INTRODUCTION TO WELDING METALLURGY

By Mr. AA Deshpande, Makvin Automation Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai

WELDING IS A METALLURGICAL PROCESS:

WELDING is the joining of two or more pieces of metal by applying heat or pressure or both,
with or without the addition of filler metal, to produce a localised union through fusion or re-
crystallisation across the interface.

This definition can be extended to Brazing and Soldering with the current discussion focusing
on welding. During welding, the metal or metals being joined are melted with the heat
applied and form a metallurgical bond between them, and the filler metal, if added. Therefore
the welding process is a metallurgical process. Welding of steel is sometimes referred to as
miniaturized steel making for this reason.

WELDABILITY OF METALS & ALLOYS:

Weldability, as the name suggests, is a specific or relative measure of the ability of the
material to be welded under a given set of conditions. When two materials are welded, it is
expected that the weldment, or the weld joint, would meet the properties required to fulfil the
functions for which the part or the component was designed. It is important to realise that this
condition is implicit in the definition of weldability. For example, when boiler quality steel is
welded to make a boiler, the weldment will meet all the properties of the base material such
as the tensile, yield and fatigue strengths and the toughness - in this case, the boiler quality
steel. This requires that metallurgically, a stable bond be formed between the materials to be
joined.

Materials which are weldable include most ferrous alloys, such as low and medium carbon-
manganese structural steels, high strength steels, certain tool and die steels, most stainless
steels including duplex and super-austenitic steels, Nickel base alloys, Copper base alloys
including Cupro-aluminiums and bronzes, aluminium and its alloys and a number of other
non-ferrous metals and alloys.

WELDING PROCESSES:
Selection of a joining process requires a basic knowledge of the various processes and their
relationships to such variables as joint design, base metal properties, cost of the equipment
and welder skill. For increased economy, automatic-welding modes should be considered in
process selection. Most welding processes generally can be automated through the use of
robotics, mechanical indexing and positioning systems. Welding processes that employ an
electric arc are the most widely used in the industry. The arc may be established between an
electrode and the base material, as in SMAW shielded metal arc welding and GTAW gas
tungsten arc welding. Alternatively, the arc may be established within the heat source, as in
PAW Plasma arc welding. Furthermore, the arc and the molten metal may be protected by
an inert gas, granulated flux or gaseous slag products of a consumable electrode.

Other welding processes include:

1. Oxy-fuel welding, in which a combustible gas is burned with additions of oxygen to
produce a high temperature flame;
Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 1
2. Resistance welding in which high current density is introduced to create a high metal
temperature and pressure is applied to produce a weld;
3. Flash Welding in which an arc is created and followed by instantaneous force to bring the
parts being welded together;
4. Diffusion welding, in which clean metallic parts are brought together with high force to
create bonding through diffusion,
5. Friction welding in which two parts to be welded are brought together with force and
movement at high speed to create high temperature and bonding;
6. Electron beam welding, in which a focused stream of electrons produce melting and
joining:
7. Laser beam welding, in which a coherent light beam is focused on the work-piece to
create melting for welding or cutting:
8. Ultrasonic welding, in which a concentrated beam of sound waves is used: and
9. Explosion welding, in which a high energy explosive is used to create very high forces
between two workpieces, thus bonding them together.

The SMAW process (see Figure 1) is the most widely used because of its versatility,
portability and low cost, which make its useful for filed fabrication and installation. Although
the individual weld joint costs may be high as compared to those with automated processes,
the initial equipment cost and portability are often the deciding factors for selection.

GTAW (See Figure 5, 6 &7) is adaptable to certain materials such as Titanium and
Zirconium, stainless steels and aluminium; and is capable of producing high quality welds.
Shielded GTAW is often automated.

The SAW or submerged arc process (See Figure 8 & 9) is a high-production process and that
can be used for shop, field and semi-automated applications. However, this process has
certain limitation for weld-position requirements.

Plasma arc welding (See Figure 7) is a high-energy source application that is particularly
adaptable to automated welding techniques. It has been used advantageously for hard facing
with special metal alloys for wear and abrasion applications.

