Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics

Part 1
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
AIR TRANSPORT ENGINEERING
AUTOMOTIVE AND MOTORSPORT ENGINEERING
ENERGY ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Manufacturing Methods (ME1110)

Course Handbook

R. E . Leach

October 2012
Page 2 of 64
Table of Contents
SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP..................................................................................................................... 4
INSTRUCTION FOR STUDENTS ................................................................................................................ 5
Attendance .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Assessment ......................................................................................................................................... 7
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................................................................................ 8
HAND TOOLS ....................................................................................................................................... 9
MARKING OUT AND MEASURING ..................................................................................................... 14
THE DRILLING PROCESS ..................................................................................................................... 20
THE CENTRE LATHE ........................................................................................................................... 27
THE VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE .................................................................................................... 35
CUTTING TOOL PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................... 39
CASTING ............................................................................................................................................ 42
ASSIGNMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 49
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Metric Screw Threads ....................................................................................................................... 61
Cutting Speeds and Feeds ................................................................................................................. 62
Manufacturing Methods ME1110 Workshop Location ................................................................... 63

Page 3 of 64
SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP

In co-operation with the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

and the University Safety Regulations

Introduction

In the interests of safety it is necessary for all students to have their names recorded for attendance
in laboratory work.
Students are expected to conduct themselves in a responsible manner at all times. Thoughtlessness
or careless behaviour may endanger others. All accidents, however slight, must be reported
immediately to the supervising member of University staff.

Regulations

1. Horseplay and unruly behaviour of any kind will not be tolerated at any time in the workshops

2. A student may not work in the workshop unless at least one other person is present. Permission
must be obtained from the School of Engineerings Safety Officer, Mr Richard Leach, before
working in the workshop outside scheduled class times.

3. Any person working in the mechanical workshop must have read and signed the appropriate risk
assessment if the work or equipment they are using has been risk assessed

4. No machine may be used or work undertaken unless the technician-in-charge is satisfied that
the person is capable of doing so safely. If equipment is fitted with guards these must be used.
Equipment should never be used if the safety guards have been removed

5. Personal Protective Equipment is provided and must be used where necessary. Barrier cream,
lab. coats, safety glasses/goggles and safety shoes are to be used as the work dictates. When
working with machine tools or other equipment with rotating spindles, jewellery, loose clothes
etc. are prohibited and long hair must be completely covered

6. All spillages must be attended to and cleared immediately

7. Equipment must be cleaned after use. Any materials, tools or equipment used must be tidied
away.

8. Do not obstruct exits, passages or walkways.

9. Students should note the positions of Exits, Emergency Exits and Fire Extinguisher Points on
entering the workshop laboratory.

10. Should the Fire Alarm Bells sound, leave the workshop immediately and proceed to the nearest
Fire Exit. DO NOT ENTER A LIFT.

11. The Health and Safety at Work Act imposed a duty of care on all members of the University,
including student members. The School Safety Officer must be informed of any hazardous or
potentially hazardous situation.

Page 4 of 64
INSTRUCTION FOR STUDENTS

Attendance

The year 2012/13 intake is arranged into 8 tutorial groups A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2, D2. The
timetabled sessions for term 1 and term 2 are as shown below. Note that class time do change for
the spring term so take care to identify your new timetable session when returning after Christmas

Term 1 :00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30

:00

:30
1st Oct - 14th Dec
09

09

10

10

11

11

12

12

13

13

14

14

15

15

16

16

17

17
MONDAY

TUESDAY Group C

WEDNESDAY

THURSDAY Group D

FRIDAY Group A Group B

Term 2
00
30
00
30
00
30
00
30
00
30
00
30
00
30
00
30
00
30
09:
09:
10:
10:
11:
11:
12:
12:
13:
13:
14:
14:
15:
15:
16:
16:
17:
17:
28th Jan - 5th Apr

MONDAY Group C

TUESDAY

WEDNESDAY Group A

THURSDAY Group B Group D

FRIDAY

The scheme of work for the year is shown overleaf. There are two versions because the two sets of
groups follow a slightly different scheme to enable both to fit into the academic year and also to
accommodate the Wind Turbine Challenge in the first term and the reading week in the second
term.

The scheme is based on sessions that follow the week pattern according to whether your group is a
series 1 or series 2 group.

Page 5 of 64
Manufacturing Methods Scheme of Work (groups A1,B1,C1,D1)
Session Type of Session Work plan

1 (1hr) Lecture Introduction

Course outline (ppt)
Health and Safety (ppt)
2 (3hrs) Practical Introduction to theWorkshop
Marking out
Hand tools
Drilling
Centre lathe
Milling machine
3 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
4 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
5 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
6 (3hrs) Practical Casting excercise
7 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
8 (3hrs) Practical CNC Machining
Introduction to OneCNC and programming
9 (3hrs) Practical CNC Machining
Program development and manufacture
10 (3hrs) Practical CNC Machining
Program development and manufacture

Manufacturing Methods Scheme of Work (groups A2,B2,C2,D2)

Session Type of Session Work plan

1 (1hr) Lecture Introduction

Course outline (ppt)
Health and Safety (ppt)
2 (3hrs) Practical Introduction to theworkshop
Marking out
Hand tools
Drilling
Centre lathe
Milling machine
3 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
4 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
5 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
6 (3hrs) Practical Manufacture of toolmakers clamp
7 (3hrs) Practical CNC Machining
Introduction to OneCNC and programming
8 (3hrs) Practical Casting excercise
9 (3hrs) Practical CNC Machining
Program development and manufacture
10 (3hrs) Practical CNC Machining
Program development and manufacture

Page 6 of 64
Assessment

Manufacturing Methods (EA1) is a 10 credit sub module of the larger Engineering Practice 30 Credit
module (ME1110) which together with the Engineering Laboratory and Drawing and design
components make up the full 30 Credits.

Assessment of the Manufacturing Methods component is via three items of coursework as shown in
the table below which also indicates the weighting of each. Additionally attendance for the
timetabled sessions is recorded and this contributes to an in year grade which also must be passed.
It is vital that you attend all sessions as it will not be possible to submit a report for any aspect of the
course that you have not attended. Additionally the workshop practice assignment includes a
substantial proportion of practical assessed manufacture. If not completed it will not be possible to
pass the coursework

Coursework Submission Date Weighting

Workshop Practice 25th February 2013 50%
Casting 11th March 2013 20%
CNC Machining 09th April 2013 30%

All work should be submitted to the Course office C109 by 16:00 on the date indicated above and be
suitably presented in appropriate format with accompanying header sheet.

Course Leader

Richard Leach

Richard.leach.1@city.ac.uk | Room CLG26 | 02070403653

Page 7 of 64
BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The following section provides some underpinning knowledge to support the in class exercises
undertaken throughout the programme

Page 8 of 64
HAND TOOLS

PRINCIPLES, APPLICATIONS AND CARE OF HAND TOOLS

Files

A file is specified by its length, type, cut and grade. The length and other features of a file are shown
in Fig 1, and different types of file and their
applications in Fig 2.

Figure 1

Figure 2: Types of file and their applications: (a) flat file; (b) hand file; (c) pillar file; (d) ward file;
(e) half-round file; (f) round file; (g) square file; (h) three-square file

The cut of a file refers to the direction in which the teeth are formed A single cut file, shown at Fig
3(a) is used mainly for filing hard metals; a double- cut file, Fig 3(b) is for general purpose use; and
a dreadnought cut, Fig 3(c) is used when working on very soft metals and materials.
It is the distance between adjacent teeth of a file, called the pitch, which determines the grade of a
file. Different grades and typical applications are illustrated in Table 1.

Page 9 of 64
Table 1

Used for rapid metal removal

Rough
Not suitable if a good surface
finish is required. Can be used
on soft materials as the coarse The pitch of a
Bastard pitch reduces clogging. file will increase
Increase in pitch

as the length gets

longer. For example
General purpose roughing and
Second cut the pitch of a
finishing
300mm second cut
file is larger than the
pitch of a 150mm
Smooth Used when good surface second cut file
finish and accurate dimensions
are specified. Metal removal
Dead smooth rate is poor

To take good care of a file:

a) Do not pile files on top of each other, such action can chip the teeth.
b) Do not use as a lever. Files are hard and brittle and leverage can cause the tool to break.
c) When the teeth become clogged with filings, it should be cleaned with a file card. It is bad
practice to try to remove the filings by tapping the file on a bench. The way in which a file is
used to remove metal depends on the operation being carried out. Cross filing, see Fig 4(a),
is used for rapid metal removal, straight filing as shown at Fig 4(b) will give a flat surface and
draw filing, Fig 4(c), a good surface finish.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Hacksaws

These tools are used to remove lengths of waste metal where it is impractical to remove the amount
by a file or chisel. A typical hacksaw is shown at Fig 5(a). Hacksaw blades can vary in their length,
tooth pitch, and the material from which they are manufactured. The applications for different blade
materials and pitch are shown in Tables 2 and 3.

