Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Over the years, there have being increasing effort by the media, civil society organizations and

for that matter government, towards ensuring the participation of women in the public and

private spheres of the nations economy. Most of this women believed that there was no hope for

them forcing them to maintain their status quo. The predominance of people with this mentality

are mostly people in the rural areas, where significant number of them are illiterates.

Since creation, women traditionally have been regarded as inferior to men. This perception still

persists today because of the societal transmission of culture, which instils in its members male

superiority. According to Smith (2005), gendered ideology of women being inferior to men had

been engrafted into the systems all over the world and the very fabric of the society, giving

power and authority to men and disadvantaging women. This has made them more vulnerable to

the various systems and process.

Illiteracy is known to be have deepen socio-cultural beliefs of the people, especially women in

the rural areas. This is because education/literacy holds the key to development, building self-

confidence and helping the individual to be assertive as well as providing a source of income and

promoting economic independence and empowerment, also providing opportunity for white

collar jobs and enhances ones chances to better the quality of life and of health.

However, statistics have shown that in the 21 st Century, there is now the increase participation of

women in various positions all over the world. Ghana is therefore no exception as the population

1
is dominated by only females with its population making up of 51% females. (Ghana Statistical

Service, 2010).

A review of the issues will suggest that a key barrier to womens leadership has been the lack of

adequate education. According to the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 4) for 2000, 44.1

per cent of men had no formal education. This effectively precluded them from formal sector

employment and leadership positions.

As Ghana pushes to become a middle-income nation, many NGO and humanitarian institutions

have agitated that there is a crucial need to invest in women critically harness the capacities of

women. When this structures are in place, leadership culture and orientation can be nurtured

among women towards building a positive perception that they can and have something to

contribute to national development.

It must be emphasized that in such circumstances where women in leadership position are

forsake, no any meaningful development can thrive well. This is because majority of the men

who have been given leadership roles to contribute to development, are many at times unable to

take decisions and formulate policies relating to women issues. It is therefore imperative for any

nation that wants to develop meaningfully, to give more opportunities to women to at least be at

par with their male counterparts. This would help bring about balance, equity and speedy

development.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

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In spite of 50 years of development, increasing levels of national awareness, education and

sophistication, the challenges to womens leadership still persist. LEKMA can be considered as

one of the many areas in Ghana that has dominated by more females than males.

The social-culture practices from this area ranges from harmful traditional practices such as

female genital mutilation, food taboos, widowhood rites, poor health seeking behaviour and the

use of harmful herbal preparations which tends to discourage more women from playing active

leadership roles.

The role of women was seen to be in the kitchen, where as male children were given prominent

interest. Their (women) feelings and interest were however ignored. Those who tried hard to

either go to school were either disowned by the parents or they had to go through really harsh

treatment. During that time, there were various factors that limited women which includes

limited support for women aspirants to carry out campaigns; cultural norms that have little or no

regard for women who go into politics; the lack of confidence amongst women and politicization

of gender issues. It is even alleged that most taboos and negative cultural practices in LEKMA

before and after independence targeted women and through that limited or prevented womens

access and participation in leadership and other higher decision-making positions.

Due to curiosity the study seeks to investigate the effect of socio-culture and how it hinders

women progressing into leadership roles in Ghana.

Objectives of the Study

1. To identify the factors that hinders women from inhabiting leadership roles at lekma.
2. To investigate suggestions and recommendations that can be put in place to bridge the

inequality gap among men and women in society.

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 3. To identify the roles that women can perform must better than men as they take up

leadership positions.
4. To investigate the socio-culture practices adopted by people living at LEKMA.

Research Questions
1. What are the factors that tend to hinder women from inhabiting leadership roles at

LEKMA?
2. What are effective ways to bridge the inequality gap among men and women in society?
3. What are the sole roles of women in leadership positions in the 21st Century?
4. What inspires socio-culture practices at LEKMA and how that affect development?

Significance of the Study

It will also serve as a reference to the general public. This will inform and educate them on the

negative effect of socio-cultural practices and its effect on development.

The study seeks to empower women in all areas of the society by nurturing their capability to

occupy various leadership positions that seems to be limited to only men.

The significance of this study is to extend knowledge on previous studies conducted in different

parts of the world. It is hoped that the findings will not only inform the researcher about the

motivates behind the socio-culture practices but will also identify factors that can be developed

to help bridge the gap between men and women in the society.

