13] Bazjanac, V., Implementation of semiautomated energy performance
simulation: building geometry. Proc. of the CIBW78 26th Int. Conf. on
Managing IT in Construction, Istanbul, Turkey, eds. A. Dikbas, E. Ergen &
H. Giritli, CRC Press/Balkema: Leiden, pp. 595-602, 2010.
[14] Simergy, http://simergy.lbl.gov/
Section 7
BIM-GIS integration
A light weight algorithm for large-scale

BIM data for visualization on a
web-based GIS platform
J. E. Kim1, C. H. Hong1 & S. D. Son2
1
ICT Convergence and Integration Research Institute,
Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Korea
2
Gaia3D, Korea
Abstract
BIM technology contains data from the life cycle of buildings through 3D
modelling. One building produces a huge file because of the massive amount of
data. Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), which is the representative standard, has
some serious issues about data processing of large-scale data based on geometry
and property data of objects. It increases the rendering speed and constitutes much
of a graphics card, so large-scale BIM data is inefficient to the user for screen
visualization. The light weighting has to resolve processing and quality of the
program essentially. This study has been researched and confirmed with regard to
light weight techniques from domestic and overseas research. Based on this
research, to control and visualize large data effectively, we proposed and verified
the algorithm which is able to optimize the BIM character. The general aim of this
paper is to propose and verify the light weight algorithm making the best use of
property of BIM to control and visualize the large-scale BIM data effectively.
Keywords: building information modelling, geographic information system,
visualization, data light weighting, block-reference.
1 Introduction
These days according to an increase of needs of Building Information Modelling
(BIM) technology, a lot of meaningful research has been studied for the
construction of 3D spatial information using architectural BIM data in domestic
and overseas projects. However different data schema between BIM and
Geographic Information System (GIS) takes into effect the incompatibility and
doi:10.2495/BIM150301
there are no standards for interoperability. BIM technology contains data from the
whole life cycle of building (Plan-Design-Construction-Maintenance) through 3D
modelling as well as 2D drawing data, so the building generally produces a huge
data file. Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), which is the representative standard,
has some serious issues about data processing of large-scale data based on
geometry and property data of objects. They make the rendering time increase and
require much volume within the graphics card, and finally the screen visualizing
is inefficient.
The light weighting of large-scale data has to be solved for processing and
quality of the users program. The overseas research has been figuring out the
diverse solutions for that. The general aim of this research is to propose and verify
the light weight algorithm making the best use of property of BIM to control and
visualize the large-scale BIM data effectively. The specific aims are threefold: first
to propose the profitable data model for a web-based platform, second to apply the
IFC data effectively applying the characteristic of BIM, and third to propose the
model which is profitable to web-based data visualization among the various
usages of facility.
2 Background literature
Most researchers have been studying data processing of large-scale data especially
in the game field handling 3D animation and the laser scanning field such as
making medical instruments and reconstruction of cultural heritage. Even they
have a huge data capacity, the main memory of hardware is not controlled easily.
The profitable way to control these diverse situations is required to operate 3D
data effectually on each users operating system (OS) and each field. To overcome
these limits, there has been studies on mesh simplification (compression, division),
external memory reference, etc.
Han [1] proposed a method that 3D point cloud stored on a hard disk drive
directly instead of using DB or storing in the main memory for building OcTree.
For this, she compared and analysed a memory-referring method and a file-
referring method. Na and Hong [2] defined spatial data LOD from LOD1 to LOD4
for combining construction and spatial information, and proposed the weight
lighting algorithm of a large 3D object based on LOD for effective visualization.
Fan and Meng [3] proposed an approach of simplifying 3D model building by
CityCML with 3-step for deriving LOD2 from LOD3 models which were building
envelopes without openings. Glander and Dollner [4] generalized virtual 3D city
models by units for good representation with 3D block cell technique which were
formed by the landmark buildings with geometry data, infrastructure like roads,
coast line with point, line and the area with polygon. Based on the clustering
concept, Xu et al. [5] proposed an extraction algorithm which was specified to
GPU-based rendering and profited other GPU platforms. They also proposed a
parallel frame interpolation algorithm based on GPU for large-scale structural
dynamic analyses. Cignoni et al. [6] proposed a method of huge mesh management
on a limited core memory footprint adopting an external memory technique for
simplification. Okamoto et al. [7] adopted a cloud computing technology as a
solution for large data processing without a processing cost to the client user. For
balance of effective load between server and clients using Grid-Lumigraph, they
applied both model-based rendering and image-based rendering.
As the above research shows, the ways to decrease data capacity have a varied
approach. These were focused on visualization of general 3D node data or mesh
data to reflect the system environment like smart device, desktop. A few
researches about light weighting of BIM data likewise proposed related
technology based on the system characteristic.
Since BIM data contains a huge amount of data from a whole lifecycle of
building, the light weighting of data capacity for visualization must be preceded
before system operation. This research has focused on IFC data which is the
standard data format of BIM, more than the system environment of platform. So
we analyse the IFC modelling technique based on BIM and propose the light
weight algorithm expanding it.
3 Algorithm of data light weighting

This research is from the project which has been developing BIM on GIS platform
for interoperability, one of the main projects of Korea Institute of Civil
Engineering and Building Technology (KICT). It is mainly converting from BIM
geometry data of facility to Interoperable Spatial Model (ISM) that is the inner
format for visualizing on a screen of platform, but also building a database for
presenting BIM property data. This chapter would introduce the BIM on GIS
platform and primary issues from large-scale BIM data, finally proposing the
adoption of the Block-Reference technique for large-scale data processing.
3.1 Overview of BIM on GIS platform with ISM format
A rise in the necessity of high-technology such as an integrated management

system of BIM based construction information, means that an integrated operation
of procurement of construction spatial information is required. It is based on the
interoperability between BIM and GIS in the early stage for building future
software for construction technology and responding to the world market. This
research [8] is part of the project Development of Convergence Technology on
Construction Information & Spatial Information based on BIM/GIS
Interoperability. The open platform has been developing that is able to make a
connection between BIM, dealing with the indoor space of a single building, and
GIS dealing with city-urban space. It is a complicated and intelligent smart city
converging architectural data in a construction process to GIS from a building to
earth. WorldWindJAVA (WWJ) an open source from NASA is a base engine
and the project is trying to develop the open platform and related technologies
based on the requirement qualification. BIM data is usually designed using Revit
architecture and ArchiCAD. The main platform server is benchmarking the several
functions of the BIM server. For the part of GIS, GIS server and PostGIS server
are working with this platform.
This year the 4th step of the whole 5 phases is to upload the BIM modelling
data on GIS. Property data and geometry data are separated from each other for
procuring interoperability between IFC, which is standard of BIM, and CityGML,
which is standard of GIS. The facility is then modelled in BIM data and the
database of property data is constructed separately for uploading onto the GIS
platform. Finally the geometry data is extracted from the IFC file, it is then
converted to Interoperable Spatial Model (ISM). ISM is a data format of the spatial
data model connecting BIM-GIS that is possible to present: 1) the outdoor object
of CityGML, 2) concept of Level of Detail (LOD), and 3) the indoor building
object of IFC. Figure 1 is the image for checking an indoor data uploaded on BIM
on the GIS platform after converting the IFC sample data to ISM.
Figure 1: BIM on GIS platform with IFC sample data.
3.2 The main issue about large-scale BIM data
The BIM on GIS open platform is supposed to provide and manage a service of
large-scale data for the city area and offer the integrated environment which can
handle effective services for each different type of data like BIM, GIS. This
research has been developing ISM for interoperability of BIM-GIS as a solution
which integrates BIM and GIS data efficaciously, even each disparate character,
and performs the query effectively, searching and showing on a screen. Figure 2
is the concept image for uploading the process IFC file to the platform. First of all,
property data and geometry data of IFC, generating all data through a life-cycle of
facility, were operated dividedly. For this, the platform inner data format itself
(ISM) was developed and made geometry data of IFC transfer in DB. In the
process of converting IFC to ISM, an increase in data capacity was confirmed.
In the case of IFC, when working 3D facility modelling, geometry data is
basically saved as parametric data of b-rep. However in the case of ISM, geometry
data of IFC is converted and saved with surface model based on mesh. It made the
compatibility between different formats high, but because of the capacity change,
the loading time for rendering process of facility was longer and the speed was
increasing. These results are just about uploading a single facility, so the measure
has to be considered about what can be handled for the various capacities of
facilities on web-based BIM on GIS platform.
Figure 2: Process of IFC file uploading.
3.3 Introducing the background of block-reference concept
As mentioned above, there are diverse techniques about light weighting of large-
scale 3D data. A huge 3D mesh data has been controlled easier than before, but
still general computers have some problems in loading and processing data owing
to the limitation of the main memory. Massive data processing should be related
to light weighting and effective visualization through it for users. A simplifying
algorithm based on LOD, an external reference technique, etc. are suitable for the
part requiring visualization of 3D data concretely.
Block-Reference concept is one main function which is used a lot in
AutoCAD, and it makes objects or object groups defined as Block for applying
the design plan efficiently. BIM data modelling usually produces and saves a
building or included objects as a library before, then when the user needs to
request them, they are recalled easily from the saved library. This research makes
the best use of object-based BIM modelling characteristics. Due to the building
data designed artificially, it is devised as most of the objects are, designed by type,
not each unique geometry data except for freeform architecture. Also this works
for the light weighting process which maintains the original data with the
advantage of foundation technique rather than simple light weighting techniques.
Thus the Block-Reference concept was chosen as the main key for light weighting,
and the algorithm was developed along with the background for research.
4 Adoption of block-reference and design of the algorithm

4.1 Algorithm design: light weighting for large-scale BIM data
In the case of BIM data, all objects generally do not have unique geometry data
because of copy and paste like AutoCAD. As the objects with the same shapes
except for just the one geometry data and they are visualized on actual location
using reference data, the size of geometry data can be much reduced within the
representative data of 3D modelling object. In that context, the first concept of
light weight algorithm is that one geometry data representing the same shape of
several objects is defined Block and the relating data is defined Reference.
When the large-scale geometry data is produced, Block-Reference technique
makes the Block which is the first type of same shape geometry data at first. Then
based on this, it produces the Reference data how each object uses what kind of
geometry data. The main mechanism of this technique is that all BIM data is called
for converting to ISM format and the data about copy objects not Block is
visualized from Reference DB. Figure 3 shows the concept applying the Block-
Reference technique to ISM between before (ISM v1.0) and after (ISM v1.1).
Figure 3: Comparison of ISM v1.1 with v1.0 which contains the light weight
concept based on Block-Reference.
The data package of a single building is composed of Header including three

factors: 1) general building information, 2) Block which is the representative type
based on same geometry data, and 3) Reference which is the data list for every
object referring Block. In the case of ISM v1.0 not applying the light weight
technique, since all geometry data from IFC was implemented at first, the data
loading speed and the data capacity were very inefficient. On the other hand, ISM
v1.1 applied the above technique and considered the characteristics of facility
modeling, then most part of the data capacity could be reduced.
4.2 Algorithm design: OcTree methodology for spatial indexing

and LOD adoption
The second concept is to apply LOD-based OcTree, one of the spatial indexing
techniques, to the light weight algorithm for data visualizing of Block-Reference.
Spatial indexing is one of the important factors to show 3D data effectively and
naturally, so OcTree technique is profit to present 3D modelling data. Kim [9]
proposed the spatial indexing technique based on OcTree for efficient data
processing of large-scale BIM data. The research verified the frame speed through
a view point path of user after designing the IFC schema-based algorithm and
applying it to IFC sample data on the BIM on GIS platform. In the case of applying
the algorithm, the number of frames were more than the case of not applying it
from 3 frames per second to 14 frames per second, it also proposed the most
effective screen to the user with visualizing more data in the same time.
When working with spatial indexing, according to a size of building, the
volume of first space and the depth of OcTree level can be decided variously. This
research defines that the first space surrounding a building is set to a regular
hexahedron and the depth is set to 3rd level consistently. The reason for using this
simple structure is what can be very easy to load and implement indoor objects for
visualizing indoor data of building. Furthermore the processing speed is not very
reduced when the test with the real spatial data model are conducted based on
client of BIM on GIS platform. Figure 4 shows a result by location of view point
for spatial indexing of the sample building data. The size of the first regular
hexahedron chosen for spatial indexing was presented larger than the size of the
building. So there were many empty spaces that did not exist in the real data after
spatial indexing. The main reason for this is for the efficiency of the query. It
would not only search which nodes were in the Viewing Frustum area, but also
the visualizing speed of indoor data for those nodes were not reduced too much.
Figure 4: Example of BIM data spatial indexing on BIM on GIS platform.
As an extension to previous research, this study applied LOD including

external and internal of building to ISM v1.1. For this, Skin reference list, saving
objects based on LOD for outdoor, and Node reference, list saving objects based
on LOD for indoor, were generated and objects by LOD were grouped. As a result,
objects including the lowest child nodes of OcTree processed spatial indexing, but
the direction of parent nodes was not decided. In order to use the parent nodes, the
merging of objects and policy for Point Reduction and relating rule should be
determined.
4.3 Algorithm structure
This section is about the design of ISM v1.1 to improve the performance of ISM
v1.0 considering an application of BIM on GIS platform. On the basis of the main
concept of algorithm mentioned in section 4.1, the data package structure is
reflected in the advancement of representation technology based Adaptive LOD
and the light weight/structuration technology. Block-Reference is classified
according to Skin, Bone, and spatial indexing objects. These objects are classified
in each file after being gathered by the lowest child nodes of OcTree. Figure 5
shows the data package structure which has the whole LOD from 0 to M (total
M+1), each indoor building LOD from 0 to N (total N+1) and outdoor building
LOD from N+1 to M (total MN). Table 1 shows the detailed description of the
ISM data package.
Figure 5: Data package structure of ISM v1.1 format.
For adapting the Adaptive LOD, ISM v1.1 generates Block list to match up
with all LOD levels one to one and Reference list for Block-Reference data of
objects included in each level. Also when the data for indoor LOD level is
generated, this light weight algorithm makes the Block list on the condition that
the Reference list assorts by each OcTree node of spatial indexing.
Table 1: Description of ISM data structure.
No. Component Description

General data includes as follow:
- Project, version and file name of ISM based on
3D BIM model
- The number of 3D objects, LOD levels, OcTree
1 Header
levels, etc. including in ISM
- A factor of location, rotation and scale for
mapping relative coordinates to 3D absolute
coordinates of ISM
Ref_Skin1 ~ Block-Reference data file of object which is located
2
Ref_Skin[N] in building skin by LOD level (LOD0~[N])
Block-Reference data file of object which should be
3 Ref_Bone shown, regardless of spatial indexing when
rendering the indoor building
Expanded foot print data file of building/Used to
4 FootPrint
find whether camera is inside or outside
5 SpatialStructure Saved spatial structure data in IFC file
Blocks[1] ~ Original geometry data file of object in building by
6
Blocks[M] LOD level
Reference data of basic object included building
inLOD[N+1] ~
7 inside by OcTree nodes/Each node is composed
inLOD[M]
with groups by LOD
Modelling data of LOD0 is shown as a simple rectangular which can express

with a bounding box. The header contains its related basic information, so LOD0
is not produced individually. A folder that includes LOD data for building inside
the data package structure is made up files. Each file saves a present condition of
the Block-Reference of the object including the lowest child nodes. In this file,
there are a unique index of object, Block index referring to the object and
Transform matric of the object. The next number of Ref_NodeData refers to a
particular child node. The cipher is same with the number of OcTree levels except
at Root level, and cipher can hold from 0 to 7. For instance, Ref_NodeData342 is
situated at the objects of 3rd child node or 5th child of 4th child or Root node as
Figure 6.
4.4 Method of finding Block-Reference object
How to find Block data and Reference data from BIM with IFC format using the
3 step process sequentially. The first step is to analyse and confirm the objects
IFC type. This might be the fastest way to filter the same objects. Only when
modelling BIM data, the correct type input is a precondition. The second step is to
analyse the number of points organizing the objects. Thereby comparing the
Figure 6: Data structure of inLOD and NodeData 342 example.
number of points of filtered objects with the same type, the same objects can be
searched more accurately. Last and third step is to calculate the distance from first
point to each point and compare the total distance after figuring up. Through this
step, the same object group is gathered and one object is selected for Block. In the
last step, the coordinate transformation between comparison objects is calculated
and contained within the Reference data, and finally the system saves the Block-
Reference data.
BIM data of specific building applying the Block-Reference concept is shown
in Figure 7. The green objects are researched with Reference, and the others are
Blocks. As most objects are classified as Reference, the more one building has
objects represented as Reference, the more a reduction effect of capacity increases.
Figure 7: Representation of Block and Reference objects of BIM data.
5 Adoption of block-reference and design algorithm

To verify the Block-Reference algorithm, Chapter 5 had a test with three IFC
sample data which composed of different size and building usages. The IFC model
with ISM v.1.1 was compared with the model with ISM v1.0, not applying the
Block-Reference concept. After each sample file was converted to ISM, the test
deduced results about the capacity of data and the loading speed of files.
There are two main concepts of ISM: one is that these sample data contain both
geometry/property data, and the ISM contains geometry data for visualizing IFC
and property data for partial spaces. While IFC data converts to ISM, the geometry
factors for data visualization save as files. A part of space data and property data
offer service with database. The other main concept of ISM is the integrated
visualization of large-scale GIS data and BIM data. Thus visualization of geometry
data is one of the main issues in tests.
Table 2 shows the results of data capacity among original IFC, ISM v1.0 and
ISM v1.1. Totally the average reduction ratio was 89.3% and as building usages,
the ratio was high in the order of A-C-B. This was affected by the number of Block
and Reference according to the building design based on building usages. The
formalized buildings like office (A), residence (C) have a few Blocks and lots of
Reference, so the data capacity, which is composed of geometry data, could be
reduced dramatically. On the other hand, others like unusual office (B), cultural
asset, museum, freeform building have a quantity of Blocks as design of buildings
was getting complicated, and the reduction ratio could be increased relatively.
Table 2: The test results of data capacity.
Data Capacity (Mb) Reduction Ratio

No. (1 ISM v1.1/ISM v1.0)
Original IFC ISM v1.0 ISM v1.1 * 100
A 66.29 176.05 15.3 91.3%
B 28.18 34.66 4.15 88.0%
C 65.33 74.89 8.41 88.8%
Table 3 shows the test results of the data loading speed between ISM v1.0 and
ISM v1.1. The average reduction ratio was 81.1%, but when applying the light
weight algorithm, the process for finding Reference objects, searching related
Block and loading again consumed a little time. The data loading of ISM v1.0 was
a series of process that IFC data was extracted and converted to ISM, then it was
visualized to screen through a graphic card. Therefore ISM v1.0 made the
rendering speed very slow and occupied a lot of space on the graphic card. In
contrast, the loading speed of ISM v1.1 was similar with ISM v1.0 because of
translation mechanism. But the amount of graphic card usage was decreased
remarkably, so it could be a profitable environment to thin clients using web-based
BIM on GIS platform.
Table 3: The test results of data loading speed.
Data Loading Speed (sec) Reduction Ratio

No. (1 ISM v1.1/ISM v1.0)
ISM v1.0 ISM v1.1 * 100
A 4.889 0.64 86.9%
B 1.341 0.405 69.8%
C 3.651 0.483 86.8%
Ultimately, ISM v1.1 has a better condition for data capacity than ISM v1.0. In
the future, the light weight algorithm should be extended to a detailed algorithm
considering the characteristics of building usages and procure more sample data
by building usages for verification. Also for effective system operation, specific
LOD adoption has to be researched.
6 Conclusion
This research proposed the light weight algorithm based on IFC to visualize
geometry data of large-scale BIM on BIM on GIS platform. While inputting IFC
data, BIM on GIS platform which has been developing at KICT stores DB of
geometry data and property data separately. The light weighting was the essential
requirement to increasing the data capacity when geometry data converted to ISM.
In order to resolve it, this paper analysed the diverse preceding studies related to
light weight, and as the best way to reflect the research environment, Block-
Reference technique was adopted.
First the building objects were grouped by types and the algorithm was
designed that the type with the same geometry was defined to Block, the other
copied objects were referencing the Block. For verifying it, based on three IFC
sample data, there were a comparative analysis of ISM v1.1 which applied the
Block-Reference algorithm and ISM v1.0 not applied. The results were the
reduction of data capacity by 89.3%, the reduction of loading speed by 81.1%.
In the future, the research plans to develop the algorithm continuously with
verification of added concepts by building usages and design types. Through the
light weight algorithm, as well as looking forward to show large-scale BIM data
on BIM on GIS platform, we exploit diverse service parts by users aspect.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by a grant from a Strategic Research Project
(Development of BIM/GIS Interoperability Open-Platform 2015) funded by the
Korea Institute of Civil engineering and Building Technology.
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BIM models generation from 2D CAD

drawings and 3D scans: an analysis of
challenges and opportunities for AEC
practitioners
H. Barki1, F. Fadli1, A. Shaat2, P. Boguslawski3
& L. Mahdjoubi3
1
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning,
College of Engineering, Qatar University, Qatar
2
MZ & Partners Architectural & Engineering Consultancy, Qatar
3
Abstract
Despite the recent and significant developments of BIM tools, available evidence
reveals that current trends in BIM are tailored towards the design and construction
phases of new projects, while most of the already existing projects, traditionally
designed through CAD approaches, could hugely benefit from BIM integration.
Automatic capture and conversion of CAD data into BIM models has remained a
challenge. So far basic approaches ensuring either functional correctness or visual
accuracy were advocated, but with limited success. In this paper, we propose a
case study approach to examine the challenges and potential solutions of automatic
BIM data capture and reconstruction of an existing skyscraper in Qatar for which
the construction phase has been achieved through traditional CAD design, using
available as-built 2D CAD drawings and emerging data capture techniques such
as 3D laser scanning and photogrammetry. The research targets BIM
reconstruction for emergency preparedness and also seeks to address the strengths
and limitations of available BIM reconstruction solutions of existing structures.
Finally, we elaborate on future work directions that aim to speed-up the BIM
generation process, as well as to add some automation capabilities to it.
Keywords: 3D capture, Capture-to-BIM, CAD-to-BIM, laser scanning,
photogrammetry, BIM reconstruction.
doi:10.2495/BIM150311
1 Introduction to CAD and Capture to BIM

Building Information Modelling (BIM) is an innovative process and approach
aiming to improve the management of Architecture, Engineering and Construction
(AEC) projects [1]. Through the provision of intelligent concepts and objects, it
helps AEC practitioners for developing efficient synchronization and
harmonization of the different project aspects and steps [2], necessary for the
unification of the design approaches, and guaranteeing the consistency and
coordination of the project data among project stakeholders, regardless of the
design updates, and leading to substantial benefits including cost reduction, time
saving, etc. [3].
BIM is a recent approach that aims to complement or supersede traditional
CAD design for the management of AEC projects. The current state of the art [4
6] shows that it is much easier to achieve BIM for new projects than for already
existing ones, as the latter may be either undocumented or documented only
through traditional non-BIM approaches, for which the incorporation of the
existing models and data into BIM systems remains a challenge. This is a big
concern when one considers that many countries have realized the importance of
BIM and are initiating BIM reforms and pushing towards its adoption by putting
strict deadlines, e.g. 2016 for UK [6].
In order to benefit from BIM for existing projects, one has to find automated
or semi-automated ways to convert or incorporate any existing building data
into a BIM system. Unfortunately, the capture and conversion of building data into
BIM is still a big challenge. For documented projects, it is natural to think about
exploiting CAD data and extracting BIM from it, while for undocumented
projects, the trend goes towards the usage of data capture.
Surprisingly, despite the fact that most of the existing buildings have been
managed through CAD approaches, CAD-to-BIM conversion has retained little
attention among researchers. Usually, CAD data is used as a footprint that is
imported into 3D BIM software, where the BIM system creation is done manually
through 3D sketching. Depending on the BIM system purposes, such manual
conversion may target either functional correctness or visual accuracy [7].
Thanks to the recent developments in capture hardware, it is now possible to
collect information about a scene in a cheap and precise manner. This ability
induced the emergence of Capture-to-BIM approach which targets the automatic
generation of BIM systems for (existing or under-construction) projects, by first
extracting useful knowledge from the captured data through the usage of various
shape descriptors [8, 9] and then converting that knowledge and incorporating it
into BIM systems. Unfortunately, until now, many challenges need to be tackled
before one can achieve an automated Capture-to-BIM generation. Most of the
knowledge extraction approaches deal only with one or some aspects of the
knowledge extraction task. For instance, a method has been proposed in [10] for
the automatic recognition of simple CAD objects (columns and planar objects) but
requires an a priori knowledge about the recognized model. Similar and related
work focusing on fitting range data to simple CAD primitives (spheres, cylinders,
and cuboids) can be found in [11, 12]. Based on a shape grammar, a 3D indoor
scene modelling method has been presented in [13], where scenes were modelled
by iteratively manipulating cuboid shapes. This method has been successfully
applied to real point clouds but seems to be limited to basic scenes exhibiting
cubical rooms. Starting from LiDAR data and operating at a larger scale, a method
using recursive minimum bounding rectangles has been proposed in [14] for the
automatic reconstruction of digital building models exhibiting right-angled
corners. Other object recognition and knowledge extraction approaches used in
the context of building and scene modelling may be found in [15, 16], just to cite
a few. On the other hand, an important limitation of the current Capture-to-BIM
state of the art concerns the automatic integration of the knowledge extracted from
the raw data into a BIM system (managed by a specific data format or specific
software), as this subtask has not retained much of the research attention,
compared to the large literature available for object recognition.
Based on the aforementioned CAD-to-BIM and Capture-to-BIM pros and cons
discussions, the existing literature shows that CAD-to-BIM usage remained
superficial in the sense that no automatic approaches have been proposed (CAD
drawings used as original footprints). On the other hand, the trend goes towards
the usage of the advanced capture techniques to achieve Capture-to-BIM tasks.
The usage of CAD approaches is limited to documented projects only and CAD
information may be outdated, unreliable, and may also lack details that are crucial
for a particular application. In contrast, 3D capture overcomes the aforementioned
CAD modelling limitations as it handles undocumented projects, provides an up-
to-date source of information about a facility, and allows capturing more details
than what can be found in CAD drawings. Furthermore, advanced capture
techniques may currently constitute the only way to capture dynamic facility
information which cannot be encoded into CAD drawings. When it comes to time
and technical skills considerations, advanced capture techniques require less time
and less technical qualifications for data acquisition as modern capture devices are
user-friendly, can be handled in a short time, and allow capturing large amounts
of data in seconds. On the other hand, CAD modelling has a steep learning curve,
is usually an error prone, fastidious, and time consuming task, especially for
complex projects (cf. section 4.1). For small budgets, CAD modelling requiring
cheap software may be the unique modelling solution as 3D capture requires
expensive equipment, for which the price decrease didnt follow the rapid drop of
other electronic devices.
In a recent work [17], we have reviewed 3D data capture techniques and
showed that an ideal technology doesnt exist for an application domain, even for
ours (BIM for emergency preparedness). While laser scanning excels in accurately
capturing the spatial configuration of a scene, photogrammetry performs better
when it comes to extracting visual information like texture and colours. The
conclusions drawn by this study motivate us to combine the usage of laser
scanning and photogrammetry for the 3D scene capture, in order to benefit from
both approaches and to overcome their limitations, in addition to exploiting the
already existing CAD drawings providing valuable as-built information about our
case study building.
In the sequel, we will first introduce in section 2 our case study building for
which we are building a BIM system for future emergency preparedness purposes.
Then, we briefly review the preliminary data we have (as-built plans) and discuss
the data capture technology we are using in this study. Finally, throughout our
concrete study example, we discuss the BIM system creation steps we have
performed, in addition to examining the challenges we faced and proposing
potential solutions or automating some tasks.
2 Overview of the case study building

The main case study of this investigation is a high-rise tower located in the
Westbay area of Doha, the capital of the state of Qatar (Figure 1). The tower has
been designed by MZ & Partners Architectural & Engineering Consultancy,
which is involved in our current project as a member of the steering committee.
The tower is at the latter fit-out stages and it is composed of 4 basement levels, 1
ground level, and 50 recreational and office levels [18]. The tower levels (ground
50th) are arranged to host office floors (4th46th), recreational spaces (47th48th)
which have been converted to VIP offices, and technical floors (49th50th).
Figure 1: A view of the case study tower (taken from

http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/doha/world-trade-center-doha/
9918/).
3 Information acquisition from the tower

A major task of our work would be to gather information about the tower and its
environment and to facilitate the access to it. By its nature, the problem at hand is
a mix of 2D (facility architectural plans) and 3D (structure of the buildings,
behaviour of persons within them, etc.).
3.1 CAD information
The first step that we have performed consisted in collecting the a priori
information about the facility architecture, i.e. the as-built 2D plans of the tower,
and performing a pilot study on them. An example of the as-built architectural
drawing corresponding to the crowded and complex ground floor main entry is
depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The 2D CAD drawing corresponding to the crowded and complex

ground floor main entry of the tower (courtesy of MZ & Partners).
3.2 3D capture
The second step towards the creation of a BIM model for the tower consisted in
the 3D laser capture of the indoor/outdoor environment. The usage of 3D capture
is unavoidable in our context, as it represents the only way to deal with dynamic
information about the tower (e.g. location of the occupants, extent of a damage)
as well as information posterior to the as-built condition (e.g. as-is updates).
After some investigation and exploration of hardware/software providers, we
decided to acquire the RIEGL Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) VZ-400 [19], cf.
Figure 3. This scanner is shipped with a Nikon D600 digital camera that allows
performing photogrammetric capture in parallel with laser capture. The choice of
the VZ-400 is motivated by its suitability for our application (construction of a
BIM model for emergency preparedness and evacuation routes calculation) as it
allows capturing highly accurate data in an efficient way for the purpose of as-
built surveying, in addition to being portable and robust against environment
influence. It uses a narrow infrared laser beam emission/reception for 3D capture
and offers a high accuracy, thanks to its online waveform processing and echo
digitization capabilities. When it comes to the 3D capture specifications, the VZ-
400 scanner has an acquisition accuracy of 5 millimetres and a range up to 600
meters. It is able to collect point clouds at a speed attaining 122,000
measurements/second. The scanner is usually installed on a tripod, and its body
embeds an optical head that rotates horizontally, while a laser lens mounted on a
multi-facet polygonal mirror rotates vertically, offering a field of view of 360C
horizontally and 100C vertically.
Figure 3: 3D scanning/photogrammetry devices used in our study: the RIEGL

VZ-400 TLS equipped with the Nikon D600 digital camera.
4 BIM generation for the case study tower

The main purpose of this research is the reconstruction of a BIM model of our case
study facility for emergency preparedness applications. Our main objectives
concern the identification of the requirements relevant for our emergency
preparedness context, in order to implement them within the BIM model we are
reconstructing. The ultimate goal of our current and future works is the
development of a decision-support system (based on the currently discussed BIM
model plus other parts like the evacuation network briefly discussed hereafter) that
helps decision makers in taking critical and quick decisions in the presence of
extreme events (explosions, fires, etc.) occurring in our case study building. Our
study included many stages. First of all, we have undertaken several onsite visits
and discussions with the facility managers and our industrial collaborators, in
order to determine the requirements of the targeted BIM model in our emergency
preparedness context (geometric and semantical requirements). Then, based on the
CAD drawings provided by our collaborators (consultancy company), we have
adopted a CAD-to-BIM approach for reconstructing an adequate BIM model. To
cope with the limitations of CAD-to-BIM approaches (e.g. outdated/unreliable
information, lack of details, cf. section 1 and the rest of this section), we have
performed several 3D acquisition campaigns aiming to capture the as-is building
state. During all these stages, we assessed our work through a continuous
interaction with our collaborators. Further details about these points are discussed
next, in addition to future challenges and ideas to tackle them.
After our case study information has been collected, it would be better to filter
such information and to transform it to a useful knowledge (a BIM model). The
purpose of the reconstruction of a BIM system for the tower is emergency
preparedness, where evacuation routes will be calculated and people guided

through safest paths in case of extreme events. Such a model has to provide
relevant information in this regard. Besides the building information capture step,
the modelled system has to provide two main aspects of knowledge about the
facility: geometric/spatial configuration of the building, and the necessary
semantics decorating or enriching the building features. The capture of the facility
information and the extraction of the relevant knowledge are discussed hereafter.
In this study, we adopted Autodesk Revit as the BIM reconstruction
environment or tool. Our choice is motivated by the following reasons: (1) Revit
is the primary BIM tool used by our industrial collaborators who designed the
building and provided us with the as-built CAD drawings, (2) Revit has the most
important market share, meaning that the BIM model composing our emergency
decision support system will have better chances to be adopted by the facility
manager and that its adaptation or generalization to other facilities will reach a
large percentage of future clients, (3) Revit allows combining CAD data, BIM
data, and 3D capture data making it a central tool for our research, and (4) the
emergency preparedness decision support system we are targeting is developed in
two parts, the first part being the actually discussed BIM model, while the second
one is the emergency navigation network which is computed from the BIM model
after the latter has been exported to an adequate gbXML format, a task for which
Revit excels. Details about the second part (navigation network) of our system and
Revit-gbXML usage can be found in [17].
4.1 Geometric/spatial BIM information
Encoding the geometric information of the facility is an essential task as the

evacuation routes are calculated based on the former. Such routes can be seen as
the skeletons of the indoor spaces composing the building. In order to capture the
geometry of the tower, we have exploited both CAD drawings and 3D laser
capture. First of all, we have studied the CAD drawings offered to us in order to
determine which geometric information to include and which information can be
safely ignored, in order to keep the BIM system as simple as possible, while
providing all required information. In our context, the geometry/spatial
requirement have been identified to coincide with the encoding of the geometry
(location and dimensions) of the building main elements, which include doors,
walls, windows, and columns. Other elements or decorations were ignored as they
do not influence the evacuation network calculation.
The main difficulties arising during this preliminary CAD study, which may
take many weeks depending on the drawings complexity and the building size,
concern the observed discrepancy of the drawings and the manual
extraction/edition of CAD/BIM information.
Regarding the first issue, as many subcontractors have been involved in the
design stage of the tower, it was not easy to deal with the varying conventions and
notations used by these subcontractors. For example and just to cite a few of them,
some building elements were not documented in the CAD drawings at all (e.g.
structural walls), others were documented in the schedules without being actually
used in the corresponding drawings, and for some element families like doors, the
same element type (or unique reference in schedules) had different conflicting
documentations and parameters (e.g. different width/height parameters) among
different drawings. These concerns raise two questions: (1) how to retrieve the
information of undocumented elements and (2) which documentation to follow
among the conflicting ones. To answer the first question, we had to manually
measure the geometry of the undocumented elements (columns) and report it in
the created BIM elements. The solution we found the most appropriate for the
second question about conflicting documentations for the same element type was
to consider the most often encountered documentation. However, even if this
choice seems the most logic and natural one, it may affect the evacuation network
computations. To overcome this issue, we decided to encode the error of the
geometry measurements as part of the concerned BIM elements themselves and to
thus allow accounted for such errors during the evacuation network computations.
The second issue concerns the manual extraction of CAD data and its manual
incorporation into the BIM system. Such a widely used conversion strategy is error
prone, fastidious, exhausting, and time consuming (many months for building like
the one considered in this paper). The manual conversion wide spread is justified
by the absence of automatic or semi-automatic approaches. A future work
alternative that we propose in this sense is to take benefit from the programmable
interfaces of the recent CAD and BIM software, in order to guide this process, at
least by allowing some user interaction, as fully automating it seems to be
impossible, due to CAD design deficiencies (absence of explicit links between
design geometry and semantics). Such an approach may reduce the time and cost
of CAD-to-BIM switch.
Also regarding geometric information acquisition, we have performed several
3D laser/photogrammetric captures as the CAD drawings only encode the as-built
configurations. Depending on the complexity of a particular building level
(geometry, presence of obstacles), the necessary time for capturing the
corresponding as-is information may vary from half a day (45 hours) to one day
or more, and comprises the time necessary for positioning reflectors, calibrating
the scanner/camera, capturing, and moving the scanner among the different scan
positions. Other factors affecting the capture time include the used capture
resolution and the field experience of the operator. For instance, the capture of
atypical floor required 2 operators, 4 hours, and 12 scan positions, while the
capture of the relevant areas of the crowded ground floor of Figure 2 took 2 days.
For all our capture campaigns and because high scanning resolution is not
necessary for our emergency preparedness application and the level of detail we
want to reproduce, we adopted an average resolution scan pattern (panorama 40)
of the TLS VZ-400 that requires 3 minutes per scan position. Figure 4 depicts a
captured point cloud sample. One of the encountered minor capture difficulties
concerned the unavailability of indoor GPS positioning, as microwaves are
influenced by the building structure.
The captured data will be used alongside the CAD converted data, in order to
account for as-is configuration by incrementally building the BIM system. One of
the challenges we are addressing concerns the automatic detection of as-built and
as-is differences. Even if it is possible to manually import the point cloud into BIM
Figure 4: Point cloud captured at a sample scan position (shown by the

scanners location) from the 5th floor of the tower.
software, detect the as-is/as-built differences (e.g. new separation walls) by visual
inspection, and incorporate these differences into the BIM system by manual
sketching over the point cloud, such a strategy is not very convenient. The
upcoming challenge would be to automate such a task, by using one or another
feature extraction method, according the geometric complexity of the targeted
features. For instance, in our case of separation walls, we plan to use the RANSAC
method to automatically detect these planar walls and to incorporate them into the
already existing BIM system. Other complex geometries may be more challenging
to extract automatically.
It is worth noting that there is a trade-off between CAD and capture
exploitation. As CAD information may be outdated (e.g. design or as-built
drawings only), 3D capture may be the only way to account for changes made at
later project stages. On the other hand, CAD information may be easier to handle
as it presents less garbage information than 3D capture, which generates a huge
amount of data that needs to be filtered and simplified (time and resources
considerations).
4.2 Semantics
As the computation of evacuation routes requires information about the hazard

resistance parameters of the building elements (e.g. fire ratings of doors),
identifying and incorporating these semantics is crucial. From the CAD drawings
and the corresponding schedules, we have extracted the relevant parameters for
the modelled elements and incorporated them into the equivalent BIM entities. For
doors and windows, we have encoded the fire ratings, fire exit roles, and
construction materials in the BIM model. For walls and columns, we have
implemented their fire ratings and also distinguished between structural walls and
non-structural ones (e.g. office separation walls) as evacuation routes may pass
through such walls (e.g. breaking such a wall which is possible and may save
additional lives) in the case where a trapped occupant cannot use the exit routes
defined by doors and windows affected by a hazard. The semantics
implementation in the BIM system has been done manually and was also subject
to the difficulties encountered when extracting geometric building information
(discrepancies). In the upcoming step, we aim to exploit photogrammetric
information combined with a priori information provided by a trained operator, in
order to first match visual data like texture and geometry with CAD captured
elements (and so their semantics), and then use that matching for automatically
populating the BIM system with corresponding elements.
As our case study is complex and of big size, the ongoing BIM system
reconstruction process will be continued. Besides completing the 3D capture of
the relevant areas and levels, the next steps that we are undertaking concern the
parallel development of the solutions proposed in this paper process automation.
Currently, we have gathered enough preliminary data in order to start developing
a CAD/GIS model that incorporates pertinent knowledge extracted from the
acquired point clouds and photos. For illustration clarity purposes, the sample of
the reconstructed BIM system for the 5th floor is depicted in Figure 5.
Figure 5: BIM system for the 5th floor showing the internal wall partitions, the
exterior curtain wall system, the structural columns and the different
types of doors guiding egress routes.
5 Conclusions and future directions

In this paper, we presented an ongoing research work targeting the generation of
a BIM system for a skyscraper, by combining both CAD-to-BIM and Capture-to-
BIM approaches. We described the work done, analysed the challenges facing us,
and proposed some future solutions that aim to automate and speed-up the BIM
system generation process. Our study showed that compared to the widely
investigated Capture-to BIM approach (especially the knowledge extraction step),
CAD-to-BIM approaches are not retaining too much research attention, while they
should be further considered as most of the already existing projects that are
traditionally designed through CAD approaches could hugely benefit from BIM
integration. Another conclusion concerns the need for more efforts in order to
address the issue of integrating extracted knowledge into BIM systems,

representing an important sub-task in Capture-to-BIM approaches.
Based on this study, both CAD-to-BIM and Capture-to-BIM approaches
present pros and cons, the choice of the adequate technology depends on many
parameters, like the BIM system requirements (level of detail of the model and
targeted application) and time and cost considerations. The recent trends
recommend the usage of advanced capture technologies in situations where
traditional CAD modelling reaches its limits and where cost considerations are not
a major obstacle. As previously stated, an ideal capture technology cannot be
unambiguously recommended for a particular application domain, but the
combined usage of different technologies is preferred whenever possible, in order
to combine their strengths and overcome their limitations.
Acknowledgements
Program NPRP award (NPRP-06-1208-2-492) from the Qatar National Research
Fund (a member of The Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely
the responsibility of the author(s).
Note: Special thanks go to the building owner, the facility managers, and our
industrial collaborators who made our site-visits and fieldwork successful.
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BIM-GIS modelling in support of emergency

response applications
P. Boguslawski1, L. Mahdjoubi1, V. Zverovich1,
F. Fadli2 & H. Barki2
1
Faculty of Environment and Technology,
2
Qatar University, Qatar
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) provides a detailed 3D geometrical model
with rich semantics that go beyond the standard Computer-Aided Design
approach. In contrast, Geography Information Science (GIS) offers powerful
spatial analytical tools. This paper seeks to propose and innovative the research
approach, integrating some aspects of BIM and advanced GIS analysis. This may
advance beyond state-of-the-art emergency response applications. The advocated
research approach evolves beyond the simplistic 3D indoor scene representation
and instead proposes to automate the generation of navigable models depicting
complex interiors readily available in the building industry area, which adopts
BIM as the main tool for design and information exchange.
Keywords: BIM, GIS, gbXML, emergency response, data structures.
1 Introduction
Building Information Modelling (BIM) became a mature and widely accepted
modelling process in the building industry area [1]. A 3D geometrical model is a
basis for information representation and sharing. Details provided in the model are
usually not available in Geography Information Systems.
Geography Information Science (GIS) is a large domain including concepts,
applications and systems. The term science is used to reflect a greater emphasis
on scientific aspects of geography information [2]. Advances in GIS provide a
flexible environment in spatial analysis with the potential to undertake 3D GIS
studies, including finding routes of egress inside a building. They facilitate the
doi:10.2495/BIM150321
examination of spatial behaviour and accessibility in building environments. 3D

network models are powerful in depicting pedestrian access and movement within
buildings that can be modelled as a network of walkway sections and connections
[3]. This network of walkways could potentially be disrupted by an emergency
such as an explosion, fire or obstruction, as a result of a partial destruction of the
building.
This paper proposes an innovative approach integrating some BIM and
advanced GIS analysis leading to an improved 3D analytical model for emergency
response. Most research, so far, has focused on simplistic indoor scene
representation, usually based on 2D floor plans, and with a navigable network
often manually reconstructed, where only doors are used for human movement
[3, 4]. In this study, beyond state of the art approach is proposed, where other
alternative routes, in addition to using doors, are considered for indoor
navigations, e.g. walls or partitions can be drilled in order to get access to adjacent
rooms or safer places. Thus, information about material used for construction is
critical. This can also be used in other applications based on the same model, for
example, in fire spread simulation to calculate fire resistance.
The proposed BIM and GIS model integration for emergency response is based
on using the following: Green Building XML (gbXML) and Industry Foundation
Classes (IFC) as data input, and GIS analysis methods and data structure, more
precisely the dual half-edge (DHE) [5].
1.1 Research approach blending BIM and GIS
BIM is a fast developing field and many countries (e.g. the United Kingdom and
Singapore) and institutions decided to introduce BIM as a standard for information
exchange and stakeholders collaborative work on public building design and
construction. This gives impetus for developing new tools which are getting
mature and are quickly adapted. At the same time, the need for more sophisticated
analysis tools arises because different stakeholders use BIM for various
applications. One of the fields converging on BIM is GIS which can offer
advanced tools for spatial analysis [6].
One of the advantages of BIM is a good quality 3D model which is a core
element. On the other hand GIS requires a spatial model for its analysis methods.
BIM and GIS building models are similar, but at the same time there are
differences to be levelled down in order to create a common language for
communication and information exchange [7]. In recent developments researchers
propose conversion of BIM models into GIS formats, e.g. IFC to CityGML [8, 9],
or new unified models [10]. These solutions work for specific applications and
take a big step towards the common language; however, there is still work to be
done for developing widely accepted standards.
IFC is a standard widely accepted as a data exchange format by the BIM
community, especially in OpenBIM utilizing open standards and workflows.
However, very detailed models are not always needed, for example, some analysis
applications may require a simplified building structure, which would include the
geometry of objects (e.g. rooms, doors, windows, etc.) and their function
(e.g. office room, storage room, fire exit, etc.): gbXML is an open schema which
helps simplifying and transferring 3D building models to engineering analysis
applications [11].
In simple terms, a typical gbXML model consists of two parts: spaces and
surfaces. A space is a closed shells (volume) representing a room geometry. Shells
are separate objects without information on relationship to other cells; openings
(e.g. windows, doors) are not included. A surface is a simplified abstraction of the
wall which divides adjacent spaces and includes links to these spaces. Also,
openings, represented as separate surfaces, are embedded into the wall surface.
These two parts, spaces and surfaces, are suited not only for visualisation but
they are also sufficient for building topology reconstruction, because information
about relationship between adjacent rooms is included.
It should be noted that the process of simplification to gbXML introduces some
inconsistences like missing faces or overlapping volumes in the surface part which
may be acceptable for engineering analysis. However, some corrections are
required in applications where spatial relations must be unambiguously reflected
in a model. The problem of consistency and validation was investigated by several
researchers [12, 13]. The format specification requires a room to be a closed shell,
while it does not impose such a restriction on the shell closure in case of surfaces
(abstract walls) representing walls. A surface, usually computed as a flat face at
the centre of the original wall, may overlap with neighbour surfaces. Also, it might
happen that surfaces do not form closed shells as some surfaces may be missing
in the model. Thus, a model improvement is necessary in order to use the DHE.
In order to get a good quality gbXML model some rules should be applied to
the original BIM model during development [14], e.g. rooms should be assigned
to all areas; room or wall overlapping is not allowed; floors should be defined for
all areas; room boundaries should be defined, etc.
In GIS 2D models are still widely used. Researchers are mostly interested in
terrain models and terrain classifications. Usually each point in the model is
associated with height information stored as a parameter along with the x and y
coordinates such a model is called 2.5D. This cannot be used to represent all
spatial relations among 3D objects, like adjacency between rooms, which is
needed for a spatial GIS analysis. Therefore, a growing interest in 3D modelling
is observed in research focused on cities and buildings, because a full 3D model
can accommodate relations among objects. It is especially crucial in case of
buildings as spatial relations in each direction, horizontal and vertical, must be
included in the model in order to perform analysis of the buildings structure.
However, 2D plans are often used to reconstruct a series of 2D models, which are
put into layers and contiguous layers are connected by links between master nodes
such as staircases [15]. Thus, not all relations among objects in the vertical
direction are represented. Such a model may be sufficient for analysis of indoor
human movements, but it may be inappropriate in many applications, like
simulations of 3D phenomena: noise or radio signal propagation, fire spread
those phenomena are of a great importance in emergency management systems
and evacuation simulations.
However, good quality 3D models are not easily available. Currently,