Page 10 of 64
To prevent a hacksaw blade from binding in a slot being cut, a set is applied to the teeth. Blades
having a coarse pitch or fine pitch are set as shown at Fig 5(d). . A set will ensure that the slot being
cut is wider than the blade thickness, see Fig 5(c).

Table 4 Table 5

Blade Material Application Pitch Application

Hardened high speed Theses blades have a
steel (all hard blade) long life before
becoming worn. They
are brittle and will
easily break if flexed
Carbon steel with only Blade life is reduced
the teeth hardened but the blade is
(flexible) flexible. Useful when
sawing in awkward
positions
Fine Cutting thin sections.
At least two to three
teeth should be in
contact
Medium General purpose use.
Used when cutting hard
materials
Course Used when cutting soft
ductile materials. The
extra toothspace
prevents the swarf from
clogging up

Figure 5 The hacksaw and its blades: (a) engineers hacksaw showing typical hacksaw frame; (b) hacksaw
blade; (c) the effect of set; (d) types of set

Page 11 of 64
Screw cutting tools

Internal screw threads are cut by taps. A set of straight fluted hand taps is shown at Fig 6, the
difference being the lengths of lead. The taper tap should be used first, its long lead cutting gradually
to full thread depth. It also helps to locate the tap square to the drilled hole into which the thread is
to be cut. The second tap increases the length of full thread, and it can also be used to complete a
thread which passes right through a component. The plug tap gives maximum length of full thread
form to a thread cut into a blind hole, i.e. holes which do not pass through the component. A tap
wrench as shown at Fig 7 is used to rotate a tap. It is tightened about the square end of the tap, and
as the tap rotates, the helix of the thread feeds the tap forward and into the previously drilled hole.
There are other designs of tap, three examples being:
a) Spiral flute taps, see Fig 8. These taps are used when
tapping blind holes, the spiral feeding the swarf out
of the drilled hole and so preventing the swarf from
clogging up inside the hole.
b) Spiral point taps, shown at Fig 9, are only available
with a second lead. Their application is for tapping
through holes, the spiral point pushing the swarf
forward in advance of the tap.
c) Fluteless taps, as shown at Fig 10, are used to
produce threads in soft ductile materials such as
aluminium, copper, and free cutting mild steel. The
thread produced is stronger than 'cut' threads, as
the thread is formed in a way similar to forging. The
tap is more applicable to machine rather than hand
tapping.
Figure 6

Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10

External threads are cut with the aid of a stock and die, see Figs 10 and 11, in a fashion similar to
that used with a tap and tap wrench. Dies can be adjusted to vary the size of thread being cut by
using the screws A and B to open or close the die. A thread is specified by its size, pitch, form, and
hand of helix, i.e. right- or left-handed. A different tap or die is required for each thread
specification.

Figure 10 Figure 11

Page 12 of 64
Chisels

Chisels are usually manufactured from high carbon octagonal steel, suitably hardened and
tempered. Different types are distinguished by the shape of the cutting end and include:
a) Flat chisels shown at Fig 12(a) are used to cut flat faces where there is too much material to file,
and too little to hacksaw. Another application is cutting sheet metal.
b) Diamond point chisels, Fig 12(b) are generally used when working in awkward corners.
c) Round-nosed chisels, Fig 12(c) are ideal for chipping out grooves which require a semi-circular
section, for example oil grooves.
d) Cross-cut chisels shown at Fig 12(d) have a similar application to the round-nosed type except
that the groove produced has a square or rectangular cross section. This chisel is also used to
break up a large surface area prior to using a flat chisel.
Chisels are used in conjunction with hammers, and the continued hammer blows generally lead to
the formation of a dangerous mushroom around the end of the chisel being hit. This must be
removed by grinding on a grinding machine.

Figure 12

Scrapers

are hand tools suitable only for removing small amounts of metal as a finishing process. The flat
scraper shown at Fig 13(a) is used for finishing flat surfaces. Half-round scrapers, see Fig 13(b) and
three-square scrapers, Fig 13(c) are used for finishing circular profiles such as the bore of a solid
bearing.

Figure 13

Page 13 of 64
 MARKING OUT AND MEASURING

PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF MARKING OUT

1. Marking out provides a visual outline on the material from which a component is to be
manufactured, of the finished component shape and will identify such features as the centre
point of holes . The marked lines are a guide for fitting or machining the component

2. Datums: A datum is a starting position or reference from which dimensions or measurements

are taken. A datum may be an edge as shown in Fig I(a), a line as shown in Fig I (b), a point, see
Fig I (c), or a combination of these as shown at Fig I(d). When holding a component for a
marking-out operation, the location must be suitable for the datums used by the draughting
technician when dimensioning the component.

3. Marking-out equipment. The equipment used for marking-out operations may be for location
purposes, see Table I, marking the lines, see Table 2, or for general-purpose use as shown in
Table 3.

60

40
30 30
30

20 10 10

15
5
Datum centre
30

line 2
20
15

15
Datum edge 2
0

Datum edge 1
1

Datum centre line 1

(a) (a)

90

30 30

10 10
30

10

90

30
20
15

0
4
90
0

Datum edge 1
1

Datum centre line

(c) (d)

Figure 1

Page 14 of 64
Table 1 Location Equipment

Marking out table. These provide a flat horizontal surface which can be used as a Surface
Surface plate plate. datum for locating all equipment. Care must be taken not to
damage the surface, which when not in use should be covered.
Vee Blocks Vee blocks are made in matched pairs. Round bar located in vee blocks
will be parallel to any surface on which the vee blocks are located. The
vee block and bar can also be set vertical to a surface.
Parallels These are also made in pairs. A component surface placed on parallels will
be parallel to the surface on which the parallels are located.
Angle Plate Provides a datum surface 90 to the surface on which it is placed. Can be
used to support or locate component surfaces at 90 to another datum
surface.

Table 2 Scribing Equipment

Scriber scriber, made from steel and hardened, is used to mark lines on
components. Usually used with a straight edge, engineer's square, or
protractor. To ensure suitable lines, the point must be kept sharp.
Dividers. Dividers are used to mark out circles and arcs, or for marking off lengths.
Trammels Trammels have similar uses, but for larger dimensions. They are set to
specific dimensions by a rule.
Centre punches Used with a hammer to produce a small-angled indentation on the work
surface. This indentation can be used as a point location for dividers or
trammels, or as a start for a drilling operation. The point must be kept
sharp.
Height This provides lines similar to the scribing block. Digital readouts are
gauge common allowing a much better accuracy, and the design provides for
greater heights from the datum surface.

Table 3 General Purpose Equipment

Marking-out medium This is usually marking out blue, and is painted on to the surface where
the marking out is to take place. The marked lines will then show up very
clearly.
Straight edge Used for such operations as the joining of two arcs with a straight line
which must be tangential to the arcs.
Engineer's square When the stock of the square is placed against the surface of a
component, the blade can be used as a straight edge to scribe lines at 90
to the datum surface.
Protractor The protractor is used in a similar fashion to the engineer's square, the
difference being the ability to set the protractor and scribe lines at any
angle to the datum surface.
Toolmaker's clamps. Clamps are used to restrain work in position while marking out takes
G clamps place. For instance, work may be clamped to an angle plate.

Page 15 of 64
READING ACCURACIES AND PRINCIPLES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Steel Rule

The steel rule is frequently used in workshops for measuring components of limited accuracy
quickly. The quickness and ease with which it can be used, coupled with its low cost, makes it a
popular and widely used measuring device. No matter how accurately a rule is made, all
measurements made with a rule are of limited accuracy. This is because of the difficulty of sighting
the graduations in line with the feature being measured.
Errors can be minimized by using a thin rule and viewing directly above and at 90 to the mark on
the work. If the work and the rule are observed from an angle a false reading will be obtained,
known as parallax error.

