ISIJ International, Vol. 48 (2008), No. 11, pp.

15961602

Microstructural Evolution during Industrial Rolling of a Duplex

Stainless Steel

G. FARGAS,1) N. AKDUT,2) M. ANGLADA1) and A. MATEO1)

1) Dept. Cincia dels Materials i Enginyeria Metal.lrgica, Avda. Diagonal 647, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, 08028,
Barcelona, Spain. E-mail: antonio.manuel.mateo@upc.edu 2) OCAS N.V./Arcelor Research Industry Ghent, ArcelorMittal
Group, John Kennedylaan 3, B-9060, Zelzate, Belgium.
(Received on April 16, 2008; accepted on August 4, 2008 )

The microstructural evolution of a duplex stainless steel EN 1.4462 during the industrial rolling process
has been examined. The ferritic and austenitic phases were analyzed separately after each rolling and an-
nealing step. Optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, together with texture measure-
ments, have been used to characterize the morphology and the preferred crystallographic orientations of
both phases. Additionally, the hardness evolution in ferrite and austenite after each industrial step was
measured by instrumented indentation. The results show that microstructural features observed after hot
rolling tend to remain during further processing and they are essentially present in the final cold rolled and
annealed product.
KEY WORDS: duplex stainless steel; rolling; annealing; texture; anisotropy.

erations like deep drawing. Therefore, the study of the mi-

1. Introduction
Duplex stainless steels (DSS) have a microstructure
where ferrite and austenite are present in approximately
equal amounts. The industrial interest on this stainless steel
grade arises from its attractive combination of mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance, which are better than
predicted by the law of mixture. As a consequence, DSS
exhibit an overall performance unattainable neither for
austenitic nor for ferritic stainless steels.15)
Due to their properties, DSS today are being mainly used
in the off-shore, chemical and petrochemical industries, e.g.
for marine constructions, ships outer skins, pipelines and
power plants.69) DSS are mainly used in form of flat prod-
ucts but cast structures for e.g. off-shore applications exist
as well. The processing route to manufacture DSS sheets
generally consists in alternative steps of rolling and anneal-
ing, as presented in Fig. 1.
After continuous casting, the slab is hot rolled in several
passes in order to attain large thickness reduction. Then, the
material is annealed to recover the ductility for the subse-
quent cold rolling up to the required final thickness. The
process ends with a final annealing which gives the steel
product the appropriate characteristics for future applica-
tions. During these industrial process steps the steel under-
goes microstructural changes, which affect the mechanical
properties of the final product. Since during rolling both
phases align in the rolling direction (RD), the microstruc-
ture becomes morphologically anisotropic and even marked
crystallographic textures can appear. As a result, their me-
chanical properties are strongly direction dependent1012)
and this often gives raise to problems for sheet forming op-
crostructural changes and texture evolution during the dif-
ferent stages of the rolling process is important in order to
understand their influence on the properties of the final in-
dustrial product. Both, the hot and the cold working behav-
iour of the steel have to be analysed, together with the in-
vestigation of the restoration mechanisms active during the
annealing treatments.
The hot forming behaviour of austenitic and ferritic
stainless steels has been widely characterized mainly by
means of hot torsion and compression tests.13,14) From these
studies, it is well known that ferrite and austenite behave
differently during plastic deformation. During hot working
the two major mechanisms of restoration of metals are
dynamic recovery (DRV) and dynamic recrystalization
(DRX), whereby the stacking fault energy (SFE) dictates
which mechanism will take place. While single-phase
austenitic stainless steels can undergo DRX due to their low
SFE, in ferritic stainless steels, which have a much higher
Fig. 1. Schematic sketch of the industrial processing route for
(duplex) stainless steels.

