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1. ATMOSPHERE..............................................................................................3
1.2 nature.........................................................................................................3
1.3 properties...................................................................................................3
2. AERODYNAMICS.........................................................................................4
2.1 mass flow...................................................................................................4
2.2 energy........................................................................................................4
3. AEROFOILS..................................................................................................1
3.1 aerodynamic forces....................................................................................1
3.2 definitions...................................................................................................2
3.3 aerodynamic resultants..............................................................................3
3.4 lift & drag....................................................................................................3
3.5 factors affecting forces...............................................................................4
3.5.1 Lift & drag coefficient...........................................................................4
3.5.2 Angle of attack....................................................................................5
3.6 centre of pressure......................................................................................6
3.6.1 Pitching moment coefficient................................................................7
3.7 aerodynamic centre....................................................................................8
3.8 downwash..................................................................................................8
4. DRAG............................................................................................................ 1
4.1 drag equation.............................................................................................1
4.2 drag coefficient...........................................................................................1
4.3 drag components.......................................................................................1
4.4 flow characteristics.....................................................................................1
4.5 form drag....................................................................................................1
4.6 boundary layers..........................................................................................2
4.7 skin friction.................................................................................................3
4.7.1 Transition point....................................................................................3
4.7.2 Reynolds number................................................................................4
4.7.3 Adverse pressure gradient..................................................................4
4.8 separation..................................................................................................4
4.9 interference drag........................................................................................5
4.10 induced drag...........................................................................................5
4.10.1 Vortex diagram................................................................................6
4.11 total drag................................................................................................8
4.11.1 Drag polar........................................................................................8
5. FORCES IN FLIGHT.....................................................................................9
5.1 four forces..................................................................................................9
5.2 straight & level...........................................................................................9
5.3 forces in climb..........................................................................................10
5.4 forces in glide & descent.........................................................................11
5.5 rate of climb (performance)......................................................................11
5.5.1 Power curves....................................................................................13
5.5.2 Effect of altitude................................................................................14
6. FORCES & MANOEUVRE............................................................................1
6.1 centripetal force..........................................................................................1
6.2 looping.......................................................................................................1
1.2 NATURE
The atmosphere is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and 1% of other
gases (e.g. Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, Neon etc). These percentages are
volumetric.
1.3 PROPERTIES
Any gas will have the physical properties such as pressure, density and
temperature, which can vary (as in an air-breathing engine). Study of the
previous diagrams will show how these properties vary within the atmosphere.
Because of these variations, the performance of an aircraft will vary. If
meaningful comparisons between measured performance are to be made, some
standard or datum conditions must be established. This standard is termed as
the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
An ISA is based on the following SL criteria.
SL Pressure 1013.2 millibars / hecto pascals
SL Density 1.225 kg/m3
SL Temperature 15C / 288 K
SL Lapse rate 1.98C / 1000 feet (6.5k/km)
Study of the diagram will highlight a particular characteristic of the lapse rate. It
is initially 1.98C/1000 feet and virtually constant up to approximately 36,000 feet,
and then the lapse rate is zero. This feature is used in order to establish different
regions. The lowest region is the Troposphere and the next region is the
Stratosphere. The boundary between the two is known as the Tropopause.
(The upper regions need not be seriously considered for our purposes).
Air also contains varying amounts of water vapour. This presence is known as
humidity. It is a fact that air is most dense when it is perfectly dry, and vice
versa.
2.2 ENERGY
This change in velocity implies a corresponding change in kinetic energy
(KE = mv2). The principle known as Conservation of Energy suggests that
unless extra energy is introduced into a moving airstream (such as fuel) the
overall energy content must remain unchanged from one point to another.
Hence, if KE increases some other energy form decreases.
Bernoulli's equation highlights the relationship between pressure energy and
kinetic energy.