Figure 2. Use of a rule (a)measuring the distance between: two scribed lines; (b) two faces using a
steel rule and a tool bit as an abutment

Micrometer

a) Most engineering work has to be measured to much greater accuracy than it is possible to
achieve with a rule, even when aided by the use of calipers. To achieve this greater precision,
measuring equipment of greater accuracy and sensitivity has to be used. One of the most
familiar measuring instruments used in engineering workshops is the micrometer. The
constructional details of a typical micrometer caliper are shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3

The operation of this instrument depends upon the principle that the distance a nut moves along
a screw is proportional to the number of revolutions made by the nut and the lead of the screw
thread. The pitch of the screw thread is one-half millimetre (0.5mm). One revolution of the
thimble advances the spindle face toward or away from the anvil face precisely 0.5mm. The

Page 16 of 64
reading line on the sleeve is graduated above the line in millimetres (1.0mm) with every fifth
millimetre being numbered from 0 to 25. Each millimetre is also divided in half (0.5mm) below
the reading line. It requires two revolutions of the thimble to advance the spindle 1.0mm. The
bevelled edge of the thimble is divided into fifty equal parts, with each line representing 0.01mm
and every fifth line being numbered from 0 to 50. Rotating the thimble from one of these lines
to the next moves the spindle longitudinally 0.01mm; rotating two divisions represents 0.02mm,
etc. To read the micrometer, add the number of millimetres and half-millimetres visible on the
sleeve to the number of hundredths of a millimetre indicated by the thimble graduation which
coincides with the reading line on the sleeve. Metric vernier micrometers graduated in
0.002mm are used like those graduated in hundredths of a millimetre (0.01mm), except that an
additional reading in two thousandths of a millimetre (0.002mm) is obtained from a vernier
scale on the sleeve.

Figure 4 (a) standard micrometer scale and (b) micrometer with vernier scale

b) An internal micrometer is shown in Fig. 5. It is used for measuring bore diameters and slot
widths from 50 millimetres to 210 millimetres. For any one extension rod its measuring
range is 20 millimetres. A range of extension rods in stepped lengths is provided in the case
with the measuring head. It suffers from two important limitations.
- It cannot be used to measure small holes less than 50 millimetres diameter.
- It cannot be easily adjusted once it is in the hole and this affects the accuracy of contact
feel that can be obtained.

Figure 5

c) A Depth micrometer is used for measuring the depth of holes and slots. Care must be taken
when using a depth micrometer because its scales are reversed when compared with the
familiar micrometer caliper. Also the measuring pressure tends to lift the micrometer off its
seating. A depth micrometer is shown in Fig. 6. The measuring range is 25 millimetres for
any given rods. Typical rods give a range of 0 to 25 mm, 25 to 50 mm, 50 to 75 mm.

Page 17 of 64
 Figure 6

Dial test indicators

The two most common types of dial test indicator are the lever type and the plunger type shown at
Fig 7. In each design, small linear movements of the stylus or plunger are magnified and converted
into rotary movements which are displayed on a graduated circular dial.
Some typical applications of the plunger type are shown at Figs 8(a), (b), (c) and (d), and of the lever
type at Fig 9(a) and (b). In many of these examples, either of the two designs of indicator may be
used. The usual accuracy of a dial test indicator is 0.01 mm, but can be less. Whilst the measuring
range of the plunger type can be up to 20 mm, the design of the lever type is restricted usually to no
more than 1 mm. The big advantage of the lever type is the ease with which it can be used in
restricted spaces.

Figure 7
Leaver and plunger type dial test indicators

Page 18 of 64
Figure 8

Figure 9

Page 19 of 64
THE DRILLING PROCESS

PRINCIPLES AND OPERATIONS

Construction

The basic construction of a sensitive drilling machine is shown at Fig 1.

Figure 1

Cutting tools are located and held in the machine spindle which can be set and rotated at any of the
speeds which are available. The rotating tool is fed vertically downwards and into the work to give
the desired forms and dimensions. The other machine movements are used to position the work
relative to the spindle.
Speed ranges are usually provided by pulley clusters and a back gear arrangement as shown at Fig 2.

Figure 2

Page 20 of 64
With the back gear disengaged, the belt can be positioned on anyone of the 'pulleys to give four
speeds. With the back gear engaged, a further slower range of four speeds can be selected.

Typical operations and tools

a) Tool location and restraint. Cutting tools used with drilling machines have either a morse taper
or a straight shank. The taper shank is usually associated with the larger diameter cutters. A
morse taper bore is manufactured into the end of the spindle, and if the taper of a taper shank
tool is the same size as that of the spindle, it can be fitted direct into the spindle. If the taper is a
different size, an adapter will be needed as shown at Fig 3. When using a straight shank cutter,
this will be held in a three-jaw chuck which in turn is fitted into the spindle, see Fig 4.

Figure 3 Figure 4

b) The twist drill. The features of a twist drill are shown at Fig 5. The right handed spiral flutes
provide a cutting edge and a positive rake angle (see metal cutting notes). They also allow
for swarf removal and for the passage of cutting fluids up to the cutting edge. A change of
rake angle is achieved by selection of a drill having either a slow, standard (30) or fast helix
angle. These differences are shown at Fig 6. The point and clearance angles are also
modified to suit specific applications as shown at Table 1. To cut a hole of correct form and
size, the lips of the drill should be the same length and at the same angle relative to the axis
of the drill. A suitable clearance angle is also required. Fig 7 shows some drill point faults and
the effects these faults will have on the resultant hole.

c) The counterbore. The operation of counterboring and a typical application are shown at
Fig 8. Features of the tool are shown at Fig 9.

Page 21 of 64
 d) The countersink. Features of this tool are shown at Fig. 10, its use and an application at
Fig 11

e) Spotfacing. This operation provides a flat seating for the face of a nut or bolt, see Fig. 12.
The tool is similar to a counterbore, except that the size of the cutting diameter is larger.

f) The reamer. A reaming operation is carried out to increase the diameter of a previously
drilled hole by about 0.5 mm, to give an accurate size and good surface finish. The features
of a reamer are shown at Fig. 13. Reamers are available with straight or spiral flutes. The
spiral flutes will be left handed to prevent the tendency of a right-hand helix to screw itself
forward and into the drilled hole. Cutting takes place on the bevel lead, and this is the only
feature that is reground. A reamer will follow the axis of the drilled hole, and for best results
the operation should consist of drilling, boring to correct any misalignment of the drilled
hole, and finally reaming, with the reamer held in a floating head reamer holder. In addition
to the solid parallel reamer shown at Fig 14, adjustable diameter reamers are available
which can be adjusted to compensate for wear or to provide a non-standard diameter.

g) Trepanning. When a large diameter hole is needed in a component, a drill may be too large
for the capacity of the machine. It would also be dangerous to try to drill large diameter
holes in thin thickness material such as sheet metal. Trepanning is an operation suitable for
machining large diameter holes, and the tool with its use is shown at Fig 14.

Figure 6

Figure 7

Page 22 of 64
Table 1

Drill Application
General purpose use.
The helix angle is 30 and the point angle
118

High tensile strength materials such as

manganese steel

Brass and
phosphor - bronze

Plastics

Aluminium and light

alloys

Copper

Figure 7
a) Point on centre. Lip lengths different, Drill cuts on one flute only. Hole May also be oversize
(b) Point off centre. Lips are the same length. Drill cuts on one flute only. The hole will be
oversize as the drill will rotate about the point. (c) Point off centre. Lip lengths and angle different.
Most of the cutting is on one flute and the drill will rotate about the point to give an oversize hole.

Page 23 of 64
 Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 11

Page 24 of 64
Figure 12

Figure 13

Figure 15

Figure 16

Page 25 of 64
Work holding

Some of the different work holding methods for drilling are summarised in table 2

Table 2

Method of work holding Application

Vice
Clamping direct to the machine table
Clamping to the table via vee blocks
Chucks
Clamping to the table via an angle plate
Drill jig
Clamping to the table via parallels
Rectangular work of average size
Work above average size
Location of cylindrical components in a
horizontal plane parallel to the table
Location of cylindrical components in a vertical
plane at 90 to the table
Clamping to the table via Location of the flat face
of a component in a plane at 90 to the table
Location and restraint of components which are
manufactured in very large batch quantities
Location of flat surfaces parallel to the table and
raised from it so that through-hole drilling does
not damage the table

Drilling plastics

a) Because many plastics are poor conductors of heat, problems can exist in dissipating the heat
generated by the cutting action, and the plastic can weld itself to the drill, eventually leading to
the drill breaking. Some plastics will also shrink on to the body of the drill and similarly cause
drill failure. The problems can be kept to a minimum by
b) The use of special drills with features such as:
(i) a slow helix angle and a 90 point angle (see Table 1);
(ii) wide flutes and thin webs to prevent clogging;
(iii) polished flutes and narrow lands to minimise friction;
(iv) large clearance angles to minimise the shrinking problem.
c) Frequent withdrawal of the drill from the hole to prevent the plastic chips from clogging in the
flutes and to help heat dissipation.
d) Some thermosetting plastics contain abrasive fillers which cause rapid tool wear, and the need
to keep the drill cutting edge sharp is most important. Some plastics may be so abrasive as to
require special tungsten carbide drills.

