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993
G. M. Kondolf 9 M. L. Swanson
Abstract Stony Creek (drainage area 1920 km2), a tribu- (Collins and Dunne 1990). Instream gravel mining involves
tary to the Sacramento River 200 km north of San Fran- the direct removal of streambed sediments by heavy equip-
cisco, has experienced channel adjustments to both dam ment, usually conducted during low water, resulting in
construction and instream gravel extraction. Black Butte a local depression in bed profile. During subsequent high
Dam, constructed in 1963, reduced flood peaks and trap- flows, bed material transported from upstream is deposited
ped the annual 100,000 m 3 of bedload sediment formerly in this pit, depriving downstream reaches of bedload sedi-
delivered from the upper watershed. The reach below the ment supply, potentially inducing incision downstream of
dam changed from an active braided channel to an in- the gravel mine. In addition, the upstream end of the pit is
cised, single-thread channel shortly after dam construc- a knickpoint in the bed profile, and this knickpoint typi-
tion. About 25 km downstream of the dam, large instream cally migrates upstream, inducing incision upstream of the
gravel mines annually extract 230,000-580,000 m 3 and gravel mine as well (Kondolf 1993).
have induced channel incision of over 5 m, necessitating Stony Creek has experienced channel adjustment to
bridge repairs costing US$1.4 million. both dam construction and instream gravel mining since
1963. The two effects can be distinguished by the temporal
Key words Instream gravel extraction--Channel incision and spatial patterns of the channel response. There is con-
--Downstream effects of reservoirs siderable practical importance to the determination of the
causes of these adjustments because incision has under-
mined a state highway bridge, necessitating repairs costing
Introduction over US$1.4 million by 1993.
Undermining of bridges, pipeline crossings, and other
Channel adjustments have occurred downstream of many structures is a serious problem statewide. Similarly, the
reservoirs (Williams and Wolman 1984) because reservoirs availability of gravel required for spawning by anadromous
trap all bedload and some suspended load, releasing rela- salmonids has been reduced in many rivers, contributing
tively clear water, whose excess stream power commonly to the decline in important fish stocks and necessitating
erodes the bed and banks. This excess stream power may costly programs of gravel importation to depleted chan-
be partially reduced by reduction in flood flows effected by nels (Kondolf and Matthews 1993). Understanding the role
the reservoir. Channel incision and bank erosion can also of instream gravel extraction and reservoir construction in
be produced by large scale removal of gravel and sand causing channel incision and gravel depletion is a prerequi-
from active river beds, as occurs in instream gravel mining site to rational management of aquatic and riparian re-
sources. In many rivers, both reservoir construction and
gravel extraction have occurred, and their effects are diffi-
G. M. Kondolf1 cult to distinguish. However, on Stony Creek, the temporal
Department of Landscape Architecture, University of California, and spatial patterns of channel response permit the two
Berkeley,California94720, USA effects to be distinguished.