CityGML is the widely used data model in GIS to represent urban models [16]. A
model can be stored in a different Level of Details (LoD): from LoD0 to LoD4,
where the lowest level includes digital terrain model with optional building
footprints, while the highest level is able to represent detailed building interiors
including furniture and installations. As a matter of fact, most of the available
models do not include LoD4, because it is too detailed and storage space
consuming: the building coarse geometry often accompanied by faade textures
and predefined roof type, street network, and other appearance and thematic
objects is sufficient for visualization and spatial analysis in the outdoor
environment. Therefore, indoor models are often reconstructed, in many cases
manually, from architectural plans, so that the model is formed from a series of
2D layers connected by entrance nodes. These models are usually suited for
specific applications and stored in an in-house format which does not conform to
any standard. It makes such models difficult to exchange or impossible to use
when the format specification is not available.
Because of the lack of 3D models GIS researchers adopt models from other
fields: one of them is BIM which can offer good quality models [17]. It should be
noted that the BIM model only describes a building structure, while many thematic
objects, important from the viewpoint of GIS, are not included, e.g. street network,
vegetation, water objects, city furniture, etc.
1.2 Advances in emergency response
Most of research on emergency response in a building environment is focused on

rescue and evacuation, which are related to path finding and indoor navigation
[3, 4, 15, 18, 19]. Different researchers focus on different aspects of evacuation:
least risk paths [19], path simplicity [20], navigable network improvement [3, 15],
more detailed routes [4], and human behaviour [21].
Whatever evacuation algorithms are used in the aforementioned research, there
is always a spatial model in the background (see Figure 1a). A building structure
is represented as a logical network, where its nodes represent rooms, including
corridors and other navigable areas; and edges represent navigable connections
between adjacent rooms (see Figure 1b). The network can be further improved
into a geometric network in order to reflect real navigation routes and more precise
geometric properties e.g. distance between nodes (see Figure 1c) [3]. This
representation allows applying graph algorithms such as Dijkstras or A*
algorithms for shortest path finding in evacuation planning.
As discussed above, 2D floor plans are usually used for reconstruction of
horizontal navigable networks, and a 3D building is obtained by linking
contiguous floors at some connection points, e.g. staircases (see Figure 1). Spatial
relationships between the rests of the rooms in the vertical direction are not
reflected in the model. This solution is sufficient for a simple analysis of indoor
human movement, but other phenomena related to emergency response, e.g. fire
spread or heat propagation, cannot be simulated.
Figure 1: A node-relation structure for representing topological relations

among objects in 3D space: a) 3D spatial objects; b) logical network;
c) geometric network [3].
Most of the 3D navigation models represent buildings with a simple, often

regular, structure which is not sufficient for complex interiors. Liu and Zlatanova
[18] proposed a new concept of automatic navigable network generation based on
the geometry and semantics of a building. However, their method requires, as
many other methods, a valid spatial model as an input data set, where consistency
between the geometry and topology is preserved.
2 Methodology and results

One of the objectives of this research is to propose a step change in emergency
response intelligence to assist emergency response personnel to better prepare,
predict and deal with emergencies in buildings. This entails the development of an
intelligent innovative approach, involving the reconstruction of an indoor
navigable network from a BIM model. The network used by path finding
algorithms, which is an essential element in emergency response applications. The
research workflow is illustrated in Figure 2.
gbXML is the main data format used as an input. We consider the gbXML
format as a simplified model: a detailed geometry is simplified to a level sufficient
to preserve adjacency relationship between rooms which is essential in this
research. The model is significantly smaller in terms of storage space compared to
a full model, for example, stored in the IFC format.
Information about room volumes and wall surfaces including openings (i.e.
doors and windows) is accompanied by attributes such as: room name, room
function, etc. Openings are used for conventional navigation and egress routes
computation. However, other alternative routes are also considered in case of
direct hazard, e.g. walls or partitions can be drilled in order to get access to
adjacent rooms. This requires additional information about construction material
which can be obtained from the original model. The external links in gbXML
allows to look up required parameters if the original model is available, e.g. the
IFC model.
Our models have the boundary representation (B-Rep) where volumes (cells)
are enclosed by faces, faces by edges, edges by points. This may be represented
by various data structures, e.g.: the radial-edge [22], G-Maps [23], or recently
Figure 2: Research workflow (dashed lines represent optional steps if the

original IFC model is available).
developed DHE [5]. In this research, DHE was developed as the model geometry,
and the navigable network can be stored simultaneously without an extra cost. This
is not available in case of the aforementioned data structures.
A simple model of a building stored in the Autodesk Revit format was exported
to the gbXML model and reconstructed using the DHE data structure (see
Figure 3a). Each room is represented as a cell with an associated dual node
unambiguously representing this cell. Adjacent cells are connected by dual edges
into a cell complex and each dual edge is bounded by nodes representing adjacent
cells.
A door between two rooms is represented as a zero-volume cell with an
associated unique node. Thus, there are two dual edges connecting the first room
node to the door node and the door node to the second room node. The same idea
is applied in case of a door between an internal room and an external space. The
latter is represented as a cell or a set of connected cells if it was partitioned.
The complete graph of indoor connections is shown in Figure 3b.
Some openings, which are not directly connected to the boundary of the
enclosing surface, e.g. windows, are connected to the surface boundary by bridge
edges (dotted lines in Figure 3a). A bridge edge is not a part of the original model,
but it is introduced in order to preserve a valid topology of the B-Rep model.
The structure of the model presented in Figure 3 is simple and was
reconstructed without additional improvement or validation. However, models
with more complex structure exported to the gbXML format must be processed
first in order to reconstruct a valid navigable network. Some common issues are
unclosed and overlapping cells. Such models are valid for most of engineering
analyses but not for GIS, which requires a complete topology with a proper
representation of spatial relations among objects. Thus, missing faces must be

generated and cell overlapping removed. This is vital when external models are
utilized and the original BIM model is not available.
Figure 3: Simple model reconstructed using the DHE data structure: a) structure
of a building with doors and windows includes one selected room
(grey cell); windows are connected to wall boundaries by bridge
edges (dotted line); b) graph of connections between rooms.
The model of a building after the healing process is shown in Figure 4, where
missing faces generation was only required while no room overlapping was found.
However, overlapping was faced in other tested models, which are not shown in
this paper.
Figure 4: Model of an office building: a) structure of the building (source:

http://www.gbxml.org/downloads/OfficeBuilding.zip); b) graph of
connections.
The healing process is necessary to automatically reconstruct both the

navigable network and the valid primal-dual representation. For instance, missing
faces between adjacent rooms (see Figure 5a) introduce ambiguity in cell
identification, because the cells would be merged into one volume (see Figure 5b)
and represented by one node (see Figure 5c). To fix this problem, a new face is
introduced (see Figure 5d) which splits the volume into two parts (see Figure 5e)
represented by two unique nodes (see Figure 5f).
Figure 5: Invalid model with a missing face: a) two cells sharing a face (grey)
with a missing face (white); b) two cells form one volume; c) two cells
are represented by one node; d) model after the healing process;
e) two cells are separated and they form two volumes; f) two cells are
represented by two nodes.
The second issue to be solved by the healing process is cell overlapping

which is caused by the simplification process and does not appear in the original
model. Overlapping introduces some ambiguity in a surface relation to other
adjacent surfaces. For instance, surfaces of the shared volume (grey in Figure 6a)
should be connected into a configuration, which is different from the configuration
for the case of separate cells. Thus, to overcome this issue the overlapped cells
should be split into a set of adjacent cells. The shared volume may be subtracted
from one cell (see Figure 6b) or from all affected cells (see Figure 6c). However,
the second solution introduces a new cell, which does not have a counterpart in
the original model. The new cell may be considered as a temporary cell necessary
to form the proper cell complex but not available for navigation in the model.
Figure 6: Invalid model with overlapping cells: a) two cells are represented by
two dual nodes but the grey shared volume is not unambiguously
associated with any of the cells; b) shared volume may be subtracted
from one cell; c) shared volume may be subtracted from two cells and
form a separate cell.
The above problems with missing faces and cell overlapping are described
using simple examples. However, the situation may be more complex if we
consider several non-planar adjacent faces that are missing or several cells sharing
the same or part of a volume. The DHE is able to deal with non-planar faces and
arbitrary shapes. Thus, the only problem to solve is to create a valid cell complex
without cell overlapping or gaps between adjacent cells.
The graph of connections reflecting spatial relationships between cells in the
complex is created automatically using the DHE construction operators. Then
weights are specified for all links in the graph, and the navigable network is ready
for finding egress routes. The weights determine availability of links for human
navigation they are positive numbers in the range from 0 to 100, where 0 means
full access, 100 no access. Any number within the range describes how
difficult is passing through the link and may reflect the navigation direction in a
staircase or the material of walls. For example the value close to 100 might mean
a thick wall made of concrete, which is not possible to destroy without heavy
equipment, while the lower value means a thinner partition perhaps made of
plaster or other material easy to crush for moving to an adjacent room. The weights
are taken into consideration by Dijkstras algorithm in the shortest path calculation
from a selected room to the exit from the building. An egress route calculated is
shown in Figure 7: only doors are used in navigation between adjacent rooms;
corridors were partitioned in order to create a network suitable for indoor
navigation.
Figure 7: Egress route (black) calculated for a selected room starting at X to

the closest exit (dark grey cell).
3 Conclusions
In this paper, research development on BIM GIS integration was proposed for
egress route calculation. The indoor building model geometry can be easily
retrieved from the gbXML format but it may need some pre-processing to validate
the model. The DHE data structure used for 3D model reconstruction includes the
dual graph of connection between rooms which is constructed automatically when
the geometry of the model is created. The graph can be used directly by graph
algorithms to find egress routes from buildings.
Future work includes development of functions to heal invalid models and
reconstruct a navigable network for an arbitrary BIM model. In addition, material
of walls will be considered in implementation of algorithms for alternative egress
route calculation.
Acknowledgement
Program NPRP award [NPRP-06-1208-2-492] from the Qatar National
Research Fund (a member of The Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein
are solely the responsibility of the author(s).
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[20] Duckham, M. & Kulik, L., Simplest Paths: Automated Route Selection
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Section 8
BIM in building
operation and maintenance
Building information model implementation

for existing buildings for facilities
management: a framework and
two case studies
G. Carbonari, S. Stravoravdis & C. Gausden
Department of Built Environment, University of Greenwich, UK
Abstract
This paper presents the process of implementation of a building information model
for managing an existing building, identifying a development framework and
documenting the difficulties that occurred during the implementation of the initial
stages. The use of building information modelling (BIM) for the design and
construction phase of a building has been thoroughly looked into by researchers
and practitioners and there is evidence to support that it is beneficial for reducing
cost, time and improving communication. A single shared building information
model results in a greater accuracy, clarity and consistency of the information
available during the life cycle compared to traditional 2D/3D drawings. Yet the
potential use of BIM for the operational and management phase (facilities
management), besides maintenance schedules and equipment information and
location, is still not clearly identified. The UK Government, institutional clients
and major private owners are now demanding BIM for new construction and major
refurbishment, but given that 7075% of the UK building stock that will exist and
be in use in 2050 has already been built, a significant part of the existing facilities
will not have a building information model till the next major refurbishment. This
creates a major gap in the built environment, when it comes to having BIM for
existing buildings.
This paper presents the initial findings of two case studies, where building
information models were developed for two existing buildings using a new
framework and concludes that minimal BIM skills are sufficient to construct a
base building model that can be implemented over time by facilities managers.
Keywords: BIM, existing buildings, facilities management, information
management.
doi:10.2495/BIM150331
1 Introduction
The number of companies using BIM for the design and construction of new
buildings is constantly growing [1, 2]: this technology is developing fast and it is
used to accommodate the growing complexity of new construction projects [3].
BIM is an information management process [4] that can be used at all stages of a
buildings life-cycle: from understanding the project needs of the owner, to
evaluate designs, manage the construction process and operate the building until
decommissioning [5]. A building information model can reduce costs, provide
support to a more efficient project delivery process [6] and enhance collaboration
and knowledge sharing [7, 8]. The many benefits of BIM during design, planning
and construction [9, 10] have been studied both by practitioners and academics but
for building operations and facilities managers, BIM is still a relatively new topic:
its potential is still not fully understood and there is little interest regarding what
happens once the building model is completed and handed over, and how BIM
will be used to manage the facility beside the possible use for enhanced building
maintenance [11]. BIM awareness and adoption growth has been significantly
influenced by the UK Government strategy for the construction industry [12]. BIM
Level 2, mandate for all Government projects by 2016, is based on a collaborative
digital environment and focuses mainly on design and construction, while BIM
Level 3, now Digital Built Britain, will extend BIM into the operation of assets
over their lifetimes [13]. The full collaboration between all disciplines involved
in a construction project aimed for BIM Level 3 will get facilities managers more
involved with the modelling technology. Only recently researchers have started
looking at the possible integration of BIM and FM but the main focus is on new
constructions rather than existing buildings [9]. However, given the number of
existing buildings in the UK estimated to be in use by 2050 (7075%) [14] there
is the need to address the problem of creating building information models for the
existing estates. Facility managers are constantly challenged to improve and
standardize all available information to address day-to-day operations and life-
cycle management [6]. Nowadays, buildings information is often incomplete or
obsolete [15, 16] hence during operation an inordinate amount of time is spent
locating and verifying specific facility and project information [17]. BIM
provides integration of data systems during the buildings life cycle [6], therefore
there is an opportunity for facilities managers to improve the current practice and
use BIM as a decision making tool. There are several potential benefits of using
BIM during operations and maintenance that confirm the importance of extending
BIM to facilities management practice and create models for existing buildings:
the availability of as-built information [10], the development of maintenance
schedule, the opportunity to track and maintain lifecycle information about the
building structure [18] together with the opportunity to improve performances [6].
The purpose of this paper is to present the initial stages of the development of
a new framework aimed at creating building information models for existing
buildings. Section 2 discusses how the information model should be developed
according to the PAS 1192. Section 3 focuses on the technologies currently
available to create models for existing buildings. Section 4 presents the research
methodology and the two buildings used as case studies for the research. Section
5 outlines the RetroBIM framework and the future developments of the study and
Section 6 concludes with the research findings.
2 PAS 1192
Over the building life cycle the amount of graphics and data required varies from
stage to stage (Figure 1): the volume of graphical information, fundamental during
the design stage, decreases once the design is complete, while attribute data
become more important during the construction and operation phases [6].
Figure 1: Graphics and data over building life cycle [6].
By combining both physical and functional characteristics of a facility [19]

BIM can easily accommodate the different users needs during the buildings life
cycle. In order to create a data-rich model, bespoke to each organisations needs,
the British Standards Institution published, in 2013, the Publicly Available
Specification (PAS) 1192 Part 2 Specification for information for the
modelling [20]. PAS 1192-2 determines a set of standards needed to meet the
BIM Level 2 requirements for new constructions or refurbishments and ensure a
collaborative digital environment. Through the various stages of the Information
Delivery Cycle (IDC), the PAS 1192-2 provides a framework for the creation and
development of an information model that results, after the project handover, in
the delivery of the as-constructed asset information model (AIM). Information
within the model grows as the project moves from stage 1 (brief) to stage 6
(handover and closeout), and is based on the Employers Information
Requirements (EIR) identified at the beginning of the process. During the
operational phase, analysed in the PAS 1192 Part 3 [21] the AIM will evolve
accordingly to the events (e.g. major and minor works, breakdowns, transfer
ownership) that occur while the building is in use. The PAS 1192-3 Specification
for information management for the operational phase of construction projects
using building information modelling is meant to be used during the building
operation for maintenance and strategic management [22]; however, the standards
do not provide a framework for existing buildings that are not about to undertake
major refurbishment, therefore leaving a gap when it comes to BIM for existing
estates.
3 BIM for existing buildings

Although it would be ideal to have as-constructed asset information model
available for every building, most of the existing estates have been built before the
BIM era and albeit the number of projects using BIM nowadays is growing, it
is still not being applied to all new constructions. Technology allows to create as-
built models that can be used during buildings operation phase but, according to
Kassem et al. [17], a lack of clients demand to implement models for FM together
with a shortage of BIM skills and understanding by FM professional is creating
a vicious circle inhibiting BIM adoption in FM applications.
The most commonly used process to create an as-built 3D model is Scan-to-
BIM through 3D laser scanning [24]. 3D laser scanning is an imaging technology
in use since 1990: with millimetre accuracy the 3D laser scanning allows the
creation of detailed data about a building [25]. The technology is faster and more
accurate than traditional surveys methodologies [26], offers a large range of
possible applications and it is currently the most accurate approach for creating
models for existing buildings [27]. However, there are some potential difficulties
in the Scan-to-BIM process: indoor scans are not as accurate and fully automated
as for external shapes [28, 29], complex design can make the process more difficult
and the huge amount of data created during the scanning often lead to slowdown
or failure of the process [30]. Moreover, the equipment required for the scanning
has high costs and requires data processing and modelling [31].
Due to the complexity of the process (data capturing, processing and model
creation), the effort [31] and time needed, the advanced skills required and overall
costs [27], there is a lack of interest in modelling existing buildings. The purpose
of the research is to develop a new framework aimed at creating building
information models for existing buildings, filling the gap identified in Section 2.
4 Methodology
The purpose of the research is to identify a new methodology envisioned to enable
the creation of information models for every kind of building currently in use.
The approach used in this study involved a literature review, aimed at
understanding the current gap, the development of a framework aimed at filling
the current gap, based on the literature, in particular PAS 1992, and finally a
practical test of the initial phase of the framework on two case studies buildings.
The case studies selected are existing non-domestic buildings at different stages
of their lifecycle that do not have a building information model. The buildings
were selected based on the opportunity to access the information required for this
stage and the following stages of the research and whether there was a willingness
by facilities managers to work alongside them, in order to understand how their
facilities are managed. Although the results of the research cannot be generalized
because of the small sample size, the various sources of evidence can help better
understand the time and effort investment required by a facility manager to create
an information model for existing buildings without having to resort to 3D laser
scanning. The models for the two buildings were created using Revit. The
researcher attended a two-day workshop on the software and made use of online
tutorials for additional help during the creation of the models.
4.1 Case studies
4.1.1 Case I: Belmont House

Belmont House (Figure 2) is currently leased to the Redcar & Cleveland Borough
Council and is managed by BAM FM since 2002. The building consists of three
floors over 4100 m2: each floor combines open spaces, private offices and meeting
rooms, with a total of 103 rooms. The ground floor is partially used to provide
public services while the first and second floors are for staff use only.
Figure 2: Belmont House [32].
4.1.2 Case II: Medway University Technical College

Medway University Technical College (Figure 3) is a new secondary school
located in the Chatham Waters regeneration site in north Gillingham, Kent [33].
The UTC consists of four floors over 6100 m2 that accommodates learning
facilities, workshop rooms and staff offices, in addition to a court sport hall, a
refectory and a forum.
Figure 3: Medway UTC [33].
5 RetroBIM framework
Information is vital for facilities management [34] and an easy access to the
required information is essential to operate a building in an effective way [6].
Nevertheless most of the documents handed over to facilities managers by

contractors are still paper based [23] and thousands of man-hours are spent
recreating [35] incomplete and inaccurate [36] information. Technology has
helped FM to automate the traditional processes [37, 38] but it is still perceived as
a utility tool rather than an enabler for strategic value [39]. Most of the FM
functions are done manually [40], but using BIM would increase efficiency and
accuracy [15] and the building model would be used as a single source for all the
project information [41]. Nevertheless, there is an important issue that needs to be
addressed regarding the creation of a model for existing buildings: every project
is different and the requirements within each model vary [31] based on the
building, its use, the management strategies and the users and all these aspects
should be considered when a BIM for FM model is created. The differences
highlighted preclude the identification of a unique set of information that could be
used to create models for every building during the operational phase: every
building will in fact require a different breadth and depth of information stored
and recorded during the life cycle [42]. Accordingly with the literature BIM in FM
is still at a very early phase of implementation and acquiring the data needed for
managing the buildings is a major obstacle [43]. The motivation for this research
is to create a new approach to the generation of information models of existing
buildings aimed at simplifying the development process by giving the opportunity
to the facilities managers to create models tailored on the building, the
management strategies and the users. The framework is called RetroBIM (Figure
4) and it is an iterative process based on the increasing level of model details
(information).
Figure 4: RetroBIM framework.
The framework starts with the base model: a 3D graphical representation of the
building which includes internal and external walls, windows and doors. Once the
base model is complete the facilities manager identifies what is required to operate
and maintain the building and to answer operational decisions. The requirements
can be identified at business, functional and operational level to fulfil both short-
term and long-term strategy needs and day-to-day operations. Each requirement is
then translated into attributes that may contain information about dimensions,
identification, performance, installation/application, sustainability/usage,
management and maintenance or specifications [44] of the models elements. At
the end of each iteration the facilities manager evaluates whether the requirement
and connected attributes are needed in the model for future purposes or not: if yes,
the model will be updated according to the new set of information. At each
iteration additional requirements and attributes are evaluated and the model
develops over time based on each organisations and buildings needs: the model
will grow over time and include the breadth and depth of information appropriate
for each project.
5.1 Creating the base models
5.1.1 Belmont House base model

In order to create the model, the building was surveyed by one person using a laser
distance measurer. The survey took 8 hours to be completed and to ensure
accuracy every measurement was taken three times and recorded: the average
value of each measurement was then used to create the final model.
The building has a linear design and the process of developing the model took
approximately 7 hours and 30 minutes, with an average of 547 m2 every hour. The
main difficulty encountered was the creation of the glazing and it was overcome
by creating intermediate levels between the first and second floor and between
second floor and the roof.
Figure 5: Belmont House 3D view. Figure 6: Belmont House front view.
5.1.2 Medway UTC base model

In order to create the model, the researcher used the floor maps, elevations and
sections provided by the lead building contractor. Certain elements in the design
of the UTC affected the development of the model: the multi levels roofs, the
internal void for the forum and the court sports hall. The model was completed in
approximately 13 hours, with an average of 469 m2 completed every hour.
Figure 7: UTC Medway 3D views.
6 Conclusion
The benefits derived from the use of BIM for the management of buildings should
be extended to existing buildings that currently have no models. Despite the
existence of technologies that allow creation of 3D models of the existing estates,
such as Scan-to-BIM, these are rarely used due to several limitations.
The RetroBIM framework proposed in this paper describes a new methodology
to develop bespoke information models for existing buildings based on the
facilities management strategy and the buildings requirements. The case study
presented, although with limitations, proves that the base model, the starting point
of the framework, can be created without using costly and time consuming
technologies. The test proves that models for facilities management are different
from the one developed during design and construction. The graphic part should
be minimal, as confirmed by the literature, and the main focus should be on the
identification of the key data set to create whole-life models. Minimal BIM skills
are sufficient to create the base models and even without full architecture details,
the model can be used to enhance and improve operation tasks such as space
management. Hence, the base model can be created by facilities managers and
used to replace 2D floor maps currently in use for day-to-day operations. By
adding information through the requirement/attributes/evaluation loop the model
will grow over time, becoming a detailed decision making tool for facilities
managers to fulfil both short-term and long-term strategy needs and day-to-day
operations. Compared with the technologies available for modelling existing
buildings, the framework proposed in this paper does not require the involvement
of external experts, has no additional capital cost apart from the time commitment
of a facilities manager to create the model and the implementation time is
significantly reduced. Where BIM modelling skills do not exist, there is an issue.
Hence the framework can be applied to every type of building, without limitations,
and enables every facilities manager to fully benefit from using building
information models during the operation phase. Facilities managers are often very
busy with little time available for additional activities such as creating BIM models
of the assets they manage and there is a potential lack of BIM modelling skills in
the field. Both can be limiting factors in adopting RetroBIM, but with a one-off
training investment, as well as the employment of graduate facilities managers,
many of whom already possess BIM modelling skills, these issues could be
addressed.
The next step of the research will involve the identification of requirements and
attributes necessary to manage a building. This will be based on the different tasks
usually undertaken by facilities managers, identified through literature and an
online survey. Once the framework is complete, it will be applied to the case
studies buildings for a set number of iterations. To improve the validity of the
study two more case studies will be added to test the framework on a more
complex building (Stockwell Street, library and academic building at the
University of Greenwich, opened in September 2014) and on a Grade II listed
building that will undertake major refurbishment over the next two years
(Dreadnought Library library and computer centre at the University of
Greenwich, built between 17641786).
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Digital models applied to the analysis,

intervention and management of
architectural heritage
R. Angulo Fornos
Department of Architectural Graphic Expression,
Research Group HUM799, University of Seville, Spain
Abstract
The new technologies spawned by the evolution of CAD constitute the
fundamental basis for the investigative work of Research Group HUM799. Based
on different methods for conducting architectural surveys, they may give rise to
graphical models that are not only capable of assisting dynamic processes of
architectural heritage intervention, management and dissemination but are
veritable repositories of information about the building. Our main aim here is to
experiment with these tools as part of a specific case study of the chapel of La
Virgen de la Antigua in Seville Cathedral and find ways to facilitate the generation
of all the possible relationships between the data morphological, material,
structural, historical, cultural, etc. captured from and recorded about this
building, and not only based on the materiality of its massive and precursory
elements but also on all the elements associated with the immateriality of its spaces
(traces, relationships, functionality, accommodation of furnishings, etc.). The
scope of this paper is therefore to share a few reflections on the generation of an
experimental model for its future use in various disciplines, from heritage
management and conservation to intervention, investigation and dissemination.
Keywords: BIM, architectural heritage, management, conservation, intervention,
dissemination.
1 Introduction
Since the advent of the theoretical consideration of architecture as cultural heritage,
in Italy in the first half of the 20th century, the relationship between our present
and historical forms, and in general all forms regarded as having heritage value,
doi:10.2495/BIM150341
has revolved around a key issue: knowledge and its inextricable association with
the generic aim of appropriate conservation [1]. This knowledge is characterised
according to a purely physical dimension the object itself and an intangible
dimension its cultural significance.
The interpretation of architectural forms has evolved over time from their
description and promotion exclusively in relation to universal values
classification of types, styles, etc. to a consideration of their specificity as part
of the concrete environments or contexts in which they occur and to which they
bear witness. Meanwhile, historical distance implies the consideration of the
architectural object as a document, and it therefore has a dual value: on the one
hand it is the principal gateway to sets of meanings whose internal structures we
should attempt to clarify by applying different disciplinary approaches and
methodologies; on the other, its irreplaceable testimonial value raises the need for
strict, scrupulous conservation and the management of the necessary means to
achieve this in light of the risk of destroying or altering valuable clues to its
meaning which are perhaps hermetic today but may be interpretable in the future.
Since then, this situation has demanded the need to conduct research alongside the
conservation and management of architectural heritage, which is the subject of
increasingly complex analytical approaches. This is reflected in various
international charters and declarations, such as the Venice Charter (1964), updated
in subsequent restoration charters [2], and in the national and regional standards
and legislation that have followed them.
As a response to this context, this paper presents some of the results obtained
from the creation of a digital model that may be used in relation to architectural
heritage in order to facilitate an interpretation of its complexities. The model is
designed to act as an open-ended and constantly updated system that offers a three-
dimensional view of the strict physical reality as well as providing all the necessary
information to permit a detailed knowledge of the object and therefore assist with
decisions regarding conservation strategies, structural calculations, environmental
assessments, etc. The construction of this model should not simply aim to
reproduce the current physical reality but should be conceived in a
multidisciplinary scientific environment that encourages an ongoing debate and in
which research into the heritage object is reconciled with the issues surrounding a
knowledge model based on digital resources.
Digital models offer a fundamental advantage in this field of study in that they
allow researchers to visualise aspects of architecture which more traditional
vehicles of expression orthogonal projections, floor plans and sections do not
permit because they are too coded or abstract. This greatly facilitates the functional
convergence of scattered and disjointed information from different fields of
knowledge: documentary, archaeological, visual, analytical, economic, technical,
reports, etc. We have brought together researchers and professionals related to
heritage so that they can contribute solid theoretical knowledge and long practical
experience. In terms of technological resources, the research group is applying
building information modelling (BIM) systems to heritage properties.
Consequently, our aim is not to create a tool that absorbs and classifies all the
available information in an automatic, sterile manner, but rather to create an active
entity that generates knowledge above and beyond disciplinary contributions, that
sheds light on the complexity of the property, and that facilitates its appropriate
dissemination, all thanks to new technologies, Figure 1.
Figure 1: Proposed information structure.
2 Case study
This paper explores a set of results and thoughts based on the digital model
currently being generated for the Chapel of La Virgen de la Antigua, a funerary
building that forms part of Seville Cathedral, Figure 2.
The Gothic cathedral was built between 1433 and 1506 on the site of the citys
old Moorish mosque and within its rectangular perimeter, giving rise to one of the
largest Gothic cathedrals in existence. A key element of this mosque was the area
where the mihrab was located, in the geometric centre of the rectangular floor plan
with its north-south orientation. This small, symbolic space was abutted to a
complex system of parallel walls between which was built the sabat (secret
passage) separating the mosque from the old alczar, or fortress. All of these
structures were originally integrated into the Gothic building, abutted to its south
wall, until they were demolished to make way for the Chapel of La Virgen de la
Antigua, which was one of the chapels along the south side of the cathedral nave
and aisles, near the transept.
Figure 2: Situation. Aerial view. Image by the author based on Bing Maps
(MS Corporation).
The Chapel of La Virgen de la Antigua that we see today has a rectangular floor
plan, following the duplication in height and depth of the original chapel which
gained two more spaces: an upper storey to house the library and store musical
instruments, and a lower storey to serve as the chapel sacristy. These two
superimposed spaces were abutted to the chapels west wall, a complex extension
that took place before the Gothic building had been completed. They were
commissioned by Archbishop Diego Hurtado de Mendoza and designed by the
architect Simn de Colonia in 1496. In 1502, when their sponsor passed away, the
alterations to the remains of the mihrab and sabat were well underway. To gain
extra depth, the outer wall of the original chapel was demolished along with a large
volume that served as a buttress at the end of the transept and also contained a
spiral staircase, affecting the original layout of the cathedral as viewed from the
south.
These alterations took place between 1496 and 1512 and were followed by
several additional renovations and restructuring exercises, each of which have left
a plethora of contractual documents, reports and ledger books, as well as traces
and marks where walls have been joined, which have been analysed from the
historiographical Jimnez [3], architectural Jimnez [4], and archaeological
Tabales and Jimnez [5], Mora and Guerrero [6] perspectives in the case of the
building still visible walls and roofs and have been the subject of geophysical
prospections to identify hidden remains. These latter references have provided the
basis for writing this section of the document.
In short, this building is the result of the complex alterations and renovations
that have taken place through the years, which paradigmatically have given rise to
an edifice characterised by an immense unity of form. Deciphering the changes
that have occurred and the building processes involved may shed light on how its
form evolved and why certain decisions were taken, as well as helping to identify
the weak points that have arisen from these changes. From a methodological point
of view, the construction of the digital model enables us to visualise
simultaneously all the information pertaining to the various stages of the building,
some of them concealed by subsequent phases, and to explain some of the
discontinuities of form that could not be fully understood from stylistic
interpretations alone.
3 Development of the digital information model

Continuing with the discourse presented in the introduction, the need to create a
BIM model of the object of study is based on considering:
The architectural object as a document in itself, a bearer of extremely diverse
information which clearly needs to be recorded in the model.
That architectural heritage has been subjected to a complex process of
transformation materials, rheology, social and cultural conditions over the
years, and these also need to be recorded and evaluated.
That this process of transformation will be ongoing, because any interpretation
of this heritage or any intervention in it will be performed from a specific
cultural standpoint. The review of the data recorded and their interpretation is
therefore of crucial importance in order to prevent the loss of information.
That the convergence of diverse fields of knowledge must be the pivot around
which the entire process revolves, and its ultimate aim must be to provide a
versatile tool to assist heritage research, conservation, intervention and
dissemination.
In this respect, the BIM model will be a live drawing of the building, although
it can never replace the reality. It will always be an abstraction derived from the
deliberate, carefully delimited selection of information captured directly from the
object and completed through contributions of interdisciplinary knowledge.
Consequently, on the scale of the architectural object, the BIM could take the
same form as that which characterises GIS, as a tool that offers classified or filtered
information which, fed continually from the input data, provides new visions or
three-dimensional approaches that help to form knowledge based on the graphical
representations generated. In other words, it will be treated as a database, available
for constant consultation graphical, topical or alphanumeric and its answers
will lead to new knowledge and, therefore, to the ability to perform analyses that
assist with the interpretation and comprehension of the hidden details of its
transformation over the years. These visions would be very difficult to obtain
directly from alphanumeric information alone.
The use of BIM is not a new methodological approach for this research group,
Angulo [7], but this is the first time we have used to it analyse a complete and
relatively complex architectural object and the first time that the data captured and
recorded are not only based on the materiality of its massive and precursory
elements morphological, material, structural, historical, cultural, etc. but also
on those associated with the immateriality of its spaces, such as its traces,
relationships, functionality, accommodation of furnishings, etc.
In recent years there have been many contributions in this respect as regards to
the general scope of existing buildings, such as those provided by Volk et al. [8],
but few in the specific field of heritage architecture, the most notable being those
of Simeone et al. [9], Murphy et al. [10], Rua and Gil [11], and Nieto Julin and
Moyano Campos [12]. In these investigations the model is treated solely as the
reflection of its current physical reality, on a material and documentary level.
However, we believe that it should also serve as a repository for all the related
elements, from excavations, documents, etc. that provide a diachronic
interpretation of the building and permit spatial analyses that would be very
difficult to perform without these models.
3.1 Model structure
With regard to the generation of the various elements and the systematisation of
the information they contain or to which they are linked, the digital model adopts
a stratigraphic structure composed of different material layers, Figure 3.
Figure 3: Digital model structure.
Thus, we pass from the immateriality of the spaces, containers of other objects
such as movable assets and information related to functional and
environmental aspects as well as analytical information regarding aspects such as
its geometric trace, to the massive strata usually composed of building elements
containing data about their materiality and information concerning their time line,
obtained from historiographical and archaeological studies. In between these
layers a very thin precursory layer is introduced which may contain any type of
information, measurable or not, of a superficial nature, such as pathological
aspects or those related to the materiality of the wall finishes or patina.
Consequently, through the deliberate management of the use of filters and
consultations of the data recorded, it is possible to generate analytical images that
offer a direct visualisation of the different relationships between the data processed.
3.2 Choice of software
Any BIM software on the market would have provided us with sufficient tools to
undertake this experiment quite satisfactorily, barring the persistent difficulties of
using applications originally designed for new works of architecture or their
renovation but not for historical architecture. These difficulties are the non-
existence of families of parametric elements related to old buildings that can also
be extrapolated to universal information sharing formats such as IFC.
On this occasion we have opted to use Autodesk Revit due to its versatility
for managing and modelling complex forms, and to the possibility of combining
it with Autodesk Dynamo, an open source graphical programming software
which offers a very powerful option not only for creating graphical representations
of complex geometries but for managing the information flows between the BIM
model and the database both efficiently and automatically.
3.3 Input data
Graphic surveys of heritage architecture have tested all the available tools for
capturing the dimensions and forms of the architectural object, confirming that
none of them is valid if the ultimate aim is to capture the entire complex reality of
the object but all of them are valid if it is merely a question of obtaining
information for a specific purpose.
One of the premises of this investigation should be to generate a rigorous model
from the point of view of the objects dimensions and forms so that its geometry
is capable of recreating a sufficiently accurate visualisation of any defects in the
building system to the extent of providing useful information for its structural
analysis and offers a reliable source of graphical information for future
maintenance and interventions in the architecture. This required the use of
techniques for capturing large volumes of data or performing reverse engineering.
In this case we opted to capture point clouds using digital photogrammetry
outside, Figure 4, and laser scanning inside where poor lighting prevented the use
of the former method.
Figure 4: Photogrammetric survey of the exterior.
3.4 Modelling process
One of the greatest determining factors when it comes to using these types of
models with heritage objects is the complete lack of geometry in certain elements,
either because they are buried or semi-derelict structures or they are elements that
have undergone deformations due to static or dynamic forces over time. The
decision usually lies between two parallel methods or paths: the formal generation
of the object by translating the digital capture of points into a closed mesh of
triangles for conversion into a classifiable generic mass in the BIM environment,
or the geometric interpretation with a certain threshold of accuracy of the point
cloud to obtain the generative layout of an adaptive parametric element with
greater potential for contributing and containing information than a generic mass.
In the case study, the first option was inevitable for the structures exposed by
archaeological investigations into the subsoil, which will form an important part
of the model in terms of its diachronic analysis. But for all the other elements, such
as the rib vault, we have used the second option, obtaining from the digital capture,
through 3D modelling software, the requisite graphical elements NURBS
surfaces for superficial elements and curves and sections for linear elements,
Figure 5 to generate spatial, massive and precursory parametric elements, Figure
6.
Figure 5: Rib vault. Geometry obtained from point cloud.
Figure 6: Rib vault. Digital model at the development stage.
The building model is currently being completed and work has begun on
developing the database that will interact with the model. The modelling process
has been satisfactory in general, but investigations continue into how to improve
the processes for generating highly complex forms such as the springing lines of
rib vaults by interpreting how they were built. In any case, this first phase has
resulted in a number of interesting conclusions.
4 Conclusions
A unique characteristic of heritage architecture is its consideration as the result of
a long process of renovations and transformations over time, even if on many
occasions the final consequence has been a building with enormous unity of form.
The use of digital models is proving particularly interesting in these cases because
the synchronous visualisation of different stages of the buildings history permits
a much more accurate interpretation of its temporal fragments. In this case, this
aspect was developed by implementing in the model the possibilities offered by
the software used to classify the elements into different phases.
This experience is successfully proving one of the principal advantages of BIM
models, which is that they evolve with the actual analysis of the heritage object in
question: in other words, from the moment its merits are recognised and protected
under the aegis of some form of legal regulation, its inclusion in a catalogue or
inventory of protected assets, to its profound study, restoration or formulation of
plans for its future conservation.
This evolution can be compared to the LOD (Level of Detail) specifications
that have become a standard component of BIM systems applied to new buildings
and that are not only serving to amortise the time and financial investment in
creating them but guaranteeing their efficiency in accordance with the
aforementioned principles of functional convergence.
Finally, in relation to the actual process of generating the digital model, it has
become even more evident that you can only draw what you know, a very
widespread expression in the teaching of drawing. Thus, as the model evolved, in
its consideration as an infographic image, it became increasingly clear that the
process must be accompanied by constant interdisciplinary debate, continual
feedback about the drawing/object, in order to guarantee the correct interpretation
of the aspects that influence the building and spatial origins of the architectural
object.
Acknowledgement
Related to project HAR2012-34571 funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy
and Competitiveness and led by the lecturer Francisco Pinto Puerto.
References
[1] Brandi, C., Teora de la Restauracin, Alianza Editorial: Madrid, 1988.
[2] ICOMOS, www.icomos.org/en/; CIPA, cipa.icomos.org
[3] Jimnez, A., Rarezas de la Capilla de la Antigua de la catedral de Sevilla,
Actas del Simposium internacional sobre la catedral de Sevilla en el
contexto del gtico final, Dereeo: Seville, pp. 401-420, 2007.
[4] Jimnez, A., Anatoma de la Catedral de Sevilla. Diputacin Provincial de
Sevilla. Seville, 2013
[5] Tabales, M.A. & Jimnez, A., La Cilla de la Catedral y el sector meridional
de la mezquita aljama de Sevilla, Magna Hispalensis (I) Recuperacin de la
aljama almohade, Cabildo catedral: Seville, pp. 229-296, 2002.
[6] Mora, G. & Guerrero, J.M., La capilla de Nuestra Seora de la Antigua de
la Catedral de Sevilla en el trnsito al siglo XVI. Una aproximacin desde
el anlisis constructivo, estratigrfico y documental, Actas del II Congreso
Internacional Sevilla, 1514. Arquitectos tardogticos en la Encrucijada,

Univ. Sevilla-Univ. Cantabria (press article).
[7] Angulo, R., Construccin de la base grfica para un sistema de informacin
y gestin del patrimonio arquitectnico: Casa de Hylas, Arqueologa de la
arquitectura, 9, pp. 11-25, 2012.
[8] Volk, R., Stengel, J., & Schultmann, F., Building Information Modelling
(BIM) for existing buildings - Literature review and future needs,
[9] Simeone, D., Cursi, S., Toldo, I., & Carrara, G., B(H)IM - Built Heritage
Information Modelling. Extending the BIM approach to historical and
archaeological heritage representation, eCAADe, Vol. 1, pp. 613-622,
2009.
[10] Murphy, M., McGovern, E., & Pavia, S., Historic Building Information
Modelling - Adding intelligence to laser and image based surveys of
European classical architecture, ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing, 76, pp. 89-102, 2013.
[11] Rua, H., & Gil, A., Automation in heritage Parametric and associative
design strategies to model inaccessible monuments: The case-study of
eighteenth-century Lisbon guas Livres Aqueduct, Digital Applications in
Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 1(3-4), pp. 82-91, 2014.
[12] Nieto Julin, J. E., & Moyano Campos, J. J., The paramental study on the
Model of Information of Historic Building or HBIM Project, Virtual
Archaeology Review, 5, pp. 73-85, 2014.
Section 9
BIM and automation
in construction
Public BIM-based model checking solutions:

lessons learned from Singapore and Norway
E. Hjelseth
Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences, Norway
Abstract
There is an increasing interest for BIM-based model checking in general. The use
of public solutions for building permit approval is often highlighted as an example
of practical use of BIM. A global spread of these solutions could therefore have
been expected. However, implementations in other countries have been limited.
This study analyses the Corenet solution in Singapore and the ByggSk solution
in Norway in respect of identifying experiences that can be useful for other
countries that intend to develop their own solutions. Use of the Integrated Design
and Delivery (IDDS) framework from CIB helps to explain elements with an
impact on implementation of the solution. This type of explanation is often
missing when presenting or comparing solutions. The impact of this study is
increased understanding of knowledge transfer and awareness of which elements
can be re-used from others in national implementations.
Keywords: model checking, BIM implementation, maturity, knowledge transfer.
1 Introduction
BIM-based model checking (BMC) is highlighted as one of the most significant
benefits for use of building information modelling (BIM) [1]. Use of BMC in the
industry is mostly related to coordination of disciplines and clash control. Use of
BMC can serve as an indicator of maturity for BIM in projects [2]. The public
authority plays an important role as a catalyst to initiate development. National
authorities have a special role in implementing BMC [3]. Building permit approval
is a mandatory point for every construction project and in this respect an obvious
doi:10.2495/BIM150351
candidate for BMC. The number and type of users is direct related to the number
of building permit applications so the number of customers of the solution is
therefore been know in advance. National authorities have resources to develop
solutions or adapt existing solutions. Large numbers of implementations in many
countries should therefore have been expected due to its role as mandatory task in
all construction projects.
However, this is not the situation the number of implementations is limited.
This raises the question: What can be learned from the pioneers? and why do
we not see the expected numbers of implementations?
National public digital solutions for processing building applications are not
common service. Lack of common international terms makes it hard to discover
potential solutions in other countries [4]. The Norwegian Building Authority
developed the ByggSk (Building Application) solution in 2007 [5, 6]. This is
a web-based solution for verification of filled-in application forms related to
specific types of applications. They plan to develop a more sophisticated solution
called ByggNett [7]. The CORENET e-Submission System from 1995 in
Singapore is well known [8]. These implementations will be used as cases in this
paper. Other examples on digital solutions for support of building permit
applications can be the Planning portal from the UK Governments online
planning and building regulations resource for England and Wales [9]. Korea is
developing the Seumter Code Checking System based on research at the Kyung-
Hee University [10]. This list is not comprehensive, but indicates limited number
of implementations.
Digital service can be expected to be faster and cheaper than manual
processing. Upon closer inspection, this is most important in smaller projects
where the fee has higher ratio compared to design time and project cost. However,
maybe the qualitative improvements resulting in more predictable outcome is the
most important impact. The ability to use BMC during the design process can have
a significant impact on the design of buildings. Likewise national building
authority can use digitalization during development of new regulations. BMC can
be used to explore consequences of new regulations and to identify interactions
between different regulations [11].
An international survey by the Norwegian Building Authority [5] pointed out
the following benefits of automatic assessment systems:
- Equal requirements for information for all local authorities
- Equal assessment for information for identical types of projects
- Digital information enables reuse for other purposes
- Solutions for pre-check of application in advance of formal submission
- Support for design according to the regulations
Dr. Tan Kee Wee and Cheng Tai Fatt at the Building Construction Authority
in Singapore believe that development of an automatic compliance-checking
platform will return ten times the investment required [5].
Table 1 presents a Norwegian survey by the Norwegian Building Authority [5]
identifying the four most important barriers and drivers for the adoption and
implementation of BIM:
Table 1: Important BIM drivers and barriers [5].
BIM DRIVERS: BIM BARRIERS:

- Requirements from public project owners - Conservative culture
- Requirements from building authorities - Fragmented industry
- Effective and agile design process - Lack of competence
- Job satisfaction and recruitment - Current contractual standards
2 Methodology
This study uses Norway and Singapore as cases for exploring implemented public
digital solutions for processing of building permit applications. The traditional
perspective has been on technology and exchange of BIM/openBIM files.
Technology is an important enabler. However, this approach does not explain or
provide understanding for why these implementations have not reached global
spread.
This study introduces a wider approach than technology and looks into missing
perspectives. In this respect, the Integrated Design and Delivery (IDDS)
framework from International council for research and innovation in building and
construction (CIB) has been used to explain elements with an impact on
implementation of solutions. This type of explanation is often missing when
presenting or comparing solutions. IDDS is a priority theme in CIB, initiated in
2006. The IDDS is comprehensive presented in CIB Publication 370 [12] in 2013,
with summary in CIB Publication 373. The first version presented was CIB
Publication 328 in 2009. The IDDS framework is based on three core perspectives;
People, Process and Technology expressed as: Collaborating people, Integrated
process and Interoperable technology [12]. This perspective is clarified by the
three imperatives: Building Information Modelling, Knowledge management and
Integrated project delivery as presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The three perspectives and the three imperatives in IDDS [12].
In this study are the three perspectives interpreted with a focus on digital
processing of building applications:
Integrated process:
Processes and requirements related to preparing, this includes both the applicant
and the building authority.
Collaborating people:
Focuses on the background assumption for peoples actions. BIM maturity,
competence and tacit knowledge is a part of this perspective.
Interoperable technology:
Include presentations of the technical solutions and exchange of information.
There is a connection, direct or indirect, between all three perspectives. The
importance of focus on the relationships in the IDDS framework can be illustrated
by using one perspective to obtain effect on components in one or both or the other
perspectives [13]. This approach can contribute to enable change is design of
solution and realization of change in practice. The success of development should
therefore be measured by its capacity to create change. Focus should therefore not
be on the deliverables from the project, but the impact of practical use [14]. The
importance of focusing on collaborative BIM use has also been pointed out in
reviews [15].
These perspectives; Collaborating people, Integrated process and Interoperable
technology [12] are used to structure the cases from Norway and Singapore. The
status of these three perspectives is based on literature reviews.
3 Case: Norway
3.1 Integrated process
Building permit application process in Norway is presented in Figure 2 [5, 16].