Limitation of the study

Any study based on employee survey through a pre designed questionnaire suffers from

the basic limitation of the possibility of difference between what is recorded and what is the

4
truth, no matter how carefully the questionnaire has been designed and the field investigation has

been conducted. This is because employees may not deliberately report their true preferences and

even if they want to do so they are bound to be differences owing to problems in filters of

communication process. The error has been tried to be minimized by conducting personal

interviews yet there is no full proof way of obviating the possibility of error creeping in.

The following limitations of the study were taken into account.

1. As the study is to be completed in the short time, the time factor acted as a considerable

limit on the scope and the extensiveness of the study.

2. The information provided by respondents may not be fully accurate due to unavoidable

biases.
3. Since this is a one-person survey, the number of respondents is relatively small for this

kind of survey. However, this could not be helpful due to constraints on time and money.
4. The technique for collecting the data is purposive sampling due to monetary and

manpower constraints.
5. The disadvantage of using purposive sampling as a sampling technique is that it is often

not a fair representative of a larger population since samples are based on the judgement

of the researcher sometimes leading to bias.

Organization of the study

The details of this work are divided into five chapters. Chapter one looks at the

introduction of this research, which includes the background of the study, the statement of

problem, the research objectives, the research questions, limitations and delimitation, and

organization of the study. Chapter two, this part deals with the theoretical and conceptual

5
background of the study. This part contains the reviews of various literature materials of other

researchers and authors on the concept and theories of socio-cultural practices. Chapter three

which talks about the research methodology will discuss the research methods to be adopted for

the study and also provide the relevant justifications thereof. It will outline the methodologies for

carrying out the data collections and analysis. The research methods will cover; the research

design, population of study, sample size and sampling procedure, method of collecting data, data

gathering instrument and data analysis. Chapter four involves data presentation, its analysis and

discussions based on the stated methods in chapter three. Chapter five covers the summary of

the research, as well as conclusion and recommendation based on the findings.

CHAPTER TWO

6
 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
The study seeks to better understand the extant works on the impact of socio cultural

practices on the leadership roles of women and the various theoretical and empirical literature

that underpin the topic in order to develop a framework that better explains the various concepts

in the literature reviewed. This would give an insight on how far scholarly work has gone on this

topic as well as address any gap in knowledge.

2.1 Overview of Leadership

Many scholars over the years have tried to define leadership in so many ways. However,

according to Armstrong (2006), leadership is the ability to persuade others to willingly behave

differently. He further stated that the function of team leaders is to achieve the task set for them

with the help of the group citing also that leaders and their groups are therefore interdependent.

The basic role of the leadership can be put into two main categories:

They must achieve the task.

They must maintain effective relationships between themselves and the group and

individuals in it.

Leadership remains one of the most relevant aspects of organizational context. For more than

five decades ago, the term leadership has been a researchable topic. Mostly, the research work

focuses on issues of quality of leadership, ability of a leader, or leadership effectiveness, or

leadership styles. According to Adlam (2003), leadership is a complex concept. This has been

proved true since several approaches have been employed to provide meaning to the term

leadership and effectiveness. Therefore, leadership has been defined from different sources and

7
some of the definitions are discussed below. The traditional perspectives of leadership perceive

the concept of leadership as inducing compliance, respect and cooperation. In other words, the

leader exercises power over the followers to obtain their cooperation (Anderson et, al., 1998). In

addition to that, the old leadership perspectives are based on leaders role as formulating goals,

and ensuring their efficient accomplishment. Mcswain (2010), of Lincoln University also defines

leadership as a capacity, which implies that, the capacity of a leader is to listen and observe, and

to use their expertise as a starting point to encourage dialogue between all levels of decision-

making, to establish processes and transparency in decision making, and to articulate their own

values and visions clearly but not to impose them.

2.2 Leadership Theories

Birnbaum (1987) classify leadership theories into five major categories: trait theories;

power and influence theories; behavior theories; contingency theories; and symbolic theories.

These five categories emerge throughout the historical examination of leadership theories,

beginning with the Great Man or trait theory approach in the 1930s (Alimo-Metcalfe, 2003).

Leadership qualities were believed to be inborn, primarily to men. Those born without leadership

qualities were destined to be subservient to those who were born blessed with the ability to lead.

