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STOICHIOMETRY MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY MOLE
Relative Isotopic Mass is the ratio of the mass of an atom of an isotope to 1/12 of the
mass of a C12 atom.
Relative Atomic Mass is the ratio of the average mass of an atom of an element to 1/12
of the mass of a C12 atom.
Ar = ( relative isotopic mass x relative abundance )
Relative Molecular Mass is the ratio of the average mass of a molecule to 1/12 of the
mass of a C12 atom.
Mr = ( Ar of all atoms present in one molecule )
Relative Formula Mass is the ratio of the average mass of a formula unit of an ionic
compound to 1/12 of the mass of a C12 atom.
Mr = ( Ar of all atoms present in one formula unit of ionic compound )
Combustion
1. The mixture is cooled to room temperature, H2O condenses. So, the volume of H2O is
neglected in calculations.
Left: CO2 Formed + O2 Unreacted
2. The leftover gaseous mixture is passed through a base which results in further
contraction. Acidic gas CO2 reacts with the base
Left: O2 unreacted
MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY MOLE CONCEPT AND
STOICHIOMETRY MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY MOLE
C1V1 = C2V2
REDOX
BALANCING REDOX
3. Add H2O to appropriate side of the equations to balance the number of O atoms
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Positively charged particles are attracted towards the negative plate and negatively
charged particles are attracted towards the positive plate. Neutrons/ neutral particles
remain unaffected.
q - Charge
m - mass
Electron Orbitals
Electrons form a three dimensional wave function around the nucleus, electron cloud.
Principal Quantum Number tells us about the distance between the quantum shell and the
energy level of the shell.
Energy increases as the distance from the nucleus increases ( i.e. becomes more unstable
at higher quantum shells).
When electrons gain energy or in an excited state, it can jump a quantum shell
(absorption). Electrons can also emit energy to jump to lower quantum shell. (emission).
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUC
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUC
Orbitals
p orbitals - dumbbell in shape, at each quantum shell there are: px, py, pz
d orbitals - shapes too complicated, only at 3rd quantum shell and beyond, set of 5
orbitals
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
Electrons fill the low energy orbitals before they fill higher energy orbitals.
Note that 4s orbital is lower in energy than 3d. 4s orbitals should be filled up first before
3d.
For ions, electrons are removed/added from/to highest filled energy level.
Half filled/ Fully filled 3d subtle are stable due to symmetrical charge distribution
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUC
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUC
IONISATION ENERGIES
1st Ionisation Energy is the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole
of gaseous atoms of the element to form 1 mole of singly positively charged gaseous ions.
2nd Ionisation Energy is the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole
of unipositively charged gaseous ions of the element to form 1 mole of doubly positively
charged gaseous ions.
Size of nuclear charge - Across a period, as the size of positive charge increases, the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron increase.
More energy is required to remove the electron. Hence, a higher ionisation energy with
increasing nuclear charge.
Distance of the electron from the nucleus - Electrostatic forces of attraction between
the nucleus and the outermost electron decreases with increasing distance between them.
Less energy is required to remove the electron. Hence, lower ionisation energy with
increasing distance.
Shielding Effect - Electrostatic forces of attraction between the electron and the nucleus
decreases due to repulsion from inner electrons. As the number of inner electrons
increase, shielding effect increase and electrostatic forces of attraction decreases. Less
energy is required to remove the electron. Hence, lower ionisation energy with increasing
shielding effect. ( Across a period, Shielding effect is negligible )
Singly filled vs doubly filled - two electrons in the same orbital faces repulsion which
offsets the attraction of the nucleus. Electron in a doubly filled orbital is easier to remove
than an electron in a singly filled orbital.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUC
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUC
The 2p electron removed from B is in the higher energy 2p subshell + Increased distance
+ increased screening effect.
Across transition metals, 1st IE remains almost the same because electron to be removed
are from the same subshell (4s). The increase in nuclear charge (proton) is offset by the
increase in shielding effect due to the increase in inner electrons (3d). With the exception,
The Shielding Effect is the same, and electron is removed from the same subshell.
However, Zinc has a greater nuclear charge. The repulsion between the pair of electrons
in 4s orbital is not enough to offset the increase in nuclear charge.
CHEMICAL BONDING
Covalent Bonding
Most stable situation between two covalent bond is when the attraction between electrons
and nucleus are just balanced by the electron-electron and nucleus-nucleus repulsions.
Electrons are shared between the 2 adjacent atoms and has the highest electron density
on the axis that joins them.
For 2nd Row elements, an atom can only accommodate up to 8 electrons because they
only have 4 orbitals in their valence shell ( 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz ).
For 3rd Row elements, atoms can promote their electrons to d-orbitals to form more than 4
covalent bonds. (hybridisation). This is possible because energy released when bonds
formed is greater than the energy absorbed to promote.
Dative Bond
In dative bond, one atom provides both bonding electrons in a covalent bond.
NH4Cl :
CO :
HNO3 :
Hydrated Ions:
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
If you have more than 4 electron pairs about the central atom, ignore repulsions at angles
greater than 90
Treat double bonds as single bond, a double bond has one bond and one bond.
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
Hybridisation
Hybridisation accounts for the bond shape so that the bond angles and the the bonds are
coherent.