This process have direct and indirect influence on a long range of elements and is
therefore a good introduction for understanding of all components and relations.
Figure 2: Building application and permit process in Norway [5, 16].
In 2012 there were approximately 110,000 applications submitted to the local

building authority. Approximately 37% were submitted as paper-based forms
(completed manually on paper, or as print-outs of PDF forms completed manually
on the computer). ByggSk was used as a tool for completing approx. 70,000 (63%
of total) applications. Figure 3 shows the distribution of ByggSk services from
2005 to 2012 [4].
Figure 3: Distribution in use of ByggSk 20052012 [4].
The processing of all applications submitted by ByggSk is processed at one

of the approximately 330 local building authorities in the same way as traditional
applications using paper forms. The total number of building officers in Norway
is approximately 1500 employees, varying from one part-time up to 440 in the
capital.
The building permit application from ByggSk can be submitted as:
- Printout on paper, sent by ordinary mail/delivered manually to local building
authority office. This enables the supplement of paper drawings and other
documents.
- Digital files over the internet. The application forms as one single PDF file,
in addition to an XML structured file. Supplementary documents and
drawings must be attached as PDF files. There is an option for submitting
additional documents/drawings by mail. The processing does not start until
the local building authority receives this.
Figure 3 illustrates an increase in use of ByggSk as a tool for preparing the
application. However, the percentage of digital submission has not increased. The
Norwegian Building Authority points out two perspectives as possible
explanations:
- Applicant: A large number of documents from many sources must be
digitized. ByggSk is only used to ensure that all relevant forms are filled in.
There are no added benefits (reduced fee, shorter processing time) for 100%
digital applications. ByggSk is used as an advanced application writer
with input validation of fields in the form (but no validation of content).
- Local building authority: Lack of system to process the applications in a
digitized way (XML-import and use of digital attachment). Received
applications are printed out and processed manually [6].
The climate and population set some constraints for the construction industry.
Norways climate has very large variations, both during the year and from north
to south. This constraint influences both the buildings and their construction, in
addition to working conditions and need for local adaptation of the buildings. The
building authorities do not check technical specification, but the legislation
requires that the design and construction is performed by qualified companies [17].
3.2 Collaborating people
The AEC industry is the second largest sector in Norway in terms of revenue and
number of employees. The Norwegian AEC industry included 54,982 companies,
219,598 employees and 48.1 billion in turnover in 2013. The turnover has
increased by 40% since 2009 [18]. The revenue for the hundred largest companies
is approximately 30% of the total revenue for the AEC industry in Norway. This
is the result of an industry that is fragmented, consisting of numerous small
companies. 95% have 5 or fewer employees, 1% of companies have more than 50
employees, and 90.9% have under 10 employees [18]. The Norwegian population
is 5.1 million on an area of 385.178 km2, resulting in 15 people/km2. This
influenced the size of buildings and what the society give priority [17].
Adoption of BIM in the Norwegian AEC industry has come a long way in a
relatively short period of time. BIM is today in use in most large construction
projects. Especially public project owners have awareness and are requiring
architects, engineers and contractors to use BIM. Architects and engineers have
adopted BIM to a greater extent than contractors and Facility management (FM)
professionals. Furthermore, the building construction sector seems to be more
mature than the infrastructure sector, which to a greater extent is reliant on
proprietary solutions. In addition to traditional design tasks, BIM is used for
collision control, energy analysis and extraction of quantity for cost calculation.
The last five to ten years, the adaptation of BIM has increased greatly in
Norway. Architects are the primary adopters, followed by engineers and
contractors. Most large construction projects are currently designed using BIM. In
addition to traditional design tasks, BIM is used for collision control in the design
phase and the production of quantity-related data for cost calculation. During on-
site construction, BIM is used to a small extent. The same goes for BIM use in the
building operation phase [5].
3.3 Interoperable technology
ByggSk is the Norwegian solution for electronic communication in building

application processing. The first version was launched on July 1, 2003. The
development lasted for three years and the cost was about 2 million Euro (2003
rate). With ByggSk, the builder can fill out the application and send it via the
internet. The current version (Version 3.2) was launched on January 7, 2013. The
technical specification of ByggSk was drawn up internally by the Norwegian
Building Authority [6].The application is based on EXPRESS Data Manager
(EDM) from Jotne EDM Technology in Norway. The system is an object database
with tools to manage complex product data models. EDM can resolve data
interoperability issues like exchange, sharing, integration, quality and archival.

HTML, PDF, FTP and XML files can be exported. ByggSk has a three-layer
architecture: database, server application and user interface. The system uses a
primary SQL database with transaction support. Any data exchange is done using
the XML format [5].
ByggNett is a new strategy for digitalization of the entire construction related
industry. This include public sector. Further development of ByggSk with
extended services for processing of building permit applications will be an
important part of the new ByggNett strategy. The level of service and complexity
is illustrated in Figure 4 [4].
Figure 4: Development progress of the Norwegian solution [4].
The overall vision for the ByggNett strategy is simple, effective and predictable
services throughout the life cycle of the built environment. The strategy indicates
development of an integrated, complete solution for processing of building
applications. This includes services for both the local public building authority
office processing the application and for the applicant, professional or private,
submitting the building permit application. There is an increased gap between Step
3 and 4 in Figure 4 to illustrate this step is demanding. Step 4 can be related to
Level 3 in the UK strategy for digitalisation of the entire construction industry [19,
20].
The activities and measures in the ByggNett strategy [7] are based on three
basic guidelines:
- User orientation
- Do-It-Yourself service
- Collaboration
The strategy will ensure the best possible relationship between different
initiatives and achieve their goals in both the short and long term. The strategy
describes five priority areas for development of:
- Relationships with industry and other authorities

- Processes and methodologies that support digitization
- Competency
- Regulations applicable for digitalisation, and
- Services and tools, applications and registry for storing, processing, sharing
and presentation of information.
Implementation of this strategy is challenging because it affects many
players. Due to this complexity, will implantation of the strategy focus on a
series of small projects, instead of one large project or one comprehensive software
solution [7].
4 Case: Singapore
4.1 Integrated process
Building permit application process in Singapore is presented in Figure 5 [5, 21].

This process have direct and indirect influence on a long range of elements and is
therefore a good introduction for understanding of all components and relations.
Figure 5: Building application and permit process in Singapore [5, 21].
e-Submission is mandatory: In Singapore, almost 100% of planning applications

are now performed on the e-Submission System. With a customer base of over
2,500 companies, it is used widely by architects, engineers, surveyors, plumbers,
electricians and other professionals. In an industry survey, 89% of the respondents
indicated they had experienced cost and time savings related to printing of plans,
transportation/dispatch services and increased staff productivity. Adoption of the
e-Information System is similarly widespread, with a user base of over 12,000
industry professionals, resulting in the gradual phasing-out of printed copies of
circulars and correspondence by the participating regulatory departments [5]. An
overview of approved plans in 2014 [22] is listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Listing of approved plans in 2014 [22].
Type or application/approval Number

Approved Building Plans 4,402
Approved CD Shelter Plans 2,917
Approved Structural Plans 16,614
Permits to Commence Structural Works Issued 6,381
Temporary Occupation Permits (TOP) Issued and Certificates of Statutory

Completion (CSC) are part of the Norwegian building application in reporting
finalized projects. These numbers are not relevant in relation to the Norwegian
process.
4.2 Collaborating people
Construction contracts for the built environment sector are expected to reach
between 19.7 billion to 23.8 billion in 2015, given a sustained pipeline of public
sector projects. This follows an exceptionally strong performance in 2014 where
the total construction demand set a new record of 24.8 billion, fuelled by a higher
volume of institutional and civil engineering construction contracts [23]. The AEC
industry in Singapore consists primarily of labour migrants in terms of building
workers. Overall, 300,000 work permits were granted for migrant workers in the
construction industry in June 2013. The high proportion of labour means that the
industry is slowing, taking productivity into account. The government has initiated
a program for productivity improvement [24]. The population is 5.5 million on an
area of 718 km2, resulting in 7,615 people/km2 [25]. Tall buildings are dominating
enabling professional roles in the design and application process. Singapore has
a tropical rainforest climate with no distinctive seasons, uniform temperature and
pressure, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. Temperatures usually range from
22 to 35C [25].
The adoption of BIM in Singapore is estimated at 65%. Most of the AEC
industry players are using AutoDesk solutions. The Singapore Building
Construction Authoritys approach to industry adoption of BIM is based on a top-
down philosophy. According to Dr. Evelyn Teo at the University of Singapore,
the driving forces behind the implementation and adoption of BIM in Singapore
are strong economic incentives and education. The technology is mature and
available; it is the soft human aspects of organization, culture and adoption of the
technology that are the real challenges. In 2010 the Building and Construction
Authority (BCA) in Singapore launched the BIM roadmap. This is intended to
increase productivity and the level of integration among the various stakeholders
in the AEC industry. The goal is that 80% of the AEC industry should be using
BIM by 2015. Singapore is currently focusing on open BIM. Though progress is
moving slowly, supporters believe that non-proprietary solutions represent the
only way to resolve interoperability issues [5].
4.3 Technology
The idea of an artificial intelligence planning checking system was first conceived
of in Singapore as early as 1982. In 1995 the Ministry of National Development
of Singapore, with the Building and Construction Authority as implementing
agency, initiated CORENET (Construction and Real Estate Network) [26]. In
2002 CORENET was upgraded and the 2D BP Expert System replaced with the
3D IFC data model. The application is based on FORNAXTM from
novaCITYNETS. Fornax is an IFC viewer developed for the ePlanCheck project
in the CORENET program. FORNAX was developed specifically to perform
automated checks on electronic drawings against building and land regulations for
design compliance and to generate compliance reports. It extends the IFC models
and builds additional intelligence to enable the implementation of checking
functions. The FORNAX software platform was developed by
novaCITYNETS. At the base of the FORNAX software are [5]:
a) database technology from EPM Technology A/S;
b) an ACIS library from Spatial Corp;
c) Open Cascade technology from Open Cascade; and, most importantly,
d) Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) Release 2x2 from BuildingSMART IAI
International.
CORENET currently has three services: e-Submission, e-PlanCheck and e-
Info.
The e-Submission System has been up and running as an electronic service since
early 2002. Involving the 16 regulatory authorities across eight government
ministries that regulate the construction and real estate industry, it facilitates
collaboration among the various regulatory authorities. By allowing industry
professionals to submit and monitor the progress of planning applications over the
Internet, e-submission serves as a single government counter, available non-stop
on a 24x7 basis. Industry professionals today do not need to make hard copy prints
of building plans or take physical trips to the authorities. Transparency has also
been improved, as all stakeholders can monitor the status and progress of planning
applications online. As part of the project, government processes have been
streamlined to improve efficiency and customer experience. e-Submission is based
on PAVOTM, a suite of the J2EE application, which enables submission logic-
handling and rules validation. It provides built-in business intelligence and secure
transmissibility [5].
The e-PlanCheck initiative is the most ambitious part of CORENET. The
process allows designs for new buildings to be digitally checked against building
codes, using automated procedures, rather than manual paper-based processes.
Involving eight regulatory authorities from five government ministries, the project
will be rolled out in phases, starting with architectural works and building services.
e-PlanCheck has been implemented on top of FORNAX, a software platform
developed by novaCITYNETS, which extends the IFC models and builds
additional intelligence to enable the implementation of checking functions. As the
name suggests, checking functions are the core functionality of the e-PlanCheck
system. At the base of the FORNAX software are: (a) database technology from
EPM Technology A/S; (b) an ACIS library from Spatial Corp; (c) Open Cascade
technology from Open Cascade; and, most importantly, (d) Industry Foundation
Classes (IFC) Release 2x2 from BuildingSMART International. With IFC 2x2 as
a base, a layer of FORNAX objects were built. These FORNAX objects are
enhancements to the IFC 2x2 model. These objects provide richer information,
which is required for the implementation of checking functions in the system. In
order for the system to perform checks successfully, qualified persons submitting
plans need to use CAD software that has been certified as capable of producing
the IFC 2x2 model data expected by the system. This data is complemented by
client-side functions that capture the additional information required by the
checking functions. UK consultancy company AEC3 provided model
development assistance to the Singapore government [5].
The e-Info System, available since 2002, provides a comprehensive central
repository for building and construction-related information in Singapore,
presented in a single format via a single portal on the Internet. The integrated
information channel provides a quick and easy source of reference, doing away
with the need for industry professionals to maintain hard-copy reference materials.
Email broadcasts are also available to alert users to new information and updates
on the portal. Supported by 13 regulatory organizations across seven government
ministries, e-Info offers information on codes, regulations, guidelines, standards,
product catalogues, contractors performance and Singapore standards. By
leveraging the XML technologies, e-Info stores and describes information in a
machine-interpretable format that can be processed and understood easily by
different IT applications. Apart from allowing seamless communication, the
content can be used by different Internet-based e-business applications. At the
same time, the removal of machine dependency means the life and value of
information in e-Info can be better preserved and extended. During earlier
development, CORENET (BP Expert System) experienced problems related to
lack of 3D CAD customized to Singapores data format and the consequent high
cost of sustaining local customization efforts. Building and Construction Authority
has decided that full development will be based on the IFC standard [5].
5 Exploring Norway and Singapore by the IDDS framework

Table 3 gives an overview of the situation in Norway and Singapore in terms of
the IDDS framework. It is the relations between the three perspectives; Integrated
processes, Collaborating people, and Interoperable technology, that are relevant.
Table 3 represent overview of components from the Norwegian and the
Singapore solution for digital processing of building permit applications. The
overview illustrates both similarities and differences between Norwegian and
Singapore solutions, but is does not identify any components that alone explain
the success of both solutions. Even if both solutions use model sever technology,
this is implanted very differently. The overview do not identify whether if the
connection between the components are direct, indirect or absent.
The IDDS framework indicates that the success of both solutions can be
explained by based on the balance between the perspectives and adaptation of
Table 3: Exploring Norway and Singapore through the IDDS framework.
IDDS Norway Singapore

Integrated processes
Number of application High Low
processed pro year Approx. 110,000 Approx. 4,500
Start early in the
Limited
States of involvements application process
End of design phase
Idea phase
Demand for BIM Large public projects For building applications
Validation of technical Not checked by the Checked as part of the
solutions authority application
Limited, Important to check
External aspects; technical requirements,
Role of drawings/
heights, area, and fire safety.
models
distance to other Flexible view of section
buildings, infrastructure in model is important
No checking technical
Scope of content/ Comprehensive
solution Requirements
perspective in checking of technical
addressed to responsible
application requirements
company
Technical Fire, Technical solutions
Only focus on process
Legislation Comprehensive Comprehensive
Function based, with Prescriptive based
Legislation type, Act,
some prescriptive (mostly), some function
Code, Guidance level
guidelines based requirements
Size of project in the Variation, mostly small Large professional
application private projects projects dominate
Number of offices Many, approx. 330 local
processing the building offices (in most One central office
application municipalities)
High variation;
Size of building 1500 people total in
authority approving Norway, from 1 part Large, one central office
applications time employee to 440
employees in the capital.
Collaborating people
Fragmented, small
Large companies, large
Structure of industry companies under 10
commercial projects
employees dominate
Private applications
Application produced by Commercial companies
dominate in numbers
No professional
Role definitions Certified operator,
requirements, role only
Responsible applicant profession role
as contact person
Importance of
construction industry for High High / medium
national economy
Table 3: Continued.
IDDS Norway Singapore

Collaborating people continued.
Importance of public
projects for construction Very important Important
industry
High, High,
BIM maturity/
and with focus on but with focus on use of
technology awareness
openBIM/IFC-format Autodesk software
Interoperable technology
Type of technology Model server Model server
Input Text informs
File based view of
specification of file Files as attachment; PDF
building models
format (preferred), doc and jpg
Processing Input of text in forms Input of text in forms
Validation of correct
Validation of correct
filled-in forms
filled-in forms
Validation Support for check of
No check of attached file
(checking/control) attached files of building
- manual operation
models
- semi-manual operation
Use of Fornax viewer
Not included
for presentation of
Presentation Read PDF/jpg files of
model. Enable free
drawings
choice of sections.
Integration with other registry:
- cadastre Not included Included
- business registry Included Included
- other public authorities Not included Included
BIM implementation in
High High
industry
OpenBIM
High Limited
implementation
components. An impact of this will be that lessons learned must be funded on

understanding of why they have chosen to do, then on copying what done for
national use.
6 Discussion
The intention with this study was to identify lessons learned from successful
solutions.
It is not a comparative study trying to identify the best solutions from each
country and then recommend combining these into the best solution be we
copied for national implementation. The construction industry and related
research his has traditionally been done with focus on technology by use of defined
criteria. Other soft components has often been more randomly examined. The
challenge is to find applicable framework for the entire construction industry, and
in this respect was the CIB Priority theme IDDS framework selected as a
framework in this study. Other theories within innovation, transfer of technology,
institutionalising, maturity etc. can contribute to better understanding of elements
involved. Whether use of IDDS, or IDDS alone without support from other
theories give the complete picture can be discussed. On the other hand has use of
theoretical framework contributed to give counterweight to the dominating focus
on technology.
7 Conclusion
This study identify similarities and differences in components included in the
Norwegian and the Singapore solution for digital processing of building permit
applications. Both solutions has been in practical use for over ten years and
undergone several revision to bee update to current needs. Both solutions are based
on model server technology. All countries have approval of building permit as
mandatory part of a project. Global use of digital solutions should therefor been
expected, and this study should have identified the most important components.
However, this is not the situation. Use of the IDDS framework has identified that
it is the balance between the three perspectives; Integrated process, Collaborating
people and Interoperable technology, which have contributed to the success of
these two solutions. Lessons learned are that increased understanding of the
balance between these perspectives is the much more important criteria for
success, than initiatives to copy the best solution, or component for another
country. There is no, or limited, indication that Norway and Singapore have copied
directly each others solutions. They have been aware of each other, an in this
respect can transfer of knowledge be regarded as an important contribution.
Implementation must be founded on adaptations to national situation and
constraints. Solutions in Norway and Singapore have undergone several revision
to be update to technology, regulation and digital maturity. Continues
development must be included as part of introducing digital solutions processing
of building permit applications. Experiences from use of the IDDS framework
recommend this used for developing increased understanding. Traditionally has
countries introducing new technology based solutions been regarded as pioneers.
However, technology alone do not contribute to transfer of solutions of public
BIM-based model checking solutions. Future pioneer will be countries that
balance different perspectives to enable solutions for with positive cost/benefit for
the life cycle of the solution.
8 Further research/studies
Experiences from this study indicate need for a more integrated research approach
for analysing of multiple components and their relationships. Further studies will
focus on the relation between the three perspectives (Integrated process,
Collaborating people and Interoperable technology) and the three imperatives
(Building Information Modelling, Knowledge management and Integrated project
delivery) to understand how increased transfer can be supported. Further studies

will focus on identifying; Drivers for change, Enablers, Barriers and
Opportunities. This study can include all countries planning to develop solutions.
The important approach in future research will give priority to explore impact of
change and their direct, indirect, derived and potential effects.
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A novel approach to 2D drawings-based

reconstruction of 3D building digital models
L. Gimenez1 , S. Robert1 , F. Suard1 & K. Zreik2
1
CEA, LIST, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
2
University Paris 8, UFR6, Hypermedia Department, France
Abstract
There is an opportunity to significantly impact building energy efficiency through
BIM-enabled, simulation-intensive, cost-effective renovation actions. One major
hurdle however is the lack of 3D digital models for the majority of existing
buildings. Cost-effective and widely applicable methods and tools are required
for the reconstruction of 3D digital models from available information. In this
scope, this paper presents ongoing research about the development of tools for
semi-automated 3D building model generation from 2D scanned plans. More
specifically, the paper focuses on the description of an innovative reconstruction
process based on a combination of automated processing and punctual, software-
assisted, user intervention. The paper also gives an account of the experiments lead
with a research prototype, tested on 90 real architectural floor plans. The results are
encouraging and suggest that the mix of software-assistance and focused human
intervention may be the best trade-off to upgrade the quality of the generated
models and to achieve cost-effectiveness.
Keywords: Building Information Modeling (BIM), image processing, 3D building
models, 3D reconstruction, model checking.
1 Introduction
It is widely acknowledged that one of the most important challenges in the
construction sector is to improve building energy efficiency. This particularly
applies to Europe where more than 40% of the residential housing stock was built
before 1960 and requires heavy renovation. At the same time, AEC (Architecture,
Engineering and Construction) practices and tools have evolved towards more
effective, ICT-intensive, BIM (Building Information Model)-based, digital design.
doi:10.2495/BIM150361
Therefore, this seems to be the right time to significantly enhance building energy
efficiency, through simulation-intensive, cost-effective renovation actions [1].
A large set of techniques already exist to create 3D models of existing
buildings [2], e.g. photogrammetry and laser scanning. As shown by a recent
review [3], the selection of the most adequate method will highly depend
on the specifics of the project targeted and, on end user objectives and
constraints. However, one main distinction can be made with, on the one side,
reliable and detailed reconstruction approaches that rely on extensive and costly
instrumentation, and on the other side, less detailed and precise, but more cost-
effective and lighter solutions. In this study, we have deliberately chosen to favor
the second option, our opinion is that impact is higher with low-cost solutions.
Therefore, our aim is to provide methods to generate 3D models from existing
buildings at reasonable costs and, relying only on available data. In particular,
this implies not having to perform extensive data collection on the building itself.
Hence our choice to focus on 3D models creation from 2D plans, which are
available in most of the cases. Such methods are actually cost-effective but also
less reliable: using building documentation can be error-prone and the quality of
the 3D models will depend on the reliability of the plans. One possible way of
dealing with this shortcoming is to combine the automatic generation of 3D models
from 2D plans with focused manual intervention. The issue here is to minimize the
time spent on manual corrections and maximize their impacts. In other words, the
aim is to allow for assisted models correction.
The work presented in this paper aims at the development of tools for semi-
automated, assisted 3D building model generation. This is an ongoing work,
which follows up previous researches which lead to the development of a
research prototype to automatically convert 2D scanned plans into a 3D building
models [4]. The reconstruction is based on three components: geometry, topology
and semantics. Geometry defines shape and dimensions, topology defines relations
between features and semantics describes additional characteristics, such as room
function. Complete and valid building models can be generated only if these three
kinds of information can be extracted from the input data. The analysis of the
results obtained with this first prototype shows that some errors and inconsistencies
in 3D models cannot be solved automatically. We propose therefore to combine an
automatic recognition process with punctual guided human interventions, in order
to reach the best compromise between the 3D reconstruction cost and time on the
one side, and the quality of the final result on the other side.
Some works have already attempted to involve users in the recognition process.
In [5], the 3D reconstruction starts with a DXF file. The user can fix some problems
in the original file and tune parameters of the detection algorithm before the
automatic process is launched. Other solutions enable the user to delete some
strings during text processing [6]. Some approaches have aimed at automatically
interpreting and correcting architectural drawings while they are sketched. For
instance, solutions based on a multi-agents system allow to recognize graphical
objects such as lines or circles but also spoken annotations [7,8]. Another approach
focused on errors that can be made by an architect during the design process and
highlighted the importance of detecting and correcting errors in the early phases
to avoid an error propagation [9]. However, to the best of our knowledge, no
published work has dealt with the combination of automatic 3D generation and
assisted correction, in the way the approach presented in this paper does.
In what follows, we first outline the framework that underlies our assisted model
correction approach along three key components (section 2): (i) 3D generation
errors taxonomy and sorting; (ii) 3D reconstruction rules; (iii) the generation
process. Then we give an account of the experiments led with the research
prototype we have developed and tested on 90 architectural floor plans (section 3).
2 A framework for assisted 3D models correction

2.1 Error taxonomy and classification
In previous steps of our research, we have developed a prototype to automatically

convert a 2D scanned plan into a 3D building model [4]. One main outcome of
this work is that automated transformation of a 2D paper plan into a valid and
complete 3D building model is beyond reach. Some generation errors resulting
from approximations in the plans itself, or from awkward interpretation of
complex graphical patterns can only be solved thanks to human interpretation and
intervention. For example, a missing topological link between two walls can have
a strong impact on the correctness of the generated models but cannot be easily
detected through automated processing.
In order to overcome this limitation, we have lead a thorough assessment of
errors that can be found in generated models. Based on this assessment, we have
then defined an error taxonomy structured along the three main components of
3D models: geometry, topology and semantics. In this taxonomy, for example,
confusing a door with a window is labeled as a semantic error while a missing
wall intersection is labeled as a geometrical and topological error.
In a second step, we have further analyzed the taxonomy to associate an
impact score to each error. In this scope, we considered that the main application
perspective was to use 3D building models for simulation purposes in the scope of
renovation design. This led us to choose the four following criteria:
1. Impact on the energy simulation
2. Impact on the functional integrity of the building
3. Dependence of the error with other errors
4. Impact on the layout reconstruction
For each error, each item is given a score between 0 and 2 (0 if the error has
no impact on the item and 2 if the error has a strong impact on the item). Then,
a final score is calculated by summing individual scores to represent the overall
criticality between 0 and 8. For example, a missing window has a criticality of 4,
an open outer shape has a criticality equals to 8. Table 1 gives an extract of the
error classification framework.
The complete sorting shows that errors concerning the outdoor elements have
a strong impact on the resulting 3D building model because all indoor elements
Table 1: Extract of the classification errors table.
Energy Functional Dependence Layout

Errors/impact simulation building integrity with other errors reconstruction Total
Isolated wall 0/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 3/8
Missing building element:

window 2/2 1/2 1/2 0/2 4/8
Open Outer Shape 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 8/8
are recognized from them. This is why we deliberately set the focus on outdoor
elements correction.
2.2 Rules for outdoor element reconstruction
During the automatic recognition process, rules are applied to detect outdoor
elements. Outdoor elements are composed of walls and openings - each opening
being a door or a window. The first step of the recognition process is to generate
the outer shape of the building. The outer shape has to be closed and composed of
outdoor walls. To fill topological constraints, each outdoor wall shall be connected
with two other outdoor walls.
Several errors may occur, as listed below:
1. An open outer shape
2. Incomplete topology: an outdoor wall has only one or zero connection with
other outdoor walls
3. Wrong adjustment between two walls
4. Missing walls
The semi-automatic process for error detection and correction developed in this
paper has been elaborated according to the errors listed above. In the specific
scope we are addressing (renovation construction), we focus on outdoor building
elements. However, the same methodology can be generalized in a different
context or applied on other building elements.
2.3 Error detection and correction process
Based on the above taxonomy, a system to detect inconsistencies in the generated

building model has been developed. This system detects inconsistencies, converts
them into errors and stores them. Depending on its criticality, an error can be
treated directly or at the end of the outdoor elements recognition. For each error,
several choices for correction are proposed to the user. These proposals are made
according to the nature of the error and to topological or semantic considerations.
Each choice and its consequence on the model is represented in an image. The user
may then select the most appropriate image. At the end of the correction, the error
list is updated. The semi-automatic process is over when the error list is empty or
when it is not possible to propose any solution for all remaining errors.
Figure 1 shows an example of a user intervention when a topological connection
is missing. Two outdoor walls (the black and the hatched) have just one topological
connection. Because there are closed, the process will try to connect them. Four
proposals are made to the user: these walls are not linked (1), the hatched wall is
not an outdoor wall (2), the black wall is not an outdoor wall (3) and the two
walls are linked and formed a unique wall (4). The user will then choose the
most appropriate image (here the fourth). In order to help the user, the original
image and the image representing the current status of the building are given.
Then, automatic correction will be done and the error list will be updated. The
correction of an error can result in the deletion of others errors. In this example,
the topological connection will also close the outer shape of the building.
Figure 1: Example of an user intervention.
3 Implementation, experiments and assessment

3.1 Implementation and experiments
Our software to semi-automatically generate a 3D building model from a

2D scanned plan has been developed in C++. The OpenCV library (Open
Source Computer Vision Library) and functions developed by the Qgar project
(http://www.qgar.org/) led in LORIA (France) have been used for image
processing.
To evaluate our prototype, we used a database of original plan images from
the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona that has already been widely used [10].
This database includes 90 floor plans from various complexity, details and
configurations. Figure 2 gives an example of an original floor plan used as input
data in our validation and testing activities.
Figure 3 represents the recognition results after the fully automated process
(on the left) and the recognition results after the assisted correction process (on
the right). Seven human interventions have been necessary to correct the model.
In this example, the right part of the building has been well reconstructed by
the automated process. However, in the left part, the geometrical shape is more
complex and human interventions are needed. Automated recognition resulted
into semantic confusions between indoor and outdoor walls. Human interventions
allowed to correct these semantic errors, to create a new wall in the lower left-hand
of the building and, to close the outer shape of the building.
Figure 2: Example of an original floor plan image.
In order to evaluate our results, we have considered the method presented

in [10], which is based on a pixel-level evaluation. The idea is to compare results
of the recognition using a ground-truth image pixel by pixel. A pixel can have only
two values: 1 if it is a wall pixel or 0. Then, the Jaccard Index (JI) is used to present
results, it takes into account pixels that are: true positive, false positive and false
negative.
True Positive
JI = (1)
True Positive + False Positive + False Negative
In our case, we do not just recognize walls but also openings and distinguish
between indoor and outdoor elements. Therefore, in order to better evaluate our
results, we have decided to create a new ground-truth image taking into account
the following building elements: indoor & outdoor walls, indoor & outdoor doors
and outdoor windows. We have manually annotated each plan of the database by
distinguish each previously cited building elements. In this article, we focus only
Figure 3: On the left, results of the automatic process and on the right, results of the
semi-automatic process. Outdoor windows are represented with a black
rectangle and outdoor door with a hatched rectangle.
on the outdoor element recognition and correction. This is the reason why we
have evaluated our results using the Jaccard Index according to outdoor walls and
outdoor openings. Results for the 90 floor plans are presented in the figure 4.
The average Jaccard Index is 0.83 for outdoor walls, 0.75 for outdoor openings
and 0.83 for the global outdoor element evaluation. The results are good given the
fact that a little offset in an element position can have a high impact during the
evaluation at pixel level. We have also calculated the number of well recognized
outdoor openings: 989 out of 1083 (91%) and the number of recognized linear
meters of outdoor wall: 4573m out of 4785m (96%). However it is important to
note the strong impact of walls in the recognition because in the figure 4 the global
outdoor and the wall outdoor representations are very similar.
3.2 Results assessment
The aim of the semi-automatic process is to reduce the time spent to reconstruct a
3D building model. The figure 5 shows the frequency of the number of questions
asked to the user per plan. It shows that for a large majority of plans, less than 15
actions are required. However, for some plans more than 40 actions are necessary.
But these plans have the particularity to include some outdoor walls that are not
part of the outer shape (for example, a swimming pool machine close to the house).
The average of the number of questions is 13 for the evaluation of the 90 floor
plans. For each action, the user has to choose between 4 to 6 proposal images by
clicking on the most appropriate.
During the semi-automatic process, effects of each user action are stored in
order to evaluate their impact on the 3D building model. The graphic in figure 6
summarizes effects of each action. Usually, a user interaction will produce around
two different effects. A third of actions will cause no effect of the 3D building
Figure 4: Frequency of the Jaccard Index recognition value applied to outdoor wall
and outdoor opening recognition for the 90 floor plans.
model, it corresponds to cases where the two elements implied in the proposition
are not linked. Then, the most important effects are wall modifications and
the deletion of errors. Sometimes an action can lead to another question when
complementary information is needed. For example, when a wall is missing, it
can be necessary to specify its position related to existing walls. Usually the first
actions have a stronger effect on the recognition than the others, due to the error
classification and notation.
Figure 5: Frequency of the number of questions asked to the user for the 90 floor
plans.
Figure 6: Distribution of the effect after a user action decision.
3.3 Discussion
The combination of an automatic recognition process with punctual and guided

human interventions allows to obtain good results for the outdoor element
identification and recognition. Due to the modification of walls, many errors like
open outer shape or missing topological connections are corrected. One action of
the user can cause several effects on the resulting 3D building model. Our method
based on the correction of an error according to its criticality allows to avoid the
propagation of an error and to propose appropriate proposals to limit the number
of interactions.
This tool has been developed to be available to non-expert building users. This
is why, actions asked are simple and consisted in clicking on the good image. With
this correction process, the user can directly visualize effect of its choice on the
building before choosing. A promising improvement could be to develop a process
to sort proposals according to their relevance to help even more the user.
The evaluation by pixel is a good way to obtain a global result of the recognition
quality. However, during the recognition, some rules are applied to adjust some
walls according to topological characteristics and these processes can cause some
little offsets in the building element position. This is why, an evaluation by
counting the number of well recognized openings or of well recognized linear
meters of walls is good complementary result to better quantify the recognition
quality.
Still, some improvements can be done. For some plans, too many actions are
necessary (more than 40). This happens when building have atypic outer shape
(with an additional room close to the house for example) or when more than one
wall is missing between two walls. This case is also difficult to automatically
correct. One solution could be to ask the user to redraw some missing elements
of the building. This new action could allow to improve the recognition result
without spending a lot of time because just some elements are missing.
Moreover, the process has been tested only for the outdoor element recognition.
The next step is to develop the same methods and process to the semi-automatic
recognition of indoor elements.
Some information is missing on the 2D scanned plan like the third dimension:
heights of the building and openings for example. To get the exact measurements,
a solution is to use results from the research done on building facade images
processing [11] or to do some punctual data acquisition on-site.
4 Conclusion
The paper describes the results of an ongoing research work that aims to develop
a prototype to semi-automatically convert a 2D scanned plan into a 3D building
model. The aim is to effectively combine au automated 3D model generation
software developed in earlier phases with an assisted correction approach, to
enhance the quality of the generated models. During the building elements
recognition, errors are detected in the 3D building model and candidate corrections
are proposed to the user. This process based on punctual and guided human
interventions allows to reach a good compromise between the time spent to the
3D building model generation, the cost of the reconstruction, and the reliability
of 3D models. An evaluation made thanks to a database of 90 floor plans has
given encouraging results and shows the benefits of human interventions. Future
works will be focused on the integration of error detection and correction for
indoor building elements using the same methodology. Another perspective is
to supplement 2D plans with additional sources of data (like facade image
segmentation) to improve the 3D building model.
Acknowledgement
The work presented in this paper is part of the HOLISTEEC project (Grant
Agreement 609138), funded by the European Commission under the FP7 program
(Energy-Efficient Building Public-Private Partnership).
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Implementation of BIM into cold-formed

steel residential buildings
M. Abu-Hamd
Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University, Egypt
Abstract
Cold-formed steel construction (CFS) has proven to be a worthy alternative to
traditional building systems due to its high strength to weight ratio, high degree of
dimensional exactness and sustainability. The information integration provided by
Building Information Modelling (BIM) can be utilized to enhance the efficiency
of this construction system. Programming tools specific to CFS residential
buildings can be utilized during the different project phases to facilitate BIM
implementation. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how successful BIM
implementation using tools developed for CFS residential buildings can be
employed to develop an efficient CFS residential building system. The paper
introduces three tools related to BIM uses in Programming, Design Authoring,
Structural Analysis, and Digital Fabrication. During the planning phase, complex
floor plan arrangements are easily created from few simple modules similar to
modular construction. During the design phase, the building model is created from
parametric CFS objects of walls, floors, and bracings. Structural optimization tools
related to member and system optimization are also employed during the design
stage. Once the building model has been created using these tools, it can be used
efficiently to explore and evaluate the projects constructability before it is built,
produce workshop drawings, visualize construction processes through 4D
simulation and clash detection in addition to the required data for Numerical
Control Machine fabrication.
Keywords: BIM, cold formed steel, industrialized building systems, structural
optimization, parametric objects.
doi:10.2495/BIM150371
1 Introduction
The largest component of the worlds building stock is, by far, residential
structures. Demand for these structures is growing: according to the UN
anticipated growth in the worlds population from 2010 to 2050 is 1.4 billion with
97% occurring in the least developed regions, e.g. Africa and Asia. To meet such
a challenge, it is necessary to explore the latest construction technologies, and to
create innovative building systems that have the potential to bring high-
performance affordable housing within reach of new markets. Among the
available construction systems that satisfy the previous conditions, light (cold-
formed) steel (CFS) framing systems (Figure 1) have proven to be a worthy
alternative to traditional systems. Potential advantages of such light steel framing
systems include the high degree of dimensional exactness of the members, high
strength-to-weight ratio of the members, high recycled content, ease of
construction, and other proven efficiencies.
Figure 1: Cold-formed steel residential building.
The basic building elements of CFS systems are cold-formed C or U sections

that are fabricated off-site into panels and then transported to site ready for
erection. This construction system already lends itself to the application of
industrialization techniques, such as lean and Just In Time (JIT) techniques, to
enhance the performance of the construction industry [1].
Recent advances in the application of Building Information Modeling (BIM)
into the Architecture-Engineering-Construction (AEC) industries present an
additional mean to further enhance the efficiency of CFS projects. Review of
available BIM implementation in CFS residential projects [2] concluded that CFS
projects have not yet benefitted from the information integration provided by BIM
implementation.
The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how successful BIM
implementation using tools developed for CFS residential buildings can be
employed to develop an efficient CFS residential building system. First a suitable
BIM Execution Plan is prepared to ensure that all parties involved in the project
are clearly aware of the opportunities and responsibilities associated with the
incorporation of BIM into the project workflow. The BIM Project Execution
Planning Guide [3] provides the following structured four-step procedure for
creating and implementing BIM:
1. Identify the high value BIM Goals and Uses during project planning, design,
construction and operational stages.
2. Design the BIM Execution Process.
3. Define the BIM deliverables in the form of Information Exchange.
4. Develop the infrastructure in the form of contracts, communication procedure,
technology and quality control to support the implementation.
2 BIM implementation into CFS residential projects

The first step in the procedure is to identify the high value BIM Goals and Uses
during project planning, design, construction and operational stages. The guide [3]
identifies twenty-five BIM uses which are organized by project phases: planning,
design, construction and operation. Out of these BIM uses, the following uses shall
be employed to enhance the efficiency of CFS residential projects:
1. During Planning Phase: Programming
2. During Design Phase: Structural Analysis and Design Authoring
3. During Construction Phase: Digital Fabrication
3 BIM use during planning phase: programming

Programming, in BIM terminology [3], is a process in which a spatial program is
used to assess design performance in regard to spatial requirements. The
developed BIM model allows the project team to analyze space and understand
the complexity of space standards and regulations. Critical decisions are made in
this phase of design and bring the most value to the project when needs and options
are discussed with the client and the best approach is analyzed.
A key issue in the building construction industry that prevents house building
from achieving the production efficiency of other industries is the great variability
in floor plan configurations. In order to increase the production efficiency of
building construction, it has to be reformed as an industrialized process where off-
site prefabrication and mass production is feasible.
As an example, study of the common floor plans used in mid-rise multi-family
residential buildings reveals that they have the following common characteristics:
1. The floor plan has several apartments (4 or 6) distributed around a stair core.
2. Each apartment contains areas for living, bedrooms, and services such as
kitchens and bathrooms.
These common characteristics can be utilized to industrialize residential
building construction by decomposing each residential unit into few basic standard
modules so that diverse mixed floor plans can be created from these few basic
module. This technology is adapted from modular construction [4] where factory-
built units are transported to site and used to assemble the entire building. This
industrialization technique shall enable CFS building construction to benefit from
the advantages of other industries; i.e. cheaper and faster production. Furthermore,
off-site fabrication guarantees high quality control as well.
This industrialization technique can be employed in the planning stage so that
the preliminary 3D model of any complex floor plan arrangement can be easily
created from few basic modules. A typical example is shown in Figure 1. This
floor plan involves six apartments with area 63 m2 in each floor of a six-story
building, i.e. 24 housing unit per one building. This entire building can be created
using only the following three basic simple modules:
1. Module (1) used for the living area space,
2. Module (2) used for the bedroom space,
3. Module (3) used for kitchen/bathroom space (two alternatives).
FLOOR PLAN CREATED FROM THREE BASIC MODULES
MODULE 3A
MODULE 2
MODULE 1
MODULE 3B
BASIC THREE MODULES USED IN FLOOR PLAN CREATION
Figure 2: Creation of complex floor plans from few basic modules.
4 BIM use during design phase: design authoring

Design Authoring, in BIM terminology [3], is a process in which a design
authoring software tool is used to develop a Building Information Model based on
criteria that is important to the translation of the buildings design. Design
authoring tools are a first step towards BIM and the key is connecting the 3D
model with a powerful database of properties, quantities, means and methods,
costs and schedules.
In order to increase the productivity of the building construction industry, the
integration of information within the project has to be handled in a more efficient
way. Using BIM, the building is defined as a collection of interrelated objects that
can be visualized in 3D. Building objects such as: walls, floors, roofs, windows,
doors, etc. are tied to a database that contains all data related to the geometry,
spatial relationships, geographic information, quantities, and properties of the
building components. As such, the drawing becomes a model that is information
rich and can readily be used to visualize the entire building lifecycle including the
processes of construction and facility operation / maintenance. Such an accurate
and intelligent model is useful throughout the entire life of the building. The
parametric modeling used means that objects are related parametrically therefore
a number of related conditions can be updated by changing only one property. The
model can also be used to identify clashes which reduce the cost and the time
wasted. The same model can be expanded up to nD by linking schedules, cost, etc.
The BIM model provides easy, faster and more effective information sharing
between all participants. It can be used for easy creation of accurate shop drawings,
details and project reports. BIM uses object oriented modeling where all elements
involved in the building are represented as parametric elements. This
representation allows for the creation of large, versatile sets of building
components with little effort. One generic element can serve as a template with
predefined ranges of characteristics. This parametric data allows the element to be
easily reconfigured to suit the unique requirements of implementation in various
areas of the model. Depending on the intended BIM use, BIMFORUM.org
(www.bimforum.org) presents a detailed classification of the available BIM
software packages. After studying the capabilities of available packages it was
decided to use Autodesk BIM packages for the following reasons:
1. They are the most comprehensive tools that cover all BIM uses.
2. They are the most used worldwide.
3. There are many extension and add-in applications covering wider scope.
4. Autodesk provides the most comprehensive educational and training tools in
addition to continuous on line help.
The following are examples of parametric data and element relationships:
4.1 Development of BIM CFS Objects
In the BIM terminology, each building component belongs to a Family. The two
basic types of Family in Revit are the System Family and the Component Family.
System Families are built into the software and cannot be manipulated by the user.
Examples of these are Wall Family, Floor Family, Floor Plans, Sections,
and so on. System Families that represent model elements; e.g. Walls and Floors,
can Host other model element. For example, a Basic Wall Family can host a
CFS panelized wall, window, or door. Each family may have one or more types
associated with it. While as the basic family cannot be modified by the user, the
types associated with it can be modified or even used to create new family types.
Component Families include everything that is not a System Family. They can be
host-based or free-standing. They can be created or modified from other
component families through parametric modeling. The strength of any BIM
software lies in the ability to create suitable parametric component families from
available family templates to represent a specific building.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3: BIM Parametric Objects. (a) Wall panel object. (b) Floor panel object.
(c) Entire building created from wall and floor objects.
The basic procedure for creating parametric component families is as follows:

1. Select a suitable Family Template from the software library.
2. Define the major parameter that control the new family such as size, material,
paint, etc.
3. Create and constrain model geometry by defining reference planes and
geometry constraints.
4. Create Family types if needed.