The EBW, LBW, DFW, EXW, FRW, USW and flash welding processes are rather

Figure 1: Metallurgical Zones developed in a typical weld

Specialised and are limited in applications. Resistance welding is a low-cost high production
process for use in industrial applications and is an excellent substitute for riveted construction
of thin metal components.

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The industrial usage of a welding process depends to a great extent on the following
considerations:

The material and its weldability

Production requirements

Design specifications and intended service

Size and complexity of weldments

Fabrication site shop or field

Cost of welding equipment

Welder skill and training required

WELDING & DILUTION:

Ideally, welding a particular alloy with filler metal that matches exactly provides several
advantages:

Uniform composition throughout the weld joint

Excellent match of physical properties such as colour, density and electrical and thermal
conductivities, and,

Uniform mechanical properties throughout the weld joint and the base metal after post
weld heat treatment

In commercial arc welding practice, however, s steel plate of one composition, such as IS
2062, ASTM A 441 or API-5LX is most likely to be welded with a steel electrodes of a
different chemical composition, such as E7018 or ER70-S3 electrodes. Similarly, non-ferrous
metals including aluminium alloys such as 3004, 5005, 6061 and A357.0 are all ordinarily
welded with ER4043 filler metal for general-purpose gas metal arc or Gas tungsten arc
welding applications.

The majority of filler metal selection recommended by various societies and codes is based
on providing crack-free welds and closely matching the tensile properties of the as-deposited
filler metal with those of the base metal. The composition match, although important, is the
secondary consideration.

As a result of non-matching filler metal and heat distribution characteristics, the weld joint is
usually a chemically heterogeneous composite consisting of as many as metallurgically six
distinct regions, (refer to figure 1) namely;
1. the composite zone
2. the unmixed zone
3. the weld interface
4. the partially melted zone
5. the heat affected zone (HAZ)
6. the unaffected base metal

Composite Zone: The admixture of filler metal and melted base metal comprises a
completely melted and homogenous weld fusion zone in this composite zone or region. For
instance, when a grey cast iron is welded with Nickel electrode, this region would contain a
homogeneous welded pool of nickel filler metal diluted with melted grey iron base metal. The
chemical composition of the composite zone would be the weighted average of the elements
(i.e. carbon, nickel, iron, manganese etc.) from both the filler metal and the melted base metal.
Even completely dissimilar metals such as copper and Nickel, for instance, can be welded
autogenously to each other, without filler metal, using GTAW, and the bulk composition of
this zone would be surprisingly uniform.

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Unmixed zone: The narrow region surrounding the bulk composite zone is the unmixed zone,
which consists of a boundary layer of melted base metal that froze (solidified) before
undergoing any mixing in the molten composite zone. This is usually visible when the filler
metal composition is different from the base metal (for example, pure nickel filler metal and
grey cast iron base metal)

Obviously, if the filler metal matches the composition of the base metal, the unmixed zone
will not be visible since the composition and the cooling conditions of the base metal would
match those of the filler metal. (For example, welding of pure nickel base material with pure
Nickel filler using GTAW)

Weld Interface: The third region defined in a weldment is weld interface. This surface clearly
delineates the boundary between the un-melted base metal and the solidified base metal.

Partially melted zone: In the base metal immediately adjacent to the weld interface, where
some localised melting may occur, the partially melted zone is observed. In many alloys that
contain low-melting inclusions and impurity or alloy segregation at grain boundaries,
liquation of those low-melting microscopic regions may occur and extend from the weld
interface into the partially melted zone. The classic example is HY 80 where liquation of
Manganese sulphide inclusion results in hot cracking or micro-fissures, which extend from the
unmixed zone into the partially melted zone.