According to Alimo-Metcalfe (2003), research and theories shifted in the 1950s away

from personal characteristics to behaviors of leaders. Situational models, also known as

contingency theories, of leadership emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. In these models, leaders

shifted their leadership style to match the situation. Leadership models dealing with the

importance of understanding the changes in organizations emerged in the 1980s and 1990s.

8
This style of leadership, commonly known as transformational leadership, is one of the first

leadership styles attributed to a more feminine approach to leadership.

Kouzes and Posner developed one such model of transformational leadership (Stout

Stewart, 2005). Their model included five elements: enabling others to act; modeling the way;

encouraging the heart; challenging the process; and inspiring a shared vision (Kouzes & Posner,

2003). This model which focuses on relationships between the leader and those he or she is

leading is most commonly associated with a feminine style of leadership.

The emergence of transformational leadership also coincides with the inclusion of women

in leadership studies for the first time (Kezar, 2000). Up until the mid-1980s, leadership models

were mostly hierarchical, authority-based, and power- and influence oriented.

They were based on research done by male researchers with male research subjects,

excluding the womans voice altogether (Alimo-Metcalfe, 2003; Campbell et al., 2010). The

increase in the number of women seeking and attaining leadership roles within organizations

following the womens movement of the 1960s and 1970s is partially responsible for this shift

in thinking. Only within the last two decades has research on the differences between mens and

womens leadership styles truly been accepted as valid and valuable (Alimo-Metcalfe, 2003).

The descriptions of masculine and feminine leadership styles described below are generalizations

and not intended to attribute any one leadership style to all men or all women. As Mills states,

Femininity has often been confused with the condition of being female (1992). By corollary,

masculinity may also be confused with the condition of being male. Therefore, it is important to

consider that individuals adopt their own leadership style based on personality and the needs of

the organization and that masculine and feminine leadership styles are not necessarily

attributable to men and women respectively. However, these masculine and feminine leadership

9
styles are a reflection of cultural values and are important to understanding the potential cultural

bias against women in roles of leadership.

2.3 Feminine Leadership

Feminine leadership styles, on the other hand, tend to be interactive, consultative,

relational, and patient (Bornstein, 2007). In general, these descriptors are most commonly

associated with women. Womens identity tends to be tied more closely to relationships and

intimacy with others while mens identity tends to be tied more to individuation (Gilligan, 1982).

In contrast to masculine leadership styles, feminine leadership is interpersonally oriented

(Belenky et al., 1997; Eagly & Johnson, 1990) and focused on group cohesion (Ayman, 1993),

which seems to be consistent with the literature on womens identity formation. This means that

feminine leaders tend to focus more on the relational aspect of leadership. Feminine leaders are

democratic in their decision making (Eagly & Carli, 2007), focusing more on the means of

getting to the decision rather than the final outcome.

Helgesen (1995) found that women in leadership roles develop a web of support around

themselves to help in the decision making process. In contract to the hierarchical style associated

with masculine leadership, this web based on relationships is designed to give everyone a voice

in the process. In general, women exceed men in the use of democratic or participatory styles

and use transformational leadership behaviorsstyles that are associated with contemporary

notions of effective leadership (Northouse, 2010).

Women who occupy leadership roles are often expected to take on a mothering or

nurturing role (Ayman, 1993; Moore & Buttner, 1997), which is consistent with societal

expectations of women as caretakers. Some women leaders have a natural ability to use

10
strategies of nurturing, helping, and encouraging within their organizations (Helgesen, 1995;

Payne et al., 1997). However, when women in leadership positions do not exhibit the qualities

typically considered feminine, they are sometimes seen as inadequate, unsuccessful, and less

capable (Dahlvig & Longman, 2010; Eagly & Carli, 2007).

Women seeking leadership roles often face a double-edged sword in attaining those goals.

When women occupy managerial roles, people expect them to act more like women than like

managers (Ayman, 1993). The expectations associated with the stereotype of woman often

outweigh the expectations associated with the stereotype of manager. In order to overcome

gender stereotypes and achieve leadership roles, women often adopt masculine leadership

qualities (Young, 2004). If women leaders adopt more masculine leadership style competitive,

assertive, and autocratic they are seen as acting contrary to feminine expectations.