This procedure can be applied to create the necessary component families
needed to model a typical cold formed steel building, such as:
1. CFS Walls
2. CFS Floors
3. Wall Bracings, and
4. Footings.
An example of the typical procedure used to develop the required parametric
objects for CFS Walls is outlined below.
4.2 Development of parametric objects for CFS walls:
A CFS wall contains the following components:

a) Vertical studs
b) Horizontal studs (bridging)
c) Top track
d) Bottom track.
The following rules should be considered in creating the parametric component
families for the wall:
1. It has to be host-based by a System Family basic wall.
2. The cross sections of all components can vary and shall be selected from the
table of optimum cross sections defined in section 5.1 of this report.
3. The material used follow the AISI design specifications [5].
4. Each wall panel is geometrically constrained vertically by the levels of the
floor above and floor below and horizontally by its relations with surrounding
walls.
5. Each wall may have openings of windows and/or doors.
6. The wall studs are spaced at 600 mm center to center.
Accordingly, the following procedure can be used to create the parametric
objects needed to represent CFS walls:
1. Create parametric objects for each wall component using the templates of the
Steel Stud Manufacture Association (SSMA) [6], Figure 4. These templates
are available from SSMA and are exported into Revit using the add-in of the
software package MWF of StrucSoft Solutions Company
(www.strucsoft.com). The templates cover the cross sections used in the
USA.
2. Create a Basic Wall Family type to host the CFS wall. Starting with the Revit
System Family of Basic Wall, a new Type is created for the walls used in
CFS projects. This wall type is named Ferrocement Wall and is created
using the Revit basic wall family as follows:
a) The width and height of the new type is equal to the width and height of
the CFS wall.
b) The thickness of the new type is equal to the sum of the middle core
which will host the CFS wall plus the thickness of the exterior and interior
ferrocement boards used to cover the wall from inside and outside. The
thickness of the middle core shall be taken equal to the depth of the
optimum stud cross section discussed in section 5.1.
Figure 5 shows the family type created for a CFS wall having a core thickness
of 160 mm and two ferrocement boards 10 mm on each side.
3. Create parametric object for panel assembly using the cold-formed gauge
template (LG) available from MWF as an add-in to Revit. New wall templates
are created from the original ones by changing the properties as required by
the assembly rules stated above; e.g. stud spacing, wall height, spacing of
horizontal bridging, etc., see Figure 6.
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Parametric objects for CFS wall components. (a) Stud section. (b)
Track section.
Figure 5: Parametric Family for CFS wall.
Figure 6: Type Family for CFS Wall.
Using similar procedures, the parametric families needed for CFS floor panels
and strap bracing can be created as shown in Figures 7(a) and 7(b), respectively.
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Floor and braced panels assembly. (a) Floor panel assembly. (b)
Braced panel assembly.
5 BIM use during design phase: structural analysis

Structural Analysis, in BIM terminology [3], is a process in which analytical
modeling software utilizes the BIM design authoring model so to determine the
behavior of a given structural system. With the modeling minimum required
standards for structural design and analysis are used for optimization. Based on
this analysis further development and refinement of the structural design takes
place to create effective, efficient, and constructible structural systems. The
development of this information is the basis for what will be passed onto the digital
fabrication and construction system design phases.
The information integration provided by BIM is utilized during the design stage
by using the developed 3D model to perform the structural analysis under different
loading conditions. This is usually done by importing the structural layers of the
building model into an external analysis package that performs the structural
analysis and design of member cross section. For example, if the building basic
model is created under Autodesk Revit environment, the structural analysis can be
performed using Autodesk Robot Structures. Other package such as STAADPRO
or SAP2000 can also be used provided the basic model is imported to them as in
Industry Foundation Class (IFC) Format.
Due to the flexibility in manufacturing, cold-formed steel has great advantage
to maximize the material efficiency through cross-sectional shapes. Although the
sections in the industry [6] hold some advantage in large amount of production,
they may not be the most efficient sections to use in the design. Using optimization
techniques, the least weight section to satisfy both the strength and serviceability
constraints can be found. This approach can be applied on two levels: i) Section
optimization and ii) System optimization.
5.1 Section optimization
Cold formed steel sections can be optimized to find the minimum weight needed
to satisfy design requirements related to strength and serviceability [5] using the
principles of mathematical programming [7, 8]. Figure 8 shows an example of the
variation of the strength to weight ratio versus section aspect ratio for axially
loaded members used as stud in CFS walls. The results of these optimization
studies can be implemented into the building model during the design stage to
insure that the lease weight design is always used.
4.5 L = 100 cm, Fy = 3.6t/cm2

Pu/W
4
3.5
3
2.5
H/t =60
2
H/t = 40
1.5
1
0.5 H/b
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
3 L = 100 cm, Fy = 2.4t/cm2
Pu/W
2.5
1.5 h/t = 60
H/t = 40
1
0.5
H/b
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8: Weight ratio versus section aspect ratio for wall studs.
5.2 System optimization
Cold formed steel buildings utilize two distinct structural systems to carry the
applied loads:
1. Vertical loads such as gravity and live loads are carried by the load bearing
walls consisting of vertical studs spaced at a nominal distance of 600 mm.
2. Lateral loads such as wind or earth quake loads are carried by shear walls
distributed in selected locations around the building floor plan.
The configuration of the load bearing walls is more or less pre-determined by
the standard spacing of the vertical studs. Optimization of such a system is
achieved through the optimization of individual members as shown in section 5.1.
On the other hand, several configurations may be used for the shear wall system
used to resist lateral loads. The three configurations commonly used are shown in
Figure 9. The first system uses a strap X-bracing, the second system uses a portal
frame truss type bracing and the third system uses two narrow X-bracing bays.
Figure 9: Different shear wall systems configurations.
Structural analysis of these systems under different load conditions results in

the following conclusions:
1. Based on the resulting member stresses, System (1) has the least factorized
weight followed by System (3) the System (2).
2. Based on the resulting horizontal drift, System (2) has the least factorized
weight followed by System (1) then System (3).
The choice of one system over another also depends on other operational
requirements. For example, System (2) would be most suitable for walls with door
or window openings. These conclusions can be programmed into the building
model so that the appropriate system is selected in each case.
6 BIM use during design phase: digital fabrication

Digital Fabrication, in BIM terminology [3], is a process that uses digitized
information to facilitate the fabrication of construction materials or assemblies.
Some uses of digital fabrication can be seen in sheet metal fabrication, structural
steel fabrication, pipe cutting, prototyping for design intent reviews, etc. It assists
in ensuring that the downstream phase of manufacturing has minimum ambiguities
and enough information to fabricate with minimal waste. An information model
could also be used with suitable technologies to assemble the fabricated parts into
the final assembly.
Once the building model has been created using the tools described in the
previous sections, it can be used efficiently to explore and evaluate the projects
constructability before it is built, visualize construction processes through 4D
simulation and clash detection. Furthermore the model can be used to produce the
workshop drawings [9] in addition to the required data for Numerical Control
Machine fabrication.
7 Conclusions
The paper demonstrated how successful BIM implementation using tools
developed for CFS residential buildings can be employed to develop an efficient
CFS residential building system. The paper introduces three tools related to BIM
uses in Programming, Design Authoring, Structural Analysis, and Digital
Fabrication. These tools are:
1. Creation of complex floor plans from few simple modules during the planning
phase,
2. Creation of parametric objects for CFS components such as walls, floors and
bracings during the design phase,
3. Use of structural optimization principles to achieve the optimum cross section
and system design during the design phase.
Once the building model has been created using these tools it can be used
efficiently to explore and evaluate the projects constructability before it is built,
produce workshop drawings, visualize construction processes through 4D
simulation and clash detection in addition to the required data for Numerical
Control Machine fabrication.
Acknowledgement
The research presented in this paper was funded by the Egyptian Science and
Technology Development Fund (STDF).
References
[1] Industrializing the construction site, US Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) (20002004).
[2] Barret, S. A., et al., Early implementation of building information modeling
into a cold-formed steel company, American Journal of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, 1(6), pp. 164-173, 2013.
[3] BIM Project Execution Planning Guide, V2, a BuildingSMART alliance
Project Computer Integrated Construction (CIC) Research Program (2010),
The Pennsylvania State University, USA.
[4] Modular Prefabricated Residential Construction, University of Washington
Report, 2013.
[5] American Iron and Steel Institute, AISI specification for the design of cold-
formed steel structural members. American Iron and Steel Institute, DC-2001.
[6] Steel Stud Manufacture Association (SSMA), Product technical information,
www.ssma.com
[7] Y. S. Tian and T. J. Lu, Minimum weight of cold-formed steel sections under
compression, Thin-Walled Structure., 42(4), pp. 515-532, 2004.
[8] T. Tran and L. Li, Global optimization of cold-formed steel channel sections,
Thin-Walled Structure., 44(4), pp. 399-406, 2006.
[9] Manrique, J. D, et al., Automated generation of shop drawings in residential
construction, Automation in Construction, 55, pp. 15-24, 2015.
Section 10
BIM standards
A web-based Decision Support System

(DSS) to assist Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises (SMEs) to broker risks and
rewards for BIM adoption
T. T. Lam, L. Mahdjoubi & J. Mason
The University of the West of England, UK
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a revolutionary technology and process
which has led to new ways of thinking and working in construction project
delivery. Governments around the world are promoting BIM capacity to eliminate
waste on public projects and even mandating its use as part of the reform of the
public construction sector and cost-saving strategy. In the UK, the government has
declared that no public projects can be accepted without using BIM by 2016.
Evidence shows that BIM adoption among small and medium sized enterprises
(SMEs) is currently lagging behind and they are losing out in wining publicly
funded projects. There are existing sets of frameworks and matrixes developed to
assist BIM implementation. However, guidance and frameworks for SMEs are
lacking at the present time. This paper reports on criteria and framework as a part
of an ongoing study that seeks to develop a web-based Decision Support System
(DSS) to assist SMEs to broker risks and rewards of adopting BIM in project
delivery. The paper presents the framework and its criteria of the proposed DSS
assists SMEs to make informed decisions about whether or not use BIM to deliver
building projects, according to specific criteria and queries. This includes trade-
off risks and rewards, broken down into several criteria such as BIM readiness,
involvement stage, project value, funding and procurement route.
Keywords: BIM, risk, reward, client, SMEs, opportunity.
doi:10.2495/BIM150381
1 Introduction
Building Information Modelling (BIM) has recently attained widespread attention
and is considered one of the most fertile areas for new ideas in terms of the
development of Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC). BIM was
described by the SEC Group [1] as a way of working, where stakeholders can
use BIM digital model to share information and knowledge, collaboratively
harness the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimise
efficiency thorough all phrases of design, fabrication and construction.
Governments around the world are promoting BIM capacity to eliminate waste on
public projects and even mandating its use as part of the reform of the public
construction sector and cost saving strategy. In the United Kingdom, the
government has declared that no public projects can be accepted without using
BIM by 2016 (British Standard Institute [2]). Beside, the demands of clients in
construction industry have also changed over years to meet with the wide spread
development of society. There has been a growing urge for change from lowest-
price wins to multi-criteria selection practices in supply chain selection process
(Wong et al. [3]). Clients expect the best possible value from SMEs because their
expertise of work is usually supported by a continued high level of attention to all
of their typical requirements (Mohamed and Egemen [4]). Thus, it is important
that the construction organizations have to be well prepared to withstand the
effects that may cause by spread adopting BIM for project delivery and the client
requirements. In fact, the most vulnerable sectors of UK construction industry are
SMEs which account for 99.9% of the 5.2 million private sector businesses and
occupies 60% (15.2 million) of UK private sector employment (Department for
Business Innovation and Skills [5]). The amount of large companies adopting BIM
are almost threefold more than smaller ones, the former making up 74% in 2009
and this figure continuing to raise up to 91% in 2012 whereas BIM adoptions in
Small firms are just around 25% in 2009, followed by Small to Medium which
account for 41% (SmartMarket Report [6]). Blackwell [7] warns that SMEs who
are slow in grasping and adopting BIM as a transformation technology and process
could well lose contracts in both domestic and international market.
Currently, SMEs are lagging behind in BIM adoption and are losing out in
wining publicly funded projects. The report from the Federation of Master
Builders [8] presents that as many as 40 percent of construction SMEs lose out of
90 percent of the public sector work they proposed bids for, while more than half
of SMEs claim to have identified a reduction in their rate of success in bidding for
public sector contracts over the past five years. Hence, it is important to develop a
decision support system (DSS) to help SMEs to identify and foresee potential risks
and opportunities especially in the context of BIM reigning in project delivery.
This DSS can help SMEs to make right decisions whether or not adopting BIM
for project delivery in their organisations.
This paper will report on the framework and its criteria of an ongoing PhD
research study undertaken to develop a DSS to anticipate risks and opportunities
of adopting BIM in project delivery of SMEs. The outcome of the research will
help SMEs to defeat their embarrassment, hesitation and vagueness of using BIM
for conducting construction projects. It assists SMEs to make right decisions and
to withstand growing changes of the construction industry in the UK especially
after 2016.
2 State of the arts

It can be said that the UK construction industry seems strongly vibrant since the
appearance of BIM, the term that experts in the industry so far have not got unique
definitions to cover its huge effects on construction industry. BIM is defined as a
revolutionary of technology (Hardin [9]); a process of generating and managing
the digital representations of physical and functional characteristics of a building
(Smith [10]); and a process of improving planning, designing, construction,
operation and maintenance (Eastman et al. [11]).
BIM has changed traditional working in the construction industry by creating
a new method of collaboration working based on digital model which can
accommodate information on design, construction, logistics, operation,
maintenance, budgets, and schedule during building lifecycle (HM Government
[12]). By starting in very early stages of the project, designers are more likely to
see the benefits of BIM as enhancing coordination, productivity, and business
operations. Typically, they are likely to benefit from fundamental changes to the
design process and the greater certainty between design intent and the final
construction and operation of the building (Zuppa et al. [13]). BIM can be the
significant approach to improve the interoperability within the supply chain
including many different parties coming from different interests (Roger et al.
[14]). The key factors of interoperability are effective communication, cooperation
and integration between and among relevant departments in the organization to
ensure that the tasks are well understood and implemented successfully. In other
words, the management of design would not be isolated in the design department,
but should involve the entire organisation, if commercially successful products are
to be the outcome (Ughanwa [15]). Therefore, Roger et al. [14] point out that in
business process characteristics for using BIM, the main efficiency are reducing
costs, sharing information through interoperability and unlimited access leading
to the integration of the various disciplines within the construction industry. In
relation to procurement route, BIM is also acknowledged that it can be used for
every procurement route and the level of benefits is varying according to the
procurement characteristics. As such, BIM with an integrated model development
will increase the collaboration, communication and decrease the unforeseen risks
across large and complex projects (London and Gu [16]).
The BIM agenda of the UK was initially driven by Tony Blairs New Labour
Government who pushed forward the need to improve collaborative practices in
construction. Sir John Egan was commissioned by the Government to produce a
report Rethinking Construction, which concluded The movement would be a
network through which members could collaborate with each other in developing
construction techniques and skills and exchanging ideas for increasing efficiency
and quality (Egan [17]). This report sought to change the industry towards
collaboration, focusing on information with a view to increase efficiency. The
Egan report aimed to drive efficiency in the UK construction industry, and this
push to efficiency is reflected in the overall aim of reducing the cost of
Government construction projects by 1520% (Cabinet Office [18]). Along with
the mandate of governments across the world in adopting BIM as part of the
reform of the public construction sector and cost saving strategy, the UK
government has also declared that no public projects can be accepted without using
BIM by 2016 (British Standard Institute [2]). This mandate has strongly affected on
the survival of a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) which
generate about 80 % of the production cost of the UK construction industry (Robson
et al. [19]) because they will be lost to all business in the public sector after 2016 unless
they adopt BIM into their organisations.
The recent report indicate that there are around two thirds of both public sector
(65%) and private sector (70%) UK owner state that they will require BIM on their
project compared to 30% of US public owners and just 11% of US private sector ones.
However, the percentage of BIM users in the UK is at a low level of engagement and
occupies the second highest rank which accounts for 54%, whereas Brazil where the
highest amount of low level of engagement investigated is 55% (SmartMarket Report
[20]). This indicates that the industry is still hesitating in using BIM for project
delivery.
To support and encourage construction industry to adopt BIM for project delivery,
there are many BIM group supports, standards and frameworks that have been
developed so far:
BIM Task Group is responsible for supporting and helping deliver the
objectives of the UK Governments construction strategy and the requirement
to strengthen the public sectors capability in BIM implementation with the aim
that all central government departments will be adopting, as a minimum,
collaborative Level 2 BIM by 2016 (BIM Tag Group [21]).
BIM4SME is responsible for providing resource, best practices and knowledge
to SMEs to get them ready for 2016 and embark on the construction industrys
journey to deliver efficiencies in cost and value by sharing information
(BIM4SME [22]).
BIM Protocol created by Construction Institution Council in 2013 to clarify
issues related to legal agreement including obligations and rights of
stakeholders of BIM project (BIM Tag Group [21]).
Public Available Specification (PAS) part 2, 3 and 4 developed specifically
for information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction,
operation phase of asset, and the exchange of information throughout the
lifecycle of a facility (BIMTaggroup [21]).
Surprisingly, the report of SmartMartket Report 2014 points out that over three
quarter (76%) of UK respondents believe that they have well-developed BIM
guidelines and none of them report being completely without guidelines
(SmartMarket Report [20]). However, there have been no standards or frameworks
developed to help SMEs to anticipate risks and opportunities of adopting BIM for
project delivery. This may lead to embarrassing and hesitation among SMEs in
adopting BIM for project delivery. In addition, the evidence shows that SMEs are
currently lagging behind in BIM adoption (SmartMarket Report [20]) and are
losing out in winning publicly funded projects as many as 40% of construction
SMEs lose out on 90% of the public sector work they proposed bids for
(Federation of Master Builders [8]).
Therefore, it is significant to develop a framework to help SMEs to foresee
opportunities and potential risks in BIM project delivery. To facilitate the wide
spread use of this framework, it should be developed as a web-based tool so that
it can be easy to publicise on the internet and disseminate to SMEs end users across
the construction industry.
3 The research methods used

3.1 Research stage 1: collect secondary data
The data required for secondary research was collected from sources of existing
information. This consists of relevant books, construction journals, online sources,
international and local government reports. This progress is necessary to identify
gaps of knowledge, key issues related to aim and objectives of the research. In
addition, main criteria, sub-criteria and profile of risk and reward of adopting BIM
in project delivery that SMEs are facing were also considered. Based on a literature
review, the development of an appropriate conceptual framework for anticipating
risk and opportunities of using BIM in project delivery was undertaken.
3.2 Research stage 2: collect primary data
The primary research data in this study will be achieved through a process of
activities known as framework validation. Framework validation entails checking
that the system complied with its own requirements and is free from failures or
incorrect behaviour (Collofello [23]). This process is conducted by obtaining
objective evidence that the system will perform its intended functions. The
validation of a system is mostly a concern at the system level, and concentrates on
whether or not the system can do what the user wants and is suitable for a specific
intended use or application (Upadhyay [24]). Therefore, validation of the
conceptual framework will help to ensure that the potential DSS will have full
functionalities which will help SMEs to anticipate risks and rewards, and hence
that the DSS works as intended. The following activities will present progress of
validating the conceptual framework of the DSS:
- Activity 1: there will be several interviews including online chatting
interview, face to face interview, phone interview have been being done to
get more information supporting for the secondary data gained in stage 1 of
the research.
- Activity 2: a combination of data collected from stage 1 and those achieved
from activity 1 will be made to finalise the framework and its criteria. The
criteria of framework as well as risk and opportunity profile may be amended
and improved to fit with the context of the construction industry after this
activity.
- Activity 3: an online survey designed based on the outcome of activity 2 to

collect data which will be used in functionalities of the DSS designed in next
stage of the research.
3.3 Research stage 3: design the DSS
In this stage, the data after collecting in the second stage will be analysed and used
to design the DSS. The online DSS tool will be designed by using the following
packages of academic application:
- MySQL database management: used to store primary data after being
analysed. This data is considered as the core data of the DSS tool, which is
shown whenever end users choose functionalities of the DSS.
- The Hypertext Pre-processor (PhP): a programing language together with
Hypertext Mark-up Language 5 (HTML5) and Cascading Style Sheet (CSS)
will be adopted to design user interface and functions of the DSS tools.
The adoption of academic applications mentioned above is made because of
following benefits:
- They are simple and easy to use.
- They have a large developer community that can extend their cooperation
easily.
- They are open source content management programs. Therefore, the
researcher does not need to pay for licences as well as issues related to
the intellectual property when the DSS comes into operation.
3.4 Research stage 4: validate the function and validity of the DSS
In this stage of study, the completed DSS tool will be uploaded on a host website
purchased by the researcher. The tool link will then be sent to SMEs (known as
end users) across the UK construction industry for validating functionalities as
well as its reliabilities. The end users will be asked to use the tool with a free
account and investigate the usefulness and reliabilities of functionalities of the
tool. In each function, they will be asked to put feedback about its convenience
and the validities of information presented. All valuable feedback collected from
participants in this stage will be used to improve the tool and will be compared
with primary and secondary data in the discussion section of the research.
4 Conceptual framework
The aim of the study is to develop a DSS to help SMEs to assess the risks and
rewards of adopting BIM for project delivery. Based on the existing literature, the
conceptual framework of this research is designed to analyse in a holistic way the
risks and rewards of BIM adoption in project delivery for SMEs. The framework
will provide evidence regarding the benefits of BIM, to enable SMEs to foresee
the significant advantages to be derived from BIM implementation and thus to
encourage them to use BIM in their companies. It is hoped this will assist firms in
meeting the UK government BIM adoption target for 20162020. The conceptual
framework of the research can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The framework of the DSS.
5 Criteria of the framework

The development of the conceptual framework has enabled the identification of
key components, variables and their relationship, which may affect SMEs
decision-making process regarding the use of BIM for specific project delivery.
The conceptual framework mainly focuses on five key criteria that have a close
relationship to the involvement of SMEs in project delivery. These are BIM
readiness, involvement phase, project value, funding, and procurement route. In
each criterion, there are three to four attributes (sub-criteria) which accommodate
risks and rewards resulting from BIM adoption. All risks and rewards in all
selected alternatives will be calculated and compared at the end of the process.
Where the outcome demonstrates that the rewards dominate over risks during the
process of project delivery, then adopting BIM in delivery construction project
will be encouraged. In contrast, if the framework demonstrates that risks outweigh
rewards or the rewards are insubstantial, then alternatives will be suggested. The
criteria, sub-criteria and functionalities of DSS can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1: The criteria, sub-criteria and functionalities of DSS.
Criteria Sub-criteria Comments (functionality of DSS)

The risks and opportunities that High BIM readiness
High organisations may have when they participate in BIM projects
will be presented in this function.
If an organisation is assumed as a Medium BIM readiness,
BIM
Medium they can check their risks and opportunities of using BIM in
readiness
project delivery in this function.
Organisations with a BIM readiness considered as Low will be
Low the most interesting function that helps them to foresee risk
and opportunities of using BIM in project delivery.
This function will list all risks and opportunities that SMEs
Design involved in stages of design may have when they participate in
BIM projects.
All SMEs participating in this stage of BIM projects, this
Stage of Construction function can help them to foresee risks and opportunities that
involvement they may face.
As an organisation usually participates in latest stages of
project. This function will show them opportunities as well as
Operation
risks that they may scope in BIM projects.
This function may be useful for those SMEs that usually work
Less than 2m on small size projects. It helps SMEs to clarify either risks
dominated over opportunities or the opportunities.
Between 2m and To SMEs who usually work on this size of projects, these
15m functions can help them to check risks and opportunities that
BIM brings to them. The risks and opportunities presented in
Project value
Between 15 and these functions are meaningful in providing good evidence for
50m SMEs working in small and large size projects to look for a
comparison.
Risks and opportunities of SME organisations working in large
More than 50m size BIM projects shown in this function is hoped to be a
dream of by those SMEs working in lower size BIM projects.
Table 1: Continued.
Criteria Sub-criteria Comments (functionality of DSS)

This function may be useful for those SMEs that usually work
Less than 2m on small size projects. It helps SMEs to clarify either risks
dominated over opportunities or the opportunities.
Between 2m and To SMEs who usually work on this size of projects, these
15m functions can help them to check risks and opportunities that
BIM brings to them. The risks and opportunities presented in
Project value
Between 15 and these functions are meaningful in providing good evidence for
50m SMEs working in small and large size projects to look for a
comparison.
Risks and opportunities of SME organisations working in large
More than 50m size BIM projects shown in this function is hoped to be a
dream of by those SMEs working in lower size BIM projects.
This function is to present risks and opportunities that SMEs
Public may have when they work in public funded BIM projects
especially after 2016.
Public/Private Risks and opportunities presented in this function are deemed
Source of
(PPP, PFI, BOT, to provide SMEs an overview of benefits that BIM brings to
funding
etc.) this kind of project funding.
This function will show SMEs risks and opportunities that they
Private may have when they work in BIM projects funded by private
sectors.
High collaborative This function will be responsible for indicating potential

procurement (e.g. opportunities as well as risks that SMEs may have when they
Framework, work on BIM projects applied with high collaborative
Partnering, IPD, ...) procurement routes.
Procurement
route Risks and opportunities of using BIM in project delivery
Two-stage design
applied two-stage D&B procurement will be listed in this
and build
function of the tool.
In delivering BIM project using traditional procurement route,
Traditional whether risks dominate over opportunities or not. This function
will help SMEs to anticipate them.
The profile of risk and opportunity of the DSS was initially developed through
investigating literature during the stage 1 of the study. It then will be upgraded after
Profile of risk
the progress of validating framework completed at the end of stage 2 of the research.
and reward
This profile is finally used to show users of the DSS risks and opportunities of
adopting BIM in project delivery according to specific functions that they choose.
6 The DSS workflow and reporting

The workflow diagram of the DSS (Figure 2), shows that there are a total of six
steps that are used to anticipate risks and opportunities of using BIM in project
delivery. Starting with identifying the BIM readiness of the assessors, the DSS
then uses the involvement phase, the project value, the source of funding, and the
procurement route as criteria to generate a final report at the end of the assessment
process. The process of these steps is demonstrated by the solid lines in the
diagram. The DSS also allows users to create interim reports at each step of
the process. These reports include presenting risks and rewards at every typical
Figure 2: The workflow diagram of the DSS.
step of the process, and also showing total risks and opportunities that assessors
have scoped, starting from the beginning, to the current step that the assessors are
investigating (indicated by dash lines). This feature is designed to help
organisations, which their businesses do not involve in all stages of assessment
process, to anticipate risks and rewards of using BIM for project delivery. The
typical steps of the assessment process are as follows:
- Workflow step 1: the users can choose directly their BIM readiness, or by
doing self-assessment through answering a set of questions. Their answers
will be used to assess their organisations BIM readiness, which is high,
medium or low. The interim report after this step can also show the risks and
opportunities that their organisations may have.
- Workflow step 2: the assessors then can move on to select the stage of
involvement in BIM projects, in order to foresee risks and opportunities. In
this step, they can also generate the interim report to visualise risks and
rewards that they have had so far. This report is created by combining
the risks and rewards of this step, with the one that the assessors had in the
previous step.
- Similarly, the next steps of the assessment process perform almost the same
steps as the previous one. The assessors can respectively select options for
each step, or choose a suitable selection which is close to the status of their
organisation to generate the assessment report. Both interim and final report
typically presents a list of risks and opportunities, as well as indicating the
percentage of the risks and rewards sharing during the process of the
assessment.
7 Conclusion
Since the 2011 mandate of the UK Government for BIM implementation level 2
on all public funded projects by 2016, the working style of the UK construction
industry has changed rapidly from traditional to BIM in project delivery. The
number of BIM users in the UK has recorded a strong increase in recent years
especially in large size companies or those companies working in public sector. In
contrast, this mandate also has increasingly affected SMEs where BIM has not
been invested in. They are facing with losing all public projects and partly private
contracts after 2016 due to the increasingly demand from both public and private
clients. Typically, they are lagging behind and gradually losing in winning public
projects in recent years. Although there are several researches, reports,
frameworks, guidelines and standards have been conducted to assist SMEs in
recognising the important benefits of BIM, there is still a lack of frameworks
support for SMEs to forecast the outcome of using BIM in project delivery. To
fulfil this gap, this research has been conducted and the DSS tool can help SMEs
to anticipate risks and opportunities of adopting BIM for project delivery. It can
also help SMEs to clarify advantages and disadvantages of using BIM according
to their natural characteristics. The tool is hoped to help SMEs to deduce an
appropriate decision making process in BIM investment and tangibly contribute

to helping the UK Government to achieve their BIM target through encouraging
SMEs to use BIM in project delivery.
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The design and development of a

classification system for BIM
J. E. Gelder
Abstract
This paper examines the design and development, over a 15 year period, of a new
classification system for the construction sector in the UK, which is now one of a
suite of standards for BIM Level 2. The paper begins with some early work on
specification structures at RIBA Enterprises. It provides a critique of Uniclass
1997 the problem. It describes the revision of the classification standard, ISO
12006-2 a framework for the solution. The development of the new classification
system Uniclass 2015 the solution is explored. This involved an interesting
mix of dead ends and insights, praise and criticism, all part of the process of
developing something completely new.
Keywords: classification, BIM, Uniclass.
1 Introduction
In developing the BIM-ready specification library, NBS Create [1], the author
realised that the UKs construction classification system, Uniclass 1997 [2], was
not adequate for the purpose [3]. This led to two proposals for a new classification
system, made to the CPI (Construction Project Information) Uniclass Working
Group [4]. The first was for a new Work sections table. The second was for a
complete overhaul of Uniclass. These were approved by the CPI Committee. The
author, working for CPIs contractor, RIBA Enterprises [5], began the design and
development of a replacement classification system, with input from others in the
company. The first ten tables of this system, including the new Work sections
table, were published for comment on the CPI website in 2012. In mid-2014 the
UK Governments Technology Strategy Board (now Innovate UK) commissioned
a team led by RIBA Enterprises to develop the classification system further,
particularly with respect to infrastructure, as a part of what is now the NBS BIM
doi:10.2495/BIM150391
Toolkit [6]. The first four tables of Uniclass 2015 (formerly Uniclass2) were
published in April 2015.
Uniclass 2015 will be embedded in tools such as NBS Create, the Construction
Information Service [7], and RIBA Product Selector [8], and is already embedded
in the NBS BIM Toolkit. As a key tool for the use of level 2 BIM in UK
Government construction projects from 2016, the classification system is also
expected to find its way overseas.
This paper draws mostly on published articles, which serve as the public record
of milestones in the development of the classification system.
2 Outline and performance specification

One of the first tasks the author undertook when joining RIBA Enterprises was a
review [9] of the structure of NBS Building [10], which is aligned to Uniclass
1997 Table J Work sections for buildings (i.e. trade-based). Table J had also been
implemented in NES (National Engineering Specification) [11] and SMM7 [12].
The introduction of a standard section structure was one of the main
recommendations, to enable collaborative working, but was rejected as too
disruptive for the company and its customers. This idea (not an original one) was
not abandoned, however. Some NBS Building work sections (written by the
author) published in 2001 had the recommended structure, and by 2012 it had been
implemented in a quarter of the sections in NBS Building [13]. It would inevitably
have led to changes being needed in Table J.
Over 20022003 the author developed a standard Elemental (not trade) section
structure for outline and performance specifications (unpublished see Table 1),
with a view to developing a specification that supported design-build procurement.
The idea was that this would result in a tool separate to NBS Building, which is
geared to traditional procurement. What was missing was some way to map the
one to the other. Restructuring NBS Building itself would have enabled this
mapping, or even an integration of the two ideas.
3 NBS Engineering Services

NBS Engineering Services [14] was a new product for the company. Disruption
was not an issue. The author decided to meld the ideas for the outline and
performance specification with those of the conventional work section
specification. This required a System-based version of the standard structure
developed for the outline and performance specifications, well-suited to the
design-build procurement usual in the services sector.
This project revealed a number of technical inadequacies in the services side of
Uniclass 1997 Table J, particularly for electrical systems. NBS unilaterally
amended this material, and submitted the amendments to CPI as a formal proposal
for revision in 2005. This was approved several years later CPI in 2005 had not
thought that Uniclass 1997 might need to change, and had no mechanisms in place
to deal with such changes.
Table 1: Extract from unpublished Elemental section structure, 20022003.
6 Floors, landings, balconies

6.1 General
6.1.1 Floor type A
Complete element: [].
Core fabric: [].
Coverings and finishes: [].
Openings: [].
Accessories: [].
6.1.2 Floor type B
6.2 Performance
6.2.1 Complete element
6.2.2 Core fabric
6.2.3 Coverings and finishes
Structural performance: [].
Thermal performance: [].
Acoustic performance: [].
Durability: [].
Slip resistance: [].
6.2.4 Openings
6.2.5 Accessories
6.3 Products
Complete element
Core fabric
6.3.1 Concrete [] to Floor type A /to Floor type B
Strength grade: [].
6.3.2 Steel []
6.3.3 Timber []
Coverings and finishes
6.3.4 Ceramic tiles, glazed [] to Floor type A /to Floor
type B
Manufacturer: []. (Link to Product Selector Plus)
Product reference: [].
6.3.5 Quarry tiles []
6.3.6 Screed []
6.3.7 Slates []
6.3.8 Stone tiles []
6.3.9 Timber decking []
Openings
Accessories
6.4 Execution
6.5 Completion
The amended classification behind NBS Engineering Services clarified the

concept of System (e.g. V14 Photovoltaic systems) and Product (e.g. R31 Refuse
chutes) sections, where Systems are composed of Products.
Products were dealt with in various ways depending on their commonality
(we called this four degrees of separation), to keep Products as close as possible
to the Systems they comprise. For example, Products unique to a System section
were held in that section, whereas Products common to more than one Group of
sections were located in Group Y. This approach, which classifies Products as
parts-of Systems, has been replaced in Uniclass 2015.
However, several ideas are still in place in Uniclass 2015, and have been
applied through the object hierarchy.
First, a standard section substructure was introduced for the Systems sections,
building on the outline and performance work:
General, for System type (compositional) clauses these list the Products
comprising each System.
System performance, for contractor design a common component of
services contracting.
Products, for Product type clauses.
Fabrication, for bespoke offsite manufacture and assembly.
Execution, for onsite assembly.
Completion, for commissioning, spares and the like.
This structure allowed different audiences to easily find material of interest to
them. For example supervisors, contract administrators, and installers would find
content of interest in the Execution subsection.
It allowed descriptions for different forms of procurement to be prepared (for
design-build, for example, the System performance subsection will be needed, but
for construction with full-consultant design, it wont). It enabled horizontal
reports across System sections (e.g. the Execution subsections reported together).
The inclusion of System and Product type clauses, and System performance,
has major consequences for a BIM specification, though this was not recognised
at the time. It allowed NBS Engineering Services to be used for build-only
procurement, or for design-build procurement, or any mix of the two it was
procurement-neutral. It meant that pre-procurement design requirements could be
recorded as the specification develops, even if the construction procurement
specification is build-only. It was the beginning of the Uniclass 2015 object
hierarchy, the redundancy of the work section concept, and implementation in a
specification of the concept of composition or modelling.
Second, each System type clause in turn had a standard substructure (Table 1
shows this for fabric Systems), embedded in the Uniclass 2015 Products table:
Sources.
Distribution.
Outlets.
Controls.
Accessories.
Third, all Systems sections had the word systems in the title, to distinguish
them from the Products sections (and, subsequently, from Elements).
4 Work sections
In 2006 CPI established a Uniclass Working Group, to deal with various proposals
for change to Uniclass 1997, initially to support CAD layering and the Crossrail
project both needed a revised table for Elements. One of the CPI member
institutions, RICS (Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors), had begun the
development of a new method of measurement to replace SMM7, but not using
Uniclass 1997 Table G Elements for buildings. This became NRM 1 [15]. Change
was afoot, at least to the classification of Elements.
The author was appointed to the Working Group, representing RIBA
Enterprises, and proposed, first, a revised table for Work sections, arising from
combining Uniclass 1997 Tables J and K Work sections for civil engineering
works, and providing for process engineering a single table for all sectors and
disciplines. The revised table was to be extended to serve the entire project
timeline, by providing homes for the description of Systems and Products, but also
of buildings, facilities and districts (terminology has been changed in Uniclass
2015), and of soft FM (hard FM is provided for within each section). This proposal
was seen as essential for the development of NBS Create [16, 17]. CPIc endorsed
it in late 2011.
The coding was also revised, to provide the extra room needed. The capacity
increased from 2400 sections, for Table J, to 8000 (with 20 items at each level,
counting in fives, e.g. 00, 05, 10, 15 an idea retained in part in Uniclass 2015).
In this proposal, all Products were located in two Product supermarkets, one
Group (45) being reserved for fabric Products, and one (90) for services Products.
Our experience with the four degrees of separation showed that the business of
assigning Products to Systems was fraught with difficulties. It is more neutral, and
safer, to not classify Products as parts-of Systems. This is a surprisingly liberating
idea, implemented more fully in Uniclass 2015.
The proposed Groups were:
00 Project management.
05 Districts, facilities and buildings.
10 Preparatory systems.
15 General structural systems.
20 Roof, floor and paving systems.
25 Wall and barrier systems.
30 Fixed access, tunnel, tower and vessel systems.
35 FF&E, signage and general finishing systems.
40 Flora and fauna systems.
45 Fabric, FF&E and landscape products.
50 Disposal systems.
55 Piped supply systems.
60 Heating, cooling and refrigeration systems.
65 Ventilation and air conditioning systems.

70 Electrical systems.
75 Communications, security, safety and protection systems.
80 Transport systems.
85 Process engineering systems.
90 Services and process engineering products.
95 Soft facility management.
Most of the Groups were for Systems, with higher-level object classes confined
to just one Group (05). On the services side, the Groups align closely with those
in Uniclass 1997, but the fabric side needed restructuring to accommodate the
Systems concept. For example, Structural framing systems were introduced (in
Group 15), and concrete was relocated to the fabric Product Group (45). Fabric
System sections were restructured to allow for the description of new and old
technologies, narrow-scope subcontracting (e.g. homes for type clauses for the
different types of door Systems), procurement-neutrality, the pragmatic needs of
procurement (e.g. splitting Stair systems into versions for architecture, landscape
architecture and services engineering), consistent use of the Systems concept,
alignment with Elements, and FM. These ideas all apply to Uniclass 2015.
The three-level structure of Table J was retained, and the idea that sections are
always at the lowest level, an idea applied throughout Uniclass 2015.
Between 2006 and 2011, the ideas behind Group 00 had evolved from it being
for construction Preliminaries (as in Uniclass 1997 Table J Group A), to having to
serve the whole timeline, just like the rest of the classification system. Within this
Group a basic restructuring was proposed in 2006, splitting the content into four
parts. These requirements have since evolved and been implemented in the draft
Uniclass 2015 Project phases and Project management tables.
The proposal also pointed out that Systems correspond to trades, effectively
meaning that Systems sections, with their associated Product sections, replace
traditional Work sections (in which Systems and Products are combined in the one
section). Again, this was a hint that we would not also need Work sections.
5 Uniclass 1997
The author proposed, second, an overhaul of the whole of Uniclass 1997 [3]. CPIc
endorsed this proposal, which was very welcome as without it NBS might have
had to develop an equivalent to Uniclass 2015 unilaterally.
This proposal arose from a recognition, in the development of the proposals for
the Work sections table, that Uniclass 1997 has a number of problems if one wants
to use it for BIM, serving the entire timeline and all sectors. In spite of its subtitle,
it was not unified.
We have seen the proposals to combine Tables J and K (Work sections), and
Tables G and H (Elements). But the tables for other object classes dont always
achieve a comprehensive merge of architecture, civil and process engineering,
either. All tables must do this.
Other than Table J and Table K Work sections for civil engineering works, the
tables in Uniclass 1997 are numeric. Some go beyond the limit of 10 when it
suits them, e.g. as in L-6-6-1-13-1 Stained glass, and some have just one level (e.g.
Table K) but others might have anything between 3 and 6 levels the object of
interest is not at the same level throughout the table (e.g. Table D Facilities).
The tables do not align where they could they are not congruent. For
example Table J has Disposal systems in Group R and Transport systems in Group
X, but Table G has Transport elements in Group 56 and Removal and disposal
elements in Group 58 different naming, coding and sequencing. Table G splits
electric power and lighting into two Groups (53 and 54), but Table J combines
them in one (Group V) the bracketing is different. Though Table D combines
three object classes in the one table Complexes, Entities and Spaces which is
not helpful (they are split in Uniclass 2015) at least they are congruent all
administrative objects are in the same home (Group 3), for example. This good
start has been extended in Uniclass 2015.
Some tables are more like sketches of possible approaches to classification,
rather than a definitive classification for their object class. For example, table E is
reasonably clear about civil entities, but for buildings it offers several alternatives
within the one sub-Group including by form, by relationship with adjoining
buildings, and by special form of construction.
Some object classes are missing in Uniclass 1997, including Regions, Districts,
Activities and Systems. Though Construction aids have a table (M), it does not
include aids for design, documentation and maintenance.
There is no good reason for all these differences they are just historical. It
makes the tables difficult to use alongside each other, as they must be in BIM as
we move through the timeline. Similar critiques have been made of CSI/CSCs
OmniClass [1820] and of the classification behind NRM 1 [21]. Neither Uniclass
1997, nor these classification systems, are really fit for BIM, which is why a new
classification system had to be developed.
One of the criticisms the author made at the time is invalid. Object granularity
within tables in Uniclass 1997 can be inconsistent, e.g. in Table D we have both
oil refineries (165 3) and signal boxes (116 1) at the lowest level. This was
considered a fault, but Uniclass 2015 recognises that each object class must be
scale-neutral you can have very small Complexes, and very large ones too.
Uniclass 1997 has faced quite a bit of active competition in the UK this is one
reason that some tables are little used. For Elements, for example, RICS members
use the NRM 1. For Products, CI/SfB [22] is used by RIBA Product Selector
(alongside Uniclass Table J Groups), irrespective of the deficiencies identified in
the Preface to Uniclass 1997.
BIM requires a single classification system to be used by all. Mapping between
classification systems, while possible, is not helpful thanks to the inevitable many-
to-many mappings and the like. This is why Uniclass 2015 is being implemented
in a number of NBS products and services.
6 ISO 12006-2:2015
While all this activity was underway, ISO established a Working Group (ISO
TC59/SC13/WG2) to revise ISO 12006-2:2001 [23]. The author was appointed to
WG2 as UK expert, reporting to BSI committee B/555. Other members of WG2
were from Denmark (the convenors), Finland, Sweden, Norway and Japan. The
first meeting was held in December 2011 and the last in October 2013. The revised
standard, ISO 12006-2:2015, was published in May 2015.
The authors initial ideas on the subject explored five issues [24]:
The standard does not offer a single definitive classification framework.
The sequence of tables does not correlate well to the project sequence.
A number of objects do not have tables at all.
Some sectors are not represented in the examples.
We do not need tables that classify objects by their composition.
The first was just a matter of careful editing, to ensure the same object class
sequence was used throughout the new edition. The ISOs revised schema reflects
this sequence, and matches the schema for Uniclass 2015.
The second has been dealt with similarly. Complexes followed Entities, but
now they precede them, reflecting the ISOs schema. Uniclass 2015, however, has
sidestepped the built-in sequencing of tables (dictated in Uniclass 1997 and in
OmniClass) by giving each table a two-letter code corresponding to the section
title, e.g. En for Entities. The tables can be listed in any order. The code is also
informative, unlike table F, or table 23.
The new object classes suggested havent been implemented in the ISO, but
some have been implemented in Uniclass 2015, even if only as planned tables.
The concept of designed Elements has been dropped (all object classes move
through the timeline from being non-, to partially, to fully designed).
Examples in the ISO have been extended to represent several sectors. This is
reflected in the content of Uniclass 2015.
The last point is acknowledged in the ISO the standard is about type-of
relationships (classification) rather than part-of relationships (modelling). But
Uniclass 2015 has a Modelling framework which standardises the mapping of
high-level objects to low-level objects. This has been implemented, for Systems
and Products, in NBS Create. This compositional view is a key to BIM.
One of the authors objectives on WG2 was to ensure that the Standard aligned
with Uniclass 2015, and vice versa, as far as possible. But inevitably there are
some differences. The major one is that the ISO has Elements with a recursion (to
sub-Elements), but it doesnt have Systems, whereas Uniclass 2015 has both. The
difference is a useful one for design and documentation floor covering is a sub-
Element of the Element floor (both are technically neutral), but Carpet tiling
system is a System (a technically specific implementation of floor covering,
executed by a trade).
A BIM classification should align with ISO 12006-2:2015, if only because it
would facilitate mapping between various complying national systems of
classification. For this reason alone, reiterated in the TSB brief, the UK needed a
new classification system.
7 Developing Uniclass 2015

The author developed some basic principles for developing a genuinely unified
edition of Uniclass, not all new [3]. All tables would cover buildings and
landscape, and civil and process engineering. However, the initial drafts by NBS
would just leave spaces for civil and process engineering objects, which were to
be developed by others (this work has started).
All tables would use numeric coding below level 1. It was thought that coding
for level 1 (table codes) may be numerical, but it has remained alphabetical. All
level codes in all tables would be double-digit, from 00 to 99. Decimalization
would not be used (though users might apply it, e.g. in project specifications).
All tables would have four levels, where possible, and five levels otherwise,
from Table at the top, to Object at the bottom (this rule has not been adopted).
It was suggested that, for an application where it is obvious which table is being
used, the first code could be dropped, the example being in a specification, which
would use only the Work sections table. But, because this table has been
withdrawn and because the timeline specification could describe objects of any
class, all table codes will be needed. Even a manufacturer may make Products,
Systems, Spaces or Entities, so will need to use the table codes.
All tables would set individual objects at the lowest level. Higher levels are for
groups and subgroups of objects. It was thought that the Elements and Systems
tables may include a lower level for sub-objects, i.e. sub-elements and
subsystems. This has only been applied to Elements this table is a special case
as it includes both type-of (classification) and part-of (modelling): sub-Elements
are parts of an Element.
Objects within a given table (i.e. at the lowest level) would have similar
granularity, but Uniclass 2015 recognises that the classification of objects has to
be scale-neutral.
Tables would be structured so that they align with each other, and their
terminology revised so that it is consistent. If possible, coding would be matched
across tables, though it was expected that this would only be possible in part. These
ideas have been implemented in Uniclass 2015, but not the idea that the Work
sections table would be pivotal for alignment between tables. It isnt.
New tables would be created for missing object classes such as Activities
(done). The tables were to be sequenced to reflect the project timeline, but this as
noted this is not built-in to Uniclass 2015.
Each table would deliver just one, complete, approach to classification. In
particular, function will be used as a unifying approach to the classification of
higher level objects (from Regions down to Spaces, and to Fittings, furnishings
and equipment (FF&E) systems based on the Uniclass 1997 Table D), e.g.
Agricultural regions, Agricultural districts, Agricultural facilities, Agricultural
buildings, Agricultural activities, Agricultural spaces, and Agricultural FF&E
systems. This has been done.
Finally, ideally the classification would align to the revised ISO 12006-2.
A key idea in this proposal was the use the Work sections table as an armature
for all the other tables. The class tables each drill down one more level than the
corresponding part of the Work sections table, but the upper level codes and titles
would be the same. It was thought that this would support mapping down the
object class hierarchy, and allow just the Work sections table to be used. Uniclass
tables defining composition would therefore not be needed (enabling all parent-
child permutations for all objects is the job of project documentation libraries such
as NBS Create). It was recognised that the outline clauses in the Work sections
would deliver this. Uniclass 2015 has taken this idea and turned it into the
Modelling framework solving the problem in another way than the armature.
There is actually no need for Uniclass 2015 to deal with all the permutations the
concern was wrong-headed.
8 Developing the section structure

The System section structure was revised [25] and then revised again for the
launch of NBS Create, and comprised seven subsections [13]. Apart from a shift
in terminology (some subsections are qualified with the word System, for
example), the main difference is the addition of the (hard) FM subsection,
recognising that the description of an object must serve the entire timeline:
System outline.
System performance.
Products (held in Product sections, but presented here in the Systems
view of NBS Create).
Custom-made products.
Execution.
System completion.
System facility management.
This structure might not seem to be anything to do with classification, but it
shows that everything to do with a particular System (or object class) is intended
to be in the one place in the BIM. This is not the case in North America, as can be
seen from the content of OmniClass Table 22 Work results. For example, separate
subgroups in Table 22 are used for operation and maintenance (subgroup 01) and
commissioning (subgroup 08) of the various groups of Systems (e.g. Thermal and
moisture protection), these topics not being in CSI/CSCs three-part
SectionFormat [26].
9 Publication and comment

Drafts of the first tranche of ten tables were posted online to the CPI website early
in 2012, for comment. A description of the tables was published at around the
same time [27]. The tables were as follows:
WR: Work results, formerly called the Work sections table.