M. L. Swanson
Mitchell Swanson and Associates, 1509 Seabright Ave, Suite B-l,
Santa Cruz, California95062, USA
1Joint appointmentwith the Universityof CaliforniaWhite Moun- Description of study area
tain Research Station, 3000 East Line Street, Bishop, California
93514, USA Stony Creek drains a 1920-km 2 watershed on eastern slope
Correspondence to: G. M. Kondolf of the Coast Range, flowing into the Sacramento River
257
I ~ -,.....~..~ ~ - - ~
\ 32
N "~%tr _cr ~' RESERVOIR I~'
~'~'~ ('" C'~.~'~"" Orland ~ Hwy45 if_
'- ??/
( <?oe
"~ f-~..-~ (l RESERVOIR 1N
~. ~ ~ , ) ~ o ,o ~o~
) J --~ N .. l . . . . . . . DETAIL E l I
,," ~ ~('! EAST PARK jJ DRAINAGEBASIN \ ~-". k,
_f , ~ //~':t RESERVOIR 9 BOUNDARY \ ^ * SACRAMENTO
\l ~._~~ l ~ Ill il ~ STREAM SAN FRANCISCO/ -'~' ~ ' ~
,. \o
X, ~ ~'~ \ -\ ~ BRIDGE k~ ,,1/
Fig. 1. Location and basin map for Stony Creek, showing major divergentdrainagepatterns so there is virtuallyno increasein drain-
tributaries and reservoirs. Below Black Butte Dam, Stony Creek age area below Black Butte Dam
traverses its alluvial fan; the conical shape of the fan results in
near Hamilton City, about 200 km north of San Francisco, 8 km. Reach 2 (gradient 0.0018), extending 6 km down-
California (Fig. 1). The main tributary streams drain east- stream to seasonal road P crossing, is braided but nar-
ward from their headwaters into a broad north-south rower and more stable, probably due to the constraining
trending valley through which Stony Creek flows northerly influence of three bridges and a canal crossing. Reach 3
for about 50 km to its confluence with Grindstone Creek, (gradient 0.0021), extending 8 km downstream to Mills
thence flows northeasterly about 15 km to Black Butte Orchard (about 4 km below Highway 32), is wider and
Reservoir, operated by the US Army Corps of Engineers braided, with large medial gravel bars. Instream gravel
(USACE). The valley of Upper Stony Creek (the reach mining has been intensive in this reach. Reach 4 (gradient
above Black Butte Dam) is bounded on the east by a 0.0010) extends 11 km downstream to the Sacramento
narrow range of north-south trending hills composed of River confluence. Reach 4 is distinctly narrower, more
older alluvial deposits, tilted by Cenozoic uplift of the sinuous, and more stable than the other three reaches,
Coast Range. Black Butte and the surrounding ridges are reflecting the transition as Stony Creek leaves the alluvial
topographic highs within this range capped by young ba- fan deposits and flows through finer-grained floodplain
salt flows. At the site of Black Butte Dam, Stony Creek deposits of the Sacramento River. Modern alluvial gravels
passes through a gap in these basalt-capped hills. Lower (0-8 m thick) overlie a basal hardpan.
Stony Creek (the reach downstream of Black Butte Dam) The watershed is underlain by a variety of lithologies,
flows over its alluvial fan deposits southeastward towards including shattered metasedimentary and metavolcanic
its confluence with the Sacramento River at elevation rocks of the Franciscan Series of Cretaceous Age that
37 m (Fig. 2). produce abundant gravel-sized sediments (Fig. 3). Grind-
We distinguished four geomorphically distinct reaches stone Creek is a major contributor of gravel by virtue of
in Lower Stony Creek (Fig. 2). Reach 1, from Black Butte the lithologies underlying its watershed. Median diameter
Dam down to the Interstate 5 highway bridge, has an of surface bed material is about 16 mm over most of Lower
average gradient of 0.0024 as measured from current Stony Creek, decreasing to 1 mm about 1 km upstream of
US Geological Survey topographic maps. The channel is the Sacramento River confluence.
braided and is partly confined by terraces of older alluvium The climate is Mediterranean, with mild winters (mean
in the upper 5 km of the reach, unconfined in the lower monthly temperatures at Black Butte Dam range from
258
BLACK
BUTTE
DAM
JOHNSON
BLANCH
NORTH CANAL
DIVERSION
/
9 /
Hamilton
Orland
ORCHA:O
~ 7 MILLS
rr
~8
CANAL
AREA PERMITTED FOR
GRAVEL EXTRACTION
1 2 3 KM
5 GRAVEL MINE NUMBER i i
IN TABLE 1
[] URBANAREA
Fig. 2. Map of Lower Stony Creek showingprincipal featuresmen- by Howard Chang of San Diego State University (Chang
tioned in text, bridge and canal crossings,areas permittedfor gravel
extraction, and delineationof reaches 1-4 as definedin this study 1992).