2.4 Factors that seek to affect women in leadership roles

Upon careful studies and research, the following have been investigated to affect women

in leadership roles.

2.4.1 Social / cultural factors

Culture is that which surrounds us and plays a certain role in determining the way we

behave at any given moment in time. By no means a static concept, culture defines and is both

defined by events that are taking place both locally as well as regionally and internationally, it is

shaped by individual events as well as collective ones, and it is a feature of the time or epoch we

live in. Because it is so vast, culture is also often used as a tool to validate all manners of actions

- not, all of which may be acceptable to all concerned - and are often intimately, connected to

11
issues of identity. Cultural frameworks are not always imposed, but are open to manipulation and

interpretation from many angles and sources (Willis 1991).

A significant social feature resides in the double - if not triple - responsibilities of

women: In most countries, women are perceived to have primary responsibilities as wives and

mothers. But in many cases, either as a result of a preference for personal development, or out of

sheer economic necessity, women also go out to work in the employment market. Juggling these

different occupations and their consequent responsibilities is no easy task for anyone - man or

woman (Willis 1991).

Most African cultures define women in terms of what they should be or do for men. For

instance, a married womans major role is to enhance her husbands career goals by providing

him with moral and emotional support. She is left with all the family responsibilities and chores

while the husband is away either studying or working. Women can pursue their professional

dreams only after fulfilling their culturally accepted roles, an expectation nearly impossible

considering at what age this would be happening (Kamau 2006).

In any ethnic group in Africa a typical woman has low status particularly lack of power to

make decisions on matters affecting her life and those of her family. This culturally determined

expectation and attitude towards the girl child influences less allocation of resources towards the

girl as compared to the boys. A boy will always be considered first before a girl. This gender

biased cultural assumption and the subsequent differential treatment of boys and girls in a

homestead not only mitigate against girls access and performance in the education but also tend

to push girls to doing the so called feminine careers e.g. home economics, nursing, teaching and

secretarial (Bernaars 1993).

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 Odhiambo (2006) argues that in Africa women are discriminated against from birth (five

ululations given to boys while a girl is given only two), this is a typical example of how women

are unappreciated socially, culturally and even religiously. She further argues that though there is

no evidence in the bible indicating that a woman is inferior to a man the doctrines preached in

most churches expect the woman to remain silent and submissive to the man in all areas of life.

She attribute this to most churches being headed by men hence the perpetration of the wrong

teachings. This explains why in most churches just like in any other secular organization men

occupy the top positions while women occupy the lower positions.

The corporate world as it exists today is composed of values, traditions, structures, and

behavioral norms linked to masculinism. Yet much of what masculinism promotes is by

definition alien to the majority of women in our society. Neither nature nor social conditioning

adequately prepares women for their first encounter with corporate masculinism (Marilyn 1985).

Armstrong (1999) argues that it is futile, dangerous and invidious to make assumptions

about inherent differences between people because of their sex, race or degree of disability. He

argues that they are more likely to arise from environmental and cultural factors than from

differences in fundamental personal characteristics.

2.4.2 Organization culture

Organizational culture is defined as the realities, values, symbols and rituals held in

common by members of an organization and which contribute to the creation of norms and

13
expectations of behaviour (Phillips, 1997). It defines conduct within an organization, determines

what is and is not valued, and how authority is asserted (James and Saville-Smith, 1992).

The values, which underpin the great majority of organizations, and thus define success, often

include money, power and status. The corresponding behaviours include working long hours and

putting in 'face time' (as proxies for productivity), competitiveness and a willingness to put work

above all else (McKenna, 1997). These values and behaviours, which some authors define as

being masculine, have come to dominate organizations for historical and socio-economic reasons

but are increasingly being challenged by women, and many men, who want to 'work to live'

rather than 'live to work'.

Burton (1998) suggests that the masculine values underpinning organizational culture have a

systemic influence, which creates an environment in which men are more 'at home' than women.

In some instances, this influence extends to systemic discrimination (defined as a complex of

directly and/or indirectly discriminatory practices that operate to produce general employment

disadvantage for a particular group). The organizational and managerial values in these

organizations tend to be characterized by stereotypical views of women's roles, attributes,

preferences and commitments. These in turn influence decisions about who is suitable for

particular positions, who is seen to have potential and so forth. When women find themselves

selected or assessed on the basis of group membership rather than on their experience and

abilities, they experience gender discrimination.