Drilling thin sheet

a) When drilling thin sheet, there is a possibility that the drill point will break through before the
outer corners of the drill are cutting, see Fig 16(a). There is no support for the drill and it will
snatch and grab, resulting in an out of round hole. The right-hand helix will tend to screw itself
into the work similar to the action of a tap.
b) Two ways of overcoming this problem are:
(i) increase the point angle of the drill, Fig 16(b);
(ii) support the sheet material with a wider section, Fig 16(c).

Page 26 of 64
THE CENTRE LATHE

PRINCIPLES AND OPERATIONS

Construction

Component parts of a typical centre lathe are shown at Fig 1

Figure 1. The Centre Lathe

1. Apron 5. Headstock 9. Top slide 13. Feed shaft

2. Saddle 6. Chuck 10. Tailstock 14. Start/stop control
3. Gearbox 7. Cross slide 11. Bed 15. Swarf tray
4. Motor 8. Toolpost 12. Leadscrew 16. Cabinet base

a) The bed is the base on to which all other component parts are attached. Slideways, accurately
machined on its top surface provide, either directly or indirectly, the locations and alignments
for the movements of other component parts.

b) The headstock houses the main spindle and a gearbox. The gearbox drives the spindle at any
speed selected from the range that it is designed to provide. On the end of the spindle are

Page 27 of 64
 features which allow for the accurate location and positive restraint of different work-holding
devices.

c) The carriage of the machine consists of the apron, saddle, cross-slide, compound slide and the
tool post. Cutting movements are provided as shown at Table 1.

Table 1.

Hand or Power Means by which

Cutting movement Turned Feature
traverse movement is achieved
Tool parallel to the Both The saddle move along A parallel cylinder
spindle centre line the bed sideways

Tool at 90 to the Both The cross slide moves A flat face square to
spindle centre line along a slideway the spindle centre line
machined on the top
of the saddle

Tool at an angle Hand The compound slide is A tapered cone

relative to the spindle rotates and set at the
centre line desired angle relative
to the centre line

d) A feed gearbox is coupled to and driven by a gear train from the headstock. In turn the feedbox
is connected to the apron by a leadscrew and a shaft, both of which run along the length of the
bed. The leadscrew provides power for saddle movement when screw cutting, and the shaft
power for mechanical traverse of the saddle or cross slide when turning. The feed box setting
determines the rotational speed of the leadscrew and shaft, which in turn controls the lead of a
thread being cut or the speed of traverse.

e) The tailstock is located on the inner slideways of the bed and at the opposite end to the
headstock. It can be pushed back and forth along the bed and locked at any position. The
cylindrical barrel located in the tailstock has a centre line which is common with that of the
spindle. The end of the barrel is bored to a morse taper size, and into this is located a range of
centres or cutting tools. Axial movement of the barrel is achieved by rotation of the tailstock
handwheel.

f) The driving motor is usually attached to the back of the machine, close to the headstock. Drive
from this to the headstock feedbox is by pulley. Other electrical equipment, together with the
main electrical isolator and coolant pump switches, are usually housed in a cabinet fitted below
the headstock.

Page 28 of 64
Drive and power transmission

The main power transmission and individual drive systems are shown in Figs 2 and Table 2.

Pulley Gear trains

Headstock Workholding
Main Motor Spindle Work
Gearbox device

Gear train
Saddle -
Half nut
Screwcutting
Leadscrew
Feed
Apron
Gearbox
Shaft Saddle
Gears cylindrical
turning

Compund slide Cross slide

Cutting tool & tool post facing

Hand feed

Figure 2

Table 2

Movement Design Used

Saddle along the bed for cylindrical turning A gear is fitted on to the end of the apron handwheel,
operations locating in a rack fIxed along the bed. When the gear is
rotated it runs along the rack taking the saddle with it.

Saddle along the bed for screwcutting A half nut, fitted into the apron, is closed about the
operations rotating leadscrew from the feedbox. As the screw is
fIxed axially the nut moves along the screw taking the
carriage with it

Cross slide along the saddle. Each feature is fitted with a nut which moves axially
Compound slide. along a fIxed leadscrew
Tailstock barrel

Work holding

a) Between centres. This method of work holding is shown at Fig 3, and is ideal when concentric
diameters are required. The component can be removed and replaced without loss of
concentricity between the component and the spindle centre line.

Page 29 of 64
Figure 3

b) Internal features cannot be machined when a component is held between centres. If an outside
diameter must be turned concentric with an existing bore, the component can be located on a
mandrel which in turn is placed between centres. Two examples are shown at Fig 4(a) and (b),
and this technique does assume that the centres of the mandrels are concentric with their
location diameters.

Figure 4a Figure 4b

c) The self-centring, three-jaw chuck is used to hold round or hexagonal bar. As the name
suggests, its self-centring action locates work concentric with the spindle centre line. However,
the accuracy of this concentricity depends on the jaws and chuck being free from wear or
damage. If the chuck is
d) scroll operated, the jaws which are numbered, must be loaded in the correct sequence. Jaws are
designed to clamp on to the inside or outside diameters, but they cannot be reversed and a new
set is needed when large diameter components are held. Fig 5 illustrates these techniques.
e) One problem with the three-jaw chuck is that concentricity can be lost when components are
reversed for second-operation machining. This can be overcome by using soft jaws bored out to
the diameter of the workpiece.

Figure 5

f) The four-jaw chuck has four jaws, each being moved independently of the others. The jaws can
also be reversed for external or internal holding. Its application is for holding irregularly shaped

Page 30 of 64
 work such as casting, forgings or plate. Fig 6 shows a plate held in a 4-jaw chuck so that a hole
can be bored. A setup for turning one diameter eccentric to another is illustrated at Fig 7, and a
similar set can be used to set a finished diameter to run concentric with the spindle centre line.

Figure 6

g) Collet chucks are useful for holding small diameter work where very good concentricity
specifications are required. These are not normally used to hold bars which do not have good
surface finishes. One limitation is the need for a variety of collets to suit different diameters of
bar.

h) Face plates provide a flat datum surface at 90 to the

spindle centre line. Irregularly shaped components can
be clamped to this purposes surface, thus any
machining will be square to work surfaces which are
located on the face plate. Fig 7 shows a typical
application. If the work is off centre, balance weights
are used to counteract out-of- balance forces.

Figure 7

Tools and operations

a) A range of tool shapes and their applications are shown at Fig 8.

Figure 8

Page 31 of 64
b) A more specialised turning operation performed on a centre lathe is that of taper turning. Four
methods of turning a taper are shown at Fig 9(a), (b), (c), (d) and their relative merits discussed
at Table 3.

Figure 9

Table 3

Turning Method Advantages Limitations

By form tool Internal and external tapers
are possible. A complete
range of angles can be set
The length of taper is usually
restricted to the length of the
cutting edge. A long cutting
edge has a tendency to
'chatter'

Page 32 of 64
Use of the compound slide Internal and external tapers The length of taper is
are possible. A complete restricted to the length of the
range of angles can be set. slide travel. Mechanical
Setting up is a quick operation traverse is not available

Use of offset centres
Longer lengths of taper are
possible. Mechanical traverse
can be used. Loading and
unloading is very fast
Only external tapers can be
turned. Tapers are limited to
small included angles. Work
must have centre holes or be
located on mandrels. The
location of centres in the
centre holes causes wear. If
components are not identical
lengths, the included angle
can vary

By taper turning attachment
Internal and external tapers Range of angles limited by
can be produced. Mechanical capacity of the attachment
traverse can be used. Useful (about 20 included)
for large batch quantities.
Longer lengths of taper are
possible (limited to length of
attachment travel)

c) Screwcutting is another specialised turning operation. When machining a screw thread, the
correct form and lead have to be achieved. Here we consider only the normal single start
thread, hence lead is equal to pitch. The principle of how the lead is achieved is shown at Fig
10. The gearing and feedbox selection is such that the tool will traverse a distance equal to
the lead (pitch) of the thread for each revolution of the spindle (work). The form is obtained
by using a tool of identical shape to the thread form, for example a 60 vee tool for ISO
threads, a 55 vee tool for Whitworth type threads. The form tool may be the single point
type or a multi-point chaser. The depth of thread is obtained with a series of cuts, either by
increasing the depth at

Page 33 of 64
 Figure 10
each cut from the cross slide or by using the compound slide which has been set at an angle
equal to half the thread angle, see Fig 11 and 12.