WS: Work results subsections, now called Modelling.
PP: Project phases.
Co: Complexes.
En: Entities.
Ac: Activities
Sp: Spaces.
Ee: Elements.
Ss: Systems.
Pr: Products (easily the biggest table, and not published until later).
Comments made it clear that while some people just wanted to get on and use
the tables (e.g. when will the tables be officially released?; can you help me map
the codes to our asset management database?), others wanted to challenge the basic
ideas (e.g. the Elements table does not classify elements; why bother seeking
congruence?; why do we need a Products table?), and others engaged fully,
accepting the tables in the spirit in which they were offered and offering useful
comment (e.g. chiller batteries are not batteries; where are ceiling tiles?).
As always in this sort of exercise, some comments were implemented as made,
some were set aside as poorly-informed (CPI/NBS workshops about Uniclass
2015 were held in London and Manchester in 2012 [28]), and others led to changes
that addressed the problem in a way other than that suggested.
Comments on the Work results table made it clear that users were confused by
having two tables with the same objects and similar codes in them, i.e. the Work
results table, and the aligned table for the particular object class (e.g. Systems)
[29]. The armature concept was difficult to explain. A given object surely needs
only one code, especially when they are so similar? It was suggested by a colleague
(Delany) that the Work results table was redundant, and that withdrawing it would
make the whole concept of Uniclass 2015 clearer. It was realised that this was
correct: all the object class tables can be used to structure descriptions of work
of some kind a table specifically for this role is not needed (this broader concept
of work can also be found in ISO 12006-2:2015). And so Uniclass 2015 does not
have a Work results table, perhaps alone among national classification systems,
even though the revision of this table is where the whole process started [30].
This in turn removed a constraint on the number of levels that each other table
could have, particularly for the high-level objects, which had all been confined to
one Group in the Work results table. This had forced the classification in the
Complexes and Entities tables to stop with too few levels, so that we had Transport
interchanges, but not Railway stations (the next logical level down in the type
hierarchy), for example. This had led to quite a bit of criticism, and has been
remedied in Uniclass 2015 through the addition of an extra level in these tables.
This could not have been done if the Work results table had been retained.
Doing away with the Work results table has allowed us to also do away with
the concept of two Product supermarkets we had found that Products cannot
even be cleanly split between fabric and services.
The use of Uniclass 2015 for coordination (or integration, in a BIM

environment) is different to that for Uniclass 1997, but is much simpler than the
article describes, since the Work results table has been withdrawn. Systems will
simply use the corresponding code from the Systems table, for example. This class
code can be extended to deal with types (from the project specification) and
instances (from the project geometry). The mapping from Elements to Systems
that this article described is still correct, though the specific codes used in the
example have changed.
10 TSB competition
At this point, CPI had been looking after the development of Uniclass 2015 for
some time, but even though CPI had endorsed the project, not all CPI members
were happy with it. CPI also faced some administrative difficulties, mostly to do
with funding. Help was needed and came in the form of the UK Governments
Technology Strategy Board (TSB), which acquired the rights to Uniclass from
CPI, and offered 1 million in funding to the winner of a competition to develop
a digital toolkit, including a classification system [31]. Three teams participated in
the first phase (February to July 2014). The author was involved as part of the
RIBA Enterprises-led team [29].
A question at this point was, if the RIBA Enterprises bid loses, what would be
the future of Uniclass 2015? Fortunately this did not need to be addressed as this
team, which proposed to develop Uniclass 2015 rather than any alternatives, won
the contract, which was awarded in September 2014. This confidence in the
classification system to support BIM was very welcome.
Indeed, the principles of Uniclass 2015 that particularly address BIM have led
to a classification system unlike any other in the construction industry. As required
in the competition brief, the classification system serves the entire project timeline,
it is sector-neutral and discipline-neutral, it aligns with the ISO, it has a logical
physical object hierarchy, it is dynamic, online and free, it is consistent between
and within tables, it is relatively simple to use, and its objects can be mapped to
synonyms and definitions [32].
The main changes to Uniclass 2015 during the contract period were ongoing
development of the Products table, and addition of civil transport objects. The
latter was a particular requirement in the TSB brief. Uniclass 2015 was officially
published, as part of the NBS BIM Toolkit, in April 2015. Importantly, this is a
public beta version. It includes tables for just four object classes: Spaces,
Elements, Systems and Products [33]. Table 2 shows the developmental timeline
for each of the tables in Uniclass 2015.
This brings us to the present, but there is still much to do.
Table 2: The development of the Uniclass 2015 tables.
BS ISO
Online for 12006- NBS BIM
Drafted Delany [33]:
Table ISO 12006-2:2015 comment 2:2015 Toolkit Comment
20112014 next tables
20122013 National website
Foreword
Form of information A.2 Construction information - - Yes - Possible
Agents A.4 Construction agents
Construction aids A.5 Construction aids - - Yes - Possible

Project management A.6 Management Yes - Yes - Possible Three options drafted
Project phases A.7 Construction process Yes Yes - - - Can classify Plans of Work
Regions - Yes - - - -
Districts - Yes - - - -
Complexes A.8 Construction complexes Yes Yes Yes - -
Entities A.9 Construction entities Yes Yes Yes - -
Entities by form - Yes Yes - - - Two options drafted
Activities - Yes Yes Yes - -
Spaces A.10 Built spaces Yes Yes Yes Yes
Elements A.11 Construction elements Yes Yes Yes Yes Transport infrastructure
Systems - Yes Yes Yes Yes incorporated
Products A.3 Construction products Yes Yes Yes Yes
Work results A.12 Work results Yes Yes - - - Withdrawn as redundant
Properties A.13 Construction properties - - Yes - Possible
Modelling - Yes Yes - - -
Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Design, Construction and Operations
489
References
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RIBA Publications: London, 1991.
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about construction works Framework for classification, BSI: London,
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2-6, 2011.
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SectionPageFormat.aspx
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classification, February, 2012, online. www.thenbs.com/topics/Practice
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articles/classification
Investigation into the current stage of

BIM application in Chinas AEC industries
R. Jin, L. Tang & K. Fang
University of Nottingham Ningbo China, China
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM), the movement in the architectural,
engineering, and construction (AEC) industries worldwide, is pushing AEC firms
to adopt BIM technologies in multiple engineering design fields and project
management. China, the worlds largest AEC market, is currently undergoing a
growing demand on BIM utilization along with recently published governmental
policies to enhance the BIM adoption. Despite the general trend of BIM
implementation, there are some challenges of implementing BIM in Chinas local
AEC industries. This paper is aimed at investigating the current stage of BIM
practice in China. Through literature review of BIM application in China and
overseas, followed by a questionnaire-based survey to an international engineering
firm in China, both qualitative and quantitative information has been collected to
analyse the local BIM practice, the benefits and barriers of implementing BIM,
and the future of BIM in China. The findings of the investigation provide the vision
of BIM development in the next five to ten years in China, and recommendations
on future BIM implementation.
Keywords: BIM, China, AEC, construction, questionnaire survey, policy,
standards.
1 Introduction
Building Information Modelling (BIM), with which accurate virtual models of a
building can be constructed digitally, is one of the most promising developments
in the architectural, engineering, and construction (AEC) industries (Eastman et
al. [1]). The benefits of BIM application include, but are not limited to, accurate
eometrical representation of building elements, faster project process, improved
doi:10.2495/BIM150401
design quality, better control of cost, environmental, and lifecycle data, better
production quality (CRC Construction Innovation [2]).
China, the worlds giant AEC market, is undergoing continuously increasing
construction industry revenues from 2009 to 2013 with an average growth rate at
11.5%, and accounted for 47.9% of the AsiaPacific industry value (MarketLine
[3]). MarketLine [3] expected that China would accelerate the growth of its
construction industry to an average of 12.6% in the next five years. Although BIM
technology has been applied in Chinas building industry since 2003, and is
moving towards being the mainstream technology in the AEC industries, the
current usage of BIM is still limited to design firms (He et al. [4]). According to
He et al. [4], BIM will become the major breakthrough in Chinas building
industry, but presently the BIM development is facing challenges such as the lack
of well-developed standards and legislation, lack of interoperability among project
team members, and difficulties of implementing BIM in the whole building
lifecycle, etc.
This paper aims to explore the current stage of BIM implementation in Chinas
AEC industries, through the literature review of BIM movement in developed
countries (e.g. US and UK, etc.) and China, review of newly published BIM
related policies in China both nationally and regionally, as well as existing studies
conducted in China regarding the BIM market surveys. Furthermore, a
questionnaire-based survey of an overseas engineering firm in Chinas regional
office was analysed. Finally, the current BIM practice was discussed from the
aspects of government, industry, and academia. Recommendations were provided
in the end on the directions of future BIM research areas in China.
2 Analysis of BIM movement in China

2.1 BIM implementation worldwide
The global movement of BIM has motivated multiple countries and regions to
implement BIM as the state-of-the-art technology in the AEC industries, with
updated governmental policies, industrial standards, and the corresponding
industry practices. Table 1 summarizes the recent movement of BIM in different
countries or regions.
Table 1 provides an overview of how the national authorities have been
supporting the development of BIM through either compulsory (e.g. UK) or
incentive policies (e.g. Singapore).
The BIM practice varies in different countries or regions. For example, BIM
adoption rate among contractors reached 50% in North America compared to only
24% of the counterparts in Western Europe according to the 2010 SmartMarket
Report of McGraw-Hill Construction [5]. Meanwhile 34% of BIM users in
Western Europe had over 5 years of experience, and that rate was only 18% in
North America up to 2010 (McGraw-Hill Construction [5]). The most recent data
from McGraw-Hill Construction [6] is indicating the fast increase of BIM usage
worldwide. For instance, the percentage of contractors at high or very high BIM
Table 1: Global map of BIM.
Country/ BIM movement

Region
Singapore The Building and Construction Authority (BCA) announced that BIM
would be introduced for architectural submission by 2013, structural and
M&E submissions by 2014 and eventually for plan submissions of all
projects with a gross floor area of more than 5,000 square metres by 2015.
Government financial incentives are also provided to encourage BIM
application.
Hong Kong HKIBIM was established in 2009. The Hong Kong Housing Authority
set the full gear in 2014/2015.
Canada BIM Council was founded in late 2008.
UK Construction Project Information Committee (CPIC) adopted US
National BIM Standard Project Committee, and required the full BIM
implementation by 2016.
US The Federal Government announced a five year programme, which has
encouraged BIM adoption elsewhere and make recommendations on
their lessons.
implementation levels would be increased from an average value of 31.8% in 2013

to 63.1% in 2015 in these ten countries (i.e. Japan, New Zealand, South Korea,
Canada, UK, France, Australia, Germany, Brazil, and the US) according to the data
provided by McGraw-Hill Construction [6].
2.2 BIM industry practice in China
Chinas construction market has the potential to see immense benefits from BIM,
but is restricted to its own structural obstacles (McGraw-Hill Construction [6]).
According to the China Construction Industry Associations (CCIA) market
survey in 2012 [7], less than 15% of a total of 388 Chinese contractors indicated
that they have adopted BIM, although 55% of them stated that they had heard of
BIM. This rate is low compared to North America or Western Europe. Similar
BIM market surveys had been conducted both in China and overseas in recent
years focusing on industry practitioners perceptions of BIM application. Table 2
summarizes and compares the results from three BIM market surveys in the UK
and China.
Both similarities and differences from the three BIM market surveys
summarized in Table 2 could be identified. Up to 2012, BIM has reached a certain
level of application at the design stage or within the design firms in both UK and
Shenzhen, the latter is one of the most economically active and BIM-leading city
in China apart from Shanghai and Beijing. However, the application of BIM was
still limited in post-design stages such as construction. The China BIM practice in
design remained in testing stages targeted on smaller-size projects, as compared
to a wider usage of BIM in the UK. Clients were considered the side that received
the most benefits from BIM implementation in both the UK and Shenzhen, China,
although general contractors may have slightly differed views. Project costs and
Table 2: BIM market surveys.
China survey from

UK survey from Eadie et China survey from Shenzhen Exploration &
Country
al. [8] CCIA [7] Design Association
(SZEDA [9])
Survey year 2012 2012 2012
In total 92 BIM
organizations in the UK, In total 388 major In total 30 responses from
with a wide coverage of large-size and highly- mainly engineering design
Survey pool professions including qualified general firms in Shenzhen, one of
architect, engineers, contractors within 24 the BIM-leading cities in
facility manager, client, provinces of China. China.
layers, etc.
Over half of the survey
participants reported the Over 90% of design firms
often usage of BIM in Most firms stayed in had heard of BIM, but
BIM
design and the heard-of stage, 54% of them claimed that
implementation
preconstruction stages, but with limited BIM application stayed in
level
less application on application of BIM. the experimental stage in
construction and operation small-size projects.
stages.
Totally 96% of survey
Clients received the most
participants considered
Perceptions on financial benefits, Over 30% of surveyed
client/owner is the party
which party followed by facility contractors believed
that received the most
received the managers, software that contractors would
benefit, followed by
most benefits vendors, general have the most benefit
contractors (19%),
from BIM contractors, building from BIM.
consultants (15%), and
users, etc.
design firms (12%).
Construction
Overall cost and cost of Design feasibility and
BIM impact visualization, cost
changes were top ranked reductions in design
measurements control, and decreased
measurements. changes.
cost.
Project coordination and
Collaboration was Contractors reported collaboration was
BIM
considered key to limited collaboration considered the most
collaboration
successful BIM. with clients. urgent needs in BIM
implementation.
Lack of BIM talents, BIM
software not well
Challenges in Lack of expertise within
developed, hardship in
BIM the project team and N/A.
changing the company
implementation organizations.
management, lack of BIM
industry standard.
costs caused by changes were the major concern when implementing BIM,
although it also depends on the role of the project player. For example, design
firms would consider more on their own design feasibility and changes of design.
Regarding the challenges encountered in further implementing BIM, both the UK
and Shenzhen surveys indicated that the lack of BIM expertise or talents was one
of the major barriers. This would indicate the necessity of BIM training to industry
professionals. Though the BIM adoption rate appeared low in 2012 among the
major Chinese contractors, both surveys from CCIA [7] and SZEDA [9] conveyed
the information that most survey participants showed interests in BIM and a
willingness to invest in BIM technologies. The newly released survey report from
Shanghai Construction Trade Association (SCTA) and Luban Consulting [10]
showed that up to the end of 2014, 67% of surveyed construction firms nationwide
had started using BIM, and over 10% of clients had used BIM in over 50% of their
projects. The highly increased adoption rate of BIM in Chinas construction
industry could be partly due to the requirements and motivations driven by
governmental policies and industry standards.
2.3 BIM policies and standards in China
Governmental policy works as a driver to move the BIM practice forward in

Chinas construction industry. BIM related policies and standards have been
undergoing fast movement during the national 12th Five-Year Plan period (2011
2015). The recent movements of BIM related governmental policies from the
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction are listed in Table 3.
Table 3: National BIM policies in China.
Time Policy Details

To achieve the digitalization goal within
The 20112015
construction firms during the 12th Five-Year
Development
May Plan, to move forward the BIM implementation
Guideline for the
2011 through the establishment of BIM standards, and
construction industry
to have a group of construction firms equipped
digitalization
world-class digital technologies.
This was the official launch of the Chinese BIM
The announcement of standards, which consisted of five aspects: BIM
January publishing the 2012 application, BIM digital data storage, BIM file
2012 Engineering and turn-over, model categorization and codes, as
Construction Standards well as industrial digital information modelling
standards.
Strategic objectives were established on BIM
application in public projects:
By 2016, government-invested projects over
Request for proposal
20,000 square metres and green buildings in
August on BIM application in
the provincial level should adopt BIM in both
2013 the construction
design and construction stages;
industry
By 2020, the industry guidelines for BIM
application and government policy systems
should be well-established.
To enhance the implementation of BIM in
Proposals on enhancing project design, construction, and operation and
July the development and maintenance; to improve the overall project
2014 improvement in the outcome through BIM usage; and to actively
construction industry investigate the feasibility of replacing traditional
hardcopy drawings with digital files.
It could be indicated from Table 3 that Chinas national BIM policy has seen
under active development in recent years from 2011 to 2014. At the beginning of
the 12th Five-Year Plan, BIM was proposed but with limited outline objectives. In
2013, more clear visions were provided. By 2014, BIM was proposed to cover the
whole building life cycle. Apart from that, replacing 2D drawings with BIM files
was proposed in 2014. That would lead the trend of drawing digitalization in the
next five to ten years in Chinas AEC industries, although there would be certain
obstacles. For example, there are a large number of AEC firms who have been
using the traditional 2D Computer Aided Design (CAD) that are facing the
challenges of upgrading to BIM. Apart from that, there are also regional
differences of BIM implementation considering Chinas large AEC market. The
major metropolitan cities like Shanghai are leading the BIM application in the
industry.
Apart from the national policy movement, regional BIM policies were also
under development in 2014. As the geographic map illustrates in Figure 1, the
eastern coast of China is in a much better economical condition compared to the
western inland of China, and the major BIM active regions are also located on the
eastern coast. Metropolitan areas like Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen and
Guangzhou are all located on the eastern coast and have all published their own
BIM policies. The BIM map is demonstrated in Figure 1. Compared to the eastern
coast of China, other regions are less developed with BIM implementation. There
is limited information of BIM movement in regions outside the eastern coast of
China. Within the eastern coast as defined by the boundary line in Figure 1,
Beijing, Shanghai and Canton Province, where cities of Guangzhou and Shenzhen
are located, are leading the BIM standards and industry practice in their own sub-
regions.
Figure 1: BIM Map of China.
The cities or provinces that established their BIM plans in Figure 1 all fall into
the defined eastern coast region. Spreading from the three major BIM leading sub-
regions Beijing, Shanghai and Canton, surrounding cities or provinces are
currently learning the experience from the sub-regions BIM centres. For example,
provinces of Liaoning and Shandong, close to Beijing, are establishing their own
BIM design standards or objectives. Ningbo, an international port city located in
the Zhejiang Province to the south of Shanghai, is currently proposing the

municipal 13th Five-Year Plan (20152020) with BIM as one key topic. Shanghai
serves as an example of how BIM could be started and implemented in the next
five years for Ningbo. Therefore, it could be inferred that there are regional
differences in BIM implementation levels. The BIM implementation-active cities
or provinces are also the more economically developed sub-regions in China. The
remaining areas in China are adopting BIM in a fast movement in the coming years
throughout the establishment of BIM policies and standards.
3 Questionnaire survey
The rising AEC market in China has been attracting more and more international
AEC firms to enter the Chinese market. Previous BIM surveys including CCIA
[7], SZEDA [9], and Shanghai Construction Trade Association (SCTA) and Luban
Consulting [10], recruited participants from Chinese industry practitioners, with
limited information of international engineering firms in China. To gain a further
picture of the current stage of BIM practice in China, especially within the AEC
firms with international background, researchers adopted a questionnaire survey
targeting the subject of building services. The survey participants were recruited
from the Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) department of an
international engineering consultant company in Beijing. The headquarters of this
company was located in London. It had around 200 staff in Beijing. Apart from
the MEP department, it also had the structure, fire protection, faade etc. This
company mainly involved large scale commercial projects and had adopted BIM
in their projects. Therefore, this company was chosen as the target of the
questionnaire survey. This survey was approved by the Research Ethics Office at
the University of Nottingham Ningbo China to ensure that the human-subject
related research activities met the research ethics requirements. In total 42
responses were received out of total 50 questionnaires sent during March, 2015.
Survey questions mainly looked into the BIM familiarity and adoption, and user
perception of BIM within the survey participants.
3.1 Background of survey participants
The background information in terms of trades and years of industry experience
are summarized in Figure 2.
3.2 BIM familiarity and adoption
All the survey participants had heard of BIM in this survey. The 100% BIM
awareness within this survey pool could be due to the fact that this firm is equipped
with the cutting edge AEC expertise and having employees with international
background. However, it would be questionable to indicate that other Chinese
local engineering firms within this region are all well aware of BIM. Among all
the survey participants, 95% of them had not heard of BIM until 2010. It could be
indicated that BIM was a new concept in China and most employees started
learning BIM after 2010. The regular BIM training started in recent years within
this firm and enriched the BIM knowledge of employees.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Background of survey participants. (a) Trade distribution of survey

participants. (b) Work experience of survey participants.
Despite the high awareness of BIM within the survey pool, only half of them
had ever used BIM in their projects. This is consistent with the findings from CCIA
[7], which also indicated the low adoption rate of Chinas industry practitioners.
When asked the frequency of BIM adoption in their projects, none of them
reported a high adoption rate (between 31% and 60% of projects that they had
been involved in), only 12% of them reported a moderate usage of BIM (15%
30% adoption rate), leaving the majority (88%) of survey participants stating that
BIM had been used in less than 15% of their previous projects. Further
investigation indicated that most BIM adopters barely used BIM to achieve 3D
visualization. The further functions of BIM such as reducing design changes and
improving team collaboration crossing trades or disciplines had not been fully
displayed.
3.3 User perception
Survey participants were further asked their opinions of how BIM affects the
whole AEC industry and the difficulties in learning a new BIM technology. The
statistical results are displayed in Figure 3.
Although the majority (55%) of participants perceived moderate impact of BIM
in the industry, there were more participants considered BIM had negative impacts
than those who claimed that BIM had a positive impact. It was further indicated
from the survey that most employees were used to utilizing the traditional object-
oriented CAD system rather than the newly emerged BIM tools. Cultural
resistance could be one barrier of new BIM users. When asked the experience of
learning a new BIM tool (e.g. Autodesk Revit), close to 75% of survey participants
stated that it was difficult or very difficult to learn BIM. It could be inferred that
an effective BIM train is important to enhance employees learning of BIM.

(a) (b)
Figure 3: User perceptions on BIM usage. (a) User attitudes towards BIM. (b)
User perception of learning BIM skills.
4 Findings and discussion

There would be different levels of knowing BIM within the industry practitioners.
Having heard of BIM is the first stage of being a BIM user in the AEC industries.
BIM training is an approach to transform an employee from only being aware of
BIM to start adopting BIM. From the firms perspective, it may undergo a long
process from starting to use BIM at the explorative stage of applying BIM in
smaller-sized projects to ultimately adopting BIM in all or the majority of projects.
From the individual side, it is also a long process from starting to use BIM to being
a frequent BIM adopter. Both external influences (e.g. the governmental policies)
and the internal motivations (e.g. the firms interests in adopting BIM and
employees attitudes towards digital technologies) impact the BIM
implementation.
Although BIM has been realized of its power in enhancing project team
collaboration as shown in the surveys of Eadie et al. [8] and SZEDA [9], the
application of BIM in the real world may still be limited to 3D visualization and
clash detection. There remains a large gap between proposed BIM application
areas and its current implementation. Therefore, there is a high potential for BIM
users to explore more functions of BIM, as BIM could be used not just as a tool,
but also as a way of project delivery and business management. There are multiple
approaches that BIM could be more widely used and applied beyond the 3D
visualization level in the near future, for example, the compulsory requirements or
incentive strategies from the governmental authorities to drive the BIM
implementation starting from public projects, and training provided to industry
practitioners.
Industry practitioners views on BIM impact could vary depending on his or
her own role and also the expertise level. Both surveys from Eadie et al. [8] and
SZEDA [9] found out that the lack of BIM expertise or qualified personnel was
one major challenge in implementing BIM, and this was further indicated by the
survey in this study that most surveyed participants perceived BIM difficult to
learn, despite of the fact this surveyed international engineering firm had leading
technologies and experiences in China. It could be indicated that BIM training
would be important in the coming years in order to provide more qualified BIM
professionals in the AEC industries.
5 Conclusion
This study started from reviewing the BIM implementation in the global AEC
industries, and also the recent BIM movement in China. Through comparisons of
BIM market surveys between China and developed countries (i.e. UK), the current
stage of BIM implementation in China was summarized and analysed in terms of
BIM implementation level, perceptions of parties benefitting from BIM, impact
measurements, BIM collaboration, and challenges encountered. The updated BIM
related governmental policies and industry standards were reviewed. The BIM
map of China was provided indicating the regional differences of BIM
implementation in China. A follow-up questionnaire survey was conducted and
analysed to provide the insight of the BIM implementation within an international
engineering firm run in China. Similar to local Chinese AEC firms, the BIM
adoption rate and utilization of BIM functions had a high potential in enhancement
in the near future. China is a huge BIM market with BIM technology and related
standards currently undergoing fast movement spreading from major BIM active
cities or provinces. There is still a large potential for Chinese MEP engineers to
increase the BIM usage in their projects. The newly released governmental
policies and industry standards would drive the wider implementation of BIM in
AEC practices.
6 Recommendations for future research

There was only one target company in this survey and the participant number could
be enlarged. Therefore the result cannot fully represent the whole building services
design area in China. Future market surveys would recruit more AEC firms to
create a larger survey pool. Other disciplines apart from building services could
be explored of the BIM implementation level. Deeper analysis, such as how the
educational background and training experience would affect employees
perception on BIM, could be provided in the future.
References
[1] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R. & Liston, K., BIM Handbook, A Guide
to Building Information Modeling For Owners, Managers, Designers,
Engineers and Contractors, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey, p. 1, 2011.
[2] CRC Construction Innovation, Adopting BIM for facilities management:

Solutions for managing the Sydney Opera House, Cooperative Research
Centre for Construction Innovation, Brisbane, Australia. 2007.
[3] MarketLine Industry Profile, Construction in China, Reference Code: 0099-
2801, pp. 7-11, July 2014.
[4] He, Q., Qian, Li., Duan, Y. & Li, Y., Current Situation and Barriers of BIM
Implementation. Journal of Engineering Management, 26 (1), pp. 12-16,
2012.
[5] McGraw-Hill Construction, The Business Value of BIM in Europe,
SmartMarket Report, Research & Analytics, Bedford, MA, pp. 4-5, 2010.
[6] McGraw-Hill Construction. The Business Value of BIM for Construction in
Major Global Markets, SmartMarket Report, Research & Analytics,
Bedford, MA, p. 10, 2014.
[7] China Construction Industry Association (CCIA), Research of BIM
application in construction firms (1), Beijing: China Architecture &
Building Press, March, 2013.
implementation throughout the UK construction project lifecycle: an
analysis. Automation in Construction, 36(2013), pp. 145-151, 2013.
[9] Shenzhen Exploration & Design Association (SZEDA), Guide for BIM
application and development in the engineering & design industry of
Shenzhen, Tianjin Science & Technology Press, Tianjin, pp. 15-44, 2013.
[10] Shanghai Construction Trade Association (SCTA) & Luban Consulting,
The annual 2014 investigation report of the current BIM application in
construction firms, http://www.lubanway.com/index.php?controller=
guandian&action=guandian_front&type=3&guandian_id=439
Identification and analysis of UK and US

BIM standards to aid collaboration
G. Lea1, A. Ganah1, J. Goulding1 & N. Ainsworth2
1
The Grenfell-Baines School of Architecture, Construction
and Environment, University of Central Lancashire (UCLan), UK
Frank Whittle Partnership (FWP), UK
Abstract
The UK governments ambitious plans to meet Building Information Modelling
(BIM) Maturity Level 2 by 2016 places significant pressure on construction
companies to ensure their existing BIM capability meets the mandated
requirements. This poses a significant challenge to organisations, as BIM requires
a radical repositioning in the way buildings are designed and managed, with
collaboration playing a pivotal role in this process. For example, many
construction companies still use traditional 2D CAD files, bespoke data, and
drawing standards that are company-specific (and often non-compliant). These
types of bad habits and parochial standards are difficult to share or replicate.
Conversely however, there is a real opportunity for companies to proactively
embrace this transition to BIM through a number of conduits, not least: the
installation of industry standard best practices; embedding improved collaborative
approaches; improving data veracity, flow and coordination throughout the design,
construction and operational phases. This research aims to identify and analyse
UK and US BIM standards, along with their inter-relationships to promote best
practice. Research data was collated through a comprehensive literature review of
UK and US standards and collaboration publications ensuing 2007. Initial findings
suggest that UK standards have been strategically developed in conjunction with
one another, whereas US standards appear non-cognate and developed in isolation.
Further research is required to critically compare and contrast the content of UK
and US standards, along with initiatives published by other countries to develop a
holistic UK BIM standards roadmap.
Keywords: BIM, adoption, ICT, collaboration, construction, design, standards.
doi:10.2495/BIM150411
1 Introduction
Given the unique nature of construction projects, paper-based drawings and
fragmented working relationships with different stakeholders; the Architectural,
Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry suffers with problems often not
encountered by other industries. The governments push to tackle these issues led
to a technical and process revolution termed BIM which is being embraced by
the AEC industry [1]. National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) [2] describes
BIM as a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a
facility. A BIM is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility
forming a reliable basis for decisions during its life-cycle; defined as existing from
earliest conception to demolition.
The transition to computer-aided design (CAD) did not radically alter the way
professionals worked, it simply fast tracked the delivery. The emphasis with CAD
was on format and output, whereas BIM focuses on open information and
workflows [3]. BIM adoption is rapidly becoming a matter of importance for the
UK construction industry that has faced barriers and challenges to increase
productivity, efficiency and quality.
The UK Government Construction Clients Board appointed the BIS/industry
working group to develop the 2011 Building Information Modelling (BIM)
Working Party Strategy Paper [4] which outlines how government clients can
make progressive use of BIM on public sector schemes. The report presents a
framework which incorporates seven key education and support areas (contract
and legal, delivery standards, training and support systems, Construction
Operations Building Information Exchange (COBie) definitions, data
management server, cost-benefit analysis, and communications). However,
Kassem et al. [5] review of existing studies and initiatives revealed that BIM
protocols are mainly proposed at industry-wide level, thus require substantial
modification before being applied at project level. The majority of AEC firms
would benefit from a clear set of guidelines and standards which present a
measurable and repeatable methodology to implement BIM at organisational level
[6].
2 Research methodology
Research data will be collated through a comprehensive literature review of UK
and US standards and collaboration publications. Given the recent advancements
in BIM technology and standardisation measures, literature will be confined to
industry standards, guidelines and initiatives ensuing 2007. Publications will be
presented in in tabular and illustration format for initial comparison.
3 Technical
Substantial effort has been made to help define standardised BIM methodologies
and tools for documenting the information requirements of design, construction
and operational processes. However, Ganah and John [7] argue that task groups
formed by various UK institutions such as the RICS, CIB, CIOB, RIBA, etc., are
not yet fully integrated to provide a holistic, long-term approach to collaborative
processes. Findings suggest that systematic approaches to BIM implementation
werent adopted by the UK AEC industry prior to the development of Publically
Available Specification (PAS) 1192-2:2013 [8], and the BIM overlay to the RIBA
Outline Plan of Work 2012 [9]. Becerik-Gerber et al. [10] identified that 71% of
the BIM companies questioned, utilise BIM standards, of which only 35% adopted
industry standards, the remaining 65% developed their own company standards.
The US have developed major initiatives including the US National Building
Information Modeling Standard (NBIMS) and IAI buildingSMART [2], but the
question remains; could the UK develop standards from lessons learnt in the US,
or do existing standards published by UK institutions facilitate collaborative BIM?
3.1 Process
3.1.1 Employers information requirements

The British Standards Institution (BSI) [11] define the Employers Information
Requirements (EIR) as a pre-tender document setting out the information to be
delivered, and the standards and processes to be adopted by the supplier as part of
the project delivery process. Successful procurement is reliant on a good EIR,
which should contain information exchange and collaborative working
requirements, and then incorporated into a suppliers Project Execution Plan (PEP).
The EIR must only contain enough information to answer the plain language
questions required at that particular stage, at an appropriate level of detail [8].
The BIM Task Group [12] EIR guidance document includes standard responses
which, in many cases, can be adopted without amendment. Although, certain
aspects require editing based on project specific requirements. An alternative EIR
guidance document has been produced by the Consortium of Local Authorities in
Wales [13] which also provides an example format; guides the user through the
EIR process; and refers heavily to PAS 1192-2 [8], PAS 1192-3 [14], and British
Standard (BS) 1192:2007 [15].
3.1.2 BIM Execution Plan

The BSI [8] describe the Pre-Contract Building Information Modelling (BIM)
Execution Plan (BEP) [16] as facilitating the procurement process, and the Post
Contract-Award Building Information Modelling (BIM) Execution Plan (BEP)
[17] as assisting in the management of delivery on the project, including the
contractual information exchange requirements set out in the BIM Protocol and
wider project deliverables established by the contract. The requirements and
differences between the production of the Pre-Contract BEP and Post Contract
BEP are highlighted in Table 1.
The Construction Project Information Committee (CPIc) [16, 17] are the only
BEP standards within the UK and US which incorporate pre and post contract
project planning, whilst providing a user friendly BEP template. Other guides
and templates are readily available from both countries which facilitate the BEP
process (see Table 2). However, templates such as AEC [18], Georgia State
Financing and Investment Commission [19], Princeton University [20], and US
Air Force [21] are clear and logically structured, but lack the detail of CPIc
[16, 17].
Table 1: Pre-contract and post-contract BEP requirements.
Post contract
Pre-contract
Category Requirements
Everything requested in the employers information requirements

Management Project goals for collaboration and information modelling
Major project milestones consistent with the project programme
Project Information Model (PIM) deliverable strategy
(e.g. the CIC Schedule)
Roles, responsibilities and authorities
Survey strategy including the use of point clouds, light detecting
and ranging or global navigation satellite systems
Existing legacy data use
Approval of information
PIM authorisation process
Planning and
Revised PIP confirming the capability of the supply chain
documentation
Agreed project processes for collaboration and information
modelling
Agreed matrix of responsibilities across the supply chain
Task Information Delivery Plan (TIDP)
Master Information Delivery Plan (MIDP)
Standard methodThe volume strategy
PIM origin and orientation (which may also be geo-references to the
earths surface using specified projection)
File naming convention
Layer naming convention, where used
Agreed construction tolerances for all disciplines
Drawing sheet templates
Annotation, dimensions, abbreviations and symbols
Attribute data
The IT solutions Software versions
Exchange formats
Process and data management systems
Table 2: BEP standards, guidelines, and templates.
Doc.
Code Document title Issuer, Year
type
UK01 AEC (UK) BIM Protocol: Project BIM Execution Plan AEC, 2012 G
UK02 CPIx Pre-Contract BIM Execution Plan (BEP) CPIc, 2013 S, T
UK03 CPIx Post Contract-Award BIM Execution Plan (BEP) CPIc, 2013 S, T
US01 BIM Project Execution Planning Guide CICRG, 2010 G
US02 GSFIC BIM Execution Plan Series 1: Template GSFIC, 2012 T
US03 Princeton University BIM Execution Plan Template PU, 2012 T
US04 US Air Force BIM Project Execution Plan (USAF PxP) USAF, 2010 T
US05 BIM Project Execution and Standards Guide WMU, 2011 G
US06 Building Information Modeling (BIM) Guidelines USC 2012 T
US07 State of Ohio Building Information Modeling Protocol ODAS, 2010 T
S Standard, G Guide, T Template.
3.1.3 Design standards UK

The development of BIM standards in the UK is gaining increased support from
industry bodies, regulators, and construction professionals through shared
knowledge and understanding. One industry body at the forefront of BIM
standardisation is the BSI (see Table 3). Although the development was facilitated
by the BSI, PAS is not to be regarded as a British Standard [22]. Its publication
enables a specification to be rapidly developed to fulfil an immediate industry
need. PAS may be considered for further development as a British Standard, or
constitute part of the UK input into the development of a European or International
Standard [8, 14].
Previous versions of BS 1192 which date back to 1998 only provided guidance
for the structuring and exchange of CAD data. The 2007 version places more
emphasis on collaborative processes and has been upgraded to a Code of Practice,
thus design teams will need a very good reason not to implement it. This standard
also offers definitive guidance on technicalities such as how to use well-structured
names for the directories, files and layers [23]. BSI recently published BS 1192-
4:2014 [11] which aligns closely with BS 1192:2007 [15], PAS 1192-2:2013 [8]
and PAS 1192-3:2014 [14], all of which document best practice for the
management of collaborative projects using Facilities and Asset Information
Modelling based design, construction and use. BS 1192-4:2014 [11] on the other
hand deals specifically with the UK usage of COBie facility information exchange
schema between the employer and the supply chain [11].
Alternative BIM guidelines have been developed by The AEC (UK) Initiative.
Turco [24] describes the AEC [25] AEC (UK) BIM Protocol for Autodesk Revit
as a workable implementation of the AEC [26] AEC (UK) BIM Protocol. Both
standards are closely aligned with BS 1192:2007 [15], however, these standards
have no legislative backing but are still written in the context of rules to be
followed rather than points to cover. AECs publications are intended to support
all BIM work undertaken within a practice to enable a unified, practical, and
coordinated approach to BIM in a design environment.
Standards in the UK are relatively straightforward, logical and clearly identify
how each document relates to other standards (see Table 3). The only difficulty
lies in deciding which standard to adopt and whether standards developed outside
the UK offer a more comprehensive solution.
3.1.4 Design standards US

The US has published many long standing BIM publications thanks to the work of
industry bodies, government departments, academic institutions, and local
authorities. NBIMS claim to be a key element in the building industry
transformation and establish standard definitions for building information
exchanges to support critical business scenarios using standard semantics and
ontologies. NBIMS is made up of a committee from NIBS, and the Facility
Information Council. The vision for NBIMS is an improved planning, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance process using a standardised machine-
readable information model for each facility, new or old, which contains all
appropriate information created or gathered about that facility in a format useable
by all throughout its lifecycle [2, p. 6]. NBIMS are likely to be the catalyst in
changing the current AEC industry processes by introducing much needed order
and standardisation to the definition and use of building data, along with the
development of the first Capability Maturity Model [27].
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) issued Integrated Project Delivery:
A Guide [28] which focuses more on the principles of Integrated Project Delivery
but doesnt refer to BIM. The AIA published its first contract in 2008 which
specifically refers to BIM [29]. The AIA [30] defined Levels of Detail (LOD)
through a sliding scale of LOD 100-500 (LOD 100: Conceptual, LOD 200:
Approximate geometry, LOD 300: Precise geometry, LOD 400: Fabrication, and
LOD 500: As-built) [31]. Statsbygg [32] claim the AIA [30] LOD concept,
established through the E202 Protocol is now starting to be adopted throughout
the world. The AIA developed further standards to meet the rapid uptake of BIM,
these include AIA [33], which establishes protocols for the development, use,
transmission, and exchange of digital BIM data; and AIA [34], which is a digital
data protocol form to be used in conjunction with AIA [33].
Analysing US BIM standards in highlights the fragmented nature, with the
majority having been developed in isolation. NIBS [2] presentation makes difficult
reading and is far too lengthy at 183 pages. However, alternative standards such
as University of Southern California [35], Ohio Department of Administrative
Services [36], and Indiana University [37] are well presented but lack the detail of
NIBS [2] or equivalent UK standards.
Table 3: UK and US BIM standards.
Code Document title Issuer, Year Relationship

1 BS 1192 Collaborative production of architectural, engineering and construction information Code of practice BSI 2007
2 BS 1192-4 Collaborative production of information: Part 4 Code of practice BSI 2014 1, 3, 4
3 PAS 1192-2 Specification for information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using BIM BSI 2013 1, 4
4 PAS 1192-3 Specification for information management for the operational phase of assets using BIM BSI 2014 1, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
5 AEC (UK) BIM Protocol Implementing UK BIM Standards for the Architectural, Engineering and Construction industry AEC 2012 1, 3, 7, 8
6 BIM Overlay to the RIBA Outline Plan of Work RIBA 2012 1
7 BS 8541-1 Library objects for AEC Part 1: Identification and classification Code of practice BSI 2012 1, 8, 9, 10
8 BS 8541-2 Library objects for AEC Part 2: Recommended 2D symbols of building elements for use in BIM BSI 2011 7, 9, 10
9 BS 8541-3 Library objects for AEC Part 3: Shape and measurement Code of practice BSI 2012 7, 8, 10
10 BS 8541-4 Library objects for AEC Part 4: Attributes for specification and assessment Code of practice BSI 2012 7, 8, 9
11 BS 7000-4 Design management systems: Guide to managing design in construction BSI, 2013 1, 3

12 BS ISO 55000 Series: Asset management BSI 2014
13 BS 8210 Guide to facilities maintenance management BSI 2012 12, 14, 15, 16
UNITED KINGDOM
14 BS 8587 Guide for facilities information management BSI 2012 1, 3, 15, 16
15 BS 8572 Procurement of facilityrelated services Guide BSI 2011 16
16 BS 8536 Facilities management briefing Code of practice BSI 2010 11
1 National Building Information Modeling Standard Version 1.0 Part 1: Overview, Principles and Methodologies NIBS 2007 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
2 Document E202: Building Information Modeling Protocol Exhibit AIA 2008
3 Document E203: Building Information Modeling and Data Exhibit AIA 2013 4, 5
4 Document G201: Project Digital Data Protocol Form AIA 2013 3
5 Document G202: Project Building Information Modeling Protocol Form AIA 2013 3, 4
6 GSA BIM Guide Series: BIM Guide For Spatial Program Validation GSA 2007
7 Integrated Project Delivery: A Guide AIA 2007
8 Building Information Modeling (BIM) Guidelines For Design Bid Build Contracts USC 2012 1
9 State of Ohio Building Information Modeling Protocol ODAS 2010 2
10 Building Information Modeling (BIM) Planning Guide for Facility Owners Version 2.0 PState 2013
UNITED STATES
11 BIM Guidelines 7 Standards for Architects, Engineers, and Contractors IU 2012 1, 12
12 Triton College BIM Standards Manual Architecture, Interior Design, Construction Management TC 2009
Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Design, Construction and Operations
511
3.2 Information standards
3.2.1 Information classification

A large percentage of project documentation is produced in text format, thus
methods for organising and improving the management of building data is
essential in a collaborative BIM process.
UniFormat is a standard for classifying building elements and related sitework,
ensuring consistent economic evaluation of construction projects and enhanced
project management during concept design and operational project stages, whilst
MasterFormat provides a master list of numbers and titles classified by work
results or construction practices, used to organise project manuals, detailed cost
information, and relate drawing notations to specifications. OmniClass is a newly
developed AEC industry-wide initiative led by the Construction Specifications
Institute and endorsed by The Information Architecture Institute which is intended
to be the most comprehensive classification format, which encapsulates all project
phases (see Figure 1).
3.2.2 Information exchange

BIM presents many interoperability issues given the reliance on embedded
information. The first step towards resolving these issues and developing a
computerised process for information interoperability within the AEC industry
was the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), 1999. IFCs are defined by the
buildingSMART alliance and represent the accepted industry standard for design
models and information exchange. IFCs include object specifications,
classifications and provide a useful structure for data transfer between
applications. However, IFCs still require further development, especially relating
to the exporting of non-geographical data, complex geometries, parametrically
modelled components, complexity of language, and large file sizes [38].
International Framework for Dictionaries (IFD) is an open terminology standard,
where concepts and terms are given a unique identification number and tagged
with a Globally Unique ID. Information Delivery Manual (IDM) is then used to
specify exactly what information is exchanged, whilst retaining links to the IFC
model. Benefits of IDM can be leveraged during all project phases (see Figure 1).
NBIMS initiated project COBie in December 2006 to support the handover of
projects between builders and operators. The primary objectives of COBie was to
identify the data and information exchange needs of facilities managers, operators,
and asset managers upstream of the facility life cycle [39] (see Figure 1); and
provide a robust framework for information organisation. The COBie standard is
a key requirement stipulated in the BIM Task Group [4] report [40]. All public
sector projects in the UK will require COBie data at designated data drops in the
project lifecycle, thus it will be a key industry requirement to generate, validate,
and share COBie data in a collaborative BIM process. Standards and guidance
documentation to facilitate this process include BS 1192-4 [11], BIM Task Group
[41], and PAS 1192 [8, 14] Information Delivery Cycle diagram.
Figure 1: Conceptual information standards framework by RIBA Project Phase.
4 Conclusion
Findings clearly indicate that the construction industry is still trying to find its feet
with standardising processes and documentation to reap the inherent benefits of
BIM. Although, the adoption of industry standards and the introduction of project
planning measures was identified as critical for the successful delivery of BIM,
few companies have adopted them to date. The key to successful BIM
collaboration is to closely follow industry standards, along with the production of
a good EIR, BEP, and PEP specific to the project and companys requirements.
There appears to be several UK BIM standards and initiatives such as PAS
1192-2:2013 [8], PAS 1192-3:2014 [14], BS 1192:2007 [15], and BS 1192-4:2014
[11] which seem to be clear, logical and heavily promoted by industry bodies.
Alternative guidance documents developed by the AEC [25, 26]; although
lacking legislative powers, are closely aligned to BS 1192:2007 [15] and enable a
practical, and coordinated approach to BIM in a design environment. Aside from
BS 1192:2007 [15], the other documents have only recently been published, thus
have not been the subject of research to determine which standards the industry is
using, and whether there are alternative publications which offer a more holistic
delivery of BIM. The most commonly used US standards include NIBS [2], AIA
[30, 33, 34]. However, this paper highlights the fragmentation between US
standards and guidance documentation. On initial inspection, US publications
appear poorly presented, too complex and/or lack detail.
In a collaborative BIM process, there is an exigent need to adopt a standard
classification model such as UniFormat, MasterFormat, or OmniClass. However,
whilst OmniClass provides one solution. COBie data and information exchange
standards are commonly overlooked by industry, but this is a key requirement
stipulated in the UK governments BIM Task Groups [4] report. IFC proves to be
a useful tool in data and model exchange, however more research and development
needs to be undertaken to tackle large file sizes, non-geographical data, complex
geometries, and parametrically modelled components. IFC standards should be
used in conjunction with IFD and IDM frameworks to enable the complete
information exchange solution.
Further research is required to critically compare and contrast the content of

the UK and US standards identified within this paper, but also analyse standards
and initiatives developed by other countries (Australia, Netherlands, etc.) for a
more comprehensive outcome. This would help to identify the best placed
publications to develop a measurable and repeatable approach through a bespoke
UK BIM standards roadmap.
References
[1] A. Rahman and S. Suwal, Diverse Approach of BIM in AEC Industry: A
Study on Current Knowledge and Practice, in 30th CIB W78 International
Conference, Beijing, 2013.
[2] NIBS, United States National Building Information Modeling Standard:
Version 1 Part 1: Overview, Principles and Methodologies, National
Institute of Building Sciences, 2007.
[3] H. Livingston, National standards evolve slowly: while the national CAD
standard plugs along and plugs in, the national BIM standards project gains
momentum, Cadalyst, 16 August 2007.
[4] BIM Task Group, A Report for the Government Construction Client Group
Building Information Modelling (BIM) Working Party Strategy Paper,
March 2011.
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Information Modelling: Protocols for Collaborative Design Processes,
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of Research on Building Information Modeling and Construction
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[7] A. Ganah and G. John, Achieving Level 2 BIM by 2016 in the UK, in
2014 International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building
Engineering (ICCCBE 2014), Orlando, 2014.
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modelling, British Standards Institution, 2013.
[9] RIBA, BIM Overlay to the RIBA Outline Plan of Work, Royal Institution
of British Architects, 2012.
[10] B. Becerik-Gerber, F. Jazizadeh, N. Li and G. Calis, Application Areas and
Data Requirements for BIM-Enabled Facilities Management, Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management, 15 June 2011.
[11] BSI, BS 1192-4 Collaborative production of information, Part 4: Fulfilling
employer's information exchange requirements using COBie Code of
practice, British Standards Institution, 2014.
[12] BIM Task Group, Employers Information Requirements: Core Content
and Guidance Notes, 2013.
[13] CLAW, Employers Information Requirements: The CLAW All Wales
BIM Toolkit, Consortium of Local Authorities in Wales, 2013.
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operational phase of assets using building information modelling, British
Standards Institution, 2014.
[15] BSI, BS 1192:2007 Collaborative production of architectural, engineering
and construction information Code of practice, British Standards
Institution, 2007.
[16] CPIc, CPIx Pre-Contract Building Information Modelling (BIM)
Execution Plan (BEP), Construction Project Information Committe, 2013.
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[18] AEC, AEC (UK) BIM Protocol Project BIM Execution Plan, 2012.
[19] GSFIC, GSFIC BIM Execution Plan Series 01: Template, Georgia State
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[20] Princeton University, Princeton University BIM Execution Plan
Template, 2012.
[21] USAF, US Air Force BIM Project Execution Plan (USAF PxP), US Air
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Innovation in the AEC Industry, in 10th International Conference on
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International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering,
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Minnesota, 2009.
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Section 11
BIM and sustainability
Investigating Green BIM in a