We did not survey a detailed longitudinal profile, but Sample size for the coarser six of seven channel samples
developed a profile from bed elevations at our cross sec- (median diameters 13.5-26 mm) averaged 62 kg; for the
tions and plotted this together with a profile drawn from finer bank samples (median diameters 0.022-0.06 mm)
the cross sections of Lee (1968). We measured cross-section sample size averaged 1.7 kg. A pebble count (Wolman
stationing for both surveys from a reference bankfull center- 1954) was conducted on the cobble bed 1 km below Black
line, so positioning of points was constant between surveys. Butte Dam in lieu of a bulk sample.
Interpretation of the superimposed profiles is problematic
because increased sinuosity in reaches 1 and 2 resulted in
Analysis of aerial photography
increased channel length from 1967 to 1990, and channel
features (gravel bars, pools) have migrated between 1967 Sequential aerial photographs were obtained for 13 dates
and 1990, so that the survey points may not represent the from 1950 to 1990. For eight of these photo sets, channel
same channel features. As a result, some local changes in features were mapped using a zoom transfer stereoscope
bed elevation may be due to migration of channel features on base maps at a scale of 1 : 6000 (enlarged and adapted
rather than net change in bed elevation. from standard 1:24,000 topographic maps published by
Sediment samples were collected from bar tops adjacent the US Geological Survey). The resulting maps show limits
to the low flow channel one fourth of the total distance of the active channel, location of thalweg, alluvial terraces,
from the upstream to downstream end of the gravel bar and extraction sites for each year mapped. Large portions
(seven samples) and from exposed banks (six samples). of these maps were entered into a computer-aided design
Samples were generally sieved in the field down to 8 mm, (CAD) system to permit analysis of changes in specific
with the finer fraction sieved by an analytical laboratory. features over time. For example, postdam bank erosion in
260
the reach below Black Butte Dam was measured from planned configuration of the mine site, and any environ-
changes in limits of the active channel from 1950 to 1990, mental standards imposed by regulating agencies.
and changes in the extent of active gravel pits were ana- We also interviewed local landowners, gravel extrac-
lyzed over time. tors, and resource agency personnel to obtain documenta-
For selected flights, we prepared details to illustrate tion of historical changes on Stony Creek, its history of
changes in four reaches. The flights selected (and original flooding and bank protection, and aggregate extraction
scales) were a 1950 flight by the USACE (1:9600), a 1956 practices and regulation.
flight by USACE (1 : 12,000), a 1965 flight by the US Bureau
of Reclamation (1:9600), a 1967 flight by the USACE
(1:6000), and a 1990 flight by Caltrans (1:6000). No com-
plete coverage was available immediately before construc- Results and discussion
tion of Black Butte Dam, so pre- and post-dam compari-
son relied on the 1950 or 1956 photography for predam Dam-induced changes in flow regime and
conditions. sediment transport
The flow regime of Lower Stony Creek has been pro-
Hydrologic data foundly altered by water resources development in this
From gauge records for the US Geological Survey (USGS) century, with the closure of East Park (1910), Stony Gorge
stream gauge below Black Butte Dam, we identified all (1928), and Black Butte (1963) reservoirs (Fig. 1). East Park
major floods (with peak flows exceeding 3000 ma/s in mean and Stony Gorge reservoirs (62 x 106 m 3 each) impound
daily discharge), obtained hourly stage height values from water for irrigation and have no flood control capacity;
the US Federal Archives, computed instantaneous dis- while they probably attenuate flood peaks from the upper
charge values from discharge rating curves, and digitized watershed somewhat, their main effect has probably been
and plotted these data to develop hourly hydrographs to increase summer baseflow in downstream channels.
for outflow from Black Butte Dam. Inflow hydrographs on Moreover, these reservoirs did not significantly reduce the
a daily time step (computed from storage changes and out- sediment yield from the upper basin because they did not
flow) were provided by the USACE, Sacramento Distict. intercept sediment from tributaries with the greatest sedi-
Changes in flood hydrographs resulting from the dam were ment yield, notably Grindstone Creek (Fig. 3). Grindstone
evaluated from a comparison of the inflow and outflow Creek drains a basin underlain by shattered Franciscan
flood hydrographs. We also reviewed flood data reported Formation, evidently the most prolific gravel producer in
by USACE (1987) and Lee (1968). the drainage basin, based on litholgies in Lower Stony
Creek.