Heat affected zone (HAZ): The true HAZ is the portion of the weld joint which has been
subjected to peak temperatures high enough to produce solid-state micro-structural changes
but too low to cause any melting. For example, in high carbon steels, solid-state carbon
diffusion at low temperatures (from 250 to 100 deg. C. during cooling of the weldment) may
result in the formation of hard martensite in the HAZ. In a single-phase alloy, such as say pure
Copper or pure Nickel, this is evident by the increasing grain size from the outer extremity of
the HAZ to a maximum grain size at the weld interface.

Unaffected base metal: Finally, the part of the work-piece that has not undergone any
metallurgical change is the unaffected base metal. Although metallurgically unchanged, the
unaffected base metal and the entire weld joint is likely to be in a state of high residual
shrinkage stress, depending on the degree of restrain imposed on the weld.

PRE-HEATING AND POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT OF WELD JOINTS:

Preheating of joints to be welded is an extremely effective method ordinarily used to reduce:
1. Cooling rates of the weld and the HAZ,
2. The magnitude of distortion and residual shrinkage stress and;
3. The arc energy input required to deposit a given weld

The first two factors are essential to prevent cracking in hardenable steels. The third is often
necessary to weld thick sections of highly conducting materials, such as copper or aluminium.

Preheating of work-piece (base metal) can significantly reduce the weld cooling rates and
increase the width of the HAZ. The accompanying changes in microstructure and hardness of
the weld joint can be substantial. For example, adequate preheating of high carbon 1080 steel
will produce a crack-free pearlitic microstructure in the HAZ while a similar weld without
preheating will result in brittle martensite structure in the HAZ.

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Preheating temperatures therefore can be determined using published CCT curves of the
base metals to be welded or can be calculated using a Carbon equivalent formula.
Alternatively, they can be decided by reference to appropriate codes and published literature.

Reduction of distortion and residual stress is the second purpose of preheating both ferrous
and non-ferrous metals. As a weld cools through the austenite range in steels (or through
elevated temperature ranges in non-ferrous alloys) the metal has less strength and good
plasticity. Therefore the weld metal and HAZ deform plastically to accommodate the change
in dimensions imposed by the shrinking weld. Upon cooling to room temperature, residual
stresses build up because of continued shrinkage. But this build up is far less in preheated
steels (or non-ferrous alloys). Although, the degree of reduction in distortion and residual
stress is difficult to predict in practical welding applications, where other variables such as
magnitude of restraint, groove preparations and heat input are also present, preheating reduces
the distortion and residual stress to a great extent.

Post weld heat treatment accomplishes a wide variety of metallurgical objectives, such as;

1. Stress relief
2. Dimensional stability
3. Resistance to stress corrosion and
4. Improved toughness and mechanical properties

Stress relieving is a PWHT used for most frequently to reduce the residual welding stresses in
welds that are heavily restrained or are susceptible to cracking. The dominant mechanisms to
stress relief are:
1. Relaxation of stress and
2. Tempering of martensite or over-ageing of precipitation hardening alloys.

Typically, in steels the stress relief temperatures vary between 480o C. to 650 o C., which is
below the eutectoid formation for a minimum of 1 inch per thickness. Most often the welds
produced in high-hardeanbility steels (such as 4130) is put into the furnace before it cools to
below preheating (or inter-pass) temperature.

Post weld heat treatment can virtually eliminate the stress corrosion cracking occurring in the
HAZ of ASTM A 516 grade 70 steel, for instance, which is ordinarily used in paper industry.

ARC WELDING OF PLAIN AND HARDENABLE CARBON STEELS AND

ALLOY STEELS:
Steels are alloys of iron and carbon with carbon content of maximum of 2%.

Plain carbon steels contain less than 1.65Mn, 0.6Si and 0.60Cu. These are easily weldable and
generally do not require preheating to prevent formation of brittle microstructures in the HAZ.

Alloy steels contain manganese, silicon or copper in quantities greater than those listed for the
carbon steels: or they have specified ranges or minimum for one or more other alloying
elements.

The alloying additions enhance their mechanical properties, fabricating characteristics or

some other attribute of the steel. Typical alloying elements are Nickel, Chromium,
Molybdenum, Vanadium and Tungsten. In the AISI-SAE systems of designations of steel, the
broad classes of steels of alloy steels are designated with the principal alloying element used.