Norwegian construction project:
an institutional theory perspective
A. K. Lassen & C. Merschbrock
Abstract
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is catching on as the preferred tool in the
Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry. However, the models
are seldom used for simulations such as energy calculations and environmental
impact assessments. Yet we know that the AEC industry accounts for a large share
of the worlds environmental impacts. When BIM facilitates environmental
sustainability in the built environment, it can be called Green BIM. The research
question explored in this article is To which degree is Green BIM
institutionalized in Norwegian construction projects, and how can this process be
improved? In order to understand why Green BIM is slow to catch on, the
authors used institutional theory as a lens to observe the regulative, normative and
cultural-cognitive pressures present. Based on a case study conducted in a
Norwegian construction project it is conceptualized how current regulations,
incentives and perceptions all impact Green BIM. The analysis is supported by
interviews and documents. The case project was a highly profiled renovation
project in the Oslo area an office building which became not only a BREEAM-
NOR Outstanding building and a building which produces more energy than it
consumes, but also one with zero emissions over its lifetime. Furthermore, it was
modeled in BIM. Our findings show that Green BIM was, for varying reasons,
only practiced in a few instances. This study assists in understanding how cultural-
cognitive, normative and eventually regulative factors can speed up the
implementation of sustainable building design with the help of BIM.
Keywords: green BIM, sustainable construction, environmental assessments,
implementation, institutional theory.
doi:10.2495/BIM150421
1 Introduction
The architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry needs to improve
performance of their products [1]. Environmentally correct building is among the
most focused areas to achieve improvement in AEC, and needs to become
mainstream [2]. Environmentally correct building is defined by the Norwegian
governments Centre for Sustainable Production and Consumption as minimizing
energy, material and water resource use in construction, operation and disposal of
facilities, while at the same time minimizing hazardous emissions and adverse
effects on health [3]. In short, such a building has concern for our resources and
for the global, local and indoor environment. In this article, we refer to this as
Green building.
Novel design technologies, such as building information modelling (BIM), are
seen to be key drivers for innovation in AEC [4]. There is reason to believe that
this also applies when BIM is used to improve environmental performance what
we shall refer to as Green BIM. BIM can save both money and carbon by
minimizing wasteful processes and making timely informed decisions [5]. BIM
will count, sort, calculate, and communicate, and has the potential to simulate
accurately and efficiently. This means that the model can carry out solar and
daylighting analyses, and geometric and functional data can be managed for
advanced energy performance simulations and life cycle analyses (LCA) [6, 7].
Judging by the sales of BIM software, BIM or at least 3D modelling is
extensively diffused in the industry. The technology is generally perceived as
useful for improving a buildings quality and reducing time use [8]. There is also
evidence that BIM can assist in documentation for compliance and certification
[9, 10]. Nevertheless, there are differing opinions about the benefits of BIM [11].
Practitioners have concerns regarding technical aspects, work practices, data
organization, and legal issues [12], thus limiting their full use of its possibilities.
Therefore, it is not a given that a set of well-trained, BIM-ready organizational
actors makes use of BIM to jointly develop design solutions. [11].
We reason that if BIM, in itself an innovation, were fully exploited to facilitate
Green building practices, this should stimulate change towards a more
environmentally sustainable AEC industry. To obtain such a level of deployment,
innovative technology must not only be well diffused in the industry, but also
established as the natural way to work. Put differently if Green BIM is
institutionalized in the planning and documentation of projects, this will promote
the institutionalization of Green building on the whole.
In this study, we investigate to which extent BIM is currently employed to
ensure and assess the environmental correctness of buildings. The research
question discussed is To which degree is Green BIM institutionalized in
Norwegian construction projects, and how can this process be improved?
Institutional theory has been employed to make sense of green developments in
numerous fields, including organizations [13] and information systems [14, 15],
but not yet in the context of the AEC Industry and BIM, as we hereby do.
To explore the role Green BIM might play, we use a qualitative case study
approach. The case project is an office renovation project in the Oslo area which
became not only a BREEAM-NOR Outstanding building and a building which

produces more energy than it consumes, but also one with zero greenhouse gas
emissions over its lifetime. The project is influential as it is a pilot for the regional
development programme FutureBuilt, in south eastern Norway. A collaboration
consisting of a developer, a consulting firm, a major contractor, two large
aluminium companies and an environmental organization have gone together to
show that energy-positive buildings can be built in the cold north. Being a complex
and prestigious project, naturally it was modelled in BIM. Many consultants and
experts were involved, requiring close collaboration.
In the following sections, we present relevant concepts from the theoretical
lens, focussing on Scotts Three Pillars of Institutions. Our findings and
discussions are then structured around the said pillars, while also bearing other
concepts in mind.
2 Theoretical lens
Institutional theory is typically associated with organizations, but also applies to
behaviours and practices. According to Greif [16], an institution is a system of
rules, beliefs, norms, and organization that can jointly generate a regularity of
behavior in a social system. While Rogers Diffusion of Innovations [17, 18] is a
useful and much-used theory to understand the spread of new ideas, institutional
theory explains how the innovations stick in a community [19]. A useful example
is clothes fashions most spread like wildfire only to be replaced within the year
by the next fad, while on the other hand jeans have been around for decades and
can be seen as institutionalized.
Institutional theory is not one mans creation, rather an evolving theory with
many contributing authors. At the centre, however, is a seminal paper where Scott
[20] distinguishes between 3 pillars, or forces, which contribute to the embedding
of new behaviours and practices.
The first pillar is Regulative, which essentially is enforced by (official) rules
and regulations, but also (private) contracts. Next is Normative, voluntary yet
standardized, as in standards, and certification- and educational-systems. Finally
there is Cultural-Cognitive; an informal, intuitive and natural sharing of
behaviours through copying, peer pressure and market forces.
The three pressures can be present in varying degrees, and not one is more
important than the next. Nor do they occur in any specific order, though they may
influence and interact, thus reinforcing each other [21], or self-reproducing, thus
increasing the degree of institutionalization [19].
A much-used term in institutional theory is Legitimacy, meaning (according to
Zucker and later authors) that the innovation must be desirable or acceptable, and
appropriate [2224]. To use a term from information systems theory [25], the task-
technology fit needs to be good, which would require, amongst other things, a
clear formulation of needs [26].
Oliver [27] identified five main responses to institutional pressures:
acquiescence, compromise, avoidance, defiance and manipulation. Acquiescence
accepts the innovation, by either unconscious habit, passive imitation, or strategic
Table 1: Scotts Three Pillars of Institutions [20].
Regulative Normative Cultural-Cognitive

Taken-for-
Basis of
Expedience Social obligation grantedness
compliance
Shared understanding
Basis of
Regulative rules Binding expectations Constitutive schema
order
Mechanisms Coercive Normative Mimetic
Logic Instrumentality Appropriateness Orthodoxy

Common beliefs
Rules
Certification Shared logics of
Indicators Laws
Accreditation action
Sanctions
Isomorphism
Affect Fear Guilt/Innocence Shame/Honour Confusion/Certainty
Comprehensible
Basis of
Legally sanctioned Morally governed Recognizable
legitimacy
Culturally supported
compliance. Compromise (by bargaining), avoidance (by concealment), or

defiance (by dismissal) might be expected negative responses.
While Scotts three pillars are external pressures, DiMaggio pointed out that
actors may also have an endogenous rational interest in change [28]. An
institutional entrepreneur sees possibilities and shows strategic agency,
supporting [29], or even taking a dominant role in [30] the creation of new
practices.
3 Method
To see whether institutional theory might uncover to which extent Green BIM is
employed in a construction project, and not least which forces are at play (or not),
we have conducted a case study involving clients, consultants, and contractors
associated with the office renovation project. A case study was deemed an
appropriate method to qualitatively study a large number of features in one
naturally occurring case [31]. Our data was collected through semi-structured
interviews with nine professionals (see Table 2).
Using interviews as the means of data collection gave us access to the
experiences and interpretations of the informants [32]. Those interviewed were
members of the planning team concerned with green issues: representatives of
the client/developer, a few of the engineering consultants, several representatives
of the engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor, and one sub-
contractor. All but the sub-contractor were members of the initial collaboration.
The interviews were conducted in September 2014, when the design and
construction of the office rebuild had recently been finalized.
Interview guides were designed as open questions. Most conversations took
place at the designers offices, while one was conducted via Skype, and all lasted
from 6075 minutes. Informed consent was sought in advance. All interviews
were voice recorded, transcribed, and coded. Categories of results were derived
from the data according to the relevant key concepts of institutional theory as
outlined above.
Table 2: Interviews conducted.
Label Firm Role

Client #1 Client/developer First Project manager
Client #2 Second Project manager
Architect #1 Architects Lead architect
Consultant #1 Engineering consultants Technical consultants coordinator
Consultant #2 Heating, ventilation, and AC
Project manager
Contractor #1 EPC contractor
Green business officer
Contractor #2
BIM coordinator
Contractor #3
Global manager BIM
Contractor #4
Photovoltaic installations &
Subcontractor #1 Subcontractor solar systems
facades
4 Findings
Our findings are structured around the three pillars of institutions Regulative,
Normative, and Cultural-Cognitive.
Regulative pillar. There are as of today no legal requirements regarding the use
of digital tools for documenting buildings in Norway. If one chooses to submit the
drawings for planning permission digitally, Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)
files are to be employed. Incidentally, the building code on energy performance is
currently being revised and will likely rule that all new constructions must
calculate and document energy needs, no longer allowing a simple documentation
of planned energy measures. This amendment, which is expected to come into
force in 2016, will necessitate digital computing of energy performance, but still
with no requirement of specific tools or BIM compatibility. The same goes for
daylight simulations, etc. It is not likely that BIM requirements will become
mandatory in the foreseeable future.
However, contracts also have a regulative effect. Disregarding a contract may
have negative consequences, such as losing the job or being forced to put more
resources into it. Certain requirements were agreed on by members of the planning
team. It was stipulated in the contract that the designing was to be done in BIM,
Contractor #1 told us. Furthermore, achieving an outstandingly sustainable
building was a great hairy goal of the entire team. However, using BIM actively
to attain that goal was not a stated requirement (Contractor #1). Nor did the
contract stipulate exactly which BIM tools were to be used to ensure a good
workflow between them (Contractor #3). When it did happen that certain actors
were not contributing as agreed with regards to quality or scheduling, no sanctions
were enforced: The coordinator could have been more clear and ensured that
everyone followed the premises for how to cooperate (Architect #1).
Normative pillar. Normative pressures include standards and certification
systems. According to Contractor #2, this project aspired to go beyond the
Passivhaus criteria (for which Norway has a designated standard NS 3701). They
had ambitions to build the first plus-house rehabilitation project, which would
produce more energy than it consumed over its lifetime. There is no agreed
standard on how to define a plus-house, so the project team had to make up the
rules as they went along. Other countries operate with primary energy () but
this does not tie in with the methodology behind (embedded energy in) materials.
(Contractor #2).
In order to enable a positive energy budget over the buildings lifetime, it was
necessary to do an LCA of total energy use and to keep tabs on the embodied
energy of all the building materials. Information on this can be found in a products
Environmental Product Declaration (EPD), if one exists. Again, this is a normative
system, voluntary and not yet sufficiently diffused in the AEC industry. Most
manufacturers of products today dont even know what embodied energy is. Very,
very many products have problems producing an EPD. So we are forced to
purchase products we really dont want because they are unable to document, and
that is a pity. (Client # 1 and 2).
Well into the project, it was decided to go for BREEAM-NOR certification as
well. The Norwegian assessment system is built upon the British Building
Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology, the leading
assessment method for buildings. I would say that both BREEAM and energy
labelling are a gigantic step of five years in the right direction. (Client #1). This
represents an accredited normative measuring stick for sustainability, along which
the renovated office building attained the highest rating possible. BREEAM-NOR
indicates that computer software is necessary to calculate daylight, energy
performance and greenhouse gas emissions to gain credits, and the system will
award credits if a recognized climate gas tool has been applied. Such tools are
typically BIM-compatible, but there is no explicit requirement to apply BIM.
In spite of being an afterthought, the BREEAM-NOR rating became an
important goal for the team. The first project outside the UK to receive a
BREEAM Outstanding level. We are very impressed, the head of Norwegian
Green Building Council was cited saying in several professional journals, giving
the designers a positive image in the community. Nevertheless, several of the
actors were dismayed at the complexity, rigidity and bureaucracy of the system
(Client #1, Contractor #2, Consultant #1).
Cultural-Cognitive pillar. Experience with the use of BIM in general and

Green BIM in particular varied. This influenced both the proficiency and the
attitudes of the different actors.
The EPC contractor, having the BIM coordinator role as well as the overall
project management, helped out in an attempt to bring all actors up to par. We
have BIM-modelled for (one of the consultants) so now already he will be better
in the next project. He has tried and failed, maybe he will try and fail again, but
eventually he will become good at it. (Contractor #1). Thus, there was a fair
amount of sharing of experience in the project. However, there was a limit to the
capacity for this: You dont have time to train people while youre dealing with
the project because it goes so fast and you have a deadline. Its too late to start
training people. So its a matter of finding the right people. (Architect #1). On
the other hand: Its important that people are in a project while they are taking a
course. Because if you are in a course and not working in a Revit project, you
forget it. Its wasted. (Consultant #2).
The BIM coordinator hoped to base the LCA on embodied energy data straight
from the BIM model. We have a methodology where you could basically set up
a project in Revit within a couple of hours, and youre ready to knock out the
carbon footprint at any time after that, Contractor #4 told us. However, he went
on: it requires that the architect and/or the structural engineer is prepared to do
some initial work with the materials in the model. They have to basically load the
model with carbon footprint data. As it turned out, this did not happen and the
LCA was worked out using a spreadsheet.
Also for daylight and energy performance simulations, calculations have been
done in the traditional way. We asked Contractor #2 whether they had imported
the geometry from the BIM-model into the simulation softwares: No, there have
been dimensions from the architect; theres been a ruler and calculator; working
out volumes and areas. According to Subcontractor #1, to calculate energy
consumption, it does not matter if that room is five millimetres wider or not. But
when it is about putting doors in, cables, ventilation, carpets, then it matters. ()
We have to choose our weapons right.
Speaking of LOD (Level of Detail), Client #1 was dismayed at how much time
and money went into, firstly, just deciding on what was to be delivered, and then
in delivering work which was not appropriate. It simply hasnt functioned, the
tool! Then he corrected himself: Not the tool; the people. Its the people who
arent functioning. () Knowledge is what is in short supply.
The overall value of BIM for achieving Green design was not apparent to all.
As Contractor #1 saw it: BIM is a tool for rationalizing the building process,
avoiding errors, structuring the design phase, and so on. BIMs role in green
building is not obvious to me. Others, however, saw differently; when asked
whether BIM had a role to play in Green, Contractors #3 and #4 answered Yes!
and Yes, definitely!. Yet others were undecided, as Client #1: I dont
understand why you are linking it to sustainability; () I dont understand BIM
BREEAM; I dont see the connection. () Actually, Ive heard that you can
document BREEAM through BIM! Then it starts getting interesting!
5 Discussion
With such ambitious green goals as the office refurbishment project had, one
might have thought that BIM had been used extensively and had contributed
substantially to its success. When we started this study, we did indeed expect to
find this, but as our findings show, this was not the case. Therefore, our focus
shifted to examining why not. Our research question became: To which degree is
Green BIM institutionalized in Norwegian construction projects, and how can
this process be improved? We will start by checking the legitimacy of the
innovation, before discussing to which degree the three pillars of
institutionalization are present. Then we reflect upon the responses we have
observed in the individual firms, and the measures which might be taken to
improve adoption.
It is safe to say that the legitimacy the appropriateness of the innovation is
mostly in place. There are certainly no laws against using BIM and associated
software to calculate and document performance, and BREEAM-NOR will never
deduct points for evidence of BIM use. Whether the method is perceived as
desirable and appropriate amongst the team members, is however questionable.
The level of confidence in the usefulness of the method appeared to be dependent
on the level of BIM knowledge. The level of actual usefulness, on the other hand,
depended on the BIM knowledge level of the weakest link in the team, and on the
degree of communication between its members. With adequate knowledge one
will also be able to choose the right weapon for the job at hand, ensuring a good
task-technology fit.
Regulative pillar. Since current performance based building regulations do not
specify the use of BIM in any way, the regulative pressures at force were limited
to the contract between the design team members. While there was a contract
stipulating that BIM was to be used for the designing, it did not specify that the
model was to be loaded with environmental data, nor that simulations must be run
on the model. When certain actors did not comply with the requirements to deliver
even basic 3D geometrical data on time, no sanctions were enforced, thus
rendering the potential regulative pressures weak.
Normative pillar. BREEAM-NOR can be said to be a powerful normative force
towards institutionalizing Green, however it is not a force affecting Green
BIM. It is desirable and quite possible to amend this. The opportunity for
influencing content is much greater with certification systems than with laws. In
order to maintain its standing in the market as a popular system, BREEAM-NOR
needs to keep evolving, improving the user friendliness as well as the methods it
encourages. It can be added that as it is not compulsory, the certification system
can specify methods that require effort and investment on the part of the user to a
much greater degree than official rules and regulations can.
The lack of available EPDs is a real snag in the establishing of rational
documentation for sustainable buildings. Only when the majority of serious
suppliers of building materials and products come up with proper environmental
documentation, will it be possible to ensure selection of the best products from a
life cycle point of view. And only when this data is included in the BIM model,
will it become a valuable element of the Green BIM.
Cultural-Cognitive pillar. Cultural-Cognitive pressures were definitely at play
in the case studied. The goal of being the first plus-house and the first Outstanding
BREEAM-NOR project in Norway were undoubtedly influenced by the
perception that Green is a positive thing, and excelling will put you in a good
position. This in turn sends a strong signal to others in the field. Within the
collaboration, while all were in agreement that a sustainable project was desirable,
the use of BIM to achieve this was less obvious to certain members. Again, good
knowledge of the possibilities and potentials of Green BIM would be a condition
to see the advantages. Working in close collaboration with more proficient
colleagues is an efficient way to become aware of the hidden virtues of the method.
Knowledge has been mentioned several times now. We found ourselves
pondering which role education plays in the process of institutionalization. Upon
reflection, it becomes clear that formal education is a normative factor. It is
voluntary, yet relatively standardized. While there will be a degree of sharing of
knowledge through the informal process of cognitive mimetics, this is not an
efficient way to learn due to limited time and funds in a project. BIM, and thereby
also Green BIM, is complex and advanced, and requires full immersion. We
argue that a solid emphasis on BIM at institutions of engineering education will
be vital to both diffusion and embedding of the innovation, and add this to the
normative pillar.
Strategic agency is the most proactive response firms can enact towards
institutional pressures. Responding with conscious compliance means that the
organization sees potential benefits in the innovation and positions itself at the
head of the pack. We observed this with the client/developer, architects,
subcontractor, and several of those representing the EPC contractor. Still, one of
the senior professionals had no interest and saw no advantages in applying BIM,
and responded with dismissal of the method. The consultants were lagging behind,
and avoided compliance by concealing their inadequate capabilities, making an
excuse of the obstacles in training people on the job. Such negative reactions might
simply affect the efficiency of the individual. However, if interdependency is high,
non-compliance on the part of one actor may slow down the whole team and
impede institutionalization in general.
Strategic agency could be nurtured within the individual firms by the help of
institutional entrepreneurs. One likely group of actors who might take this role are
the young, newly educated and BIM savvy engineers. This we saw in the young
professionals, especially Contractors #1 and 3. Another group are the managerial
teams, who have the mandate to stipulate what goes into contracts and how
agreements are to be enforced, such as we observed to a certain degree in Client
#1, Architect #1 and Contractor #4. Only thus can the firms truly take strategic
action to reap the benefits of BIM.
6 Contributions
Our contribution to practice within the AEC industry is that we have uncovered
some of the forces which should be strengthened in order to ensure
institutionalization of Green BIM. We have heard the opinions of expert
professionals who have attempted to work with the system, and analysed why the
system fell through all the while the project succeeded. As ever more projects
aspire to be sustainable and at the same time become more complex, the need for
more efficient digital tools, simulation systems, and cooperative work procedures
emerges. Applying the appropriate pressures may speed up the application and
evolution of better-suited tools and systems, leading ultimately to better
performing buildings. We have identified pressures that are lacking or weak, based
on Scotts three pillars, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Forces in need of strengthening.
Regulative Normative Cultural-Cognitive

Forces in Enforcing of BREEAM-NOR Sharing of knowledge
need of contracts for use of EPD data Inst. entrepreneurs
strengthening BIM Education Informed management
The contribution to research is that we have looked at the current situation

through a fresh lens, thus uncovering specific formal and informal hindrances to
full implementation of a relatively recent innovation. While the spreading of BIM
and Green BIM in the AEC industry has been researched by many, this study of
how it sticks is a novel approach.
A study based on only one case in Norway will not represent the opinions of
all professionals working with BIM, and the very ambitiousness of this project
makes it stand out somewhat from most undertakings. From an international
perspective, the state of the various pillars will vary from country to country.
Regulations are structured differently, different certification systems have been
adopted, education systems differ, and the very culture in the industry will be
differing leading to a unique degree of institutionalization of Green BIM. It
would be interesting to do a cross-cultural study in several countries to investigate
the differences, learn from each other, and thus contribute further to the evolution
of sustainable construction.
7 Conclusion
This study has shown that institutionalization of BIM to improve environmental
performance in buildings has a long way to go. We have indicated which
institutional pressures are in place, and which are weak. We have also pointed out
the consequences and suggested where more effort should be laid down to ensure
speedy adoption. The three pillars of institutionalization, namely the (1)
Regulative, (2) Normative and (3) Cultural-Cognitive, could all be strengthened.
The AEC industry in Norway should focus on (1) writing contracts that stipulate
the use of BIM also for environmental performance, and enforcing them, (2)
encouraging the use of BIM and EPDs through environmental assessment systems
such as BREEAM-NOR, and improving the BIM education at engineering
colleges, and (3) placing people with a solid understanding of BIM and
sustainability matters in key positions.
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Developing a BIM-based process-driven

decision-making framework for sustainable
building envelope design in the tropics
Y.-W. Lim1, F. Shahsavari1, N. Fazlenawati1, M. N. Azli1,
D. R. Ossen1 & M. H. Ahmad2
1
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
2
Institute Sultan Iskandar, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Abstract
There is a rising concern for sustainability in the built environment. Therefore,
numerous sustainable building certification and rating systems are developed
throughout the world. However, the current methods of measuring, predicting,
and optimising the sustainable building design have relied on a number of
disjointed analyses to meet the discrete requirements for various building
systems. The recent development of Building Information Modelling (BIM)
technology allows complicated building modelling to be digitally constructed
with precise geometry and accurate information to support various building
project stages. Thereby, this study aims to integrate decision-making (DM) for
sustainable building envelope design with BIM functionalities by considering the
tropical climatic contexts in Malaysia. Several regional sustainable building
certification systems and related literature were reviewed to identify the
importance of evaluation and DM criteria. The findings were then compared with
various BIM tools in terms of their applications, functions and workflows, in
order to formulate a process-driven BIM-based DM framework (DMF) for
sustainable building design in Malaysia. The proposed DMF will address the
difficulties of DM in the early design development process, and will also allow
for specific trade-off analyses of sustainability and objective-based optimisation
using BIM.
Keywords: GreenBIM, design process, AEC industry, sustainable architecture,
tropical.
doi:10.2495/BIM150431
1 Introduction
In the past 20 years, numerous certification and rating systems are available
throughout the world for sustainable building, including LEED in US; BREEAM
in UK; Green Mark in Singapore; and Green Star in Australia. Each of these
systems requires different types of performance goals to evaluate and to
benchmark the levels of green building revolution. Green Building Index (GBI)
[1] and GreenRE [2] have been introduced to Malaysia in 2009 and 2013
respectively, both are sustainable building rating systems for non-residential new
construction, residential new construction, and existing non-residential buildings.
Some of the criteria in GBI and GreenRE actually used the benchmarks as stated
in MS 1525 [3] such as overall thermal transfer value (OTTV) and roof thermal
transfer value (RTTV).
The term sustainability comprises a wide range of components:
environmental quality, society well-being, and economic stability. These
components often lead to conflict; therefore, it is very difficult to integrate these
components into a single green rating [4]. However, the current design decision-
making (DM) for sustainable buildings much depends on a number of disjointed
analyses, to determine whether discrete requirements are best met with various
building systems (e.g. HVAC, plumbing, lighting) or design features (e.g.
landscaping, renewable energy generation, parking). Although many studies
have pointed that the best opportunities for building sustainability improvement
occurred in the early design or pre-construction stages, in the conventional
architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) practice, surveys had found
that the design DM for building sustainability occurred in the later stages [5, 6].
With the development of Building Information Modelling (BIM) technology,
complex building modelling can be digitally constructed with both precise
geometry and accurate information in order to support various project stages.
Many researchers had stated the benefits of BIM in AEC industry such as
accurate data environment, effective design process, accurate project cost
estimation, time saving, and other benefits [711]. The additional functionality
of BIM parametric modelling also allows conduct various analyses for design
DM.
The applications of BIM for sustainable building design or GreenBIM model
had been investigated widely recently. For instance, the data of BIM model can
be utilised for green rating evaluation [12, 13]. BIM-based model can also be
used for post-occupancy evaluation process [14, 15] and waste reduction of
renovation projects [16]. Bank et al. [4] investigated the possibility of
developing a decision-making (DM) framework for sustainable building design
and operation by integrating BIM with System Dynamics. Kim et al. [13] aimed
to develop Green BIM Template (GBT) for Green Building Certification Criteria
(GBCC) in South Korea.
From the recent development on BIM-based sustainability or GreenBIM, it
shows the importance of extracting data from BIM for sustainable building
design DM. Hence, a decision-making framework (DMF) is needed to
understand the extent and benefits of applying BIM in early stages of building
design. A BIM-based DMF can give the designers a well-defined workflow to

support the DM process using BIM based on regional sustainable building
certification systems. Thereby, this study aims to integrate DM which comprises
sustainable building envelope design and BIM functionalities with the
consideration on the tropical climatic contexts in Malaysia. This study focuses
on the early design or pre-construction stages which includes conceptual and
schematic design as well as design development stages.
2 Methodology
Design DM for sustainable building envelope design is multifaceted; it requires
energy consumption, PMV, daylighting, initial cost, and other aspects. DM is
affected by many design variables such as window position, window-to-wall
ratio, shading device geometry, type of glazing, wall material and so on.
Therefore, DM for architectural optimal sustainable design involves searching
for a multi-criteria optimal design solution set based on various sustainability
indicators [4, 17, 18]. In this study, a BIM-based DMF for sustainable building
envelope design was developed after considering certain aspects such as design
process, sustainability indicators and functionality of BIM tools. Several regional
sustainable building certification systems and related literature were reviewed to
identify the importance of process and evaluation criteria for sustainable DM
building envelope design. DM process and criteria then were compared and
matched with BIM functionality and Level of Development (LOD). The finding
of the study has established an objective-based process-driven DM framework
(DMF) for sustainable building envelope design.
3 Development of BIM-based decision-making framework

3.1 Definition of sustainable design decision-making criteria
The review of several regional sustainable building certification systems and

literature has highlighted the different DM criteria for sustainable building
envelope design. All the criteria were then categorised according the different
design variables: 1. Opening position, 2. Opening size, 3. Shading device,
4. Window glazing type, 5. Wall type and material, 6. Roof geometry, 7. Roof
opening geometry, 8. Skylight geometry, 9. Skylight glazing, 10. Roof type and
material. Different design variables require different sustainable design DM
criteria by responding to the local climate. For instance, the position of window
openings shall avoid facing east-west orientations in order to minimise direct
solar heat gain; whereas the construction of building faade and roof shall
maximise the use of regional and sustainable materials. The DM criteria and
related references based on the various building envelope design variables are
summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of sustainable building envelope design DM criteria.
Design
Sustainable design DM criteria References
variable
Minimise east-west facing opening to avoid direct sunlight
V1- Maximise north-south facing opening to capture prevailing wind
Opening Maximise north-south facing opening to receive sufficient [2, 1922]
position daylight
Provide good distribution of daylight
Minimise heat gain
Assure each space has sufficient operable opening area (WFR)
V2- for ventilation [1, 2, 19, 20,
Opening size Provide sufficient indoor air movement and air change 2231]
Provide sufficient indoor illuminance
Minimise daylight glare
Use of solar shading to shade east-west facing opening
Optimise shading geometry
V3- Minimise OTTV1 / RETV2
[13, 1921,
Shading Minimise heat gain
24, 26, 3145]
device Use of shading device to control daylight quantity and quality
Use of PV as shading device
Minimise OTTV1 / RETV2
V4- [13, 21, 24,
Minimise heat gain
Window 26, 28, 31, 33,
glazing type 34, 41, 4553]
Minimise OTTV1 / RETV2
V5- Minimise heat gain [13, 28, 30,
Wall type Use of green wall to reduce heat gain 41, 47, 49, 50,
and material Use of regional building material 51, 5356]
Use of sustainable building material
Use of roof overhang to shade east-west facing faade
V6-
Use of pitch angle to reduce incident solar heat gain (solar [13, 47, 50,
Roof
factor) 57]
geometry
Optimise roof area for PV
V7-
Use of roof opening or solar chimney for stack ventilation
Roof opening [58, 59]
Provide sufficient indoor air movement and air change
geometry
Shade the skylight from direct sunlight
V8-
Orientate the skylight to face north-south orientations
Skylight [52, 60, 61]
geometry
Provide good distribution of daylight
V9- Minimise RTTV3
[13, 49, 52,
Skylight Minimise heat gain
6265]
glazing Provide sufficient indoor illuminance
Use of thermal insulation to reduce heat gain
Minimise RTTV3
V10-
Minimise heat gain
Roof type [13, 41, 51]
Use of regional building material
and material
Use of sustainable building material
Use of green roof for cooling
OTTV1 = applicable for buildings with AC area > 1000m2
RETV2 = applicable for residential building
RTTV3 = applicable for roof with skylight
3.2 Comparison of decision-making with Level of Development
Level of Development (LOD) in BIM had been defined by various previous

studies in order to standardise the precision and suitability of a BIM for specific
uses. LOD describes the steps of a BIM element to progress logically from the
lowest level of conceptual approximation to the highest level of representational
precision, which allows practitioners in AEC industry to articulate the content of
a BIM at various project stages (Bedrick [66], BIMForum [67], Wood et al.
[68]). In general, the LOD are defined as: 100 for conceptual design; 200 for
schematic design with approximate geometry; 300 for developed design with
precise geometry; 350 for tender and coordination; 400 for construction and
fabrication; and 500 for as-built.
A BIM-based sustainable building envelope design DM needs to be process-
driven according to BIM workflow. Therefore, the sustainable building envelope
design DM process was defined by comparing the design variables with the BIM
LOD. This study only focuses on conceptual or schematic design and design
development stage of a project, thus LOD 100, 200 and 300 can only be selected
for the comparison. The match-up of the design process with the selected BIM
LOD is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Match up of design process with BIM LOD 100 to LOD 300.
LOD Model content requirement [6668] Design variable

Non-geometric data, symbol or line work, area,
100 height, volume, zone, location, orientation or V1, V6, V7
other generic representation.
Generic elements or assembly shown in three
dimensions, with approximate quantities, size,
200 shape, location, and orientation. Non-graphic V2, V3, V8
information may also be attached to the
elements.
Specific system, object or assembly in terms of
quantity, size, shape, location, and orientation.
300 V4, V5, V9, V10
Non-graphic information may also be attached
to the elements.
3.3 Formulation of BIM-based process-driven DMF
Based on the sustainable building envelope design DM criteria and the match-up
with BIM LOD, a BIM-based process-driven DM framework (DMF) for
sustainable building envelope design was formulated. Table 3 represents the
BIM-based DMF for building faade and roof design according to schematic or
conceptual design (LOD 100 and 200) and design development (LOD 300)
stages.
Objective functions were determined for every design variables based on the
DM criteria as defined in Table 1. For instance, to minimise the percentage of
east-west facing window areas over total east-west facing faade areas is one of
Table 3: Integrated BIM and objective-based process-driven decision-making

framework for sustainable building envelope design in Malaysia.
ProjectStage
Design
Element
Schematic/ConceptualDesign[LOD100,200] DesignDevelopment[LOD300]
Design Decision Design Decision
Category Strategy ObjectiveFunction Tool Strategy ObjectiveFunction Tool
Variable making Variable making
%ofEWfacingwindowareas Glazing
Windowsize Thelower OTTV(applicableforbuilding
overtotalEWfacingfaade Calculation [VT,Uvalue, 50W/m Calculation
[WWR] thebetter withACarea>1000m)
areas SC]
Wall
%ofEWfacingwindowareas material
Window Solar Thehigher RETV(applicablefor
position
withsunshadingdevicesover
thebetter
Calculation [Uvalue, Thermal residentialbuilding)
25W/m Calculation
Shading totalEWfacingfaadeareas solar
absorptivity]
Shading
Thehigher Referto Shading Buildingcoolingload(if Thelower
device SCofShadingDevice Calculation
thebetter Guidelines DeviceSC applicable) thebetter
geometry
%ofspaceswithwindow
Thehigher CFD
TypeofWall openingfacingNSdirections Calculation Indoorwindvelocity 0.51.0m/s
thebetter Simulation
forcrossventilation
Thehigher 0.35ACH CFD
Natural %ofspaceswithWFR10% Calculation Natural Indoorairchangerate
thebetter and7.5L/S Simulation
Ventilation Ventilation
Thermal
Indoorairtemperature 22.528.5C
Simulation
CFD
PredictedMeanVote(PMV) 0
Simulation
Faade %ofNSfacingwindowareas
Thehigher %oftheNLAwithDF1.0 Thehigher Daylight
overtotalNSfacingfaade Calculation
thebetter 3.5% thebetter Simulation
areas
Dayligting %oftheuseoflightshelfover Thehigher
Calculation
Dayligting Daylightuniformityratio
0.5
Daylight
othershadingdevices thebetter (min/avg) Simulation
Referto Daylight
DaylightGlareIndex
Index Simulation
%ofgreenwallareaover Thehigher Thelower Energy
Calculation BuildingEnergyIndex(BEI)
totalwallarea(ifapplicable) thebetter thebetter Simulation
%ofsolarshadingdevicearea Thehigher Solar RenewableEnergyproduction Thehigher Energy
optimsedforPV(ifapplicable) thebetter Simulation (PV;ifapplicable) thebetter Simulation
%ofregionalbuilding
Thehigher
Other Other materialsovertotalproject's
thebetter
Calculation
material(basedoncost)
%ofsustainablebuilding
Thehigher
materialsovertotalproject's Calculation
thebetter
Thelower
Constructioncost Calculation
thebetter
%ofroofareawithUvalue
%ofEWfacingfaadeareas Roof
Thehigher Solar 0.4W/mk(lightweight)or Thehigher
Rooftype shadedbyroofovertotalEW material Calculation
thebetter Simulation 0.6W/mk(heavyweight) thebetter
facingfaadeareas [Uvalue]
overtotalroofarea
Solar Skylight
Roof
%ofindirect(shaded)skylight
Thehigher Glazing
Thermal RTTV(applicableforroofwith
Shading areaovertotalskylightarea Calculation 25W/m Calculation
geometry thebetter [VT,Uvalue, skylight)
(ifapplicable)
SC]
Opening Thelower Referto Buildingcoolingload(if Thelower
SolarFactor(SF)oftheroof RoofSF Calculation
geometry thebetter Guidelines applicable) thebetter
%ofspaceswithroofopening
Skylight Thehigher CFD
/solarchimneyforstack Calculation Indoorwindvelocity 0.51.0m/s
geometry thebetter Simulation
ventilation(ifapplicable)
Natural Natural 0.35ACH CFD
Indoorairchangerate
Ventilation Ventilation and7.5L/S Simulation
Thermal
Indoorairtemperature 22.528.5C
Simulation
Roof CFD
PredictedMeanVote(PMV) 0
Simulation
%ofNSfacingskylightareas Thehigher %oftheNLAwithDF1.0 Thehigher Daylight
Calculation
overtotalskylightareas thebetter 3.5% thebetter Simulation
Dayligting Dayligting Daylightuniformityratio Daylight
0.5
(min/avg) Simulation
%ofgreenroofareaover Thehigher Thelower Energy
Calculation BuildingEnergyIndex(BEI)
totalroofarea(ifapplicable) thebetter thebetter Simulation
%ofroofareaoptimsedfor Thehigher RenewableEnergyproduction Thehigher Energy
Calculation
PV(ifapplicable) thebetter (PV;ifapplicable) thebetter Simulation
%ofregionalbuilding
Thehigher
Other Other material(basedoncost)
thebetter
%ofsustainablebuilding
Thehigher
thebetter
Thelower
Constructioncost Calculation
thebetter
the objective functions to avoid direct solar radiation heat gain in the tropics.
Besides, related BIM functionalities or tools for every DM were determined
based on the review of various BIM software such as Autodesk Revit, Integrated
Environmental Solutions <Virtual Environment> (IES <VE>), Autodesk Ecotect
Analysis, Design Builder and so on.
4 Conclusion
This study integrates DM for sustainable building envelope design and BIM
functionalities with special reference to the tropical climatic contexts in
Malaysia. Several regional sustainable building certification systems and related
literature were reviewed to determine the importance of DM criteria. The
objective-based DMF was defined based on BIM LOD and relevant BIM
functionalities. It addresses the difficulties of DM in early design process, and
allows for specific sustainability trade-off analyses and optimisation to be
conducted using BIM. This study can be further developed as a BIM-based DM
and optimisation tool.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the research funding by Ministry of
Education Malaysia (MOE) through Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS) Vote 4F665, titled BIM-GBI Model Development: Integrating Building
Information Modelling and Green Building Certification in Malaysia.
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Investigation into informational

compatibility of Building Information
Modelling and Building Performance
Analysis software solutions
S. Hyun, L. Marjanovic-Halburd & R. Raslan
UCL Institute for Environmental Design and Engineering,
The Bartlett School of Environment, Energy and Resources, UK
Abstract
There are significant opportunities for Building Information Modelling (BIM) to
address issues related to sustainable and energy efficient building design. While
the potential benefits associated with the integration of BIM and BPA (Building
Performance Analysis) have been recognised, its specifications and formats
remain in their early infancy and often fail to live up to the promise of seamless
interoperability at various stages of design process. This paper conducts a case
study to investigate the interoperability between BIM and BPA tools, and
discusses the limitations to suggest development of Information Delivery Manual
(IDM) aiming to propose potential solutions for typical issues facing professionals
in architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry.
Keywords: BIM (Building Information Modelling), BPA (Building Performance
Analysis), LoD (Level of Detail/Development), IDM (Information Delivery
Manual).
1 Background
Buildings can have extensive direct and indirect impacts on the environment
throughout their life cycle. The building sector alone, contributes up to 19% of
global annual Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and consumes up to 32% of all
global energy, and it will more than double in the next 50 years [1]. Therefore, if
targets for GHG emissions reduction are to be met, it is clear that decision-makers
must tackle emissions from the building sector [2].
doi:10.2495/BIM150441
Recent answers to this challenge call for an integrated, synergistic approach

that considers all phases of the facility life cycle. This approach, called
sustainable building design, supports an increased commitment to
environmental stewardship and conservation, and results in an optimal balance
of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits while meeting the mission
and function of the intended facility [3].
According to the US Green Building Council [4], input from all key
stakeholders and members of the design team is essential before schematic design
begins, particularly since 70% of the decisions associated with environmental
impacts are made during the first 10% of the design process. There are reasons to
suggest that the best results in meeting increasingly aggressive goals for energy
and carbon reduction are best achieved through collaborative processes [5, 6].
The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) seeks to make an important
contribution to this transformation of the construction sector by developing a new
Plan of Work (PoW) that incorporates sustainable design principles, provides the
infrastructure to support Building Information Modelling (BIM), and promotes
integrated working between project team members [7]. BIM represents the latest
incarnation of a logical progression from working in 2D and 3D but with all
participants effectively going it alone to the exchange of information, and
eventually moving to working in a shared digital environment [8]. There are
significant opportunities for BIM tools to address issues related to sustainable
building design. Data incorporated into a BIM can be used for Building
Performance Analysis (BPA) to test, analyse, and improve the performance of a
building, including aspects such as daylighting, energy efficiency and sustainable
materials. As BIM continues to develop, technology providers will need to
improve its ability to address the sustainable design and construction demands of
the industry [9].
While the potential benefits associated with this interoperability have been
recognised, BIM interoperability specifications and formats remain in their early
infancy and often fail to live up to the promise of seamless interoperability and
communication challenges faced by todays construction professionals [10].
Significant long-term challenges remain in addressing the different level of
detail/developments (LoDs) required to support different construction activities
including design, analysis, detailing, fabrication and coordination activities at
different design stages. Furthermore, industry groups continue to strive to establish
testing and certification of implementations of interoperability standards to ensure
that rapid continued progress is made by software developers toward making data
transfer reliable and routine [11].
This paper investigates the interoperability between BIM and BPA state of the
art tools in the live project currently at RIBA Stage L. The main aim is to identify
typical issues facing professionals in architectural and engineering companies and
to propose potential solutions. Case study approach in general emphasises detailed
contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
relationships, and is suitable to examine contemporary real-life situations and
provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods [12], and
as such represents an adequate approach in achieving the objectives of this study.
2 BPA and BIM

BPA is the use of computer-based simulations to access overall building energy
performance and other characteristics of a building design. It allows for the
analysis of various design considerations prior to the construction phase of a
project. In this way, energy modelling can help optimise alternatives and allow the
design team to prioritise investment in the strategies that will have the greatest
effect on the buildings energy use and occupant comfort [13].
Previously, many different BPA techniques have been applied to numerous
studies and practical building projects in an attempt to predict future energy usage.
A wide variety of BPA tools have been developed, improved, and utilised
throughout the field of energy and built environment [14]. Among those, there are
a number of whole building energy performance simulation tools that are widely
used today for the various purposes of building design, performance analysis and
validation, such as DOE-2, EnergyPlus, RIUSKA, eQuest, DesignBuilder, IES-
VE, EDSL TAS, Hevacomp and so on [15].
Although great advances have been made over the last few decades in BPA
technologies and tools, limitations still exist. Research has shown that using BPA
tools takes a considerable amount of time to properly input data correctly even for
qualified practitioners [16]. Because of the length of time it typically takes to
perform this type of simulation and analysis and deliver sought answers in the
conventional ways, its results tend to lag in time behind the timing of design
decision making [17]. Also, the conventional building energy performance
analysis can be based on potentially arbitrary model definitions [7]. The resulting
definition depends on energy modellers point of view on modelling and
understanding of the subject building, his or her knowledge and skill, experience,
worldview, complexity of the building geometry of the subject building,
complexity of the building itself, available resources, and more. It also sometimes
results in over-prediction of energy savings in buildings due to the inaccuracy of
tool itself, thus the analysis results can be unreliable in these cases; and the
conventional process cannot qualify as means of testing and experimentation with
virtual buildings regardless of the simulation tools used [18].
As a shared and necessarily up-to-date source of project information, the value
of BIM and its data-handling power is best realised when it stretches from
inception through design, delivery, handover, operation and eventual demolition,
thereby also enabling comparable reusable data and feedback [19]. BPA using
BIM has the potential to increase efficiency of the conventional process by
leveraging building information that exists in the architectural or mechanical
models created by the project design team. Also, by using BIM, the process of
creating an energy model has the potential to become automated and formulaic, so
that, at the very least, the geometry and other assumptions specified in the
architectural model remain consistent across users and are not subject to
interpretation or improper simplification [20].
According to the report by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, a BIM-
based building energy performance simulation has been reported that it
demonstrated a 70% to 80% savings in time and effort compared to the traditional
process [21]. This method was also capable of significantly reducing the time
needed to pre-process, configure, execute, and post-process this design task while
improving its consistency over conventional methods [22].
The architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry is now
demanding to adopt BIM as a valuable sustainable design tool which enables an
integrated practice methodology [6]. The BIM-based process is now possible for
them to work together within a shared model in an improved coordination and
organisation. This interaction is called Integrated Design Process (IDP) in which
the purpose is to utilise a collaborative team effort to prepare design and
construction documents that result in an optimised project system solution [23].
However, BIM tools limit interoperability for use in energy simulations without
appropriate format and definition of LoDs [24, 25]. Currently, the Industry
Foundation Class (IFC) and Green Building XML (gbXML) are two prevalent
informational infrastructures in the AEC industry. Both IFC and XML create a
common language to transfer BIM information between different BIM
applications while maintaining the meaning of different pieces of information in
the transfer. However, for a reliable data exchange, these definitions need to be
implemented in software applications and thoroughly tested as they do not
currently support all building information required for BPA.
3 Case study findings