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 48 (2008), No. 11
SFE than austenite, DRV is more likely to occur. However,
in the latter case, conditions that hinder DRV and favour the
onset of DRX are also possible.
The simultaneous presence of both phases in DSS makes
the situation more complex. There are only a few studies in
literature dealing with high temperature deformation of
DSS in which controversial results about the austenite be-
haviour are presented. Some authors indicate that DRX
takes place15,16) but others suggest that this mechanism is
inhibited in these two-phase alloys.1719) Concerning ferrite,
Cizek and Wynne20) described its softening as an extended
dynamic recovery, while other authors called it continu-
ous recrystalization.21) The difference between these two
mechanisms is defined in terms of the relative amounts of
low and high angle boundaries in the microstructure.22)
Another factor to consider is that during deformation,
both at high temperature and at room one, the strain parti-
tioning between the two phases is not homogenous. Mainly
it is influenced by many phenomena such yield point and
strain hardening of each constitutive phase, volume fraction
and phase morphology. A recent study concerning hot
workability demonstrates that ferrite accommodates three
to five times more strain than austenite.23) This result was
obtained by measuring the length, width and height of the
austenite grains after hot rolled quenched samples. It was
considered that strain partitioning between the two phases
results in translations of the austenite grains in the continu-
ous ferrite matrix. At room temperature, the microstructure
of cold worked DSS is generally characterized by formation
of dislocation cells in ferrite, whereas a much more uni-
form dislocation distribution with high incidence of stack-
ing faults is found in austenite.24) In this condition, both
hardness and dislocation density are higher in austenite,
which is the phase that exhibits more strain hardening and
stored energy.2426)
The dynamic and static mechanisms that develop during
annealing are even more complex because they are not
arising to the same extend as for monophasic ferritic and
austenitic stainless steels. Among others, factors such as
the volume fraction of each phase and the nature of the in-
terphase will determine the softening processes during an-
nealing in such duplex structures. Generally, extensive re-
covery takes place in ferrite on annealing and also recrys-
talization nuclei are formed. The preferred areas for recrys-
tallization nucleation are regions with high density of shear
bands. Recrystallization in austenite occurs in a more dis-
continuous mode, preferentially at ferrite/austenite inter-
faces, deformation twins and shear bands.24,2729)
Most of the works available in the literature concern the
behaviour of DSS under specific thermomechanical condi-
tions, i.e. hot deformation, cold deformation or static an-
nealing. The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the
microstructural evolution of DSS during the whole indus-
trial rolling process, where the material is submitted to dif-
ferent states and to study the influence on the mechanical
properties and on formability of the final industrial product.
2. Experimental Procedure
The material studied was a duplex stainless steel EN
1.4462 produced by UGINE & ALZ (ArcelorMittal Group).
1597
Table 1. Chemical composition (in weight-%) of the studied
duplex stainless steel EN 1.4462.
It was supplied after each of the four different industrial
process steps indicated in Fig. 1. The chemical composition
of the alloy is given in Table 1.
The first condition studied was the hot rolled steel (at the
end of the finishing mill), from now on designated as HR,
which was supplied in the form of plates of 300
400 mm
and a thickness of 6 mm. The industrial hot rolling schedule
followed to obtain these plates consists basically in two
steps. First, cast slabs of 250 mm of thickness are reheated
to 1 250C and subsequently pre-rolled to a thickness re-
duction of 25% (150 mm). Before second step, the slabs are
cooled down to room temperature and their surface is
ground. The final rolling operations starts with a reheating
at 1 250C and then slabs are rough rolled with a total
thickness reduction of 80%, i.e. from 150 to 30 mm thick-
ness. Subsequently, the rough rolled sheets are hot rolled
with the final 6 mm thickness which corresponds to a total
reduction of 96%. Typical finishing temperatures are be-
tween 975C and 1 000C. Next, the sheets are rapidly
cooled to 650C by means of water sprays in the run out
table and coiled. The second supplied condition was after
hot rolling and annealing (HRA) at a temperature of ap-
proximately 1 080C for around 15 min and the third condi-
tion was after cold rolling (CR). In this case the sheet
(600
150 mm) had a thickness of 2 mm. The last one was
the final product (FP) of the industrial process obtained
after the last solution annealing treatment at 1 050C for
app. 10 min. The sample dimension was equal to the one
after CR.
The microstructures were examined by both optical and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). For optical mi-
croscopy, electrolytic etching in KOH solution was used.
This etching leaves ferrite grains in brown colour and
austenitic ones in white.
A detailed crystallographic characterization was carried
out using a SIEMENS D5000 texture goniometer. Incom-
plete pole figures were measured in the back reflection
mode at the centre layer of the rolling sheet. Thereby, for
the ferritic BCC phase the {110}, {200}, {211} and {310}
pole figures were obtained, while for the austenitic FCC
phase the {111}, {200}, {220}, and {311} pole figures
were recorded. Subsequently, the orientation distribution
functions (ODF) for both phases were computed. Tradition-
ally, the ODF is represented in sections j 2constant for the
FCC and j 1constant for the BCC phase in steps of 5.
Hardness was measured in both phases after each process
step at the central layer of the rolling sheet. Because of the
small thickness of the austenite and ferrite layers, hardness
tests were made with a MTS Nanoindenter XP instrument
with a Berkovich indenter at constant deformation rate of
0.05 s1 up to 500 nm of indentation depth. The hardness
values were obtained by the method developed by Oliver
and Pharr.30)
Tensile testing of the final industrial product was carried
out at room temperature using an INSTRON 5585 comput-
erized universal testing machine equipped with two exten-
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someters, i.e. in the direction of the tensile stress and per-

pendicular to it, to measure plastic-strain ratios (r-values)
according to ASTM E517-81.31) The tests were performed
on samples machined at 0, 45 and 90 to the rolling direc-
tion (RD), i.e. longitudinal (L), diagonal (D) and transver-
sal (T), in order to determine mean anisotropy (r) and pla-
nar anisotropy (Dr) by using the following two equations:

(r02r45 r90 )
r ..........................(1)
4
(r0 r902r45 ) Fig. 2. Three-dimensional microstructure of the hot rolled du-
r  .........................(2)
2 plex stainless steel.

To prove the influence of planar anisotropy on the forming

properties of the sheet, earing tests according to ISO
1153132) were carried out with a punch diameter of 20 mm
and using circular samples with a diameter of 40 mm.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Microstructural Evolution
As a result of the rolling process, the steel in the HR con-
dition shows already a strongly oriented microstructure
which is aligned in the rolling direction RD (Fig. 2). A
characteristic pancake-like microstructure was observed
consisting of flattened, widened and elongated austenite and
ferrite bands, whose thicknesses (dimension in the normal
Fig. 3. TEM micrograph of the hot rolled duplex stainless steel.
direction ND) were between 0.5 and 11 m m for both phases.
In the rolling plane, ferrite appears with very irregular mor-
phology and wavy boundaries as a consequence of being
the phase which carries most of the deformation, as demon-
strated by Duprez23) since the ferritic phase is not only the
matrix phase but also the softer phase. For the HR condi-
tion, TEM observations revealed a structure of subgrains in
ferrite (Fig. 3) due to the extended dynamic recovery,20)
which is similar to the continuous recrystallization that
takes place in ferritic steels during deformation at high
temperatures.21) Through the recovery process part of the
dislocations are annihilated. The remaining dislocations are
stored in low-angle dislocation walls resulting in the forma-
tion of subgrains. The merging of these dislocations walls Fig. 4. Microstructure of the hot rolled and annealed duplex
leads to a gradual build up of misorientation between stainless steel.
neighbouring subgrains. Austenite appeared with a higher
grain size than ferrite as a result of dynamic recrystalliza- anisms had started to act during hot rolling. During the an-
tion and/or metadynamic recrystalization, which can take nealing process extensive recovery took place in ferrite
place during the cooling of the plate from hot rolling. In with an increase of the average size of the subgrains (Fig.
austenite, which has a low SFE, dislocations are less mobile 5). As it can be observed, the recovery is affected by the
and dynamic recovery is limited. Consequently, once a crit- orientation present after deformation and, as a result, sub-
ical strain is exceeded, the driving force becomes large grains develop following the rolling direction.
enough for dynamic recrystallization when the dislocations There is a marked reduction in the thickness of the layers
are eliminated through the replacement of deformed grains at the end of the cold rolling step, leading to values between
by new dislocation-poor grains. 3 and 5 m m. In almost all observations of the material in the
After the subsequent annealing at 1 080C, the mi- CR condition, ferrite and austenite layers are essentially
crostructure of the HRA material is shown in Fig. 4. For one grain thick, so the layer spacing may be considered as a
this condition, the longitudinal section presents layers of good approximation to the grain size in this section. As a
austenite and ferrite with thickness between 3 and 11 m m. consequence of (shear) deformation, flattened broken bands
In the rolling plane, the wavy morphology of ferrite has al- of austenite and ferrite are visible at the rolling plane (Fig.
most disappeared and the microstructure is, compared to 6).
the HR material, characterized by thicker bands of austenite After the last annealing step at 1 050C, softening mech-
and ferrite. TEM observations of austenite did not differ anisms lead to a final industrial product, which recovers the
considerably from the HR step because the softening mech- aligned phases along the rolling direction originated in the