For example, after promoting its electrons, methane should provide bond angles of 90.
However, a tetrahedron of 109.5 is observed. Hence, Carbon must have hybridised to
give hybrid orbitals pointing at 109.5. Energy is absorbed to promote electrons to form
hybrid orbitals.
2p orbitals can also overlap sideways to form a bond. It is not possible to bond with only
bond.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity Trends
So, across a period, electronegativity increases as the number of protons increase and
hence attracts the bonding pair of electrons strongly.
And, down a group, electronegativity decreases as the bonding pair is shielded by the
electrons and getting further away from the nucleus. Hence , weaker attraction between
the nucleus and the bonding pair.
Dipoles
The drift of electrons result in separation of charges, known as dipoles. The overall dipole
of the molecule is determined by its shape and bonds.
Polarising Ability
The ability to pull back electrons. Explains why some ionic bonds have covalent
character. Cations polarises anion.
Intermolecular Forces
Polar molecules will have permanent dipoles. Positive region of polar molecules attract the
negative region of another. Strength of pd-pd increases as dipole moment increases.
The dispersion forces gets stronger with increasing polarisability. Covalent substances
with large Mr and volume have stronger dispersion forces.
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonded to very electronegative molecule > hydrogen almost a bare proton
Water can form an average of 2 hydrogen bonds per molecule. Stronger forces of
attraction between water molecules > higher mo/bp for water
- form a lattice across the surface of water > high surface tension
- ice bonds tetrahedrally to produce an open lattice with a lot of open spaces. More space
per unit mass > lower density.
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
Molecular Lattices
Each Carbon atom is hybridised to form sp2 orbitals. The leftover p orbital with one
electron overlap to form a pi above and below the sheet of graphene. They are delocalised
electrons that are free to move.
Direction of electron travel is along the layers - not from one sheet to another.
The instantaneous dipole between grapheme sheets due to delocalised electrons hold the
layers together.
The dispersion forces between the layers are weak and allow the layers to slide over one
another easily.
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
Ionic Bonding
Metal atoms with low ionisation energies usually lose all their valence electrons
There is no such thing as 100% ionic bond. If an anion is highly polarisable due to the
small, highly charged cation, there is an increase in electron density between the ions and
increase the degree of covalent bonding.
Polarisability of anion
Charge Density of Cation (polarising power)
Co-ordinate numbers
NaCl is 6:6 co-ordianted. This means that around an ion in a giant ionic structure, there
are 6 other ions around the ion. The co-ordinate numbers represents the maximum
number of ions around a central ion before there is repulsion which makes the giant ionic
structure less stable.
vs
CsCl is 8:8 co-ordinated. 8 other ions around a central ion. Cs ion can have more ions
around it because Cs is larger than Sodium.
mp/bp
Lattice energy
With small amounts of stress, ions of similar charges are forced together, the lattice resists
this strongly > strong
Strong force > shatters and breaks down catastrophically > brittle.
electrical conductivity
In molten or aq, individual ions have net overall electrical charge and are free to move
around. electric current can flow
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BON
Metallic Bonding
The valence orbital overlaps with the corresponding valence orbital to form a molecular
orbital. The electrons can move freely in these orbitals and are said to be delocalised.
The metal is held together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
positive nuclei and the delocalised electrons.
Transition metals can involve 4s electrons and 3d electrons. Stronger electrostatic forces
of attraction and hence, higher mp/bp.
Electrons will move towards the positive end when there is a potential difference. >
electrical conductivity.
While they are all positively charged, the electrons shields the positive charge from
repulsion when force is applied. > malleable and ductile.
Lustrous and shiny - When a photon of light hits the surface of the metal, electrons on the
metals surface oscillates. Photons bounce off surface without any loss of momentum.
= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nR
= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nRT pV= nR
V - Volume in m3
n - mol.
T - in kelvins
Real Gases
@ High pressure,
@ Low temperature
@ Strong IMF,
Differences in IMF, Gas molecules with stronger IMF deviates more from ideality.
ERMOCHEMISTRY AND THERMODYNAMICS THERMOCHEMISTRY AND THERMODYNAMICS THERMOCH
D THERMODYNAMICS THERMOCHEMISTRY AND THERMODYNAMICS THERMOCHEMISTRY AND
Definitions
Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation, Hneut ( -ve, per mol of water formed,
-57kJ/mol)
- Enthalpy change when 1 mole of an acid and 1 mol of an alkali react to form 1 mole of
water under standard state and conditions.
Thermochem
G = H - TS
Spontaneous/ Feasible
- one that takes place naturally in the direction stated without a need for continuous input
of energy from the outside system
Entropy, S
Randomness or disorder in a system, reflected in the number of ways the energy in a
system can be distributed through the motion of its particles.
increase in entropy a system becomes more stable when its energy is spread out in a
more disordered state
Temperature
With an increase in temperature, the average kinetic energy of the particles an the range
of energies increases > more ways to disperse the energy among the particles.
Change in Phase
Lowest entropy - solid, vibrating about fixed position, entropy increases with increasing KE
Change from solid to liquid to gas, the particles have more range of motion and disorder,
as well as more ways to distribute their energies.
The number of particles increase, number of ways that energy and particles can be
distributed increases.
G > 0 > reaction not feasible and does not take place spontaneously
- endergonic