Historical sediment yield EXCEEDENCE FREQUENCY PER 100 YEARS
90 80 7060504030 20 10 5 2 t 0.5
i L i i i i i i i ~ i L i ]
Historic rates of sediment yield from the watershed were
computed from reservoir sedimentation data for Black
Butte Reservoir (USACE 1987) and upstream reservoirs 5000
/
(Knott and Dunnam 1969). To account for suspended load /,,,,//
passing over Black Butte Dam, measured sediment accu-
mulation in the reservoir was adjusted for trap efficiency,
based on the ratio of reservoir capacity to annual runoff,
using the trap efficiency curves of Brune (1953). From the
size analyses of bed material samples, we estimated the
2000
"~ 1000
/ o //
o
probable percentage of bedload and the portion thereof in 500
<
300
Channel changes I950-1990
Channel changes along Lower Stony Creek are discussed
200 by reach, proceeding downstream (Fig. 2).
100-
Reach 1
0-
10 t'2 14 16
Sequential aerial photographs show that this reach under-
18 20 22 24
went a change in pattern from a wide braided channel to a
DATE, JANUARY 1980
more sinuous, mostly single-thread channel, as illustrated
Fig. 5. Hydrographfor flood of January 1980. (Outflowdata from
USGS gauge records, inflowdata calculatedby USACE.) by the reach about 4 km downstream of the dam (Fig. 6).
Much of the adjustment probably occurred only a year
after closure of the dam during the flood of December
Black Butte Reservoir (197 x 106 m 3) was built for 1964. Aerial photographs show the channel had adopted
flood control and irrigation. For floods up to the 50-year a single-thread by 1967 (Fig. 6). From 1956 to 1990, the
inflow (2270 m3/s), outflows are 570 m3/s or less. The flood channel became more sinuous (with sinuosity increasing
frequency analysis (Fig. 4) shows the Q2 was reduced from from 1.08 to 1.18).
410 m3/s to 280 m3/s, Qlo from 1270 m3/s, to 425 m3/s, and Bed elevation changes in this reach are poorly docu-
Q2o from 1640 m3/s to 425 m3/s. Thus, flood peaks have mented because the first survey was conducted in 1967,
been reduced to a fraction of their predam value (from 70 four years after closure of Black Butte Dam, and after the
percent for Q2 to 25 percent for Qso). These flood flows are December 1964 flood, which produced the dam's second-
then released in prolonged discharges of 280-425 m3/s, largest outflow. Other studies of channel incision below
corresponding to the flows identified as the channel capac- reservoirs indicate that channel adjustments are typically
ity by Lee (1968) and USACE (1987). These flows also greatest during the first high flows after dam closure and
correspond to the predam Q1.5-Q2. Taking the Q1.5-Q2 immediately downstream of the dam, decreasing over time
as bankfull flow (Wolman and Miller 1960; Andrews 1980), and with distance downstream of the dam (Williams and
regulation has effectively eliminated most large floods, Wolman 1984). The 1967 cross sections show a low-flow
while increasing the duration of bankfull flows. channel with its bed 3 m below the formerly active braided
The effects of regulation by Black Butte Reservoir are channel. While some incision of a single low-flow channel
illustrated in the hydrographs for the flood of January 1980 within such a broad active channel could be expected in be-
(Fig. 5). While outflow hydrographs were available on an tween floods, field evidence, cross-section form, and aerial
hourly basis from primary computation sheets provided photographs suggest that part of this incision is attrib-
by the USGS, inflow hydrographs (computed from reser- utable to effects of the dam. An armor layer has developed
voir storage changes and outflow by the USACE) were in the reach directly below the dam. At our sampling point
available on a mean daily basis only, so the instantaneous 1 km below the dam, bed material has a median diameter
peak inflow is unknown. Nonetheless, the effects of regula- of 85 mm, compared to a median diameter of 16 mm at
tion are clearly seen, with a reduction in peak flow from 5 km below the dam and typical of most of Lower Stony
592 m3/s to 344 m3/s, while the duration of flows exceeding Creek. The Lemon Home Diversion Dam, a 5-m-high
280 m3/s increased from 72 h to 127 h. concrete weir 6 km downstream of Black Butte Dam built
Black Butte Dam has eliminated all bedload and most in 1910 (USACE 1987), has also served to limit incision;
suspended sediment transport from the upper watershed the downstream face has been undercut by scour, but the
to Lower Stony Creek. From 1963 to 1984, 19.9 x 106 m 3 dam's integrity has not been threatened. Thus, channel
of sediment accumulated in Black Butte Reservoir (USACE incision was largely limited to a reach about 5-km in length
1987). Reservoir trap efficiency, drawn from the median below the dam.