McKenna (1997) and Cornelius (1998) argue that it is these values and behaviours that

create the kind of organizational culture which many women find so inhospitable. Women, and

many men, not only find the environment inhospitable but the patterns of interaction potentially

ineffective (Marshall, 1995). Women say that an inhospitable culture is one of the most

14
significant barriers to their advancement and a major factor in diminishing their satisfaction with

work in large organizations (Phillips, 1997).

2.4.3 Stereotyping
Stereotyping can have an influence on the way in which men and women are perceived in

the workplace. The use of stereotypes as the basis for assessment of individuals can result in

advantage or disadvantage, not because of individual ability or lack of it but because of group

membership. Gender stereotypes are still pervasive and widely shared, according to Cornelius

(1998).However, despite all the evidence, beliefs persist about differences between men and

women and how these differences impact on labour market outcomes. Men and women share

descriptions of 'typical' men and women, and both tend to describe men and women in terms of

opposites, men typically being described as strong and active and women as weak and passive.

Moreover, male traits tend to be valued more highly than female traits.

Achievement orientation of men, for instance, tends to be valued more highly than the

nurturing and affiliation typically ascribed to women. Contrary to commonly held stereotypes;

research has indicated that there are few gender differences in terms of abilities, attitudes or

commitment, or in management styles and leadership attributes (Phillips Little 1997). In terms of

management, a number of researchers (Eveline, 1998; Marshall, 1995; Powell, 1988) have

shown that a good manager is described predominantly in masculine terms so that not only are

most managers men but good management is thought to be a 'manly business'.

2.4.4 Work place policies

Women are not the same as men, they have particular biological functions that make them

different, which in turn makes their work experiences different. To this end, treating men and

15
women the same has effectively created a systemic form of indirect discrimination for women

(Wel submission, 1999).

True equality can only be achieved when industrial policies and workplace practices take

account of these differences. This should be a basic working right, reinforced with legislation.

The imperative for this has never been greater, with an increasing percentage of women

participating in paid employment, and industrial relations reforms that emphasize family-friendly

initiatives. Failure of governments to respond to women's industrial needs is perpetuating a

systemic disadvantage against women (Wel submission, 1999).

Pregnancy is a workplace issue that starts well before conception and ends long after

birth. It is impossible to separate pregnancy and family responsibilities. Anecdotal evidence

suggests assumptions that women will resign when they have children are still widespread and

continue to form the basis for not hiring women among some employers. Large numbers of

women report significant difficulties when they return to work due to the lack of supportive

policies and practices in workplace. Issues like childcare, breastfeeding, flexible working hours

and part-time work are still very current issues for most working women.

More subtle issues, such as respect and support from managers and colleagues, also play

a significant role in the capacity for women to return to work (Wel submission 1999). In 1997

forty-four percent of the Australian workforce was made up of working mothers (ABS, The

Labour Force, Australia, 1997). Most pregnancy discrimination complaints concerned

employment matters, and fifteen percent of complaints accepted under the Sex Discrimination

Act were related to pregnancy discrimination (Victorian Equal Opportunity Commission Annual

Report 1997/98, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Annual Report 1997/98).

16
The failure to take account of women's differences, and to provide the same leave entitlements

and work arrangements for women and men is a form of indirect discrimination. Providing the

same leave entitlements to men and women, such as sick leave and parental leave, appears to be

a fair deal. The reality is, the fact that women have additional physical demands, such as

sicknesses that are directly related to pregnancy, and may encounter complications during and

after the pregnancy. Current Certified Agreements and Awards fail to take account of these

differences (Wel submission 1999).

2.4.5 Limited access to advanced education

Muthoni (1999) observes that because of Social discrimination seventy percent of

illiterate people in Kenya are women, with many girls kept at home to work while their brothers

go to school. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 1995 report,

out of the developing worlds 900 million illiterate people, women outnumber men two to one,

and girls constitute the majority of the 130 million children without access to primary school.

Further, because population growth has superseded the expansion of womens education in some

developing regions, the number of women who are illiterate has actually increased.

ILO report of 1998 drew attention to implications of governments reductions on

educational budgets. Cuts to education results in fewer girls and women attending classes and

higher dropout rates for girls. Structural adjustment and economic restructuring programmes

reduced educational and work opportunities for women. This had implications for women's

opportunities to accede to management-level posts, given the importance of education in helping

to create a new concept of power, less stereotyped, less focalized on hierarchical aspects and

more open to women.