3.1 Overview of the case study building
The case study building is an educational facility for youth training and experience
days, graduate apprentice and staff training with some offices. The 3,000m2
building is composed of a 3 storey linear building and it can accommodate
maximum 500 occupancy. The building is seeking to achieve BREEAM Excellent
level and to reduce carbon emissions by 35% by 2050 from 2008/9 baseline as
identified in the clients own sustainability guidelines. Deciding on what material
to use on a building is driven by clients low carbon construction strategies.
The client also has provided a BIM Execution Plan (BEP) for this building. It
is produced by the facility management (FM) team of the client side as the on-site
information library for the facilities in the campus is disjointed, incomplete and
patchy restricting the use and availability of information and presenting problems
for the on-going maintenance of assets. The BEP identifies who, when and how
data is to be added to the models for data development, delivery and maintenance
for all BIM work streams.
Autodesk Revit, one of the BIM authoring tools, has been used to model the
case study building as required in the BEP provided by the client. The Revit model
has been developed according to each design stage defined by RIBA Plan of Work
(PoW) 2007 to be delivered to the client accordingly. The RIBA Stage K model is
presented on the left hand side of Figure 1.
As the case study building aims to achieve a number of sustainability criteria,
IES-VE, one of the building performance analysis tools, has been used for the
energy modelling. The energy analyses have been conducted using IES-VE at the
Figure 1: Left: Revit model. Right: IES-VE model (RIBA Stage K).
concept design (RIBA Stage C), technical design (RIBA Stage E) and construction
stage (RIBA Stage K) respectively.
However, the model for architectural drawings and the model for energy
performance analysis have been built separately. There was no attempt to use the
Revit model for the building performance analyses in IES-VE in the early design
stages as it was not initially planned by the project team or required by the client
side. In order to investigate whether or not something like this is feasible, the
output of Stage K Revit model in gbXML format was used as an input file for IES-
VE simulations. The following text summarised main problems experienced.
3.2 Building zoning
The building zoning approaches for BIM and BPA models are different. While the
architectural zoning for BIM model is defined by individual interior spaces so-
called geometrical zones, BPA has a concept of a thermal zone which is a single
space or group of indoor spaces that has uniform thermal load profiles and
conditioning requirements [20]. In some cases several geometrical zones form one
thermal zone and in some other cases like in atrium spaces, one geometrical zone
consists of more than one thermal zone.
There are mainly two different thermal zoning approaches for BPA: zone-based
modelling and space-based modelling [20] which could result in some significant
difference in analysis results [26]. The zone-based modelling approach is a
simplified method which the thermal zones are manually created by the modellers.
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 Appendix G, as a typical example, states that the floor
plan should be divided into a core and perimeter" zone and the perimeter should
be subdivided by orientation. The leftover region in the center of the floor plate
forms the core [26]. This is useful for creating thermal zones when the actual
HVAC design has not been determined, in particular during early design which is
equivalent to RIBA Stage C and D.
The space-based modelling approach, on the other hand, the thermal zoning is
defined by individual interior spaces and typically such approach is available later
in the design process. When the case study model created in Revit is converted to
IES-VE, it is not able to apply the zone-based modelling approach. Only the space-
based modelling approach is available as IES-VE recognises each space as an
individual thermal zone [20].
When the case study building model has been imported to IES-VE, there were
two types of undefined zones found which the attributes need to be manually
assigned in IES-VE. An undefined cavity in the middle of a building resulted in
the adjacent interior wall being considered as exterior (Figure 2). This caused the
building analysis tool to erroneously assign an exterior wall construction type to
it, invalidating the simulation results. When spaces contain suspended ceilings and
the resulting plenum areas, spaces must be made for both the room space and the
plenum space. However, this spaces normally are not assigned as room spaces in
Revit, therefore manual modelling is required in Revit or in IES-VE to consider
the thermal effects of the plenum areas.
Figure 2: Architectural zoning vs. thermal zoning.
One physical space in the Revit model may contain several areas that are treated
individually in the standard spatial program. IES-VE does not recognise the virtual
nature of a room separation line. When imported, room separation lines are
interpreted as opaque walls. This interpretation also resulted in erroneous
simulation results. It is evident that space boundaries form a critical concept for
correctly defining appropriate relationships between spaces and the building
elements that enclose a space and defining the geometry associated with the spaces
independent from the geometry of the bounding elements.
3.3 Data format and LoD
IES has included a number of features in the import function to allow for the
gbXML and IFC import from other software. Users can export model directly via
the export option in Revit or via the IES-VE Revit Plug-in installed. The IES-VE
Revit Plug-in provides a link between Autodesk Revit and IES-VE. The gbXML
complexity has its own definition of LoDs when it translates a Revit model to IES-
VE. There are five levels of complexity for export as seen in the Table 1. The
gbXML files was exported from Revit with two different complexities, Simple and
Complex With Mullions And Shading Surfaces.
Table 1: gbXML complexity.
Export type Brief explanation

Simple means that Curtain Walls and Curtain Systems are
exported with one complete opening with the total opening area
Simple
equal to all openings combined; a curtain wall with 50 panels gets
exported as 1 opening.
Simple With
Export with simple type and shading surfaces.
Shading Surfaces
Complex means that Curtain Walls and Curtain Systems are

Complex exported with several openings, panel by panel; a curtain wall
with 50 panels gets exported as 50 openings.
Complex With
Export with complex type and shading surfaces.
Shading Surfaces
Export with complex type, shading surfaces and mullion. With

Complex With Mullions mean that Mullions in Curtain Walls and Systems are
Mullions And exported as shading surfaces. A simplified analytical shading
Shading Surfaces surface is produced from a mullion based on its centerline,
thickness and offset.
The model exported with Simple complexity only contains envelopes for each
room missing all undefined zones between the rooms when it is imported to IES-
VE. The model exported with Complex With Mullions And Shading Surfaces
complexity contains most of geometry elements except undefined zones between
the rooms when it is imported to IES-VE.
Simply by looking at IES-VE model created after importing gbXML files in
both complexity levels, it was evident that glazing attributes were not successfully
transferred some glazing parts were not exported as transparent. For both cases,
without reference to the level of complexity however, there are a number of error
messages which pointed out the room-tags outside rooms, undefined rooms and
space boundary setting in Revit model.
3.4 Information requirement
The gbXML format provides functionality to exchange simplified building

geometry and some limited HVAC information, therefore it needs to be extended
to allow data exchange of complete HVAC definitions and schedules. The IFC
model intentionally contains more thorough definitions across all disciplines and
life-cycle phases. These definitions, however, need to be implemented in software
applications and thoroughly tested for a reliable data exchange as they do not
currently support all building information required for BPA. Types of information
that currently are not readily available for export through major BIM authoring
software include various types of scheduling information (e.g. occupancy,
lighting, and equipment), load data and operational characteristics [20].
In addition to the discussion to already presented arguments about a number of
errors found from the geometry translation, it is found that the information of the
Stage K Revit model cannot be translated to the information required for building
performance analysis in IES-VE as listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Information required for IES-VE/exported from Revit.
Information required for IES-VE Information exported from Revit
Geometric model is transferrable except

Geometric data
undefined zones.
Weather data is based on location

Weather data
information.
Building type Building type can be selected.
Construction/material data
IES-VE does not import construction/
(Exterior walls/interior walls, slabs/
material data although Revit exports it.
roofs/floors, doors/windows/skylights)
Mechanical data IES-VE does not import mechanical data as

(HVAC equipment, lighting, occupants mechanical data is limited to be exported
and equipment loads, etc.) from Revit.
Spatial data Revit exports spatial data, however

(Thermal zoning, operation schedule, mechanical data is limited to be exported
design condition, etc.) from Revit.
The information required for BPA also need to be created with a certain level
of detail/development (LoD) considering its uses for BPA as not all relevant
information needed for simulations is stored within BIM models and complex
shapes can be difficult to remodel. BIM tools limit interoperability for use in
energy simulations without appropriate definition of LoDs.
4 Conclusion and further recommendations

When the RIBA Stage K Revit model generated with lack of early consideration
for interoperation with BPA tool is used, the model can hardly be converted to
BPA tool as due to the following limitations:
Due to the technical limitations of the tools, Revit does not provide all
information required for the analysis using IES-VE. There is no information
exchangeable other than the geometry which is not even fully exchanged. IES-
VE itself also does not have well defined information requirements.
Errors and data loss are found during the information exchange process even
for converting the geometry as the LoD of the architectural model generated
by Revit in Stage K is too complex to control in IES-VE.
In considering the challenges associated with the interoperability between BIM
and BPA, it is concluded that it is necessary to develop a shared manual document
referred to as Information Delivery Manual (IDM) that clearly outlines the
following:
The scope of the energy modelling activities to meet the projects goals
including all the relevant energy modelling inputs, assumptions, and results;
A listing of all project team members involved, including specification of
which team members will perform energy modelling, who will be responsible
for providing required inputs to the energy simulations;
The types and data format of information required for BPA;
When the information transfers need to occur; and
An appropriate BIM level of detail/development (LoD 100500, for example)
at each design stage.
The IDM can be applied for each design stage to guide information exchange
required for BPA using BIM that can bring improvement in BIM implementation
engaged from the early design stages considering building energy performance.
The suggested approach will have a potential to make a contribution to advanced
BIM implementation for building sustainability as one of the various uses of BIM
in practice and encouraging early stage engagement of building performance
analysis using BIM.
References
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design/sustainable.php. (Accessed: 01-Jul-2014).
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Growth Team, London, 2010.
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and Sustainability Using Design Technology in Energy Efficient
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menu=whole_building_analysis/pagename_submenu=energy_simulation.
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Information Modeling Guide Series 05 Energy Performance,
Washington DC, 2009.
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Automated BIM-Based Multidisciplinary Thermal Simulation for Use in
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The role of BIM in tackling obsolescence,

climate change, and sustainability
T. E. Butt1, T. J. Francis1, D. Greenwood2,
K. G. Jones3 & A. M. Nasir4
1
School of Architecture, Built and Natural Environments,
Faculty of Architecture, Computing & Engineering (FACE),
University of Wales Trinity Saint David, UK
2
Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering,
Northumbria University, UK
3
Department of Engineering and the Built Environment,
Anglia Ruskin University, UK
4
Safe Australia Consulting Engineers, Australia
Abstract
Although the BIM technology is applicable to both new and existing buildings, it
is arguably more established in the former than the latter. This is despite the fact
that, in the UK alone, 7080% of what has been built by 2010, is estimated to
continue to exist for a number of decades to come: including the years 2020 and
2050 (the two main temporal deadlines in the Climate Change Act, 2008). In
addition, this existing building stock is subject to obsolescence (both climate
change-induced and non-climate change-associated) which in turn compromises
sustainability. Thus, there are three notions that appear to be interwoven, i.e.
Obsolescence, Climate Change, and Sustainability: the question is whether BIM
can be exploited to address these.
There has been only limited research work to explore the possible influence of
BIM upon obsolescence, climate change, and sustainability as individual issues,
and none reported, to-date, in terms of an approach to their collective
consideration. This paper conceptually explores how BIM can be related with all
three crucial notions simultaneously as well as discretely. It is argued that such
studies can be particularly valuable in the face of escalating pressures in terms of
future obsolescence risks, overwhelming evidence of climate change, and
escalating sustainability agendas. The paper reviews current work that relates
doi:10.2495/BIM150451
state-of-the-art BIM to the three notions, both separately and collectively, and
thereby delineates the potential for BIM to play a role in addressing the three issues
simultaneously.
Keywords: BIM, obsolescence, sustainability, climate change, sustainable
development, built environment.
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Whatever is human-made, tends to become obsolete over time due to physical

factors such as chemical degradation and physical damage. However, the process
of obsolescence is not limited to material and physical factors. Social, cultural,
technological and political factors (such as technology innovation, variation in
customer demands, change in legislation, social pressures, advancement of
knowledge, currency inflation; civil unrest or conflict of interests) can also drive
obsolescence. Moreover, climate change is another and newest element to act as
an additional driver of obsolescence in a number of ways both directly and
indirectly. Thus, some of the factors causing obsolescence are climate change-
related while others are not.
However, published and anecdotal evidence in the built environment suggests
that not only the term obsolescence is not common, but also that its nature as a
multi-dimensional and growing concept is seldom fully appreciated with its wide
range of implications [1]. Some implications are conventional: that is, in terms of
the degradation of a component of a system that renders the component
obsolescent. This we refer to as internal obsolescence. But new external factors
such as how climate change and new environmental legislation are inducing
obsolescence risks to various systems of the existing built environment are not
sufficiently considered. Generally, it does not appear to be recognised that increase
in the requirement of adaptation, repair, overhauling, retrofitting, or refurbishment
of a system is a direct indicator of an increase in obsolescence.
Apart from the obsolescence and climate change in their individual right, the
third aspect is that of sustainability. Obsolescence and sustainability are inversely
related. The more the obsolescence in a system or component the more the
unsustainability and vice versa. This is true overall as well along each of the
three principal dimensions of the sustainability development philosophy [2]. More
details are provided in Section 3.
In the literature to date, no evidence has been found of consideration of the
three aspects (i.e. obsolescence, sustainability and climate change) together.
Equally, there no study has so far been carried out which focuses on how the
rapidly-evolving BIM technology has or can accommodate all three aspects. The
hypothesis is that the BIM technology is more focused on internal rather than
external obsolescence. Thus, climate change, which is predominantly an external
obsolescence, is not yet catered for in BIM technology. In addition, sustainability
is not deemed as opposite of obsolescence in the technology, at least not
consciously. In summary, there is no consideration of how BIM technology can
inform and/or be informed by the three different themes (obsolescence,

sustainability, and climate change) and their relationship with one another.
1.2 Aims, objectives and research methodology
The paper aims to establish the state-of-the-art in relation to obsolescence,

sustainability and climate change, thereby pave a path for further research that may
lead to render the fast developing BIM technology more diverse and yet holistic
and integrated. In order to achieve this aim, the main objectives are:
1. Identify main obsolescence types and implications;
2. Establish the relationship between obsolescence and climate change;
3. Describe the relationship between obsolescence and sustainability;
4. Explore the state-of-the-art of BIM technology; and
5. Delineate the relationship of the three notions (in 1, 2 and 3 above) with BIM
technology.
2 Obsolescence versus climate change

There is a wide range of types, aspects and implications of obsolescence. A few
main types are listed below with a systematic categorisation to explain various
facets and implications of obsolescence, including the crucial factor of climate
change.
2.1 Financial and functional obsolescence
Irrespective of causes, financial obsolescence means loss in value whereas

functional obsolescence is loss of usefulness, effectiveness, efficiency or
productivity. Financial obsolescence is also termed as social or economic
obsolescence (depending on the driving cause), and functional obsolescence as
technical obsolescence. [1]. Sometimes a whole system may become functionally
obsolete, although mostly obsolescence involves embedded parts of a complex
system where the design life of the system typically exceeds 20 years [3]. This
obsolescence in part, if not fully, is generally due to technological advancements
of embedded parts of a complex system and has even been referred to as the dark
side of innovation [4]. Functional obsolescence is a major parameter affecting
technical installations and influences the value of an office building [5]. Another
scenario is that of a building that might be structurally fine but unable to generate
enough income to keep it running in its present state. This can be referred to as a
case of financial obsolescence [6]. On the other hand, it would be a matter of
functional obsolescence if the same building cannot perform to the required level
due to some structural defect appearing in the building e.g. precipitation leaking
through the roof.
2.2 Internal and external obsolescence
Irrespective of whether obsolescence is in value or function or both, internal

obsolescence in a component or built asset is due to factors that exist within the
component or built asset. Factors could include: general wear and tear, fatigue,
corrosion, oxidation, evaporation, rusting, leaking of gas/water or any other fluid
like coolant, breaking, breakdown/failure, age, and so on.
External obsolescence is temporary or permanent impairment in value or
usefulness of a built asset due to factors outside the system. Factors that could
derive external obsolescence either individually or in various combinations
include: climate change; changes in existing or advent of a new environmental
legislation; social forces/pressure groups; arrival of new technologies;
technological innovation; knowledge advancement; labour market and
unemployability (e.g. specific skill set not available); inflation of currency; rise in
interest rate; rise in fuel and/or energy prices; fluctuation in demand, supply,
inventory, etc.
In summary, external obsolescence could be due to any external factor from
a large employer in the area shutting its doors to a zoning change, through a
property located under an airport flight pattern, to even a house in ones
neighbourhood that seems to attract broken down cars. However, boundaries
between internal and external factors of obsolescence for a given setting may not
necessarily always be physical, they can also be virtual [1].
2.3 Obsolescence and climate change
Irrespective of whether obsolescence is internal or external and financial or

functional, if a given obsolescence is due to impacts of climate change it is referred
to by the authors as Climate Change Induced Obsolescence, as opposed to Non-
Climate Change Induced Obsolescence. Furthermore, climate change associated
obsolescence can be directly or indirectly-induced as described below:
2.3.1 Directly induced climate change obsolescence

Obsolescence that is caused by direct influence of climate change factors is termed
as directly induced climate change obsolescence. For instance:
Due to water level rise in water bodies as a result of climate change, estimated
flood levels are higher than before. This implies that current level of electrical
cables, power points, and appliances from the ground in a given built
environment may not be high enough any longer to defend against flooding
should it happen. This is direct induction of climate change associated
obsolescence in the flood defence mechanism.
As a result of climate change impacts, rainfall is on the increase in both
frequency and intensity. In many cities combined sewer systems were not
designed to cope with this. Thus, pluvial flood events are happening more
frequently, which is an indicator of increase in the directly induced climate
change obsolescence in existing combined sewers. To overcome this
increasing obsolescence risk, as an adaptation measure, the grey
infrastructure needs to be replaced by blue and green infrastructure as
appropriate: an example of this being the concept of Water-Sensitive Urban
Design (WSUD) [7, 8].
2.3.2 Indirectly induced climate change obsolescence

Obsolescence that results from climate change factors in an indirect manner is
referred to as indirectly induced climate change obsolescence. For example:
Introduction and application of clean energy technologies is on the increase.
The cost of these substitutes is presumed to decrease with cumulative use
because of learning-by-doing and widening of the use like it happened with
e.g. computers. In some cases these clean technologies are being adopted
voluntarily and in others due to mandatory factors like carbon cap, carbon tax,
and cap-and-trade regarding control on aggregate emissions from a fossil fuel
(e.g. coal). In both the categories, climate change is a fundamental and
original driver either wholly or partly. This can be deemed as indirectly
climate change induced obsolescence that has started to happen at various
levels in a number of aspects of industrial economies, buildings, and our life
styles in general which are currently predominantly based on fossil fuels
one way or another as a matter of carbon lock-in [911].
3 Obsolescence versus sustainability

Any constituent of the built environment (such as a building or infrastructure)
grows to become obsolete or suffers increasing obsolescence over time. Moreover,
what has been and is being built now will predominantly be around as a substantial
part of our built environment for decades to come, and is, therefore, bound to suffer
various degrees of obsolescence in different ways. In order to render our built
environment more sustainable, obsolescence needs to be addressed, either in new
construction or in remediating the existing built environment. There is a large
number of factors which play a role, either alone or collectively, in causing
obsolescence. Examples of these factors are not only conventional ones such as
wear and tear and aging, but also contemporary ones that include energy
consumption efficiency, environmental pressures such as reduction of carbon
dioxide (also referred to as carbon emissions) and other greenhouse gas emissions,
change or arrival of new legislation or regulations, change of use, clean and waste
water management, water quality and resources, land use, land contamination and
soil quality, air emissions, changing occupier or end user demands, waste
management, ecological concerns and health and safety.
The afore-listed contemporary factors also form part of considerations of the
sustainable development or sustainability philosophy in one way or another. As
evidence it can be seen that all such factors (directly or indirectly) constitute
National Sustainability Strategy and Headline Indicators of Sustainable
Development in the UK as a whole, and also at the constituent country level, for
example, Welsh and Scottish Headline Indicators [1217]. Hence, there is a strong
link between obsolescence and sustainability.
The afore-listed contemporary factors which cause obsolescence are also the
ones which cause unsustainability for the built environment [2]. These factors
need to be controlled in order to render a given built environment sustainable.
Figure 1 conceptually illustrates the links between sustainable development
philosophy, the built environment, obsolescence, and drivers such as climate

change. For a number of illustrative and real-world examples the readers are
referred to Butt et al. [2] publication.
Figure 1: Links between sustainability, the built environment, obsolescence,

and their drivers [2]. *Other drivers for sustainable development
include resource availability, intergenerational equity, social
inclusion, economic factors (like inflation), and environmental
legislation.
4 BIM versus obsolescence, sustainability and

climate change
4.1 What is BIM?
BIM (an abbreviation of Building Information Modelling) is relatively new and

ever-growing technology with many definitions. In simple terms, it is a means by
which a building can be understood through the use of a digital model. BIM brings
together in one place information about the components of a building and enables
access of that information for various purposes, e.g. to integrate different aspects
of the design more effectively. The word Building in the title may be misleading
for some. BIM is just as relevant to the civil engineering sector and other
stakeholders (Figure 2) [1820].
In the life-cycle context (Figure 3), BIM can be defined as a digital
representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility and a shared
knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for
decisions during its life-cycle spanning from earliest conception to demolition
[18].
In terms of time, there are two main categories that the built environment can
be divided into i.e. existing buildings and new buildings. While BIM processes are
established for new buildings, the majority of existing buildings are not
maintained, refurbished or deconstructed with BIM yet. One obvious reason for
this is that BIM is relatively easier to apply to a new building as the two can be
married together from the outset, whereas existing buildings are a very different
Figure 2: Diverse stakeholders in a building construction [31].
Figure 3: Stages of a building in its life cycle [32].
proposition, and there are a number of challenges in trying to model an existing

building [21, 22]. On the other hand, the biggest challenge of all is that about 70
80% of what has been built in the UK already by 2010, is to continue to stand for
many decades to come [2325]. Thus, in the context of these buildings and assets,
BIM technology has to be adopted retrospectively.
4.2 Obsolescence, sustainability and climate change:

all three together versus BIM
After describing the three notions individually and in connection to each other,
these are now discussed in connection to BIM technology. From the anecdotes of
experts in the industry and the review of the literature to date [e.g. 2630], there
has been found little evidence that BIM clearly and directly caters for obsolescence
as such. For example, Figure 2 illustrates a diverse range of stakeholders but does
not pay attention to experts in obsolescence or even those in climate change and
sustainability. Figure 1 is, however, a part of the lifecycle of a building the
construction stage. Figure 3 describes the lifecycle of a building. Even in this case,
there is no direct consideration of obsolescence or even climate change and
sustainability.
However, in an indirect way obsolescence is considered in the lifecycle of a
building but only during its maintenance or refurbishment. They come into play
after a building has been constructed and the end-user has started to use it. That is,
once a building undergoes its operational stage, it starts to lose its performance
over time. Thus, after certain period of time maintenance has to be carried out to
bring its performance back to its original design performance. This way, there
could be a number of maintenance cycles (full or in part) before the original design
level performance of the building ceases to sufficiently meet the demands of the
end-user. At this point in the life of the building, refurbishment is carried out to
enhance the performance level of the building above and beyond its original design
level. This way a number of maintenance and refurbishment cycles may be applied
in the lifetime of the building before it is not viable to continue and the building is
either rendered derelict or demolished, eventually to be replaced by a new
development.
In summary, it is the maintenance and refurbishment (cycles) which keep
combating the obsolescence of a building. However, this obsolescence is generally
due to the conventional reasons of obsolescence the internal obsolescence. In
this context, the unsustainability element of a given building is automatically
addressed, for obsolescence and sustainability are inversely related (Section 3.2).
However, when it comes down to external obsolescence which occurs due to
external factors such as climate change (be it directly induced or indirectly induced
Section 2.2.3), BIM is has not yet been found developed enough to cater for this.
5 Concluding remarks
This paper has presented innovative insights around BIM in relation to
obsolescence, sustainability and climate change. The paper does this in a
systematic manner by first exploring domains of obsolescence, sustainability and
climate, each separately, and then together along with characteristics of BIM.
Specifically, in connection to obsolescence, areas that are briefly, partly and
above all less consciously addressed by the technology are described i.e.
maintenance and refurbishment to overcome internal obsolescence due to
conventional factors such as wear and tear. Then the paper has identified those
areas which the technology yet needs to grow into to become more diverse, holistic
and integrated i.e. accommodate external obsolescence factors such as climate
change to enhance the degree of sustainability of the built assets even more.
The main issue is that we are to live with 7080% of our already built
environments (buildings and infrastructures) for many decades to come. However,
these exiting build assets are facing obsolescence risk (thereby jeopardizing their
sustainability) due to contemporary factors such as climate change. On the other
hand, the investment in these existing built assets was estimated at approximately
129 billion in 2007 in the UK alone [33]. Thus, in order to protect investment
into these existing built assets, actions are needed to be taken now. One potentially
affective way can be to enhance the use of BIM to become more holistic and
integrated so that the focus is not only internal obsolescence but also external
obsolescence due to climate change. Thus, BIM is yet to develop substantially
beyond its current state-of-the-art to accommodate obsolescence, sustainability
and climate change with diverse range of direct and indirect as well as internal and
external implications, some of which have been briefly captured in this paper.
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Bio-inspired design material:

a multipurpose case study
T. Alqalami, V. Ahmed & M. Ormerod
School of the Built Environment, University of Salford, UK
Abstract
Demands for new architecture that is more fluid, interactive, functional, and
adaptable to the changes of economic atmosphere and design principles are
changing the concept of forms and aesthetics. However, despite the role of
technology, the architectural design elements of buildings have often been
developed separately, in terms of artistic and functional features, in a way that
affects the flexibility and quality of the design process along with its impact on the
built environment. This issue calls for the need to explore an interdisciplinary
design approach that combines biology and architecture in order to improve both
individual and overall quality of design.
This paper will, therefore, provide a review of literature that draws on the
important characteristics of bio-inspired design material and its impact on an
effective design in a way that can capture the specifications needed to enhance the
development of a digital prototype that caters for the flexibility and overall quality
of design aesthetically and functionally.
Keywords: architecture, nature, biomimetics, mimetics, technology, pattern smart
material, quality, aesthetic, functional.
1 Introduction
Gruber [1] noted that architecture is part of mankinds community and culture as
it provides shelter from environmental changes. Accordingly, architects need to
develop other ways of design that can adapt to future problems for instance the
increasing rates of pollution along with the exploitation of raw materials, extensive
use of energy, production of waste and emissions into soil, water, and air. In
addition, the effects of global warming along with the escalation of other problems
like waste of material and energy use and green-house gas emissions, all these
doi:10.2495/BIM150461
issues add to the pressure that the built environment has to face [2, 3]. Equally as
importantly, Bruckner [4] argued that the complexity of architecture enables it to
adopt elements and buildings of all scales whether it is a nanoscale surface project
or an urban design project. Moreover, according to Alexander [5], both nature and
architecture have rules that hold their systems together. These rules create a pattern
and it is a necessity to observe that pattern as it holds both systems together being
part of the ambiance surrounding the built environment. Furthermore, Gruber [6]
argues that although nature is alive while architecture is not, both of them are still
subjected to the same environmental conditions and physical principles.
This paper focuses on identifying the main characteristics of bio-inspired
material design specifications by combining both aesthetic and functional aspects.
Such findings will contribute to a future development of a digital prototype which
will provide a visual demonstration of such characteristics and their value to the
flexibility of design.
2 Literature review
2.1 Nature as a source of inspiration
The current body of literature overwhelmingly argues that the interactivity of

architecture enables it to have an integrated design approach with the surrounding
environment combining more than one discipline at the same time. In the same
meaning, Oosterhuis [7] noted that architecture is an interacted discipline that is
associated with design transactions not just in buildings but life and living systems
as well. Consequently, a number of architects have approached nature through
their designs such as as Alvar Alto, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, as
described by Gruber [8]. For instance, Porphyrios [9] stated that architects like
Aalto have looked at nature for guidance between biology and architecture where
the scale of the rooms equals the one of the organic cells. However, this approach
has not been new as Leonardo da Vinci stated, In her [natures] inventions
nothing is lacking, and nothing is superfluous. It is true that nature has always
acted sustainably by using minimal resources to achieve maximum performances
[10]. Furthermore, Gruber [6] argued that although nature is alive while
architecture is not, both of them are still subjected to the same environmental
conditions and physical principles.
Therefore, the next section will explore in deep the integrated relationship
between architecture and nature in terms of biomimetics inspiration.
2.2 Biomimetics: definitions and synonyms
There is little published about architectures integrated relationship between

nature and culture, although studies show that a great deal more investigation is
necessary into the ability of architecture to intervene and imitate nature. There are
multiple sources for inspirations that designers may use to challenge design
problems. One of these is nature: they study its evolving adaptability to
environmental changes by a term called biomimetics which was first introduced
by Otto Schmitt in the 1950s (see [11, 12]). In addition, biomimetics in its multi-
layered complex system is thought to improve and cater for technological
innovation by applying profound scientific principles [13]. The presence of
biomimetics in architecture started when there was a necessity for an innovative
design approach to have a better design quality that withstands the new
environmental issues particularly climate changes, energy and resources, ecology
and sustainability [1]. Furthermore, Gebeshuber et al. [14] argued that there is no
fine line between material, surface or structure in natural models because they all
work as a one entity with the surrounding environment for the service of the model.
Similarly, the use of smart material have become very common in building
industry because of the ability to react to the changes of the surrounding
environment. For example, this issue can be seen in products properties including
anti-reflectivity, switchable transparency and darkening in photochromic glass.
However, Bruckner [15] discussed that not all aspects of biomimetics approach
could be part of the design process due to lack of clarity in certain outcomes which
may not serve aesthetic qualities. In this sense, there are studies that discuss the
limitations of both fields. According to Knippers and Speck [16], biological
systems are bonded to the same structural elements through their entire life and
that in return limit their lifelong performance. Also, Gould and Lewontin [17]
mentioned that architecture also has the limitations accompanied to its functional
expectations which in return limit the flexibility of its design and construction
process. Moreover, Wiscombe [18] argued that, architectural elements have been
developed separately in terms of skin and structure.
In brief, Gruber [1] argued that one of the objectives is to bring biomimetics
strategies in a way that solves mutual inabilities of both architecture and the built
environment for establishing a more appropriate and sustainable design as well.
Nevertheless, a complete analytical overlapped approach has not been well
established.
This section discusses the importance of biomimetics as part of natures
inspiration source along with its profound scientific relationship with technology
in terms of material properties. Therefore, the next section will discuss in deep the
relationship between biomimetics and technology.
2.3 Biomimetics and the role of technology
There are a number of studies that define biomimetics through its integrated
relationship with technology. In this sense, Nachtigall [19], and Vincent et al. [20]
stated that the German term bionik has been equal to biomimetics in the English
word Bionic which is a combination of two words Bio and mimetics.
Nachtigall [19] notes that the word Bionic (Bionik) was reintroduced by US Air
Force Major J.E. Steele at a conference entitled Bionic symposium: living
prototypes the key to new technology in 1960. The bionic approach is defined
as an independent information transfer between biology and technology using an
integrated perspective inspired by nature with the aid of technological
implementation where technology has an obligation towards knowledge through
illustrating part of the unknown into an interactive biological and technical
methods and strategies. As for the mimetics part, Gruber [1] argued that it is
concerned with mimicking natures models which is still a controversial one.
Biomimetics, in particular, applies that in a way by using the technological
tools (non-living systems) to interpret biological modals (living systems) in nature.
Nevertheless, the word bio-inspiration has been used more instead of bionic yet
still seen in a more general perspective that does not have the defined background
which outlines the specific strategies and methods necessary for the design
process.
This section identifies the impact of technology as part of the interpretation
process between biological models and architecture. Therefore the next section
remarks the essence of architecture and its interactive relationship with quality in
terms of material.
2.4 Architecture: essence and quality in terms of material
According to Bayer (1992, cited in [21]), the identity of an architectural object lies
in its material. Furthermore, Frankl [22] argued that architecture has an essence
that is expressed through material which in return related to its function. In this
sense, Aristotle [23] stated that essence equals the quality as it is derived from the
Latin essentia as the stem esse, and the Greek ousia. Another important word in
the creation of a building is whole. Vitruvius [24] demonstrated that the parts
should be guided by the harmony and equally designed relationships in order to
create the frame of the whole structure. However, Johnson [25] discussed that the
word wholeness did not appear to have a critical existence in the art and
architecture of ancient Greek. Instead there was always the mention of quality that
embodies the work of art and architecture. Likewise, Ruskin [26] argued that it is
important to have a complete perspective that deals collectively with the whole
parts together. Furthermore, there is no ideal perspective that caters only for one
part of the entire building.
Similarly, according to Gruber [1], natural models go through complicated
transformations that are not only related to the form but to the function as well. In
this sense, biomimetics as an approach in architecture or any other discipline is
not about coping what nature has in common with architecture. On the contrary, it
is about adapting the deep qualities of nature whether in terms of material,
construction, transformation process, or function.
This section notes that both quality and essence of architecture can be expressed
in a material that takes into consideration the building as a whole within the
relationship of form and function. Therefore, the next section discusses in deep the
relationship between aesthetic and functional aspects in relation to design quality.
2.5 Functional beauty
This section discusses the layers of architecture that discuss the integrated
relationship between aesthetic and functional design aspects.
The essence of architecture is found in whatever buildings exist. Equally
importantly, Aristotle et al. [27] stated that any change if it doesnt add to the
essence of the object then it will be useless for the purpose it is made for. For
example, the theory of organic form was not about the apparent shape but it was
all about the function of that form [28]. Nevertheless, Steadman [29] argued that
the term organic architecture is more about the aesthetic appreciation. In other
words organic architecture combines the work of art and the phenomena of nature.
Equally relevantly, aesthetic properties could appear from a background of a non-
aesthetic ones [30, 31]. In the same meaning, non-aesthetic categories could be
perceived as beauty for its functional needs [3235].
However, such relationship between aesthetic and function has not been
explored as a whole within the principles of architectural design process. This
claim could be achieved within the quality of design elements in terms of shapes,
colours, lines, and so on [36]. Thus, the next section will discuss the importance
of understanding the pattern and its layers as part of the creative design process in
nature and architecture.
2.6 The presence of patterns in design
Having identified the essence of design and the importance of combining the
aesthetic and non-aesthetic aspects of design, this section builds on the concepts
by introducing the importance of understanding the idea of pattern. According to
Thompson [37], the pattern is the identity of any object whether in nature or
architecture. Within its layers, pattern can identify all the details needed to
comprehend its transitions and changes from inside out. Moreover, according
to Wurman, cited by Garcia [38], as an information architect and designer, he
noted that as the world is a mixed series of visual patterns, there is no chance for
the emergence of any creative process without fully understanding the parts of
these patterns. Moreover, architecture is in the middle between nature and
manmade world [39]. Moreover, Ball [40] an influential science writer, argued
that a large number of distinctive patterns is manmade pattern formed by human
intelligence and functional needs.
Therefore, the next section will discuss the importance of maintaining a clear
interpretation process of information transfer between biological models and
architecture by understanding the pattern of each.
2.7 Application of bio-inspired design pattern as part of

biomimetics strategies
One of the approaches is where designers look for biomimetics strategies in order
to employ their solutions within the design process in an attempt to solve design
problems through specific goals and parameters based on biologists perspective
[41]. For example, according to Wiscombe [18], a growing desire to have a
sustainable built environment has developed an innovative architectural design
based on an overlap between biological and architectural where the surface is not
just an abstract but also a mix between embedded technology and design elements,
between quality and sensation, function and form. According to Gruber and
Jeronimidis [42], Tom Wiscombes [43] visionary design tackle two important
parts. One is about different strategies applied to the surface such as de-lamination,
blending, embedding, fusing, and winding in order to convey the design elements.
The other one is the functional requirements of bioinspired material principles.

These two, if applicable, could create the assets of future built environments. For
instance, an Australian Agamid lizard is known for its interwoven skin features.
In addition to its skin display of colour variation, the grooves on the skin play an
intensive part for their survival through the conduction of water from lizards back
into its mouth. In architectural design, a project for EMERGENT lizard panel
facade, 2009 is a prototype inspires from biomimetics strategy through the
transparent facade with embedded interwoven systems of a grey water capture
system and an algae photo-bioreactor system in a way that produces structural as
well as ornamental effects, as shown in fig. 1 [43].
Figure 1: EMERGENT prototype for lizard panel facade, 2009 [43].
In this sense, according to Wiscombe [18], an overlap between architecture and

other disciplines will help to change the fixed functional and aesthetic standards.
The aim is to come up with an approach that would surpasses zero element
thickness into a multifunctional embedded technology within architectural surface
to maintain a constant information transfer between structure and envelope. This
could be achieved through composite design patterns with a transformation from
a 2-dimensional into a 3-dimensional surface.
Notwithstanding, according to Kua and Lee [44], although there have been new
technologies developed in terms of new material and fundamental systems, still
the construction industry is slow in the uptake of these technologies. This
phenomenon is quite common, and normally it takes 1020 years before such
technologies are adapted by the industry due to the resistance to take risks by the
developers and property owners as well.
This section identifies that an interdisciplinary approach between biology and
architecture will change the fixed standards into a combined aesthetic
and functional aspect through a multifunctional embedded technology. Thus, the
next section will discuss the impact of technological advancement on the quality
and flexibility of design in terms of material design specifications.
2.8 Integrated applications between technology and biological phenomenon

in design: modern material and the development of technology
According to Pallasmaa [39], although old materials tend to present and preserve
the origin and history attached to it, yet the goal of technological advancement has
taken architectural imagination towards ageless perfection accompanied with
layers that utilise reflection, gradations of transparency and weightless measures.

Nevertheless, the construction standards are still trapped within the constraints of
natural material like stone, brick, and wood.
Equally as importantly, one of the less energy efficient building component
with a larger maintenance requirements are windows. Nevertheless, due the
technology improves the quality of design by improving the standards of windows
production. For instance, smart windows can change properties like the solar
factor in response to the changing of environmental conditions. Hence, a
transparent mode of the glazing window has to be possible [45].
Notwithstanding, the progress of smart glass has been really slow although it
has been discovered and made publicly in the 1970s and the 1980s. The smart
windows were not acknowledged until the need for alternative solutions to control
daylight and solar energy in buildings [45]. For example, the SPD suspended
particle device technology. This material is based on layers starting from two glass
or transparent plastic surfaces with special conductivity coatings on the panel
interior. The use of this material gives the facility owner the possibility to use it at
their own discretion, as shown in fig. 2. Such potentials are made when power in
the SPD partition panel is on in the conductive layers, the temporarily suspended
particles in the layer are oriented in the electrical field and allow the passage of
light through the panel. Sensor-controlled voltage can assume infinite number
of shades of transparency up to full opacity. The space users have the ability to
render the panel fully opaque in a moment (change time is 1 sec.) and return of
full clarity comes after 3 seconds [46].
Figure 2: The left image illustrates the discretion of the smart panel, while the
image on the right demonstrates the same partition but in its full
transparent state, as a result of on and off programming option times
of transparency and opacity phases [46].
There is no need for the use of electricity in the dimmed state. Moreover, the
power consumption in operation is very small and the process of on and off cycles
is virtually unlimited. This process provides multiple options in the way of room
lighting and the manner of its use. According to Gavrilovi Dragan and Stoji [47],
the use of new smart panels provides a flexibility in design by combining both
aesthetic and functional aspects. The aesthetic aspects are demonstrated through
the use of not just glass but transparent plastic surfaces as well which gives the
ability to design curved surfaces to be used for multifunctional areas. Also, the use
of such material improves the quality of functional aspects in architecture of
commercial and residential building by reducing the overall energy consumption
and achieving better energy benefits. In addition, smart glass can be used as a
smart wall in contemporary architecture and as a smart window as well.
3 Methodological approach
This paper is part of an ongoing PhD study that is conducted in four stages:
Stage I: This stage is focused on understanding the qualities of aesthetic and
functional characteristics of biomimetic materials and identifying the main factors
that would affect both the individual and overall quality of material design
specifications.
Stage II: This stage entails qualitative data collection in order to identify the
layers of an integrated architectural design pattern that combines both aesthetic
and functional aspects.
Stage III: This stage entails the development of an interface which caters for
the quality and flexibility of design as well as the sustainability of the built
environment.
Stage IV: This stage entails the evaluation of the interface.
This paper only focuses on the first stage of the research by identifying the
characteristic of the bio-inspired design material.
4 Main findings
This section gives an overview of the results obtained from the literature review
as follows:
1. Understanding the pattern and its layers whether in nature or architecture is
important to improve the quality of an interdisciplinary design approach.
2. The multi-layered complex system of biomimetics enables it to have a
profound scientific relationship with multifunctional embedded technology
as part of the mimicking in the interpretation process between living systems
in nature and non-living systems of architecture in terms of material.
3. In natural models, material equals to both surface and structure as one entity
in serving the model against the changes of the surrounding environment.
4. Material in natural models equals smart material in its ability to adapt to the
changes of the surrounding environment: a) Smart materials can be made of
glass or plastic to be used as a wall or window. b) Using plastic gives the
opportunity to create different shapes and curves. c) Smart material can be
translucent with the possibility to change the opacity from opaque to
transparent for multipurpose use between public to private space needs. d) It
has less energy consumption.
5. Design strategies such as de-lamination, blending, embedding, fusing, and
winding are used in order to convey combined aesthetic and functional
aspects within design element in terms of material.
Such characteristics will contribute to the development of a digital prototype

that will integrate these characteristics within a 3D model. The model will enable
the end users to explore the combined aesthetic and functional design aspects
which will optimize the sustainable features of the design.
5 Conclusion and future work