curve of Brune (1953) and the calculated ratio of reservoir The long profiles show no overall incision or aggrada-
capacity to inflow for each year from 1963 to 1984, fell tion in reach 1 between 1967 and 1990, with local changes
between 93 and 98 percent for every year but 1983. Thus, attributable to migration of channel features relative to
suspended sediment passing over the dam typically did not survey points. This indicates that channel incision was
exceed 10 percent of the volume deposited. Adjusting the largely complete by 1967, within the first four years after
rate of reservoir sedimentation upwards by 10 percent dam construction.
yields 21.9 x 10 6 m 3 over the 21-year period, or an average Lateral migration of the postdam-incised, single-thread
annual sediment yield (bedload and suspended load) of channel resulted in net erosion of about 90 ha of terrace in
262
Fig. 6. Sequential aerial
photographs for the Johnson
Ranch reach of Lower Stony
Creek, about 4 km downstream
of Black Butte Dam for 1956,
1967, and 1990. Flow is from
left to right
to more single-thread from 1950 to 1990, although the ing result, given the reduced supply of sediment from up-
change was less pronounced here than in reach 1. Aerial stream since 1963. Because the aggradation is so uniform
photographs for the reach near Interstate Highway 5 (Fig. over a discrete reach, an error in carrying survey elevations
7) show the transition from a wide, unvegetated, braided is a possible explanation. However, review of our 1990
active channel in 1950 (before construction of Interstate survey notes did not yield evidence for such an error, and
Highway 5) to a narrower active channel, within which the documentation of the 1967 survey now available is not
multiple braids and a proliferation of vegetation are evi- adequate to resolve the issue. If the aggradation is real,
dent in 1990. it may have been caused by backwater effects from the
The large, dark feature west of Interstate Highway 5 in numerous bridges and other constrictions in this reach.
1967 (at the top of the scene) is a gravel pit used to provide
aggregate for construction of the highway. By 1968, a
Reach 3
meander bend had migrated northward into this old gravel
pit, causing flow to strike the bridge at an angle, and Channel incision of 1-5 m occurred over this reach from
resulted in local scour under the north end of the bridge; 1967-1990, resulting in a distinct departure from the over-
the structure was repaired and no further incision has been all trend of the longitudinal profile (Fig. 8). The incision
observed at the bridge (Ervin Neilson, Caltrans, personal was centered on two large-volume gravel mines located
communication 1990). immediately upstream and downstream of the Highway 32
Comparison of 1967 and 1990 longitudinal profiles indi- bridge. Since its construction in 1973, incision of over 5 m
cates that this reach aggraded about 1 m. This is a surpris- has occurred beneath the bridge, undermining the five
264
Fig. 8. Longitudinal profile of 120
Lower Stony Creek plotted
from thalweg elevations along /"
110-
channel cross sections surveyed
in 1967, four years after closure
of Black Butte Dam (Lee 1968) 100-
and resurveyed in 1990 (this
study) 90-
g
z 80-
o
<
> 70-
LIA
-J
llJ
60-
50-
40-
30
0 1'o l's 2'o ~s a'0 3's 40
DISTANCE UPSTREAM SACRAMENTO RIVER (km)
62
,,,,,,
........... ...................\ . j
E
vr-- 58
O
, . . 1 _ . . . : i t.................................