17
 In a study carried out by Kamau (2006), women interviewed attribute limited access to

doctoral studies as a main hindrance to their career advancement in universities, yet without a

doctorate there is no hope of rising to seniority in the universities. Obtaining a doctorate for

women in Kenya is usually much more challenging than it is for men especially because the

country does not have very well established doctorate programmes; they are also in limited

fields. The best option is to study abroad which is a major challenge to women given their social

roles as wives and mothers. The only option is for women to study locally, which presents a new

challenge of combining career, family and studies as negotiating for a study leave is not easy.

Funding for doctoral studies is one issue that has discouraged many women, as funds are not

easy to access.

Odhiambo (2006) observes that in Nyanza province out of the top a hundred students in

the year 2005 Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) results only one was a girl. This

kind of imbalance in primary education results to imbalance in advanced education, which

consequently results, to imbalance in appointments.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Chapter three dealt with the research method used, data collection methods, sampling

method and technique, the data collection process and how data was analyzed. It also provided

the analytical framework of the study by which the purposes of this study the research questions

were answered. For this work to be authentic and reproducible this research work explained all

the laid down procedures on how data was collected and managed.

3.2 Study Design

Upon carefully examination of the research objectives and problem statement.

Descriptive research was the type of research approach that was considered as being convenient

for this research. Descriptive research can be described as either quantitative or qualitative. It can

involve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated along a continuum in

numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times a person chooses to use a-certain

19
feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe categories of information such as gender or

patterns of interaction when using technology in a group situation. Descriptive research involves

gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data

collection (Glass & Hopkins, 1998). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the

reader in understanding the data distribution. Because the human mind cannot extract the full

import of a large mass of raw data, descriptive statistics are very important in reducing the data

to manageable form. When in-depth, narrative descriptions of small numbers of cases are

involved, the research uses description as a tool to organize data into patterns that emerge during

analysis.

In this study, the descriptive research method was employed so as to identify the impact

of the socio-cultural practices that impedes the progress of women into leadership in Ghana . The

descriptive method was advantageous for the study due to its flexibility; this method can use

either qualitative or quantitative data or both, giving greater options in selecting the instrument

for data-gathering. The study used women who were residence of women in Ledzekuku-Korwor

Municipal Assembly (LEKMA) to gather relevant data; the descriptive method was considered

appropriate as this can allow the identification of the similarities and differences of the

respondents answers.

3.3 Population
Cooper and Schindler (2001) defined population as the total collection of

elements about which we wish to make some inferences. They indicated that

20
population relates to all members or elements in a given area which conform to

the limits within which the research findings are applicable. Target population

on the other hand are all the members of a specified group to which the

investigation relates from which a sample is chosen for the study. It is a

recognized fact that the reliability and the accuracy of a survey is greatly

determined by the sample size taken out of the sample population. Therefore,

the target population for this study was mainly women of LEKMA irrespective

of their background so as to give equal opportunity to members of the

municipality.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique

Considering the fact that the study covered such a vast area, not all the respondents can

be included in the study. It is thus significant to draw a sample from the population. Non-

probability methods were employed to select the sample for the study. Under non-probability

sampling technique, purposive sampling was considered suitable. This type of non-probability

sampling which was characterized by a deliberate effort to obtain representative samples through

the inclusion of groups or typical areas in a sample (Kerlinger, 1996). In addition, the study

opted for this sampling technique as the locality had a scattered settlement. For the success of the

study the most productive samples were selected to answer the research question. A framework

of the variables that might influence an individual's contribution was developed based on the

practical knowledge of the research area, the available literature and evidence from the study

21
itself. The sample size for the research was considered to be 120 women with ages above 15

years.

3.5 Data Gathering Instrument

Questionnaire was considered as the appropriate data collection instrument for the study.

The questionnaire was generated based on the objectives of the study and

administered personally to the respondents to elicit the necessary data. The

items of the questionnaires were mainly close- ended questionnaires, only a few

were open-ended questionnaires.