P + v2 = Constant
pressure kinetic total
(static) (dynamic) ("Pitot")
Aerodynamic forces result from the action of these aerodynamic pressures acting
on the areas of the aerofoil surfaces. It is possibly clearer to understand the
effect of these pressures by studying the diagram below. On this, the pressures
have been plotted, using the chord line as a datum. Note that negative (suction)
pressure has been plotted upwards. The difference (or area enclosed) between
the two curves is proportional to the overall lifting - effect of the aerofoil.
Relative AirFlow (RAF) is the movement of the air relative to the aircraft (or
aerofoil). (In practice, it is the aircraft which moves relative to the air, but in
aerodynamic theory and wind - tunnel experiment, it is the air which is
considered to be in motion).
Leading Edge is the foremost point on the aerofoil.
Trailing Edge is the rear-most point on the aerofoil.
Chord Line is the straight line joining leading and trailing edges.
Chord Length (C) is the length of the chord line.
Camber Line is the line drawn through points equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces. (The camber line is usually a curved line; the greater the
curvature, the greater will be the aerodynamic forces generated).
Camber is the curvature of the aerofoil above and below the chord line.
Thickness of an aerofoil is the greatest distance between the upper and
lower surfaces. (It is generally between and way back along the chord line).
Thickness / chord ratio = thickness chord, normally expressed as a
percentage.
Angle of Attack () - the angle formed between the chord-line and relative
airflow.
Span (b) is the distance from tip to tip, measured perpendicular to the chord
line.
Aspect Ratio (AR) is Span chord .
If the wing is tapered, i.e. it has a varying chord, then the AR may be
expressed as span2 wing area = .
Wing Area (S) is the area projected onto a plane perpendicular to the normal
axis.
Stagnation Point is a point on the surface of the aerofoil where the RAF has
been brought to rest.
3.8 DOWNWASH
The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in speeds and pressures that
result in the creation of lift. Lift is the resultant force applied to the airframe,
considered perpendicular to the RAF. From Newtons 3rd Law, there must be an
opposite force applied to the air. This reaction causes deflection of the airflow
as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed downwash. (There may well be an
upwash effect ahead of the leading-edge).
On the diagram, the length of the arrows indicates the flow velocity at that point.
The (parabolic) pattern is termed the velocity distribution or profile.
The diagram conveys some idea of the layer thickness (it is fairly thin!) The layer
is considered to be the region where the velocity relative to the surface (skin)
varies from zero to 99% of the free-stream.
4.7.1TRANSITION POINT
Note that the flow is initially laminar, but changes to turbulence at the transition
point. Comparing the velocity profiles reveals that the turbulent layer has a
greater rate of change of velocity near the surface. This will cause greater
friction, which introduces a random (unsteady) element into the flow resulting in a
greater degree of mixing with the free-stream. This thickens the turbulent layer
and introduces greater kinetic energy. Note the laminar sub-layer whose
presence is important, but detailed study is beyond the scope of this module.
The transition point depends on:
Surface condition
Speed of flow
Size of object
Adverse pressure gradient
4.8 SEPARATION
The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity and energy of the air-flow
within the boundary layer. This reduction is further exacerbated by introducing an
APG, as with a curved or cambered body. This effect can be shown at several
successive points within the boundary-layer. As shown on the following diagram,
the boundary-layer is brought to rest and separates, forming a turbulent wake.
Beyond the separation point, flow reversal may occur.
The total drag, is a minimum at the point at which the two curves intersect.
Here, ZLD = ID and this point gives the minimum - drag speed.
Given that the two couples are most likely unequal, a further moment must be
created to restore equilibrium. This is provided by the tailplane. Because the
distance from the CG is comparatively large, the size (area) of the tailplane can
be small. With a conventional tailplane, it is usual to find that it produces a
downward force.
Again, it is assumed that the forces are in equilibrium. The analysis then begins
by resolving the weight force into two components, perpendicular and parallel
to the flight path. The forces in these directions can now be equated.
L = W cos
T = W sin + D
Two interesting and important facts emerge. If the aircraft is climbing, O and
cos 1
therefore Lift is less than Weight.