"v /
>
UJ
Fig. 9. Channel cross section
below the downstream face of 54
the Highway 32 bridge based
upon surveys in 1973 (Caltrans)
and surveys in 1990. Spikes in [ "-'7" 1974 - - 1990 -]
1990 cross section are remnants
of bars deposited in lee of
bridge piers during 1986 flood, 50
subsequently excavated by 0 260 ' 460 600 ' 800
gravel extraction Distance from Left Bank (m)
eastern piers (Figs. 9 and 10). Extension of footings into trated by maps of gravel pit area near the Highway 32
the streambed to stabilize the bridge will have cost US$1.4 bridge (Fig. 12).
million by 1993, with no assurance that further stabiliza-
tion measures will not be needed.
Reach 4
Channel pattern changed from a wide, predominantly
braided channel to a narrower active channel consisting of The channel pattern in this reach remained stable from
extensive scraped surfaces of active gravel mines (Fig. 11). 1950 to 1990, as illustrated by sequential aerial photo-
The channel pattern was essentially unchanged from 1950 graphs of the reach near Highway 45 (Fig. 13). The only
to 1967; the low-flow channels simply shifted position channel changes evident in these photographs is a nar-
within the braided active channel. From 1967 to 1990, rowing of the active channel (and reclaiming of formerly
the active channel narrowed, abandoned surfaces became active channel bed for agriculture and the gravel pro-
vegetated, and natural low flow channels were obliterated cessing plant) and increased density of riparian vegetation
by large-scale gravel extraction. The narrowing of the active in the channel.
channel probably resulted from the incision and changed Also evident in these photographs is a small instream
flow regime. The area of channel bed in active gravel mine gravel mine downstream (east) of the Highway 45 bridge.
increased from 51 ha in 1965 to 146 ha in 1990, as illus- West of the Highway 45 bridge is the seasonal crossing of
265
Fig. 10. Photograph of scour beneath the Highway 32 bridge. (Photo Instream gravel mining
by Kondolf, May 1990)
Instream gravel mines active on Stony Creek in 1990 are
shown in Fig. 2; extraction rates as reported in reclamation
plans are presented in Table 1. The largest extractors were
bank erosion in reach 1 makes up for about 20 percent of spatial and temporal occurrence of channel changes is
the bedload sediment yield from the upper watershed now distinctive, with dam-induced changes in channel pattern
trapped behind Black Butte Dam (Fig. 14). and incision (from 1963 to 1967) occurring in reach 1, no
The total permitted annual extraction for instream gravel incision in reach 2, extraction-induced incision (post 1972)
mines in Lower Stony Creek is 1.3 x 10 6 (Table 1), over 10 in reach 3, and no incision in reach 4 downstream of the
times the predam bedload sediment supply to the reach influence of the mines (Fig. 14).
and over 50 times the present rate of bedload supply (from On Stony Creek, the erosive effects of "hungry water"
bank erosion in reach 1). Actual extraction rates reported are observed in reach 1, which changed from a wide braided
in reclamation plans (excluding Jaxon Enterprises) are channel to a single-thread, incised meandering channel;
260,000-730,000 m3/yr, or 10-30 times the total current lateral migration of this channel has resulted in erosion of
bedload sediment supply (from bank erosion in reach 1). bedload-sized sediment equivalent to about 20 percent of
Most of this gravel is removed in the pits upstream and the natural predam bedload yield from the watershed.
downstream of the Highway 32 bridge, which together With distance downstream, dam-induced incision become
report extraction of 230,000-580,000 m3/yr. less apparent. The effects are absent near Interstate High-
Extraction from Stony Creek is diagrammatically illus- way 5 and in reach 2, where bed elevations were unchanged
trated in Fig. 14, with reported extraction rates shown in or increased from 1967 to 1990. The dam-induced elimina-
m 3 x 103. Heavy arrows above the channel indicate gravel tion of sediment supply from upstream has been partially
flux (deposition, erosion, or extraction), while small arrows compensated by reduction in flood peaks and concomitant
below the channel signify incision or aggradation. reduction in sediment transport capacity in Lower Stony
Creek.