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 48 (2008), No. 11
Fig. 5. TEM micrograph after industrial hot rolling and anneal-
ing.
Fig. 6. Three-dimensional microstructure of the industrially cold
rolled duplex stainless steel.
Fig. 7. Three-dimensional microstructure of the final industrial
product.
first stage of the industrial process (Fig. 7). For the FP a
subgrain structure of ferrite is not observed anymore by
TEM (Fig. 8). The main part of the new grains formed dur-
ing annealing is equiaxial and they have a low dislocation
density. This feature is also visible for austenite, where the
presence of annealing twins is the main feature.
The variation of the austenitic phase volume fraction
during the industrial process is shown in Fig. 9. As it can be
seen, HR steel presents the lowest volume fracture of
austenite percentage compared with the rest of the studied
conditions. For hot rolling, the steel first becomes re-heated
at high temperatures (1 250C) before HR. In this high tem-
perature range the ferritic phase is more stable and less
austenite is present. Industrial annealing conditions, after
hot and cold rolling, proceed at lower temperatures and
therefore phase transformation of ferrite to austenite is en-
hanced. Note that the little drop in austenite volume frac-
tion after CR might be related to the deformation induced
austenite to a -martensite transformation, which retrans-
forms to austenite again after the final annealing process.
1599
Fig. 8. TEM micrograph of the final industrial product: a) Ferrite
and b) Austenite.
Fig. 9. Variation of austenitic phase volume fraction after each
industrial process step.
3.2. Texture Evolution
In Figs. 10 and 11, the texture development of the ferritic
and austenitic phase during the different industrial process
steps, i.e. HR, HRA, CR and FP, is shown. Textures appear
with a marked intensity in ferrite, mainly consisting of
sharp a -fiber (
110//RD) spread from {001}
110 to
{112}
110 (Fig. 12(a)). The a -fiber exhibits a similar sta-
tistic relevance in the final industrial product and in the hot
rolled plate. Orientation density values along a -fiber show
a maximum on the {001}
110 orientation for all the stud-
ied conditions (Fig. 10). An interesting feature is the weak-
ness of the {111}
110 orientation, just like for the rest of
the g -fiber components (Fig. 12(a)) which usually are the
dominating textures for BCC metals after rolling and an-
nealing. This result is in agreement with the previous stud-
ies carried out with duplex stainless steels.2933)
In the austenite, texture of HR steel is well defined (Fig.
11(a)). The main part of the deformation rolling textures
characteristic of FCC metals are observed (Fig. 12(b)),
i.e. Brass ({011}
211), Copper ({112}
111) and S
({123}
634) orientations, lying on the b -fiber, which is
close to the g -fiber, and the Goss ({011}
100) component.
Moreover, the presence of cube texture reveals that during
the hot rolling step, austenite recrystallizes dynamically
and/or meta-dynamically, i.e. when rolling deformation is
stopped but temperature is still elevated; nuclei grow into
the heterogeneous ferritic matrix, which is partly dynami-
cally recrystallized. That a dynamic recristallization and de-
formation occur simultaneously is noticeable by the RD-ro-
tation of the cube orientation via the Goss to the Brass ori-
entation, which is the ultimate deformation component in
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ISIJ International, Vol. 48 (2008), No. 11