5.5.1POWER CURVES
Another graph becomes of fundamental importance to analysis of climb
performance; the plot of power required and power available, against TAS.
Clearly, the excess of power available for climbing is equal to the vertical distance
(difference) between the power available and power required curves. Study of
the diagram shows that this difference is dependent on the aircraft speed. So to
achieve the best rate of climb, a particular speed must be selected, i.e. the best
climb speed.
To the maintenance engineer, Rate of Climb represents a useful measure of
aircraft performance (and therefore of aircraft condition). Reduced thrust or
increased drag will both have the effect of reducing the vertical distance which
represents excess power. If an aircraft on test fails to achieve the scheduled
ROC, then an investigation as to the possible cause should be made. Note the
importance of operating at the best climb speed.
6.2 LOOPING
Consider an aircraft diving towards the ground. At some point, the pilot wishes to
stop the descent and position the aircraft to climb away from the ground.
Note that if the flight path is as shown, the lift force (and CPF) is considered as
negative and hence the Load Factor is also negative.
Because of the increased stresses, aircraft are designed with 'g' limits. Because
violent manoeuvres could result in over-stressing, aircraft are operated within 'g'
limits, both positive and negative. Combat aircraft are designed to be more
manoeuvrable and therefore have higher 'g' limits than transport aircraft.
Similarly, pilots are provided with 'g' suits to increase their personal 'g' thresholds.
CPF =
So increased weight, high speed and "tight" radius of turn all impose high load
factors on aircraft.
6.5 STALLING
Recalling the graphs showing variation of CL and CD which accompany changes
in , it was stated that the wing stalled beyond a certain . This is known as the
stalling angle.
If an aircraft is flown straight and level and the thrust is reduced, the aircraft will
reduce speed (drag is exceeding thrust). The pilot can maintain lift, by raising the
nose to achieve a higher CL. At some point (speed), however, the aircraft will
reach the stalling angle, the CL reduces and the aircraft stalls, suddenly losing
altitude.
L (=W) = v2S CL
6.5.1STALLING SPEED
But it is important to appreciate that the stall is primarily dependent on angle of
attack (), not speed (v). An aircraft can in fact stall at any speed, if the critical
stalling angle is exceeded. This may happen during a manoeuvre when the
maximum CL is exceeded. The new (higher) stalling speed can be deduced from;
Manoeuvre stall speed = basic stall speed
6.5.3AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
Aerofoil performance is fundamentally influenced by shape and surface
characteristics, which determine flow-pattern and degree of separation. Any
surface irregularity can cause a marked change, which may include changes in
stall behaviour. Such irregularities may result from contamination by ice and
snow accretion. Several accidents have been the result, and for this reason,
careful inspection and rectification is essential before aircraft operation in adverse
weather conditions.
In the second diagram, it will not move, it remains in the new position and is
described as having neutral stability.
In the third diagram, it will move further away from the initial position, it has
negative stability, or is unstable.
Note that the above is the initial part of considering stability, the immediate
reaction or tendency to movement following initial displacement is used to
determine the static stability of the system.
The easiest one to consider is displacement (yaw) about the normal axis. The
diagram shows that this will cause an angle of attack to be created between the
fin (vertical stabiliser) and the relative airflow, such that an aerodynamic force /
moment will be created that restores the aircraft towards its original heading /
direction. (As the displacement reduces, the moment reduces and the aircraft will
The mainplane angle of attack increases, and as drawn, this creates more lift and
a forward movement of the centre of pressure. This creates an upsetting
moment tending to destabilise the aircraft. (A tail-less aircraft is therefore
inherently unstable).
The tailplane also generates lift so as to create a restoring moment. For the
aircraft to be statically stable, clearly the restoring moment must be greater than
the upsetting moment. By comparing these moments, it becomes clear how
important the position of the centre of gravity becomes.
As the centre of gravity moves aft, the aircraft becomes less stable, due to the
changing distances and the effect on the moments.