Another striking channel adjustment in reach 1 is the
change from a braided channel pattern to a more sinuous,
Conclusions meandering channel, probably reflecting an adjustment to
abruptly reduced rates of bedload sediment supply from
The changes observed in Lower Stony Creek can be attrib- the watershed, to the decrease in flood peaks and sediment
uted to two primary causes: channel adjustment to closure transport capacity, and possibly to prolonged bankfull
of Black Butte Dam, and effects of gravel extraction. The flows.
268
Table 1. Gravel extraction rates reported in reclamation plans Gravel operations near Interstate Highway 5 and High-
(in thousands of cubic meters) a
way 45 are relatively small, and these reaches have re-
mained stable. However, the mines immediately up- and
Range of
annual extraction downstream of Highway 32 together extract 230-580 m 3,
Maximum equivalent to 2-6 times the natural predam sediment sup-
Extractor Low High permitted ply from the upper watershed, and 10-30 times the present
sediment supply (from bank erosion in reach 1). These
1 Jaxon Enterprises b 0.0 0.0 115.4 tremendous extraction rates have directly lowered the
2 0 r l a n d Sand & Gravel 2.1 21.2 192,3 channel bed within the boundaries of the gravel mines
3 Redding Contractors 21.2 84.6 84.6
4 Calvin Cement ~ 0.0 0.0 21,2 and induced channel incision immediately upstream and
5 Charles Jasper 4.2 4.2 42.3 downstream (Fig. 8). Even if extraction were to cease today,
6 Valley Rock Products 192.3 384.6 384,6 the channel will continue to adjust to this catastrophic re-
7 Baldwin Contracting 38.5 192.3 461.5 moval of sediment, probably for decades. Further incision
8 Martin Sand and Gravel 3.8 38.5 38.5
is predicted by the computer simulation of Chang (1992).
Total 262 725 1340
At present, extraction rates are poorly defined. Only
broad ranges reported in reclamation plans or use permits
aMines located by bold italic numbers on Fig. 2 are available, and even these data are not available for all
b Data not available operators. Moreover, there is no monitoring program un-
c Mine inactive in 1990 der which reported rates are verified. Proper management
of Stony Creek and other California rivers with instream
/-_. i-
J ..
Fig. 14. Diagrammatic illustration of bedload sediment budget for 1963 and after construction of Black Butte Dam in 1990. All values
Lower Stony Creek prior to construction of Black Butte Dam in of gravel flux are in m 3 103
269
extraction will be impossible without accurate extraction
data. References
In m a n y rivers, bedload sediment supply has been af-
fected by upstream reservoirs and instream gravel extrac- Andrews ED (1980) Effective and bankfull discharges of streams in
tion. These effects m a y be difficult to distinguish in m a n y the Yampa River basin, Colorado and Wyoming. J Hydrol 46:
311-330
cases, but on Stony Creek, the temporal and spatial pat- Baldwin Construction Company (1980) Reclamation plan submitted
terns of the channel response permit the two effects to be to Glenn County and to the California Division of Mines and
distinguished. Geology
Incision and channel instability caused by instream Brune GM (1953) The trap efficiency of reservoirs. Trans Am
Geophys Union 34:407-418
gravel mining is widespread in California but generally Calvin Cement Co. (1989) Reclamation plan submitted to Glenn
undocumented because of the difficulties in assigning cause County and to the California Division of Mines and Geology
(a result in part of the lack of reliable extraction data) and CDMG (California Division of Mines and Geology) (1960) Geologic
because the state's existing regulation of these activities is Map of California, Ukiah Sheet (1:250,000 scale). CDMG, Sacra-
mento, California
largely ineffective. D a m a g e to bridges because of instream Chang HH (1988) Fluvial processes in river engineering. New York:
gravel mining in California probably exceeds US$1 million John Wiley & Sons. 432 pp
annually, but costs have never been systematically com- Chang HH (1992) An investigation of the causes of accelerated chan-