The questionnaire was the main research instrument used in collecting

the data for the study in order to achieve the specific objectives, and taking

into consideration the sample size. For an easy understanding and reading, the

questionnaire was designed into two parts. The first part of the questionnaire

took consideration in the demographic factor of the respondents. The second

part of the questionnaire required the respondent to rate their understanding

on the socio-cultural practices that impedes the progress of women into leadership in Ghana . The

items on the questionnaire were closed ended-questions making it easier for

respondents to understand and answer. Besides, it facilitated interpretation of

data by standardizing alternative responses. A Likert scale-typed questionnaire

was used with responses ranging from 1 to 5. A lower score on the scale

indicates a high level agreement with an opinion while a higher score indicates

disagreement.

22
3.6 Data collection procedure
After considering various forms of data collection methods, a questionnaire was

considered as the right form of data collection instrument. The low cost associated with this and

the possibility of obtaining a high number of responses in a short time frame influenced this

decision. As a result the level of participation was quite high. Those of them who could not finish

answering the questionnaires were given more time to ensure that the right thing was done so as

to reduce errors and any form of inconsistence on the part of the respondents. The data collection

lasted for five days. Sometimes women who were considered to be very busy doing their

business were rather interviewed and their opinions and response were used to fill the

questionnaires.

3.7 Data Analysis

The data was quantitatively presented in tables. Descriptive statistics

(mean, standard deviations and median) was employed to analyze the collected

data. The data collected was coded into the computer and edited to ensure consistency and

checked for any omission, non-responses, validity and reliability of the responses. The software

used for these analyses is Statistical Package for Social Science software (SPSS version 17) for

the statistical analysis of the data and Microsoft Excel 2007.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis that examines the impact of socio-cultural practices on women

as they merit leadership role at LEKMA. In view of this, the study undertook steps to evaluate

the extent of at which socio-cultural practices are observed at LEKMA. A total of 120 women in

the municipality participated in the study as respondents. Data obtained from the women studied

were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

4.1 Background data

The background information obtained about the respondents include their age, marital

status, educational level and duration of stay in the municipality.

Table 4.1 Age Distribution of Respondents

Frequency Percentage (%)

Below 20 years 24.0 20.0

24
 20 to 30 years 46.0 38.3
31 to 40 years 20.0 16.7
41 to 50 years 20.0 16.7
51 years and above 10.0 8.3
Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016

The age range of the respondents was depicted in Table 4.1. Most of the respondents (46%) aged

between 20 to 30 years. This was followed by those aged below 20 years (24%). The remaining

respondents had ages between 31 to 40 years (20%) and 41 to 50 years (20%).

Table 4.2 Marital Status of Respondents

Frequency Percentage (%)

Single 68 56.7

Married 42 35.0

Divorce 10 8.3

Total 120 100

Source: Field Survey, 2016

The respondents who were in majority were the single (56.7%) with those who were married

estimated to be about (35%) of the sampled population. The respondents who form the least were

does divorced (8.3%) as depicted in Table 4.2.

Table 4.3 Educational Background of Respondents

Frequency Percentage (%)

25
 Secondary 24 20.0
Polytechnic 16 13.3
University Degree 32 26.7
Post Graduate 14 11.7
Professional Qualification 34 28.3
Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016

The educational background of the respondents ranged between secondary education and

university education most of whom had a professional qualification (28.3%). The second group

with the highest response were those with university degrees (26.7%). This was followed by

respondents who had Secondary education (20%), Polytechnic education (13.3%) and

respondents who had post graduate education (11.7%) as shown in Table 4.3

Table 4.4 Time elapsed staying at LEKMA

Frequency Percentage (%)

Less than a year 12 10.0

Between 2 to 5 years 34 28.3

Between 6 to 10 years 30 25.0

Above 10 years 42 36.7

Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

The period of time the respondents have stayed at LEKMA spans from less than a year to 10

years and above. Most of the respondents (36.7%) have been residents of the municipality for a

period of more than 10 years whereas (28.3%) have been residents for between 2 to 5 years with

26
(25.0%) been occupants of the municipality for between 6 to 10 years. The least of the

respondents (10%) have been resident of the municipality for less than a year demonstrated in

table 4.4.