As the centre of gravity moves forward, the aircraft becomes more stable.
The tailplane gives an aircraft longitudinal stability (about the lateral axis).
The most common design feature employed to promote lateral stability is the
introduction of dihedral. The diagram indicates the angle concerned. Dihedral
results in the 'dropped' wing meeting the revised relative airflow (due to side-slip)
at a greater angle of attack than the upper wing. The net effect is therefore to
create a restoring moment which is tending to roll the aircraft back towards
straight and level (at which point the side-slip stops and the restoring moment
becomes zero).
The next diagram shows the effect of the 'keel' area above the centre of gravity.
This will also 'right' the aircraft (similar to a yacht-keel). Note that if the keel-area
is mostly aft of the centre of gravity, then an additional effect is to yaw the aircraft
towards the dropped-wing.
In the second diagram, the aircraft has dropped the left wing and is side-slipping.
Due to the angle of sweep-back, the RAF now meets the leading-edges at
different angles, and now has different components in respect of each wing. It
will be recalled that it is the chordwise (or normal) component that creates lift
and reference to the diagram shows that greater chordwise component occurring
over the dropped-wing will therefore generate more lift, so as to create a rolling
moment that restores the aircraft to (straight) and level flight.
Several design features have been considered which result in lateral stability.
But an aircraft that is very stable will be unresponsive to control movements.
Stability requirements have to complement control requirements. An aircraft
that has excessive stability is as undesirable as one that lacks stability. The right
'balance' between stability and control is often dictated by the intended role of the
aircraft. An aircraft that possessed all the features described would probably be
too stable. So a swept-wing, high-wing aircraft might incorporate anhedral (the
opposite to dihedral) in order to reduce the degree of stability.
The above paragraphs have analysed features which create a moment so as to
restore the aircraft towards its undisturbed or original position. They contribute
static stability. Dynamic stability in the manner in which the aircraft moves or
oscillates towards / about that position. This will depend on the variation of the
forces in respect of displacement / time and is too complex for this module.
2.6 CONTROL
The previous section has considered stability, where design features have been
included in order to maintain or regain a desired flight path.
If the aircraft is to be manoeuvred, (i.e. the flight path is to be changed) it will be
necessary to de-stabilise the aircraft. So it appears that stability and
manoeuvrability are conflicting requirements - increasing one characteristic
decreases the other.
Effect on:-
Flap Setting Lift Coefficient Drag Coefficient Lift / drag
Up (cruise) - - Maximum
Intermediate (t/o) Large Increase Small Increase Decrease
(e.g. 10 and 22)
Full (landing) Small Increase Large Increase Large Decrease
(e.g. 27 and 30)
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
High-Lift Devices aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
max. lift
Increase camber.
Much drag when fully
50% 12
lowered. Nose-down
Plain or Camber Flap pitching moment.
Increase camber.
Even more drag than
60% 14
plain flap. Nose-down
Split Flap pitching moment.
Control of boundary
layer. Increase camber.
65% 16
Stalling delayed. Not
Slotted Flap so much drag.
Same as single-slotted
flap only more so.
70% 18
Treble slots sometimes
Double-slotted Flap used.
table continued....
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
High-Lift Devices max. lift
Nose-flap hinging about
leading edge. Reduces
50% 20 lift at small deflections.
Nose-up pitching
Krueger Flap moment.
Controls boundary
40% 20 layer. Slight extra drag
at high speeds.
Slotted Wing
Controls boundary
layer. Increases
50% 20 camber and area.
Nose-up pitching
Fixed Slat moment.
Controls boundary
layer. Increases
60% 22 camber and area.
Greater angles of
attack. Nose-up
Movable Slat
pitching moment.
More control of
boundary layer.
75% 25 Increased camber and
area. Pitching moment
Slat and Slotted Flap can be neutralised.
Complicated
mechanisms. The best
120% 28 combination for lift;
treble slots may be
Slat and Double-Slotted used. Pitching moment
Fowler Flap can be neutralised.