Fig. 10. Texture development of the ferritic phase after each industrial processing step: Fig. 11. Texture development of the austenitic phase after each industrial processing step:
a) HR, b) HRA, c) CR and d) FP. a) HR, b) HRA, c) CR and d) FP.
 ISIJ International, Vol. 48 (2008), No. 11
Fig. 12. Selected ODF sections with some important fibers and
orientations: a) BCC metals and b) FCC metals.
FCC materials with a low stacking fault energy.34) This RD-
rotation of the cube orientation manifests itself in different
intensities in all processing steps, see Fig. 11. In addition,
in the course of processing the Copper orientation shifts
from its ideal position (j 190) to lower j 1-values, which
is an indication for deformation inhomogeneities like shear
deformation and the formation of shear bands.
It is also worth mentioning that the texture intensity de-
creases after each process step. This is due to the fact that
after each annealing the new recrystallized grains adopt
random orientations. The texture intensity is the highest
after HR because of the elevated temperatures, where orien-
tation rotations in austenite and ferrite are easier than dur-
ing cold rolling. The similarity between the ferritic texture
of the FP and the HR conditions results from the fact that,
at high temperatures, ferrite is the softer matrix phase, and
therefore it carries out most of the deformation. As a conse-
quence, ferrite develops the same type of texture and inten-
sity as after HR. For the same reason the ferritic matrix has
higher texture intensities than the harder austenitic second
phase.
3.3. Hardness Evolution
The hardness evolution of both phases during the differ-
ent steps of the process is shown in Fig. 13. At the end of
the hot rolling process ferrite is harder than austenite. As
demonstrated in other studies,23) when duplex stainless steel
is deformed at high temperatures most of the strain is taken
by ferritic matrix which flows around austenite grains. In
that way the authors also considered that this difference in
strain partitioning lead to a considerable incompatibility in
strain between the a /g at the phase boundaries which was
supposed to be assume mostly by the ferrite. After the sub-
sequent annealing step, an extended recovery process leads
to a considerable decrease of ferrite hardness. In contrast,
hardness of austenite remains unchanged as a consequence
of the softening initiated in the preceding hot rolling step
which reduces the driving force for recrystallization. Dur-
ing cold rolling both phases experienced strain hardening in
1601
Fig. 13. Austenite and ferrite hardness measured after each in-
dustrial process step.
Table 2. Tensile test results of the final industrial product.
Table 3. r-values obtained from the tensile test of the final in-
dustrial product.
a similar degree, being the hardness of the austenite higher
than that of ferrite due to the nitrogen addition and the low
stacking fault energy. Analogous results were reported by
other authors2426) by measuring the hardness with increas-
ing plastic deformation. They observed that at room tem-
perature austenite displays more strain hardening than fer-
rite with a considerable increase of dislocation density. At
the end of the industrial process, the difference in hardness
between austenite and ferrite remains similar to that ob-
served after cold rolling, despite both phases have softened
significantly as a consequence of the recrystallization
process that takes place during the last annealing step.
3.4. Anisotropy Evaluation of the Final Industrial
Product
The results obtained from the tensile tests are summa-
rized in Table 2. The anisotropy is clearly reflected on me-
chanical properties considering the three orientations of the
rolled sheet, i.e. L (0), D (45) and T (90). It can be seen
that the highest values of yield stress (s y) and ultimate ten-
sile strength (s uts) corresponded to the transversal direc-
tion, while diagonally orientated samples exhibited the
lowest strength but the highest ductility. This marked
anisotropy may have a negative effect for applications be-
cause usually the direction of the applied stresses in indus-
trial uses corresponds with the rolling direction as a result
of the limited width of the flat product.
This strong directionality is also noticeable with the r co-
efficient, which has the maximum value at 45 and de-
creases drastically for samples tested at 0 and 90 with re-
spect to the rolling direction (Table 3). The calculated
mean anisotropy (r) is inferior to one, indicating that the
strength in the thickness direction is lower than the average
strength in the directions in the plane of the sheet and, as a
consequence, this material will exhibit limited formability
by deep drawing.
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 ISIJ International, Vol. 48 (2008), No. 11
Fig. 14. Earing after cup drawing test.
The high value of planar anisotropy (Dr) obtained means
that there will be no-uniform strength distribution in the
plane of the sheet. Accordingly, four ears at 45 were ob-
served after the earing test (Fig. 14). In practice, for draw-
ing operations, it will be necessary to leave enough extra
metal on the drawn cup in order to trim the ears formed.
4. Conclusions
Rolled duplex stainless steel EN 1.4462 has been investi-
gated in order to study the microstructural evolution during
industrial processing and its effects on the anisotropy of the
final industrial product.
After hot rolling, the microstructure is morphologically
anisotropic with austenite and ferrite bands elongated in
rolling direction. This feature remains in the subsequent
steps of the industrial process until the final product.
The a -fiber is the predominant texture in ferrite with no
development of g -fiber components. Typical rolling tex-
tures of FCC metals are observed in austenite together with
the cube texture, which is an evidence of recrystallization
processes. Only for cold rolled steel, the distribution of
austenite textures is different and reveals characteristics of
deformed FCC metals with low SFE.
Hardness measurements reveal that the strain partitioning
between austenite and ferrite is not equal in hot and cold
rolling. While ferrite posses the highest hardness values
after deformation at high temperature, austenite hardens
more than ferrite at room temperature.
Due to the anisotropic microstructure, the mechanical
properties are strongly direction dependent, with a maxi-
mum resistance corresponding to samples oriented perpen-
dicular to the rolling direction. Moreover, the effect of tex-
tures is reflected by a low value of normal anisotropy and
considerable planar anisotropy, which enhance the forma-
tion of ears during cup drawing tests. Therefore, the indus-
trial final product will exhibited limited formability, espe-
cially for manufacturing of components by deep drawing.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Spanish MCYT (Grant
MAT03-01685) for the financial support and to Dr. J. M.
Manero (UPC) for his assistance in TEM studies.
2008 ISIJ
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The authors owe their gratitude to ALZ (today UGINE &
ALZ, ArcelorMittal Group), for providing the material via
OCAS (today Arcelor Research Industry Ghent, Arcelor-
Mittal Group), to OCAS for carrying out the texture meas-
urements and to the Technologic Center of Manresa for its
technical support in forming tests.
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