Figure 11

Figure 12

The sequence of cutting a screw thread is:

(i) Infeed method: Set the machine to cut the correct lead (pitch). Set a tool ground to the
correct thread form on centre and square to the work axis. With the cross slide set on zero,
engage the half nut and take a small cut. At the end of the cut, quickly wind the tool clear of
the work, disengage the feed, and move the tool back to the start of the work (or reverse
gearbox lead screw and traverse back if the lead is such that the chasing dial cannot be
used). Re-set the cross slide to zero plus an extra depth of cut, engage the feed on the
appropriate chasing dial graduation and take a second cut. Repeat this procedure until the
full depth of thread is achieved.
(ii) Compound slide set a half angle method. This technique differs from the in feed method
in that after each cut, the cross slide is always reset to zero the depth of cut being increased
from the compound slide. Both methods are illustrated at Figs 13 and 14.

Figure 13 Figure 14

d) Operations from tile tailstock. Centre drills, twist drills, counterbores, countersink tools,
reamers and spot facing cutters can all be located and held in the taper bore of the tailstock
barrel.

Page 34 of 64
THE VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE

PRINCIPLES AND OPERATIONS

The basic construction, of a vertical turret type milling machine is shown at Fig 1

Figure 1

Milling machines are used to produce parallel, perpendicular and inclined plain surfaces using multi-
tooth cutters. The vertical milling machine gets its name from the fact that the axis of the spindle of
the machine, and therefore the axis of the cutter being used, lies in the vertical plane as shown in
Fig 1.
The most important alignment is that the spindle axis, and therefore the cutter axis, is perpendicular
to the surface of the worktable. The depth of cut is controlled by raising the knee and table
subassembly or, for some operations raising or lowering the spindle. For maximum rigidity, the
spindle is normally raised as far as possible. The position of the cut is controlled in either the x or y
axis the feed is provided by a lead screw and nut fitted to the table (x axis) or saddle (y axis) and
separately driven to the spindle.
Vertical milling machines produce surfaces parallel to the worktable by means of face milling cutters
mounted directly on the spindle end as shown in Fig. 2a. Surfaces perpendicular to the worktable are
produced by the side of an end milling cutter as shown in Fig 2b.

Page 35 of 64
 Figure 2a Figure 2b

Up-cut or conventional milling

This is shown in Fig 3. The work is fed towards the cutter
against the direction of rotation. This prevents the work being
dragged into the cutter if there is any backlash in the feed
mechanism.
Unfortunately this technique causes the cutting edges to rub
as each tooth starts to cut and this can lead to chatter and
blunting of the cutting edge, also the cutting action tends to
lift the work off the machine table.

Figure 3

Down-cut or climb milling

This is shown in Fig 4. Here the work is fed into the cutter in the
same direction as the cutter is rotating. The cutter does not rub as
each tooth starts to cut. This reduces the risk of chatter and
prolongs the cutter life. The cutting forces keep the workpiece
pressed down against the machine table and the cutter action helps
to feed the work forward and takes most of the load off the feed
mechanism.
The climb milling technique can be used only on machines fitted
with a backlash eliminator and which are designed for this
technique.
Figure 4

A selection of milling cutters suitable for a vertical milling machine is shown in Fig. 5 and some
typical applications are shown in Fig 6. Note that only slot drills can be used for making pocket cuts
from the solid. All the other cutters have to be fed into the workpiece from its side as they cannot be
fed vertically downwards into the work. When choosing a cutter you will need to specify:
The diameter of the cutter.
The length of the cutter.
The type of cutter.

Page 36 of 64
 The type of shank. Some cutters have solid shanks integral with the cutter for holding in a chuck,
whilst other cutters are made for mounting on a separate stub arbor. Some large face milling
cutters are designed to bolt directly onto the spindle nose of the machine.

Figure 5

Figure 6
Vertical milling machine cutters and the surfaces they produce: (a) end milling cutter; (b) face
milling cutter; (c) slot drill; (d) recess A would need to be cut with a slot drill because it is the only
cutter that will work from the centre of a solid; recess B could be cut using a slot drill or an end mill
because it occurs at the edge of the solid; (e) this blind keyway would have to be sunk with a slot drill;
(f) dovetail (angle) cutter;(g) T-slot cutter; (h) Woodruff cutter

Page 37 of 64
Collet chuck

Basically a collet is a hardened and tempered steel sleeve with a parallel bore on the inside and a
tapered nose on the outside. It is slit at regular intervals around its circumference so that it can close
onto the shank of the cutter when the outer sleeve is tightened. Concentric tapers are used
to ensure true running and to compensate for wear. Figure 7 shows a section through a typical collet
chuck.
a) The shank of the cutter has a threaded portion at its end that screws into the rear end of the
collet. This prevents the forces acting on the flutes of a cutter with positive rake from drawing
the cutter out of the collet.
b) The hardened and ground conical centre serves to locate the rear of the cutter and also to act as
an end stop and prevents the cutter and the collet being pushed up into the chuck body.

Figure 7
Collet chuck for screwed-shank solid end mills:
(A) main body of collet chuck; the locking sleeve (B) positions the
collet (C) and mates with the taper nose of the collet to close the
collet on the cutter shank; the collet is internally threaded to
prevent the cutter (E) being drawn out of the chuck whilst cutting;
the male centre (D) anchors the shank end of the cutter and
ensures true running

Page 38 of 64
CUTTING TOOL PRINCIPLES

PRiNCIPLES OF METAL REMOVAL

Cutting angles

Component shapes are generated from the relative movements between cutting tools and
workpieces. A wedge shape, illustrated at Fig 1, can be identified in most cutting tools, and the
angles of this wedge relative to the workpiece have a direct influence on the efficiency of the cutting
action. The names given to these angles are rake and clearance, and these are identified at Fig 2.

Figure 1 Figure 2

The purpose of the clearance angle is to ensure that only the tool point is in contact with the surface
being machined; without a clearance angle the tool will rub on the surface being machined. The face
of the tool over which the 'chips' slide is the rake face, and correct selection of rake angle is
necessary for maximum cutting efficiency. In general, the more ductile the material being cut, the
greater the rake angle will be. Fig 3(a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) shows how these principles apply to a
range of cutting tools.

Spindle speeds

Consider the two situations shown at Fig 4. Both diameters are rotating at 600 rev/min, but a greater
length of material moves past the tool point when machining the larger diameter. This length of
material moving past the tool point in a given period of time is called the surface cutting speed and
is measured in metres/min. The relationship between surface cutting speed, work or tool diameter
(mm), and speed (rev/min) is shown below. In one revolution of the bar, the length of material
moving past the tool point shown at Fig 5 is the work circumference
D
= =
D mm m
1000
In one minute the length of material moving past the tool point will be
D DN
N revolutions/min of bar = m/min
1000 1000
DN
The formula is: S =
1000
Where S = surface cutting speed in m/min
D = diameter of work (turning) or tool (drilling) in mm
N = speed of the work or tool in rev/min

The recommended surface cutting speeds for a given operation depend on the combination of the
tool material and the work material. For anyone combination of these, the surface cutting speed will
be constant. A guide to recommended surface cutting speeds is shown at Table 1, however this is

Page 39 of 64
only a guide, and other factors such as depth of cut, rate of feed, surface finish required, condition
of the machine tool, power available, rigidity of the tool and work holding must all be taken into
account.

Figure 3

Figure 4 Figure 5

Table 1

Recommended surface cutting speeds (m/min)

Material being machined
High speed steel tooling Tungsten carbide tooling
Low carbon steel 30 150
Medium carbon steel 25 100
Grey cast iron 25 100
Aluminium 100 500
Brass (free cutting) 50 200
Copper 60 300

Page 40 of 64
Cutting fluids

During metal-cutting operations, relative movements between the work and tool are opposed by
frictional forces. The effects of friction are to:
a) generate heat which can (i) cause expansion of the work and dimensional inaccuracies, (ii)
temper the tool, (iii) when combined with the pressure of the cutting action, weld chips to the
tool point (built-up edge) and so affect surface finish;
b) cause wear on the tool edges with the need for constant regrinding;
c) increase the power required for the cutting action.