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 5

Some of those with numerals and digits as per the AISI-SAE systems are: (xx in the last two
digits indicate carbon content in hundredth of a percent)
-Manganese steels
13xx Mn 1.75
-Nickel steels
23xx 3.50% Ni
25xx 5.00% Ni
-Molybdenum steels
40xx Mo 0.20 - 0.25
41xx Mo 0.40 - 0.52
-Chromium-Molybdenum steels
41xx Cr 0- 0.50, -0.80 & 0.95
Mo 0.12, 0.20 & 0.30

The hardenable steels from the carbon steel with similar compositions are designated with a
suffix H. Hardenability is the ability of the steel to harden and is a relative quality. It is
defined as the relative ability of the carbon steel to form martensite when quenched from a
temperature above the upper critical temperature.

Generally, as the carbon content of plain carbon steel is increased, the hardenability as well as
the hardness increases. Generally, a higher carbon and /or alloy content leads to production of
a more crack sensitive microstructure in the HAZ. Higher carbon content not only produces a
hard and brittle phase called martensite, but also increases the crack sensitivity of the
martensite.

In most arc-welding applications involving unalloyed carbon steel, the cooling rate of the
weld metal and the HAZ is too low to develop maximum hardness that the steel of particular
carbon content can attain, because the hardenability of the steel is low.

In welding of alloy steels, maximum hardness is often developed in the HAZ even when the
cooling rate is low, because of the high hardenability of these steels.

In general, the weldability of steel decreases as the hardenability increases; because higher
hardenability promotes formation of microstructures, which are more sensitive to cold
cracking.

Solidification cracking or hot cracking is usually not a problem with these steels as with the
higher alloy austenitic steels.

The most common form of cold cracking in these steels is Hydrogen-induced cracking. Plain
carbon steels also experience hydrogen-induced cracking, but the higher hardenability and
HAZ hardness associates with the higher carbon and / or higher alloy steels frequently require
more precautions during welding top avoid hydrogen induced cracking.

Hydrogen in the welding arc atmosphere is converted to the atomic state and readily dissolves
in the weld pool. Because the solubility of hydrogen in steel decreases with decreasing
temperature, hydrogen is strongly driven out of the solid solution in HAZ and weld metal
during cooling. To escape, atomic hydrogen must diffuse to some interface, collect and reform
as molecular hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen however, may diffuse to stress regions where it acts
as an embrittling agent. This may result in extremely high internal stresses and cracking may
occur.

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 6

The amount of hydrogen absorbed by a weldment depends on several factors, including
cooling rate, size of the weld bead, and initial concentration in the arc atmosphere. Generally,
the risk of cracking increases with increased hydrogen concentration. The major sources of
hydrogen are compounds in the electrode coatings and fluxes, shielding gas, and surface
contamination of the base materials.

Generally, the higher the carbon content and the harder the microstructure, the more
susceptible the steel will be to hydrogen induced cracking.

Proper preheat, high heat input, and maintenance of an adequate interpass temperature reduce
the quenching rate in the HAZ and provides a softer, less sensitive microstructure. The HAZ
can be softened by either post weld heat treatment or by the tempering effect of the
subsequent weld passes.

Several formulas have been developed to evaluate the weldability of hardenable carbon and
alloy steels. Carbon equivalent (CE) is one such formula:

CE = %C + % Mn
6
+ % Cr + %Mo + %V
5
+ % Si + % Ni + %Cu
15

Steels having CE of less than 0.35% usually require no preheating or post heating. Steels with
CE values of 0.35 0.55 usually require preheating and those with CE of >0.55 require both
preheating and post weld heat treatment.

The carbon equivalent is calculated only from the chemical composition and includes no other
variable; it is at best only an approximate measure of weldability or susceptibility to cold
cracking. Section thickness and weldment restraints are of equal or greater importance than
the carbon equivalent. Figure 2 shows the relationship between the carbon content and
section thickness as they affect weldability.