Reviewing the literature showed that both biomimetics and sustainable
developments are important in the interpretation process of the information
transfer between biological and man-made material specifications. In addition,
technology plays an important role in the implementation of biomimetics
innovation in design process. The characteristics of bio-inspired material design
specifications will be delivered in a multi-layered design element with an
integrated relationship between visible and embedded technological systems. For
instance, smart glass in SPD depends on layers starting from two glass or
transparent plastic surfaces with special conductivity coatings on the panel
interior. Such characteristics will visualize the main features of a digital prototype
that improves the quality and flexibility of design as well as the sustainability of
the built environment.
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Section 12
BIM and cultural heritage
From BIM to FEM: the analysis of an

historical masonry building
P. Crespi1, A. Franchi1, P. Ronca1, N. Giordano1,
M. Scamardo1, G. Gusmeroli2 & G. Schiantarelli2
1
ABC Department, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
2
Engineer, Sondrio, Italy
Abstract
The construction design process is starting to change with the advent of Building
Information Modelling technology. Thanks to the high level of BIM
interoperability, it has been possible to transform a BIM model of an historical
building, obtained from a laser scanner survey, into an accurate 3D Finite Element
Model. The model is able to exploit all the geometrical information collected and
organized during the survey phase. The object of the analysis is Castel Masegra, a
XI century masonry historical building on the alpine mountains overlooking to
Sondrio (Italy). The implementation of the BIM model has been carried out by
keeping in mind that the final goal was the construction of a reliable finite element
model with a compatible and regular mesh, reproducing the irregularities and
complexities that could influence the mechanical behaviour of the structure. Once
it has been obtained the 3D finite element model, the historical and diagnostic
information have been integrated into the BIM model and a construction stage
analysis has been studied and then carried out. The huge amount of information
and the large number of finite elements employed introduced some difficulties in
data management and results interpretation. However, thanks to the always
increasing computational capacity of personal computers, it has been possible to
deal with a model composed by more than 700,000 elements, obtaining the results
in terms of stresses and displacements of the whole building.
Keywords: BIM model, historical building, masonry structure, FEM model,
construction stage.
doi:10.2495/BIM150471
1 Introduction
The traditional approach to structural analysis relies on the elaboration of a specific
disciplinary model, more or less sophisticated. With the advent of BIM (Building
Information Modelling) technology, this process is starting to change, at least for
which concerns new buildings. In fact, thanks to the increasing level of BIM
interoperability, the same model can be used for many purposes by exchanging
the information between the dierent figures involved in a project. In particular,
for the structural field, specific BIM packages exist and can perform finite element
analysis; however they can deal only with simple and regular geometric objects.
On the contrary, for existing buildings, especially historical ones, this procedure
results to be not feasible for many reasons, one of which is the complexity of real
geometry. The transformation of a 3D architectonic model into a finite element
model (FEM) with the meshing procedure may appear to be a trivial operation,
but, in reality, a lot of subtle measures, not trivial at all, have to be taken, in order
to get a compatible and regular mesh. For this reason, it is important that, since the
beginning of the modelling phases, the analyst must take care not only about the
perfect shape reproduction but also to the fulfilment of the requirements needed
for a structural model. Thus, what is really important is a rationalization of the
shapes to be included in the model, being able to distinguish the irregularities and
complexities that can influence the mechanical behaviour of an element, such as
vaults or irregular walls, from the small irregularities not relevant from a structural
point of view.
The object of the analysis is the south wing of Castel Masegra, a XI century
masonry historical building on the alpine mountains overlooking to Sondrio
(figure 1). It is the only remained of the three castles that dominated the city, and
it rises over a cli to the left of the Mallero River. The actual structure with a
trapezoidal shape is the result of a complex architectonic transformation lasted for
ten centuries.
Figure 1: Castel Masegra (left) and laser scanner points cloud (right).
2 Data collection
The survey of Castel Masegra has been carried out considering the final goal of
the activity that is the creation of a BIM, and successively a 3D finite element
model, able to reproduce as much as possible the geometric irregularities of the
structure [1, 2]. Due to the complexity of the geometry and the large dimension of
the castle it has been decided to perform a laser scanner survey with a robust
geodetic network associated, in order to have the best possible mapping in terms
of precision, completeness and reliability.
The laser scanner survey has been performed using a laser scanner Faro Focus
3D and is made up of 182 scans, 44 millions of points for each scan (roughly 7.7
billion points) registered by means of 269 checkerboards measured also by the
Total Station Leica TS30. The point clouds obtained from the laser scanner survey,
after the alignment and georeferencing operations, give an incredible 3D definition
of the geometry of the analysed object: using appropriate software (e.g. SCENE
or Leica Cyclone), it is possible to navigate across it, having a realistic rendering
of the building with all its features (figure 1).
However, all this amount of information have to be converted in a more
ecient and usable way, keeping the desired information, integrating the missing
one and discarding all the amount of useless data. The first step of this procedure
is the creation of the usual 2D drawings of a building: plans, sections, and faades.
In this phase, the great database of pictures made during the survey results to be
very useful, allowing the interpretation of eventual lack of information in the
clouds. Fortunately, the software AutoCAD, in its last versions, has introduced the
possibility of importing and managing the point clouds, with apposite tools for
cutting slices or isolating some zones, both natively or using third parts plugin
(e.g. Leica Cloudworks), making simpler and simpler the production of plans and
sections. Six plans representing the four floors and the roof have been produced,
with a covered planar area of about 2700 m2. It has been noticed the great
dierences with the old plans owned by the Municipality of Sondrio: this
underlines the benefits of an accurate laser scanner survey for the reconstruction
of such a complex building.
Once the plans were drawn, it has been decided to focus the attention on a
particular area of the castle: the south wing. This has been done for specific
reasons, i.e. the presence, at the first floor, of the dovecote tower, of the camera
picta, with its very particular umbrella vault, the out of plumb of the dovecote
tower and the presence, at the first floor, of a bearing wall resting on the barrel
vault.
3 BIM creation
BIM software was initially used only to manage new building constructions [3, 4].
Today it represents an opportunity also for heritage documentation and
conservation management, but it still requires a methodological discussion and
practical experimentation in order to obtain detailed models of irregular historical
buildings, really useful for their preservation and maintenance activities [2, 5]. For
the implementation of a rational parametric BIM model it is necessary to
distinguish the zones of the building where only simple elements are present from
the others with complex or irregular ones; this is necessary because there is a lack
of parametric model software for the management of complex and irregular
shapes. For this reason, the drafting of 2D drawings before the 3D model
construction could be useful.
Starting from the section drawings, it has been possible to individuate the out-
of plumb and the wall tapering of the external faces of the walls, while the internal
ones appears to be reasonably vertical. To overcome the lack of such an element
in the BIM software, it has been decided to combine two walls (figure 2): the
external faades has been modelled with a Wall by Face tool in Revit, while the
internal face has been simplified with a normal straight wall for each floor. The
two parts of the wall are then joined, with all the irregularities and wall tapering
correctly shaped in the BIM model, without losing the possibility to insert the wall
stratigraphy.
Figure 2: BIM model: external wall (left), umbrella vault (right).
The Wall by Face tool has been chosen also for the vault modelling (figure
2) because it allows considering the thickness as a parameter. This can be useful
in all the cases where the thickness is unknown or difficult to be determined by
inspection, allowing the possibility to inquire dierent hypothesis without re-
modelling the shape, by simply changing the thickness value and automatically
updating the model.
The modelling of irregular and complex surfaces cannot be made directly in
Revit. The general procedure adopted in present situations is the following: (i)
individuation of the generative profiles of the surfaces; (ii) extraction of the
generative profiles from the points cloud in AutoCAD; (iii) modelling of the
surfaces in Rhino. Based on the dierent shapes and irregularities to be modelled,
the generative profiles are chosen accordingly. Particular care must be paid in the
definition of the generative profiles of the vault wedges. Based on these rules, the
whole model of the castle has been made (figure 3).
Figure 3: Cross section (left) and whole BIM model (right).
4 From BIM to 3D finite element model

The aim of this work is the elaboration of a 3D FEM model capable to catch the
complex shapes characterizing the load-bearing elements of an historical building
(mainly vaults and irregular walls) into a structural analysis. Actually this is not
yet possible to be made in a BIM perspective, because BIM software do not deal
with 3D solid elements. So, the aim is to find a way to transform the 3D BIM
model, already made for architectonic purposes, into a FEM model by exploiting
the complex model.
The software Midas FEA has been chosen for this work because it allows
dealing with 3D elements and it gives the possibility to import advanced 3D
geometry to be meshed. A lot of time can be saved in the phase of development of
the FEM model, starting from the 3D architectonic BIM model, also taking the
advantage of having a much more detailed model with respect to the usual
simplified models adopted for these purposes. Previous works [2, 6] have found
that, among the dierent formats that can be imported in Midas FEA, the format
STEP is particularly suitable for maintaining the complex shapes during the
exchange of information. The FEM model has been generated by using the
automatic 3D meshing algorithm provided by Midas FEA. After some preliminary
tests involving two dierent meshing (tetrahedral and hexa-dominant) algorithms,
it has been decided to use tetrahedral elements which have been resulted in a better
quality mesh. In order to limit the overall number of elements of the model, while
maintaining a good quality of the results, a mesh size of 0.2 m has been set. This
allows having at least 34 elements across the thickness of the load-bearing walls.
The meshing process has requested a continuous modification of the BIM
model, based on a trial and error procedure, because the most suitable drawings
rules in order to achieve a good FEM were not defined a-priori owing to the
originality of the work. The major aspects to be corrected were: simplification of
the openings drawing, joining of the different parts of the walls and edges offset
of the vaults resulting in incompatible meshes. Some of these operations were
made by using the classical Boolean operations (union, subtraction and division),
but for the great part of the procedure it has been necessary to make the required
adjustments working on the single surfaces of the various solids. An overview of
the resulting FEM model is depicted in figure 4.
Figure 4: Mesh of the FEM (a), detail of the vaults mesh (b) and roof (c).
5 The diagnostic analysis

Masonry buildings, unlike the concrete or steel ones, present a lot of difficulties
about the determination of the material properties. This is mainly due to the fact
that masonry is a material not homogeneous at all, constituted by various types of
materials (stones, bricks), generally kept together by layers of mortar or other
bonding agents [7, 8]. Moreover, especially in the case of stone masonry, also the
texture is frequently irregular, with alternation of stones having dierent
dimensions. All these issues lead to the fact that the physical and mechanical
properties of masonry can have a lot of variability, not only between dierent
buildings, but also among dierent parts of the same building, or even within the
same structural element. For this reason it is very dicult, if not impossible, to
resume all these complexities into a single characteristic value, representative of
the structural behaviour of the whole bearing structure of a masonry building.
In the case of historical buildings, such as Castel Masegra, it is necessary to
consider also the degradation of the structural materials used (in particular
mortars) and the historical evolution of the building, with all the adjustments and
restorations made during the years (e.g. infills, new openings, restoration or
substitution of damaged elements with new materials), that can have heavily
modified the original masonry and its structural behaviour.
In order to better understand the analysed structure, both in terms of
composition and structural behaviour, some non-destructive tests (NDT) and
minor destructive tests were made. In particular, a thermographic inspection has
been performed by the sta of the ABC Department of Politecnico di Milano with
the aim to investigate the structure of the castle, to localize not visible degradation
phenomena and to check the conditions of temperature and humidity of the
superficial masonry layers [9, 10]. Other diagnostic analysis were executed by the
engineering society Foppoli Moretta e Associati s.r.l. to characterize the
mechanical properties of the masonry structure of the castle.
In particular, single and double flat jack tests have been performed respectively
to evaluate the actual state of stress in the masonry and its real strength and
stiffness. Furthermore, horizontal and vertical cores have been made in order to
better understand the masonry texture and the foundation depth and typology. The
obtained results show a great heterogeneity both in the masonry characteristics and
foundation typology, due to the complex historical evolution of the castle and site
topography. Finally, in order to discover the vault thickness, a simple inspection
has been made by removing a part of the pavement above some selected vaults.
6 The structural analysis of Castel Masegra

Once the FEM model was ready, it has been decided to make a linear elastic
analysis. To do so, the FEM has to be completed by adding the material properties,
boundary conditions and applied loads.
6.1 Material properties
For the aim of this work, the mechanical properties of the masonry to be
considered are the elastic modulus, the Poisson coecient and the specific weight.
The Poisson coecient has set to the common value of 0.2 while for the specific
weight, considering the typology and the dimensions of the stones, a conservative
value of 22 kN/m3 has been considered.
Regarding the elastic modulus, dierent hypothesis have been considered in
order to have a sensitivity analysis about this parameter. In particular, a first
analysis has been carried out considering the characteristic values for a good stone
masonry of 3000 N/mm2, given by the Italian design code [11], for the entire
masonry structure. In the second case, the results given by the flat jack in-situ tests
have been included in the analysis (elastic modulus range 16007220 MPa); in
particular it has been decided to consider the elastic modulus calculated from the
loading-unloading cycles.
These material properties have been assigned by subdividing the castle in
zones, based both on historical evolution and state of conservation of the materials.
The stiffness obtained from each flat jack test has been extended to its surrounding
area.
6.2 Loads
The self-weight of the load-bearing elements is automatically computed by the

FEM software given the geometry of the model. On the contrary, the dead loads,
due to the weight of the elements that have not been modelled, have been applied
to the structure as distributed pressure loads. The main elements to be converted
into dead loads, not included in the model, are the infilling materials on the vaults
and the wooden slabs.
Regarding the vault infilling, the main problem was the possibility to reproduce
the variability of its thickness along the surface of the vaults. This has been
effectively possible by the definition of a linear function of the infilling thickness
in order to assign to each vault element face the appropriate infilling weight load.
The weight of the wooden slabs has been calculated and appropriately
distributed directly on the walls, according to the span direction. In particular, the
dead load applied on each wall has been redistributed on the first strip of finite
elements along the thickness (i.e. over the first 20 cm of wall), at the appropriate
height. All the finishes have been included into the distributed dead load applied
on the relative vault or slab.
Moreover, also the active lateral soil pressure has been taken into account
among the dead loads; its linear variability with depth has been considered. The
soil properties have been hypothesized considering the absence of clay and
assuming a granular soil as reference.
6.3 Boundary conditions
The setting of boundary conditions is one of the most important issues to be solved.
In fact, the castle rises on a cli: its dierent parts have dierent foundation levels
and rest on dierent materials. Some walls are directly founded on the outcropping
rock while others have shallow foundations on soil. The information regarding the
foundation typologies have been obtained in part from the coring made during the
diagnostic analysis, in part directly observing the wall base, and in part referring
to the advices given by the Municipality of Sondrio, based on some maintenance
works made in the castle. However in some cases, the information was completely
missed and some hypotheses have been made considering the conditions of the
surrounding area.
As a first assumption, fixed restraints have been applied to the lower end of
each wall, at the corresponding foundation depth. However, in a case like this,
where the dierent parts of the castle are founded in heterogeneous conditions and
at dierent levels, the structural behaviour can be strongly influenced by the
boundary conditions set. For this reason, a second hypothesis has been made by
assuming the soil and the rock as a Winkler elastic subgrade. The moduli of
subgrade reaction have been assigned to the dierent walls on the basis of
literature values due to the lack of specific in-situ experimental data.
6.4 Construction stages
Since the castle has not been built in a single step, but it is the result of a lot of
complex historical transformation, it has been decided to reproduce the historical
evolution also in the structural analysis, by making a construction stage analysis.
The dierent parts of the castle are gradually added to the model; for each stage
the analysis under self-weight is performed, and the parts of the castle belonging
to the successive stage are added on the deformed configuration of the previous
stage.
This way of proceeding has been undertaken for tree dierent reasons:
to reproduce the historical evolution of the architectonic complex, that can
influence the load redistribution;
to try to reduce the resulting stress concentrations at the dierent foundation
levels, because of the model hypothesis of fixed restraints that doesnt allow
any settlement;
to avoid strange load redistribution with stress concentration between parts
with dierent material properties: in fact, in case of very dierent elastic
modulus among different parts, such as in this case, the weaker part tends to
hang to the stronger one, following in unrealistic stress patterns.
Obviously this approach presents the drawback that the computational cost
increases proportionally with the number of stages: if a one-step analysis takes
about 5 minutes to be completed, a 7 stages analysis takes almost 40 minutes.
6.5 Model calibration: comparison with single flat jack results
In order to test the model reliability, and to calibrate the hypotheses made, the
vertical stresses obtained in correspondence of the location of the single flat jack
tests have been compared with the test results themselves.
Figure 5: Sequence of the construction stages.
A good correspondence has been obtained for the tests M3 and M9, located
respectively on the south wall in the partially buried barrel vaulted room and on
the north wall in the corridor at the first floor. In particular, better results have been
obtained from the model with mechanical properties determined from the in-situ
tests compared to the corresponding one with standard mechanical properties.
Instead, when the boundary conditions have been changed, position M3 shows a
further improvement, while position M9 gets worse.
For what concern the other two tests, M2 located on the north wall in the
partially buried barrel vaulted room, and M4, located on the west wall of the
dovecote tower, the model isnt able to catch the state of stress measured in these
zones. The bad results obtained for the test M4 can be explained considering that
it has been observed that the dovecote tower has suered a rotation in the east
direction, due to the settlement of the very superficial foundation of the east wall.
For this reason, the west wall, deeply founded in the soil, is subjected to a bending
moment, and the west part of it results to be in tension. For the test M2, the problem
is more or less the same. The conditions here are less complicated, but the depth
of the foundations and the subgrade materials are unknown in this zone. This is
the zone in which the bedrock starts to degrade from the courtyard level; for this
reason, more accurate investigations should be carried out in order to better
understand the behaviour of this zone.
In conclusion, we can say that the accurate model gives good results in the
zones in which the boundary conditions are simpler and quite well known, while
problems arises in the zones in which the boundary conditions are complicated
and not suciently supported by adequate investigations. So, the model results to
be reliable from the structural point of view, but it can be improved for what
concern the geotechnical aspects.
6.6 Results
The stresses fields obtained from the performed analysis generally show lower
values of stresses than the ultimate strength of masonry estimated by flat jack tests.
In particular, the tensile stresses due to the lateral load of the vaults, especially of
the barrel vault, are highlighted plotting the principal stress (figure 6). It can be
observed the presence of stress concentrations near the anchorage of tie-rods.
Figure 6: Principal stress: north side (left), south side (right).
Another interesting result is the dierent deforming behaviour of the dierent

material parts. Thus, the advisability to make a construction stages analysis is
evident in order to follow the construction sequence avoiding unreal hanging
phenomena of the weakest parts on the strongest ones.
A further confirmation of the reliability of the model follows from the
comparison of the tensile stressed regions and the crack pattern detected on site.
A first example is the presence of an unloading arch on the east wall of the
dovecote tower. The first principal stress matches with the crack pattern
individuated on site. This behaviour can be explained considering that on the other
side of the wall there is the umbrella vault. The unloading arch is due to the
presence of two openings, now partially infilled, which weaken the wall itself,
exactly below the vault corbels (figure 7). A stress concentration at the top of the
two openings can be noticed where two repaired cracks can be seen.
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Tensile stresses in the dovecote tower wall (a) and cracks (b).
Another interesting example is located in the partially underground southwest

room, at the top of one of the lunettes of the north side of the barrel vault (figure
8(a)), where the results matches the cracking position and its direction of
propagation. In the same room, a similar example can be found around the opening
in the west wall (figure 8(b)).
7 Conclusions
A detailed BIM model of Masegra Castle has been implemented starting from the
points cloud obtained with a laser scanner survey. The BIM model of the castle
was then transformed into an accurate 3D finite element model taking into account
(a) (b)
Figure 8: Tensile stresses underground room: north (a) and west (b) walls.
all the geometric information together with the historical and diagnostic analysis.
This procedure has implied a significant eort for its great interdisciplinarity,
required to deal with all the aspects of the problem when trying to consider
dierent fields by using the same model for many purposes. This necessity has
become evident especially in the modelling phase, where a lot of specific
procedures have been checked in order to find the best way to convert the BIM
model into a finite element model.
The selected conversion procedure between BIM and FEM models can be very
useful to study the structural behaviour of historical buildings, especially when
very pronounced irregularities are present. In particular, such an accurate
geometric model can be a precious tool to better understand the behaviour of
particular elements such as vaults or irregular walls. A possible drawback of
employing a fully three-dimensional model for a structural analysis is that a great
number of finite elements is required for the discretization of the problem. In this
case, a total of 720,393 continuum finite elements were considered in the mesh of
the castle.
The construction stage analysis performed with the FEM model has allowed to
check the stress level in the castle structures, which is a preliminary information
for the detailing of the restoration works to be planned.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thanks Eng. Francesco Barri and all the Municipality of
Sondrio for the on-site support. Furthermore, many thanks are also due to prof.
Raffaella Brumana and the survey team of ABC Department of Politecnico di
Milano.
References
[1] Brumana, R., Oreni, D., Cuca, B., Binda, L., Condoleo, P. & Triggiani, M.,
Strategy for integrated surveying techniques finalized to interpretative
models in a byzantine church, Mesopotam, Albania. International Journal
of Architectural Heritage, 8, pp. 886-924, 2014.
[2] Oreni, D., Brumana, R., Della Torre, S., Banfi, F., Barazzetti, L. & Previtali,
M., Survey turned into HBIM: the restoration and the work involved
concerning the Basilica di Collemaggio after the earthquake (LAquila).
ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial
Information Sciences, vol. II, pp. 267-273, 2014.
[3] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R. & Liston, K., BIM Handbook A guide
to Building Information Modeling for owners, managers, designers and
contractors, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008.
[4] Lee, G., Sacks, R. & Eastman, C. M., Specifying Parametric Building
Object Behavior (BOB) for a Building Information Modeling System.
Automation in Construction, 15(6), pp. 758-776, 2006.
[5] Oreni, D., Brumana, R., Cuca, B. & Georgopoulos, A., HBIM for
conservation and management of built heritage: Towards a library of vaults
and wooden bean floors. ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote
Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, (II-5/W1), pp. 215-221, 2013.
[6] Arrighetti, S., Bertola, L. & Livetti, A., Restituire Collemaggio. Masters
thesis, Politecnico di Milano, 2014.
[7] Binda, L. & Tiraboschi, C., Flat-Jack Test: a slightly destructive technique
for the diagnosis of brick and stone masonry structures. International journal
for restoration of buildings and monuments, 5, pp. 449-472, 1999.
[8] Maierhofer, C., Combination of Non-Destructive testing methods for the
assessment of masonry structures. Proceedings of the 1st International
SACoMaTiS Symposium, 2, pp. 715-726, 2008.
[9] Rosina, E. & Grinzato, E., Infrared and Thermal Testing for Conservation
of Historic Building. Material Evaluation, 59(8), pp. 942-954, 2001.
[10] Rosina, E., Ludwig, N. & Redaelli, V., Metodi per la misura dellumidit
nei materiali delledilizia storica: legno e intonaci. X Congresso Nazionale
AIPnD, pp. 165-173, 2003.
[11] Norme Tecniche per le Costruzioni, Italian Ministerial Decree, 2008.
BIM and cultural heritage:

compatibility tests in an archaeological site
C. Achille, N. Lombardini & C. Tommasi
3D Survey Group, ABC Department, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Abstract
Nowadays, when people speak about BIM software, they refer to new
constructions, made by regular elements and standard parameters. The question is:
what happens when you, instead of a new building, consider an ancient or existing
one? To answer this question, we have evaluated the possibility of using the BIM
process effectively for the conservation and proclamation of Cultural Heritage.
The target is to test the BIM programs, satisfying the requirements of new
buildings, and see if they can also be successfully used in complex situations, like
the ones linked to the Cultural Heritage field, where you have to consider the
unicity of the architectural elements, the constructive systems and materials (those
are not standardized as the new ones), the degradation of the structures and the
environmental conditions. In particular, the research examines the case study of
the archaeological area of the Sanctuary of Diana in Nemi (Rome), which is an
important example in the National Heritage. The final product consists of a
parametric model, where you can find, embedded in a database, all the information
about the elements and the management of conservation projects. Highlighting
positive aspects and existing limits we want to contribute to further studies on the
subject, leading to a mandatory implementation and use of this software, even in
relation to future European legislative framework.
Keywords: BIM, cultural heritage, survey, conservation, maintenance.
1 Introduction
The paper specifically focuses on the theme of Archaeological Heritage that is
defined by ICOMOS: The archaeological heritage is that part of the material
heritage in respect of which archaeological methods provide primary information.
It comprises all vestiges of human existence and consists of places relating to all
doi:10.2495/BIM150481
manifestations of human activity, abandoned structures, and remains of all kinds

(including subterranean and underwater sites), together with all the portable
cultural material associated with them ICOMOS [1].
The choice to deal with the study of an archaeological site is determined by the
urgency to protect and conserve them (e.g. the Italian case of Pompeii). As the
overall objective of archaeological heritage management should be the
preservation of monuments and sites in situ, including proper long-term
conservation and curation of all related records and collections etc. ICOMOS
[1], its necessary to verify the possibility of a parametric model, interoperable,
semantic and clever, capable of offering a 3D representation of the heritage within
all the information about its life cycle and all the survey made during time. Also
the complexity proper of archaeological heritage of some characteristics
(historical, architectonical, structural, constructive, materials and decay) makes
the case study interesting in order to evaluate the feasibility of several operative
and management procedures [2].
The aim of the research in progress today is to test, with real data and real case
studies from CH word, the BIM process and highlight the difficulties in order to
improve it. Nowadays, we are looking at a constant diffusion of BIM systems
among different fields of application. BIM is not a single software, but it is a
process that support the information sharing and the maintenance of buildings.
HARPACEAS [3] teaches in fact that the BIM modules are three: Authoring,
that include all the software that build the 3D model; Tools, that is used for the
computes and the information about the materials in the construction site;
Review, that has to check the final model completed with all the information,
and be sure that the structural, architectural and plant models correspond.
It is clear that the potential that until now has been used mostly in the new
constructions field, can be adapted and refined in the Cultural Heritage word.
Before showing the case study, it is important to know which data that are
managed in CH field, especially in archaeological areas.
2 What the CH need from a BIM system?

What is interesting for the potentiality offered by the BIM technology is the
methodical approach not only for the interventions needed, but also for the
management of the cultural heritage, with the activities to monitor its health
condition and the maintenance. The working method realized using these
instruments would allow the achievement of these tasks:
The digital representation of the existing building;
An informative database about all the different elements of the heritage;
A recurring checking of the health condition of the heritage;
The evaluation of the effects of different typology of intervention.
The management of existing site has different needs from the new buildings,
and it is important to know the precise information that the model must contain:
Geo localization
Shape of the element

Materials
Different layers of materials
State of decay
Historical information
Environmental conditions
2.1 State of art
Many researches are focusing their attention on building a system that can be
adapted to all CH cases studies, even to the archaeological areas [4]; however, it
is still very difficult to find it because each situation is very different from the
others, having particular and unique needs and history. For this reason, hard
structured information system cannot be actually used in CH field, which requires
more dynamic systems, capable of self-adapting to every case for covering all
possible needs. Nowadays, we can distinguish two different categories of software
related to 3D models; for now, the BIM software are not able to solve all the issues
that come from the modelling of the CH, but they need the integration with other
instrument to reach a sufficient result: 3D modelling software and BIM software.
The first category include the modelling software (as for example 3DStudio,
AutoCad, Rhinoceros etc.) that can manage real based 3D models. These models
can be characterized by high complexity, great accuracy, high-resolution and
heterogeneous features (both line based and surface based at the same time),
represented through Mesh and Nurbs. Normally these models are directly created
from 3D dense point clouds, coming from survey.
On the other hand, when we speak about BIM software, it is important to know
that the most important letter of the word BIM is the I Information as they
add to the 3D buildings models an information system, namely connecting digital
models with different kind of information useful for building management.
Revit, for example, is one of best known building design software specifically
built for Building Information Modelling (BIM), with features for architectural
design, (MEP and structural engineering, and construction) based on parametric
components [5]. BIM software offer hard structured information system able to
connect data and information to the objects, with the possibility to perform queries
and simulations on them. Inside the universe BIM, there is an experimental process
called HBIM, explained by Dore and Murphy [6], that represent an example of
BIM specifically directed to Digital Heritage. It is a novel prototype library of
parametric objects based on historic architectural data and a system of cross
platform programs for mapping parametric objects onto a point clod and image
survey data [7, 8]. From all the case studies considered emerged the fundamental
features that all the BIM software should have to operate in CH:
To be able to collect historical-cultural information to understand where to
operate;
To guarantee the possibility of managing the survey data (CAD, point clouds),
to ease the operation of virtual reconstruction of the building;
To foresee the possibility of modifying or implementing, any time and by any

operator, to ensure both the update of all the information linked to the different
elements and the validity of the evaluations on the present state of the
heritage;
To let the construction of an informative and open database, containing the
indications about the materials and the constructive methodologies of the
building;
To ensure the exchange of different data between different parametric or non-
parametric software, thanks to the identification of some format (IFC, XLM,
etc.).
To make the BIM systems become convenient in CH, instead of using normal
3D modelling software, some operative issues have to be resolved:
lack of interoperability between BIM and the technologies for topographical
survey; hard management of heavy data coming from surveying instrument
(e.g. laser scanner, photogrammetry, etc.) such as huge point clouds;
simplification of the geometry of the monument;
complexity in the restitution of the unicity and of the details of the historical
elements;
inability to assign punctually specific data to points placed in the surface of
the object.
The need to ease the process of 3D model production and graphical
elaborations for the CH became a goal not only for a correct reproduction of the
existing monument, but also for a complete comprehension of the hierarchical
logic between the parts of the monument.
2.2 BIM system data interaction
2.2.1 Survey data

There are three common methods to survey a monument, an historical building or
an archaeological area: the direct survey, the photogrammetric survey and the
topographical survey. Even if the restitution of a historical building is a
coordination of these three methods, the focus is on the data that comes from the
photogrammetric and topographical survey. These two methods generate one
product the point cloud through different means. The management of point
clouds is one of the bigger problems of BIM applied to CH. This is an issue faced
last year by several design platform (e.g. Autocad 2015 added the function attach
point cloud) and the BIM system is trying to catch up: now the software is able
to import point clouds, but its important to underline that is not easy to manage
them. These are the most common problems that we incurred opening the point
clouds in Graphisoft Archicad and Autodesk Revit:
Impossibility to import big point clouds (with millions point), making it
impossible to reach an high level of details;
Impossibility to recognize the points as snap point and redraw the profiles;
Impossibility to edit the surfaces created with the triangulation.
Some plug-ins are available in order to solve in part the problems, for example
Green Spider for Revit developed by Garagnani and Manferdini [9] and Cadimage
for Archicad, that improve the functionalities of the original programs as the
recognizing of the points as snap. Given that BIM is not a single software, but a
process, it is impossible to have one unique program that solve all the matters. For
that reason, some software mediate between the instrument for surveying (e.g.
laser scanner) and the BIM modeller (e.g. Archicad, Revit, Allplan, etc.), e.g. one
program created with this aim is Scalypso [10].
2.2.2 Materials browser

The parametrization process includes the materials used in building the existent
structures. The aleatory knowledge of the materials is fundamentally due to a lack
in their standardization.
The knowledge of the behaviour of existing buildings (not necessarily ancient
or monumental) is based on the specific study of the material features, acquired
with methodical and destructive instrumentations (destructive tests) and/or non-
destructive ones (NDT).
There are many limitations in the knowledge of ancient materials and building
techniques but, above all, there is a very poor knowledge about the real compliance
of what was built with what is written in the treatises, the manuals, the rules and
the project elaborations.
Anyway, despite all the inquiries, one cannot reach a complete knowledge of
the ancient materials (the data or the parameters are of structural, physical and
termo-physical kind); moreover, in general terms, in the databases of the examined
softwares only data relevant to modern materials can be found.
Figure 1: Workflow of the management of the data related to the construction

materials in order of their implementation and their use by the BIM
software.
This objective limitation on the knowledge of the material parameters implies

that, in the actual state of the art, one has to define, case by case, knowledge level
standards in a way that he can have a control on the approximation level reached
in each single case. We have to aspire to a standardization in the definition and in
the use of these data (a sort of a standard knowledge level, as defined in the
structural field by the Italian Technical Rules for the existing structures) [11].
3 Case study: BIM applied to the archaeological

area of Nemi (Rome)
3.1 General overview
Nemi is a small city, located in the middle of Colli Albani in Rome

surroundings. The place is well known for the roman ships, recovered in the 1930s
and destroyed during the Second World War. Several interesting places of
archaeological interest are distributed along and near the lake. One of the most
famous is the Sanctuary of Diana. Up to now the temple has been excavated,
several parts of the Sanctuary and the so called celle donarie. Starting from the
data that we surveyed there, we tried to elaborate them in a BIM process. The aim
is to study a new system for covering the site and to obtain a smart model, plenty
of information. The collected and available data in this case study are: the laser
scanner and photogrammetrical survey of the ruins; the survey of the materials of
the Sanctuary and of the Cells; the state of decay of the roman masonry structures
of the Sanctuary and of the Cells; the micro environmental conditions of
temperature, (humidity, rising dump in the masonries and ventilation) and the
critical collection of historical documents, especially in order to deeply evaluate
the constructive methods adopted I this ancient structures built in opus incertum,
opus reticulatum, and mixtum (we are speaking about masonries composed by a
core of roman concrete protected by faces of pyramid blocks made in peperino
a volcanic tuff excavated in quarries very close to Nemi).
Figure 2: Localization of the area in the lake (on the left), Dianas Sanctuary
planimetry (in the middle) and photo of the Sanctuary (on the right).
In the same time was surveyed the existing coverage that is interesting one side
of the Sanctuary, so called Portico. Once all the information were collected, the
next phase was to put them in one container: in the market, there are several BIM
software certified by Building Smart [12], an organization that promotes the
interoperability (open information exchange) between the different BIM
instruments. To run the compatibility tests we chose the two most used one:
Graphisoft Archicad and Autodesk Revit.
The available information about Nemi coming from the survey can be divided
in three categories: text, raster and vectorial. For each category, we made several
attempt with different instruments that the two software gave us, in order to define
the best solutions for information exchanging and time saving.
3.2 Data management: text and raster
When we speak about text, we refer to the specific information about the materials,
the decay, micro environmental, etc. What is required from a BIM software is the
freedom to assign specific characteristics to specific points, but these software
generally work for elements and components and they do not recognize the single
points on their surface.
This is a problem for the CH field, where potentially every point of the surface
can have different parameters, considering also not only the specific
characteristics that are not standardized, but also their damages. We partially
resolve it putting some tags in selected points.
Regarding the metrical images (e.g. the ortophotos), they was useful to do the
3D reconstruction of the shapes and to read the walls, and also to create materials
for the material library (e.g. different type of stone, Figure 3).
Figure 3: Top line: Materials browser: how it look like (on the left). Nemi case
study: peperino material, image inserted during the research phase.
Insertion of raster data and modelling of the walls (on the right).
Bottom line: Environmental data management: placement of tags with
temperature data (on the left), coming from hand drawings made in
site (on the right).
3.3 Data management: CAD and point clouds
The CAD file can be a product of direct survey, so it is important to be able to

handle it easily with the BIM software. In general, we can say that while in
Archicad there are no issues in managing them, instead in Revit the format can be
imported and correctly viewed but the files cannot be edited, and they will only
work as tracing path. On the other hand, when we speak about point clouds, we
refer to the product of laser scanner survey or photogrammetric survey. The
management of this type of data is more complex, and, as said before, it is one of
the biggest problem of BIM technology in CH field. The two software manage
these types of data in different way: with Revit its possible to create some slides
of the point cloud, and it is able to manage complete and big cloud, it is not
necessary to reduce it before the import in the software. However, the tests
highlight the limit of the program: the point are not considered as snap, so you can
correctly viewing it, without using it to exactly define the shape of the elements.
On the other hand, Archicad works in quite different way. It is not able to import
big cloud, so before starting that operation, it is necessary to reduce it. Once you
have a smaller point cloud, you can import it and thank to the add-on Archisuite
and in particular, with Architools, it is possible to recognize the point as 3D
elements and using them to trace the shape, Figure 4. However, it is clear that with
this method, you lose the level of detail because of the previous reduction of the
cloud.
Figure 4: Top line: original point cloud and elaboration in Revit; Bottom line:
approximate design of a section of a column from the Sanctuary, with
3D mesh visualization created by importing the survey data of the
column.
3.4 Parametric modelling
The 3D modelling of the archaeological area was made in different ways, which
lead to different results and built the final model. The modelling of the coverage
project (existing and new one) reached a very high level of detail, while the
modelling of the ruins, created many difficulties, and the result is enough
satisfactory.
Regarding the modelling part, when you work on these platforms, there is a
simplification caused by the parameterization of the elements, that has to became
more flexible and embrace the irregularities and the unicity of an historical
building or an archaeological area.
The modelling phase is complicate and (at the moment) time consuming, but
there are significant advantages in using it but if able to reach a sufficient Level of
Detail (LOD), we obtain a model inside an information system.
Figure 5: Top line: how the final render of the 3D model looks like (on the left)
and how it is built stratifications of the wall (on the right). Bottom
line: visualization of the annotations of a part of the wall.
4 Conclusions
Ultimately, although there are several instruments that help the BIM software to
return the historical buildings, the applications need to be perfect and shaped on
the needs of who survey and model these type of elements. The models of the
portico, of the existing coverage and of the new coverage in the Sanctuary of
Diana in Nemi improved/implemented by the two BIM softwares dont and cannot
Figure 6: Top line: the different LOD created: from the conceptual level (mass
model) up to the level that contains all the graphic details and
information. Bottom line: comparison between the two final model
(Autodesk Revit on the left and Graphisoft Archicad on the right):
existent and project state.
acquire all the information. After these tests on the two BIM software, the model
does not contain all the information that it should have, but with the help of
external modeller, it reaches a sufficient level of detail. Even if we succeed to
model the area, and put some information inside it, there is not yet a complete level
of interoperability, especially between the survey data and the BIM software not
even between the parametric and non-parametric ones. Some steps in that direction
are been done: for example from ArchiCAD 18 is possible to import/export
directly from/to Rhinoceros, and the point cloud management is easier. In
conclusion, we can say that a lot has to be done yet to use this type of software
easily in the CH field, but we feel that the technologic barrier will be overcome
very soon. For this reason, it is important to keep updated because the BIM process
is in progress, and it is directed towards the CH world.
Table 1: Recap of the characteristics of the BIM process applied to the

archaeological area.
Level of Level of Level of

Model features and
BIM software management: management: management:
data management
good sufficient insufficient
Text data: Revit 2014 a. b.
a) Extended
b) Punctual Archicad 17 b. a.
Raster data: Revit 2014 b. a. c. d.

a) Retracing support
b) Material survey
c) Decay survey
d) Photo database Archicad 17 a. b. c. d.
Vectorial data:
a) CAD files Revit 2014 a. c. b.
b) Non parametric
c) Point clouds Archicad 17 a. b. c.
Modelling:
a) Importing external Revit 2014 b. c. a. c.
elements from non-
parametric software
b) Use of IFC files
c) Modelling Archicad 17 b. c. c. a.
References
[1] ICOMOS, Charter for the protection and management of the Archaeological
Heritage, Prepared by the International Committee for the Management of
Archaeological Heritage (ICAHM) and approved by the 9th General
Assembly in Lausanne in 1990.
[2] D.L. of the 22nd Jen. 2004, n 42, Codice dei Beni Culturali e del Paesaggio,
Gazzetta Ufficiale n 45, 24 febbraio 2004.
[3] HARPACEAS, www.harpaceas.it
[4] A. Scianna, S. Gristina, S. Paliaga, Experimental BIM Applications in
Archaeology: A Work-Flow. Proc. of the 5th Int. Conf. on Digital Heritage.
Progress in Cultural Heritage: Documentation, Preservation, and
Protection, eds. M. Ioannides, N. Magnenat-Thalmann, E. Fink, R. arni,
A. Yianing Yen & E. Quak: Limassol, pp. 490-498, 2014.
[5] AUTODESK REVIT, http://www.autodesk.it
[6] C. Dore , M. Murphy, Semiautomatic modelling of building faades with
shape grammars using historic building information modelling, Proc. of the
Int. Conf, on 3D ARCH 2013 3D Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization
of Complex Architectures, eds. J. Boehm, F. Remondino, T. Kersten, T.
Fuse & D. Gonzalez-Aguilera: Trento, pp. 57-64, 2013.
[7] S., Fai, K., Graham, T., Duckworth, N., Wood, R., Attar: Building
Information Modeling and heritage documentation. Proc. of the 23rd Int.
CIPA Symposium, ed. K. Pavelka: Praga, pp. 43-48, 2011.
[8] C., Dore, M., Murphy: Integration of Historic BIM (HBIM) and 3D GIS for
Recording and Managing Cultural Heritage Sites. Proc. of the 18th Int.
Conf. on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM): Milano, pp. 369-376,
2012.
[9] S. Garagnani, A. M. Manferdini, Parametric accuracy: building information
modeling process applied to the cultural heritage preservation, Proc. of the
Int. Conf, on 3D ARCH 2013 3D Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization
of Complex Architectures, eds. J. Boehm, F. Remondino, T. Kersten, T.
Fuse & D. Gonzalez-Aguilera: Trento, pp. 87-92, 2013.
[10] Scalypso, http://www.allplan.com/it/software/altresoluzioni/scalypso.html
[11] Nuove Norme Tecniche per le Costruzioni, DM 14 gennaio 2008,
pubblicato sulla Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 29 del 4 febbraio 2008 Suppl.
Ordinario n. 30 Aggiornamento al 2014: 11/03/2015 Revisione delle Norme
tecniche per le costruzioni 2008, Testo approvato dallassemblea del
CSLLPP, del 14 novembre 2014.
[12] Building Smart, www.buildingsmart.org
Author index
Abu-Hamd M. .......................... 449 Georgiev D. ............................. 279
Achille C. ................................. 593 Gimenez L. .............................. 437
Ahmad M. H. ........................... 531 Giordano N. ............................. 581
Ahmed V.................................. 567 Goulding J. .............................. 505
Ainsworth N. ........................... 505 Greenwood D................... 107, 555
Alqalami T. .............................. 567 Gusmeroli G. ........................... 581
Angulo Fornos R...................... 407
Arayici Y. .................................. 33 Hadzaman N. A. H. ................... 59
Azli M. N. ................................ 531 Hjelseth E. ............................... 421
Hong C. H. ............................... 355
Barki H. ..................... 85, 369, 381 Hyun S. .................................... 543
Boeykens S. ............................. 341
Boguslawski P. .......... 85, 369, 381 Isaacs J. .................................... 279
Booth C. A. ................................ 71
Bouazza T. ............................... 107 Jin R. ................................ 145, 493
Brthen K. ................................ 157 Jones K. G. .............................. 555
Bruce D. A. .............................. 241
Butt T. E. ................................. 555
Kashyap M............................... 195
Kim J. E. .................................. 355
Carbonari G. ............................ 395
Chalal M. L. ............................. 195
Ciribini A. L. C. ....................... 265 Laing R. ........................... 205, 279
Corcoran P. A. ......................... 241 Lam T. T. ................................. 463
Crespi P.................................... 581 Lassen A. K. ............................ 519
Lea G. ...................................... 505
Lee S. ........................................... 3
Dang N. S. ................................... 3 Leon M. ................... 205, 217, 279
Demian P. ................................ 291 Lim Y.-W. ............................... 531
Dulaimi M. F. ............................ 45 Lombardini N. ......................... 593
Elmualim A.............................. 241 Mahamadu A.-M. ...................... 71

Mahdjoubi L. .............. 71, 85, 169,
Fadli F. ....................... 85, 369, 381 369, 381, 463
Fang K. ............................ 145, 493 Malins J. .................................. 205
Fazlenawati N. ......................... 531 Marjanovic-Halburd L. ............ 543
Figueres-Munoz A. .................. 329 Mason J. ........................... 169, 463
Fong D. .................................... 241 Mastrolembo Ventura S. .......... 265
Franchi A. ................................ 581 Mathews M. ............................. 133
Francis T. J. ............................. 555 McArthur J. J. .................. 119, 229
McGinley T. ............................ 241
Ganah A. .................................. 505 Medjdoub B. ............................ 195
Gausden C................................ 395 Mejlnder-Larsen . ................. 97
Gelder J. E. .............................. 477 Merschbrock C. ....... 253, 329, 519
Morris A. ................................. 291 Shaat A. ................................... 369

Moum A. .................................. 157 Shahsavari F. ........................... 531
Muoz V. ................................... 33 Shelbourn M. ........................... 169
Shim C. ........................................ 3
Nasir A. M. .............................. 555 Shrahily R. Y. .......................... 195
Navendren D. ........................... 169 Son S. D. .................................. 355
Nawawi A. H. ............................ 59 Stephens B. .............................. 241
Nordahl-Rolfsen C. .................. 253 Stravoravdis S. ..................... 9, 395
Suard F..................................... 437
Omar H. S. ................................. 45 Suchocki M. ............................. 305
Ormerod M. ............................. 567 Sun X. ...................................... 119
Ossen D. R. .............................. 531 Suresh Kumar S. ...................... 229
Paneroni M. ............................. 265 Takim R. .................................... 59
Papadonikolaki E. .................... 181 Tang L. ............................ 145, 493
Park S........................................... 3 Tommasi C. ............................. 593
Toniolo A................................. 217
Raslan R. .................................. 543
Robert S. .................................. 437
Ronca P. ................................... 581 Udeaja C. E. ............................. 107
Ruikar K. ................................. 291
Vrijhoef R. ............................... 181
Sakikhales M. H........................... 9
Saleeb N. .................................... 21 Wamelink J. W. F. ................... 181
Salman H. ................................ 205 Watt R...................................... 317
Scamardo M. ............................ 581
Schiantarelli G. ........................ 581 Zreik K..................................... 437
Senave M. ................................ 341 Zverovich V. ............................ 381
...for scientists by scientists
Eco-Towers
Sustainable Cities in the Sky
K. AL-KODMANY, University of IllinoisChicago, USA
Eco-Towers introduces readers to groundbreaking designs, progressive

projects, and innovative ways of thinking about a new generation of green
skyscrapers that could provide solutions to crises the world faces today,
including climate change, depleting resources, deteriorating ecology,
population increase, decreasing food supply, urban heat island effect,
pollution, deforestation, and more. The book suggests that the eco-tower
culminates the cultural and technological evolutions of the 21st century by
building and improving on the experiences of earlier designs of skyscrapers
and philosophies, particularly green, sustainable, and ecological. It argues
that the true green skyscraper is the one that engages successfully with its
larger urban context by establishing symbiotic relationships with the social,
economic, and environmental aspects. Since tall buildings are becoming
larger and taller, serving greater numbers of people, and exerting higher
demand on the environment and existing infrastructure, any improvements
in their design and construction will significantly enhance urban conditions.
The book elucidates how green skyscrapers better serve tenants, mitigate
environmental impacts, and improve integration with the city infrastructure.
It explains how skyscrapers long life cycle offers the greatest justifications
for recycling precious resources, and makes it worthwhile to employ green
features in constructing new skyscrapers and retrofitting existing ones.
Subsequently, the book explores new designs that are employing cutting-edge
green technologies at a grand scale, including water-saving technologies,
solar panels, helical wind turbines, sunlight-sensing LED lights, rainwater
catchment systems, graywater and blackwater recycling systems, seawater-
powered air conditioning, and the like. In the future, new building materials
and smart technologies will continue to offer innovative design approaches
to sustainable tall buildings with new aesthetics, referred to as eco-iconic
skyscrapers.
ISBN: 978-1-78466-017-8 eISBN: 978-1-78466-018-5
Published 2015 / 500pp / 198.00

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Building Information Modelling (BIM)

WIT Press publishes leading books in Science and Technology.

International Scientific Advisory Committee

B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia C D Bertram The University of New South

For USA, Canada and Mexico

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A Catalogue record for this book is available

WIT Press 2015

This book contains peer-reviewed papers presented at the 1st International

The Conference was chaired by Professor Lamine Mahdjoubi of the University

This conference is concerned with Building Information Modelling (BIM) as a

Section 1: BIM in design coordination

3D digital fabrication and erection technologies for

Using BIM to facilitate iterative design

Effects of the differences between virtual and physical perception

Section 2: BIM in construction operations

Using BIM to automate construction site activities

Building Information Modelling (BIM):

Supplier BIM competence assessments within the cloud:

3D scene capture: a comprehensive review of techniques and

Using BIM to follow up milestones in a project plan during

The use of building information modelling (BIM) in managing

Best practices for BIM Execution Plan development for a

Section 4: BIM and collaborative working and practices

BIM: postgraduate multidisciplinary collaborative education

Launching the innovative BIM module for the architecture and

Involvement matters: BIM implementation at project level

An examination of clients and project teams developing information

A BIM-based supply chain model for AEC

Communication framework to support more effective onsite

Making collaboration work: application of a Conceptual Design

Streamlining Building Information Model creation using Agile

BIM-GIS Community of Practice

Managing expectations of BIM product quality: a lemon market

BIM methodology as an integrated approach to heritage

Section 5: BIM-facilities management integration

Scan to BIM: the development of a clear workflow for the

3DIR: three-dimensional information retrieval from 3D building

Section 6: Interoperability issues and BIM

Building Information Modelling: a study into the suitability of

Overcoming challenges in BIM and gaming integration:

Link between BIM and energy simulation

A light weight algorithm for large-scale BIM data for visualization

BIM models generation from 2D CAD drawings and 3D scans:

BIM-GIS modelling in support of emergency response applications

Section 8: BIM in building operation and maintenance

Building information model implementation for existing buildings

Digital models applied to the analysis, intervention and management

Section 9: BIM and automation in construction

Public BIM-based model checking solutions: lessons learned from

A novel approach to 2D drawings-based reconstruction of

Implementation of BIM into cold-formed steel residential buildings

Section 10: BIM standards

A Web-based Decision Support System (DSS) to assist Small

The design and development of a classification system for BIM

Identification and analysis of UK and US BIM standards to

Section 11: BIM and sustainability

Investigating Green BIM in a Norwegian construction project:

Developing a BIM-based process-driven decision-making

Investigation into informational compatibility of Building

The role of BIM in tackling obsolescence, climate change,

Bio-inspired design material: a multipurpose case study

Section 12: BIM and cultural heritage