piled. A partial compilation covering a 15-year period nel erosion and development of countermeasures for bridge stabi-
lization on Stony Creek. Department of Civil Engineering, San
through 1984 estimated bridge damage costing at least Diego State University, California, unpublished report submitted
US$13 million was caused by instream extraction (Cal- to California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), March
trans, unpublished m e m o 1984). Caltrans has initiated a 1992
systematic survey of scour problems under the 15,000 Collins B and Dunne T (1990) Fluvial geomorphology and river
9 gravel mining: A guide for planners, case studies included. Califor-
bridges over water in the state. Of the 150 (1 percent of the nia Division of Mines and Geology Special Publication 98
total) considered threatened by scour, a large but as yet Gowans KG (1967) Soil survey Tehama County, California. USDA
undetermined number are associated with instream gravel Soil Conservation Service and University of California Agricul-
extraction (C. Crossett, Caltrans, personal communication tural Experiment Station
Jasper C (1989) Reclamation plan submitted to Glenn County and
1991). to the California Division of Mines and Geology
The effects of instream gravel extraction are often exac- Jaxon Enterprises (1986) Reclamation plan submitted to Glenn
erbated when carried out downstream of reservoirs. Prop- County and to the California Division of Mines and Geology
er management of these activities must be conducted with- Knott JM and Dunnam CA (1969) Sedimentation in Upper Stony
Creek Basin, eastern flank of the Coast Ranges of northern Cali-
in a larger watershed framework, in which the cumulative fornia. US Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1798-F
effect of other extractions, trapping of sediment by reser- Kondolf GM (1993) Impacts of instream gravel mining (in prepara-
voirs, and other changes in the sediment budget can be tion)
evaluated in context (Kondolf and Matthews 1993). KondolfGM and Matthews WVG (1993) Coarse sediment manage-
ment in regulated rivers. University of California Water Resources
Center Report (in press)
Lee KW (1968) Determination of channel capacity of Stony Creek
downstream from Black Butte Dam, Glenn and Tehama counties,
California. US Geological Survey Open-File Report, Menlo Park,
16 December 1968
Martin Sand and Gravel (1986) Reclamation plan submitted to
Acknowledgments This research was funded by the Cali- Glenn County and to the California Division of Mines and
fornia D e p a r t m e n t of Transportation under a contract Geology.
administered by San Diego State University Foundation. Orland Sand and Gravel (1986) Reclamation plan submitted to
Manuscript preparation was supported by a grant from Glenn County and to the California Division of Mines and
Geology
the Beatrice Farrand Fund of the Department of Land- Redding Contractors (1986) Reclamation plan submitted to Glenn
scape Architecture of the University of California. We are County and to the California Division of Mines and Geology
indebted to Ray Kiah, Bill Lindsay, Carroll Harris, Cathy Valley Rock Products (1986) Reclamation plan submitted to Glenn
Crossett, Ervin Neilson, Peter Wilcock, Brett Emery, and County and to the California Division of Mines and Geology
USACE (US Army Corps of Engineers) (1987) Black Butte Dam and
H o w a r d Chang for stimulating conversations and relevant Lake, Stony Creek, California, water control manual. US Army
information. Assistance in field work was provided by Corps of Engineers, Sacramento District, May 1987
Brett Emery, Karl Mertz, Janet Parrish, Aditya Advani, Williams GP and Wolman MG (1984) Downstream effects of dams
and Gilbert Mendez. Brett Emery and Karl Mertz m a p p e d on alluvial rivers. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1286
channel features from aerial photograhs, and Steve G r o v e Wolman MG (1954) A method of sampling coarse river bed material.
Trans Am Geophys Union 35:951-956
digitized channel maps showing changes in active channel Wolman MG and Miller JP (1960) Magnitude and frequency of
and extent of gravel mining over time. forces in geomorphic processes. J Geol 68 : 54-74