The reasons for using a cutting fluid are therefore to:

a) cool the hot areas of the work and tool;
b) lubricate (reduce friction) between (i) the tool point and the work, (ii) the rake face of the tool
and the chip sliding over it.
c) wash away chips In addition, the cutting fluid should not corrode work or machine tools, be
d) stable and not 'foam', and be safe to handle. Different types of cutting fluid and their
applications are shown at Table 2.

Cutting fluid Applications

Soluble oils (emulsion of oil and water) The main property is cooling.
These fluids have general-purpose use when
turning, drilling or milling mild steel, medium
carbon steel, brass or copper
Straight oils (not mixed with water) Main property is good lubrication.
a) Mineral oils Made from crude petroleum. Used for light
b) Fatty oils cutting operations on free cutting brass and
c) Sulphurized oils, called extreme pressure aluminium Not widely used as they tend to break
(EP) oils down. Lard oils are still used for cutting threads
by dies and taps Addition of sulphur makes them
suitable for heavy cutting operations with
materials that are difficult to machine
Water mixed with an anticorrosion agent (soda Used for a wide range of precision grinding
in water) operations

Page 41 of 64
CASTING

PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting In this process molten metal is poured into a mould formed in sand. The impression in
the sand is determined by a pattern which is the same shape as the required component. However,
it is made slightly larger to allow for shrinkage as the casting cools, and it has a taper or 'draft' on its
vertical surfaces to allow it to be removed easily from the mould.
a) Making the mould: Fig 1 shows a typical wooden pattern. It is divided along its major axis to
make moulding easier and the two halves are aligned by dowels. One half of the pattern is
placed on the moulding board (turn-over board) and the lower half of a moulding flask is placed

Figure 1

round it as shown in Fig 2(a). The board and half pattern are dusted with parting powder to
prevent the sand from sticking to them. The mould is then rammed up using greensand of a
suitable grain size, constituency and moisture content to suit the metal being cast. The moulding
flask and board are then turned over and the board is removed. The upper half of the pattern is
located over the lower half and the upper moulding flask is positioned round it. Parting sand is
dusted over the parting face of the sand and over the pattern. Tapered wooden dowels are
placed in position to form the runner and the moulding sand is rammed into the flask as shown
in Fig 2(b). The upper half of the mould (the cope) is then removed and the two halves of the
pattern are removed from the cope and the drag respectively. The tapered wooden dowels are
also removed. The pouring cup and in gate are carefully cut into the sand and the mould is re-
assembled. A fine wire is used to vent the mould which is now ready for pouring as shown in Fig
2(c).

Figure 2

Page 42 of 64
b) Pouring the metal: The molten metal is poured steadily into the mould until the pouring cup and
header are full. Pouring must not be too quick or the metal will flush sand from the wall of the
mould and form scabs. Nor must it be too slow or the metal will solidify prematurely to form a
cold shut and the mould will not fill properly. When the
metal has solidified, the mould is broken open and the
casting will appear as shown in Fig 3. The casting is then
fettled. That is, the runner and riser are cut off and the
casting is generally cleaned up.

Figure 3

c) Cores: To produce a hollow casting, a core is used. This is a pattern of the interior shape of the
casting made from a sand and resin mixture which, when baked and cured, is strong and rigid
and can be left in the mould during pouring. Fig 4(a) shows a hollow, cored component while Fig
4(b) shows an appropriate split pattern. This pattern has projections called core prints which
form registers in the mould to receive the core. Fig 4(c) shows the core box for forming the core,
while Fig 4(d) and 4(e) show the core located in the mould ready for pouring.

Figure 4

d) Characteristics of sand castings: Since the sand of the mould is cold compared with the molten
metal, the crystal structure of a casting is not homogeneous but varies from the core of the
casting to the surface depending upon the rate of cooling, as shown in Fig 5(a). This can lead to
planes of weakness, unless the component design is sympathetic to the process as shown in Fig
5(b), where the sharp corner is replaced by a generous radius. This also makes moulding easier.
Due to variations in mass, the cooling rates of the various sections of a casting will differ and,
therefore, the rates of contraction will also vary. This causes internal stresses which, if excessive,
will lead to cracking as shown in Fig 5(c). Fig 5(d) shows an improved design where a core has
been used to reduce the mass of the boss and provide a more uniform wall thickness. It is
impossible to eliminate internal stresses completely, so where dimensional stability is important
(a machine bed) the casting is rough machined and then left out of doors to season. Small
castings can be seasoned artificially by heat treatment.

Page 43 of 64
Figure 5

Shell-moulding. Unlike greensand moulding where the sand particles are bonded together by
ramming, the sand particles in shell-moulding are only bonded at their points of contact using a
synthetic, thermosetting resin such as phenolformaldehyde. This results in:
a) High permeability which allows castings of great complexity and varying wall thickness to be
made without the necessity for venting and risers.
b) The low mass of the shell heating up rapidly which avoids chilling the metal. This allows better
and more rapid metal flow resulting in more complete filling of complex moulds with thin
sections and castings of high definition.
c) The absence of surface chilling and hardening of the cast metal improving the machining
characteristics and longer tool life.
d) The metal cooling more slowly, resulting in improved grain structure and strength, particularly in
thin sections. Note that sections may be as thin as 1.5 mm but should not exceed 50 mm in
thickness as there is a tendency for the shells to burst under the pressure of the molten metal.

Figure 6

Page 44 of 64
The surface finish of castings produced from shell-moulds is excellent and free from the fins, scabs
and blemishes associated with greensand moulding. Dimensional accuracy can be as close as
0.075mm. Although the sand and resin are destroyed every time a casting is poured, this cost is
more than offset by:
a) The speed of production and the greatly reduced finishing times.
b) The ease with which the process can be automated. Equipment cost is also lower than
automated greensand moulding.
c) The fact that the moulds are lighter and more robust so that they can be conveniently handled
and stored.
However, it should be noted that the cost of the pattern equipment for shell moulding is very much
higher than for greensand moulding. Therefore, the process is only appropriate for quantity
production.

Preparation of a shell-mould. Fig 6 shows the stages in making a shell mould.

a) A metal pattern plate is prepared for each half of the casting complete with runner, pouring cup
and in-gate.
b) The plate is then heated to approximately 250C and transferred to the dump box which
contains the sand-resin mixture. The dump box is inverted and the/resin mixture falls on to the
heated pattern plate. After about 30 seconds, the dump box is turned back again leaving a
partially
c) cured shell 6 mm thick adhering to the pattern.
d) The shell is then transferred to an oven and curing is completed at 300 to 400C, the time
depending upon the resin used.
e) After curing, the shell is stripped from the pattern plate. The other half of the mould is made the
same way. When both halves of the mould are complete, they are fastened together using
clamps or adhesives.
Large moulds may contain metal reinforcement, or they may be returned to the dump box several
times to build up the wall thickness. The completed moulds are supported in racks during pouring.
Pouring takes place over a sand bed so that the molten metal is safely contained in the event of the
mould bursting.

Investment moulding. This is also called the 'lost-wax' process. The advantages of this process can
be summarised as follows:
a) Excellent dimensional accuracy averaging O.13 mm per 25 mm on linear dimensions and 0.4
mm per 25 mm on radii.
b) Excellent surface finish with no possibility of disfiguring scabs and fins. This saves fettling and
finishing process costs.
c) Maximum utilisation of raw materials and a truly functional component.
d) Low initial capital expenditure on plant and equipment. There is also a saving on lab out costs,
space, storage and movement of materials compared with sand moulding.
e) Accurate reproduction of fine details, e.g. slots, holes and cast features such as lettering.
f) Castings of up to 45 kg mass and a maximum linear dimension of 1200mm are produced
regularly in the UK, with minimum wall thickness down to 1.5 mm for large components and 0.5
mm for small light alloy castings.
g) Production runs are flexible and range from 500 castings to 50000 castings before the wax
pattern dies need replacement.