Low carbon steels (Carbon <0.25%) are generally easy to join by any arc welding process.
Welds of acceptable quality can be produced without the need for any preheating, post-
heating or any special welding techniques.

Medium carbon steels (Carbon 0.25%-0. 50%) can also be satisfactorily welded by all arc
welding processes. Because of the formation of greater amounts of martensite in the weld
zone and the higher hardness of the martensite, preheating or post-heating or both are often
necessary.

High carbon steels (Carbon >-0.50%) are difficult to weld because of their susceptibility to
cracking. Low hydrogen consumables are mandatory for welding medium and high carbon
steels. Austenitic stainless steels are sometimes used for welding high carbon steels to obtain
greater notch toughness in the joint. However, the HAZ may still be hard and brittle and
preheating and post weld stress relieving may be necessary.

High strength structural steels are also welded with any of the arc welding processes.
Selection of the filler metal is based on strength considerations primarily and to a lesser extent
by chemical composition.

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 7

High strength Quenched and tempered steels (QT Steels) of carbon less than 0.25% and
the total alloy content (without Mn and Si) of 0.85 16% can be successfully welded using
SMAW, SAW, GMAW and FCAW processes. Many QT steels are produces with sulphur
content of less than 0.025% or more importantly, Mn to S ratio of greater than 30:1, so that
with carbon content of about 0.20% or less, the susceptibility to hot cracking is negligible.
The cooling rates in welding are so high that the mechanical properties of the HAZ approach
those of the steel in quench-hardened condition. Therefore, PWHT such as quenching and
tempering is unnecessary unless stress corrosion is factor.

ARC WELDING OF STAINLESS STEELS:

Most stainless steels that do not contain more than 0.03% Sulphur are considered weldable.
All weldable stainless steels can be joined using any of the arc welding processes. SMAW,
SAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW and PAW are used extensively for joining stainless steels.

Austenitic stainless steels, usually designated as AISI 300-series stainless steels, are
classified with respect to the chemical composition and the differences in chemical
composition among these steels affect weldability and performance in service.

For example, types 302, 304 and 304L differ primarily in carbon content and consequently
there is a difference in the amount of carbide precipitation that can occur in the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) after the heating and cooling cycle encountered in welding.

Types 316 and 317 contain Molybdenum for increased corrosion resistance and higher creep-
strength at elevated temperatures. However, unless controlled by extra low carbon content, as
in 316L, carbide precipitation occurs in the HAZ during welding.

Types 347, 321, 318 and 348 are stabilised with titanium, or niobium + tantalum, to prevent
inter-granular precipitation of Chromium carbides when the steels are heated to a temperature
in the sensitising range, as during welding.

The austenitic stainless steels are easiest to weld and produce welded joints that are
characterised by a high degree of toughness, even in the as-welded condition.

The precipitation of inter-granular chromium carbides is accelerated by an increase in the

temperature within the sensitising range and by an increase in time at the temperature. When
carbides are precipitated at the welded joints, the resistance to inter-granular corrosion and the
stress corrosion markedly decreases. Sensitisation is restricted generally to a narrow range
between 625 to 875oC, however, this range varies with time and composition.

Extra low carbon steels: Although solution annealing, a heat treatment that puts carbides
back into solution and restores normal corrosion resistance is a solution to this problem, it is
generally inconvenient. This problem is overcome by using extra low carbon steels and filler
metals of similar composition, e.g. 304L, 316L. However, when these steels are used for
extended period at elevated temperatures, significant carbide precipitation occurs. The extra
low carbon steels are therefore recommended for use below 400oC.

Stabilised steels exhibit higher strength at elevated temperatures in comparison with the extra
low carbon steels. For service in a corrosive environment in the sensitising temperature range
of 625 to 875oC, austenitic steel stabilised with Nb + Ta or Ti is needed.

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 8

Micro-fissuring in welded joints: Inter-dendritic cracking in the weld area that occurs before
the weld cools to room temperature is known as hot cracking or micro-fissuring. The
occurrence of micro fissuring is related to:

The microstructure of the weld metal as solidified

Composition of the weld metal, especially the content of residual or trace elements

Amount of stress developed in the weld as it cools

Ductility of the weld metal at high temperatures and

Presence of notches

This can be prevented or minimised by proper control of ferrite in the weld metal. Wide use of
the modified Schaffler diagrams have been made to determine the approximate amount of
ferrite that will be obtained in the austenitic weld metal of a given composition.

Selection of filler metals:

The compositions of most filler metals are adjusted by the manufacturers to produce weld
deposits that have ferrite containing microstructures. Thus ferrite-forming elements, such as
Chromium and Molybdenum are maintained on the higher side of their allowable ranges and
austenite-forming elements are kept low.

The amount of ferrite in the structure of the weld metal depends upon the ratio or balance of
these elements. At least 3 or 4 FN delta ferrite is needed in the as-deposited weld metal for
effective suppression of hot cracking.

Other families of stainless steels are:

Nitrogen strengthened austenitic steels (Duplex stainless steels), which have superior
pitting corrosion resistance and higher elevated temperature strength. These are welded with
balanced consumables of similar composition to maintain the ferrite to austenite ratio in the
weld metal.

Ferritic stainless steels (400 series stainless steels such as 446, 405, 430 and 430Se) these
are welded with fillers of equivalent compositions, and are frequently welded with austenitic
filler metals to provide ductile weld joints.

Martensitic stainless steels (such as 410, 414, 416, 420 431) are the most difficult stainless
steels to weld because they are chemically balanced to become harder, stronger and less
ductile through thermal treatment. These same metallurgical changes occur during welding.
As a result these changes are restricted to the weld area only and are not uniform over the
entire section. This non-uniform metallurgical condition of the part makes it susceptible to
cracking.

Precipitation hardened stainless steels (PH steels) are welded using similar arc welding
processes as the austenitic stainless steels, and using fillers of equivalent composition.
However, they are usually heat-treated after welding to achieve the required mechanical
properties. There are a wide variety of hardenable filler materials available for these PH
steels.

ARC WELDING OF HEAT-RESISTANT ALLOYS:

Heat resistant alloys can be welded by most arc-welding processes. GTAW and SAMW are
widely used; GMAW and SAW are used for welding thick sections.

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 9

The weldability of heat resistant alloys is markedly affected by the cleanliness of the base
metal and the filler metal. Sulphur and lead can diffuse through into the base metal when
heated and can result in severe cracking.

Nickel Base Alloys: The commercial alloys in this family are Incoloys and Inconels,
Hastelloy C, C276, B and X, Waspaloy etc. These are solid-solution alloys and are not age-
hardenable. These are welded in both the annealed and cold-worked conditions. Weldments
can be used as welded or after stress relieving, depending on the alloy and application. Filler
metals are usually of the same composition as the alloy being welded. Compositions are
frequently modified to resist porosity and hot cracking of the weld metal.

Cobalt base alloys: These alloys are available in both cast and wrought forms. Generally, cast
alloys are more difficult to weld than the wrought alloys. GTAW and GMAW are used where
the applications require high reliability welds, otherwise SMAW is used. Some of the
commercial alloys are Stellite (trademark of Stellite Corporation, USA) grade 1, 6, 12, 21
206 etc. These fillers are used more for hard-surfacing of shear blades, augurs, screw flights
where high temperature hardness is required to be retained in service and in addition to the
hardness, where corrosion resistance is required.

***************

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 10

Figure 1: Shielded metal arc welding

Figure 2: Gas metal arc welding

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 11

Figure 3: Gas metal arc welding metal transfers

Figure 4: Flux-cored arc welding

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 12

Figure 5: Gas Tungsten arc welding

Figure 6: Gas Tungsten arc welding

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 13

Figure 7: Gas Tungsten arc welding & Plasma arc welding

Figure 8: Submerged arc welding

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 14

Figure 9: Submerged arc welding

Introduction to Welding Metallurgy, Page 15