Production of an investment casting.

a) The wax pattern. An expendable wax pattern is produced from a metal dies as shown in Fig 7.
This pattern is an exact replica of the finished component but its size is increased to allow for
shrinkage as the casting cools. However, the pattern die has to be made larger still to allow both
for the shrinkage of the pattern as well as for shrinkage of the casting. The pattern is made from

Page 45 of 64
 a blend of special waxes which may be poured by gravity into the mould from small quantity
production, or injected automatically into the mould under pressure for large quantity
production. For small components, the patterns are built up on to a central runner to form a
'tree' as shown in Fig 8.
b) Investing the pattern. Primary investment of the finished pattern consists of dipping the pattern
tree into a refractory suspension such as chromic oxide and zircon powder in a solution of
sodium silicate and water. Before the coating dries, it is dusted with a 'stucco' of dry, fine
particles of a refractory powder such as molochite to provide a key for the final investment.
After drying, or chemically hardening the investment shell, there is a choice of two alternative

Figure 7
Wax pattern dies

Figure 8
Wax pattern tree Figure 9
Block mould

Page 46 of 64
 secondary investment processes. (i) Block mould process. The primary shell is placed in an open
ended metal 'flask', and a coarse refractory slurry is poured into the flask which is vibrated
mechanically to allow any air bubbles to escape, The completed mould is allowed to dry at
approximately 100C for several hours and the molten wax is poured out for re-use. Finally the
mould is fired at 1000C to develop maximum strength of the ceramic bond and to burn out any
remaining traces of wax. (ii) Ceramic shell moulding process. This has largely superseded the
block mould process, being more economical in the use of refractory materials and more suited
to rapid, semi-automatic mould production where large numbers of castings are involved. In this
process, successive coats of slurry and stucco are applied to the primary shell and pattern
assembly, each coating being dried before the subsequent application. A complete shell mould
consists of six to eight individual back-up coats to given a final shell thickness of approximately
15 to 20 mm. The wax is melted out in a steam autoclave or in a 'flash' firing furnace. The shell is
then fired at 1000C as the 'block' moulds.
c) Casting the metal. The finished 'block' mould (Fig 9) or the finished ceramic shell mould (Fig 10)
is mounted on a tilting furnace immediately after firing and while the mould is still hot. This
prevents chilling the casting and ensures that the thinnest sections are filled. Fig 11 shows a
typical indirect-arc, tilting furnace for ferrous metals. Induction furnaces are also used and, in
vacuum casting, the air is pumped out after the mould is assembled in place so that no oxidation
or gassing can occur and alloy compositions can be closely controlled.

Figure 10 Figure 12
Completed 'shell' instrument mould Tilting indirect arc furnace

Gravity diecasting. This process gets its name from the fact that the molten poured by gravity into
the mould in the same way as for sand casting. However, in gravity die casting the mould is made
from cast iron or alloy steel. Runners, risers and vents are required and, since the mould cannot be
broken open like a sand mould, the metal dies must be designed so that they can be separated to
release the casting. Venting is provided usually by machining narrow grooves 0.5 mm deep in the

Page 47 of 64
joint faces. The and number of the vents depends upon the shape and complexity of the casting.
Metal cores can be used where a hole can have a uniform taper for release of the core after casting.
Otherwise a sand core has to be used that can be broken out of the casting when it has solidified.
So that the casting is not cooled too quickly and becomes chilled, the dies are preheated to
approximately 200C before the first pour. The heat retained by the dies from the hot metal keeps
them at the correct temperature for subsequent pours. Metal moulds or dies produce castings with
a better dimensional accuracy and improved surface finish than can be obtained by sand or shell
moulding. Unfortunately, metal dies do not have the refractory properties of sand or ceramics and
only relatively low melting point metals can be diecast successfully.

Pressure diecasting. In this process the molten metal is injected into a closed metal die under
considerable pressure. Compared with gravity die casting, pressure diecasting has these advantages:
a) Thinner sections and finer detail can be reproduced.
b) The surface finish and dimensional accuracy is better.
c) The grain structure is compacted and this gives better mechanical properties to the casting.
There are two pressure diecasting processes:
a) Hot chamber diecasting. The principle of the hot chamber pressure diecasting process is shown
in Fig 7. The injector forces the molten metal into the die via the 'gooseneck' at a pressure of
between 2.5 MPa and 3.5 MPa. When the casting has solidified the dies are opened
automatically and the casting is ejected automatically. With a fully automatic machine, up to
2000 castings per hour can be produced using multiple impression dies. Aluminium alloys are
seldom cast by the hot chamber process as the hot metal reacts with the cast iron pot and also
with the injection cylinder and plunger which is immersed in the molten metal. Hot chamber
diecasting is used mainly with zinc- and magnesium-based alloys.
b) Cold chamber diecasting. The principle of the cold chamber pressure diecasting process is shown
in Fig 13. This process gets its name from the fact that the injection cylinder and plunger are not
immersed in the molten metal. The molten metal is poured into the injection chamber
immediately before it is forced into the die, thus the injection chamber is able to cool down
between each 'shot'. Also, there is less time for aluminium alloys to react with the metal from
which the injection chamber is made. The injection pressure is usually between 14 MPa and 70
MPa. Since the metal has to be ladled manually into the injection chamber immediately before
each 'shot', the process is much slower than hot chamber diecasting.

Figure 13

Page 48 of 64
ASSIGNMENTS

1. Workshop Practice
2. Casting
3. CND Machining (will be available January 2013)

Page 49 of 64
Assignment Brief

Module Title: Manufacturing Methods Module Code: ME1110

Assignment No/Title: Workshop Practice Assessment Weighting: 50%

Submission Date: Monday 25th February 2013 Feedback Target Date: Within 3 weeks

Module Co-
ordinator/ Richard Leach Programmes BEng(Hons)/MEng(Hons)
Tutor:
Submission Instructions:

1. Submitted coursework should be accompanied with a coursework coversheet

2. Submit the assignment to the UG course office, C109, by 16:00 on specified date.
3. You are reminded that it is your responsibility to keep both an electronic and a hard copy of your assignment
for future reference. You may be required to produce a copy of your assignment.
4. You are reminded of the Universitys regulations on cheating and plagiarism. In submitting your assignment you
are acknowledging that you have read and understood these regulations.
5. Late submission within 1 week of the deadline (without an extension being granted) will result in the mark for
the assignment being reduced by20%. Work handed in over 1 week late will be reduced by 60%. Beyond 2
weeks the work will be marked but 0% recorded.

Instructions to Students:

1. Students undertake practical activity required for the completion of the assignment at the appropriate
timetabled slot depending on their lab group
2. Students must remember to attend appropriately attired. Particularly hair, if long, must be tied up; shoes
should be sensible i.e. no high heels or open toed shoes; and no long flowing garments.
3. Appropriate PPE wil be provided when undertaking this assignment
This assignment tests the following Learning Outcomes for the module:
On successful completion of this assessment you will be expected to be able to:
Specify the manufacturing process necessary to produce a variety of engineering artefacts. (UK-SPEC P1)
Appreciate the craft skills that are required in some of these processes. (UK-SPEC P2)
Appreciate the cost implications of different manufacturing processes. (UK-SPEC D3)
Appreciate tolerances and the necessity of limits and fits
Use first and third angle orthographic projections, isometric sketches, general arrangement, assembly and
detail drawings. (UK-SPEC PS1, D5)
Reflect appropriately upon lectures and demonstrations attended during the module. (UKSPEC GT1)
Manage tasks related to this discipline, following specifications and meeting deadlines. (UKSPEC GT1)

The Assignment Tasks:

To manufacture a toolmakers clamp from a given specification and drawings. Full details of the task are found
attached

Page 50 of 64
 SAFETY
Do not use a machine unless you have received instruction in its operation.
Ensure that you are wearing appropriate PPE as required for all tasks
undertaken and in particular always wear safety goggles when cutting is in
progress.
Do not wear rings on your fingers whilst operating a machine. They may get
caught in it.
Take cure to avoid cuts/abrasions from sharp edges created by machining

Clamping devices are used for safe handling of work pieces and ease of operation. There are many
types of clamps available for many different purposes. Some are temporary, as used to position
work pieces while fixing them together, others are intended to be permanent. Anything which
performs the action of clamping may be called a clamp, so this gives rise to a wide variety of terms
across many fields.
The toolmakers parallel clamp is a lowreach, heavyduty clamping device which is stronger and
smaller than a C or a G type clamp. In general, the screw threads, toggles or nuts are turned to
tighten the jaws' grip, ensuring a tight fit and constant pressure while the piece is worked on.

Drawings for manufacture are provided as part of this assignment brief

Your submitted report should contain at least the following

1. Throughout the task you should keep a log of your activities , describing
What you have done
Why you have done it
How you did it
Safety issues

2. In answering (1) you should have provided detail regarding the processes involve and the order
of those processes to satisfactorily complete and assemble the clamp

3. Complete the review questions at the end of this brief

4. All aspects of manufacture will be assessed including final assembly

Page 51 of 64
Review Questions

1. What is the difference between the graduations of an external micrometer and a depth
micrometer?
2. Why is it necessary to clamp work during a drilling operation?
3. State the precautions necessary when drilling holes in sheet metal.
4. State the two important capacities of a centre lathe.
5. What is the purpose of using a centre drill?
6. Name four types of workholding equipment used on a centre lathe.
7. Explain, with the aid of sketches, how the following tool angles are applied to single point
turning tools.
a. Rake angle.
b. Clearance angle.
c. Secondary clearance angle (boring tool).
d. Wedge angle.
e. Plan approach angle.
8. Why is it essential to have the cutting tool set at the centre height of the work-piece?
9. Describe THREE ways of producing holes and bores on a lathe and list the relative advantages
and limitations of each of the methods chosen.
10. Describe:
a. how you would use taps and dies to produce screw threads on a lathe.
b. the precautions you would take when using taps and dies on a lathe to ensure an
accurate thread is produced.
11. Name two pieces of equipment used to prevent long slender workpieces flexing during
machining on a centre lathe.
12. With the aid of sketches describe ONE method of taper turning and list the advantages and
limitations of the method chosen.
13. What is the name of the taper used in a milling machine spindle.
14. Name three types of cutter used on a vertical milling machine and give a use for each.
15. With the aid of a sketch show how a screwed shank cutter is held in a milling chuck.
16. Calculate the following
a. the spindle speed in rev/min for a milling cutter 150 mm in diameter operating at a
cutting speed of 25 m/min.
b. the table feed rate in mm/min for a 14 tooth cutter revolving at the speed calculated in
(a) above when the feed per tooth is 0.1 mm.
c. Combining the results from (a) and (b) above, calculate the time taken to take a cut 250
mm long

Page 52 of 64
Page 53 of 64
Page 54 of 64
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Page 57 of 64
Page 58 of 64
Assignment Brief

Module Title: Manufacturing Methods Module Code: ME1110

Assignment No/Title: Casting Assessment Weighting: 20%

Submission Date: Monday 18th March 2013 Feedback Target Date: Within 3 weeks

Module Co-
ordinator/ Richard Leach Programmes BEng(Hons)/MEng(Hons)
Tutor:
Submission Instructions:

1. Submitted coursework should be accompanied with a coursework coversheet

2. Submit the assignment to the UG course office, C109, by 16:00 on specified date.
3. You are reminded that it is your responsibility to keep both an electronic and a hard copy of your assignment
for future reference. You may be required to produce a copy of your assignment.
4. You are reminded of the Universitys regulations on cheating and plagiarism. In submitting your assignment you
are acknowledging that you have read and understood these regulations.
5. Late submission within 1 week of the deadline (without an extension being granted) will result in the mark for
the assignment being reduced by20%. Work handed in over 1 week late will be reduced by 60%. Beyond 2
weeks the work will be marked but 0% recorded.

Instructions to Students:

1. Students undertake practical activity required for the completion of the assignment at the appropriate
timetabled slot depending on their lab group
2. Students must remember to attend appropriately attired. Particularly hair, if long, must be tied up; shoes
should be sensible i.e. no high heels or open toed shoes; and no long flowing garments.
3. Appropriate PPE wil be provided when undertaking this assignment including eye and face protection, gloves,
and leather apron
This assignment tests the following Learning Outcomes for the module:
On successful completion of this assessment you will be expected to be able to:
Specify the manufacturing process necessary to produce a variety of engineering artefacts. (UK-SPEC P1)
Appreciate the craft skills that are required in some of these processes. (UK-SPEC P2)
Appreciate the cost implications of different manufacturing processes. (UK-SPEC D3)
Reflect appropriately upon lectures and demonstrations attended during the module. (UKSPEC GT1)
Manage tasks related to this discipline, following specifications and meeting deadlines. (UKSPEC GT1)

The Assignment Tasks:

To undertake a simple casting exercise to acquaint participants with some common casting techniques,
demonstrate them and to give personal experience in the use of green sand casting.

Page 59 of 64
 SAFETY
Particular hazards in metal melting are: burns and explosions.
Liquid metals are extremely reactive, such reactions can cause spurting of hot
metal and explosion.
Protective clothing including: eye and face protection, gloves, leather apron
etc. must always be worn when handling hot metal.

The technique of Green Sand Moulding and Casting of an Aluminium - 3% Cu alloy will be
demonstrated and experienced:

Procedure

Form the mould in a two part moulding box. The top half of the box is called the cope the bottom
half the drag. Ensure adequate gating and venting of the mould as directed.

The molten metal enters the mould by being poured down the runner, passing through the gate
or sprue into the mould cavity. The displaced air and excess molten metal escape through vents
which are called risers.

Determine the moisture content of the sand on a small sample using the apparatus demonstrated.

The alloy will be melted in a gas fired crucible furnace. Record the temperature before casting using
the thermocouple and indicator.

Cast the metal taking great care not to spill it or interrupt the pouring process (i.e. pour
continuously). Interrupting the pour leads to defects due to surface oxidation preventing the two
streams reuniting in the mould.

Once the metal has solidified, break the mould apart and examine the component for finish and for
defects. Take care - it will still be very hot.

The following issues should be addressed in your report

1. Note The moisture content of the sand used for your mould and The pouring temperature of
the molten aluminium.

2. Comment on the casting you made in terms of finish and defects and discuss the possible causes
of these defects.

3. List the main attractions of green sand moulding and Its main limitations.

4. Why is the moisture content of the sand so important in green sand moulding?
5. What is the significance of the parting powder and the air bleed holes, and why do we
degas the molten metal?

6. Provide definitions of the following terms: Moulding box, pattern, gate, sprue, runner, riser,
cope, drag, air holes, shell moulding, concasting, ingot, fettling.

Page 60 of 64
APPENDICES

Metric Screw Threads

Size Pitch (mm) Tapping Diameter (mm) Clearance Holes (mm)

Coarse Fine Coarse Fine Close Medium Coarse

M1.6 0.35 1.25 1.7 1.8 2.0
M2 0.4 1.6 2.2 2.4 2.6
M2.5 0.45 2.05 2.7 2.9 3.1
M3 0.5 2.5 3.2 3.4 3.6
M4 0.7 3.3 4.3 4.5 4.8
M5 0.8 0.5 4.2 4.5 5.3 5.5 5.8
M6 1.0 0.75 5.0 5.2 6.4 6.6 7.0
M8 1.25 1.0 6.8 7.0 8.4 9.0 10.0
M10 1.5 1.25 8.5 8.7 10.5 11.0 12.0
M12 1.75 1.25 10.2 10.8 13 14 15
M16 2.0 1.5 14.0 14.5 17.0 18.0 19.0
M20 2.5 1.5 17.5 18.5 21.0 22.0 24.0
M24 3.0 2.0 21.0 22.0 25.0 26.0 28.0
M30 3.5 2.0 26.5 28.0 31.0 33.0 35.0
M36 4.0 3.0 32.0 33.0 37.0 39.0 42.0

ISO METRIC THREAD PROFILE

Pitch (p)
Dv/8

60
Dt

Dv
Dv/6

VEE DEPTH Dv = 0.866p

THREAD DEPTH Dt = 0.614p
THREAD ANGLE = 60

Page 61 of 64
Cutting Speeds and Feeds

Typical cutting speeds with HSS and tungsten-carbide tools

Cutting Speed (m/min)

Material being cut High Speed Steel Tungsten carbide

Cast iron 20 160
Mild steel 28 250
Bronze 35 180
Hard brass 45 230
Copper 60 330
Aluminium 100 500

Page 62 of 64
Manufacturing Methods ME1110 Workshop Location

The Manufacturing Methods Practical sessions will take place in the Manufacturing Method Workshop CLG27 located in the Tait Basement. The best way to
find the workshop is to come from Level 1 of the Tait Building using the North East stairway (next to the goods Lift at the Goswell road end of the building).

CXLG19 CLG28 CLG27 CLG27a

CLG32
CLG29
Manufacturing
Methods Workshop

Goswell Road
CXLG18
(11.6m)