Objective 1: Factors that hinders women from inhabiting leadership roles

Table 4.5 Factors that restrict women from leadership roles

Frequency Percentage (%)

Negative attitude from 8 6.7
men
overburden of domestic 44 36.7
responsibilities

Lack of adequate 22 18.3

education
Lack of enabling 4 3.3
environment
Lack of attitude 42 35
(confidence) by women
themselves
Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016

27
Various studies have point out that there has being improvement in participations women in

decision making throughout the world are somehow increasing. However, in spite of the

incremental progress towards womens participation in public spheres, it is generally recognized

that women have largely remained outside of formal leadership roles due to various factors. 44 of

the respondents representing 36.7% of the sampled population stated that overburden of

domestic responsibilities is the major reason why women do not take part in leadership roles in

LEKMA. The second major reason that was brought up by 42 of the respondents representing

35% of the sampled population was that most women are hindered since they lack the attitude or

confidence to take up leadership roles. This was followed by 22 of the respondents representing

18.3% who were of the view that lack of adequate education was a setback that draw women

away from leadership roles. Only an insignificant number of respondents were of the view that

the negative attitude of men (6.7%) and lack of enabling environment (3.3%) were the limiting

factor hindering women as represented in table 4.5. The narration of the finding reveals that

majority of the women accepted that there were some factors that hinder them from partaking in

leadership role. Upon all the factors, overburden of domestic responsibilities and lack of

confidence were considered to be the emanate factors for these restrictions.

Table 4.6 Opinion on women in leadership role in the community

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 14 11.7

Somehow 92 76.7

28
 No 14 11.7

Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

From the study, it was observed that out of the total of 120 respondents, 92 of the respondents

representing 76.7% were not sure of women taking leadership positions in LEKMA. This

therefore points to the fact that most women in the municipality do not pay much attention and

have interest in women in leadership role. However, only 14 of the respondents forming about

11.7% stated that the women are taking part of leadership roles with the remaining 14

representing 11.7% also stated otherwise as depicted in table 4.6. The narration of the findings

reveals that a large number of women in the community are unmindful and nave of issues

pertaining to the community.

Table 4.7 Distribution of women mandated with leadership position

Frequency Percent
Yes 36 30.0
Not sure 22 18.3
No 62 51.7
Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

It was observed that out of the sampled population, 62 of the respondents representing 51.7%

stated that they were not involved in any leadership position. 36 of the respondents representing

29
30% stated that they have being involved in one leadership position or the other. The remaining

respondents who were insignificant formed about 18.7% of the sample population were not sure

whether they have been involved in any position or not. The above is illustrated in the table 4.7

below. The narration of the findings predicts that only a few women are have been assigned a

leadership role in the community, an indication that women will have no time to participate in

any other additional work such as leadership

Table 4.8 Respondents agitation to women in leadership

Frequency Percentage (%)

Due to my gender 5 8.1
Due to religious factors 6 9.7
lack of confidence 31 50.0
lack of adequate education 8 12.9
Others 12 19.3
Total 62 100

Source: Field Survey, 2016

A reflection of table 4.7, points out that most of the respondents were not involved in any

leadership position. The proportion of these respondents form the majority. The reason that was

derived from table 4.8 points that about 31 of the respondents representing 50% were not

involved in leadership role because they lacked confidence, at the same time about 12 of the

respondents representing 19.3% indicated that they have other motivates behind lack of

indulgence in leadership roles in the municipality. Some of these other reason included having

personal issues, not interested in leadership roles etc. 8 of the respondents representing 12.9% on

the other hand stated that lack of education is one of the attributes that hinders them from

30
partaking leadership roles. However quite an insignificant number of them stated that it due to

their gender and also due to religious factors with percentages of 8.1% and 9.7% respectively.

The narration of the findings reveals that most of the women consider lack of confidence as an

important obstacle to leadership. This has made some of the women skeptical as to whether they

can attain any leadership role in the community. The other most important reason that was

pointed out full implies that the women at LEKMA do not consider leadership roles as a priority

hence pay less attention to it.

Objective 2: Strategies that can be adopted to encourage women to go for leadership positions

Table 4.9 Government and traditional leaders role in promoting women in leadership

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 18 15.0
No 12 10
Somehow 90 75
Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016

Most of the respondents 90 (75%) stated that they were not aware if they have been any

provision made by the government and traditional leaders to support women in leadership role.

12 of the respondents representing 10% stated that government and traditional leaders have not

made any arrangement towards the involvement of women in leadership roles. The remaining 18

31
respondents representing 15% pointed out that they are aware that the government and traditional

leaderships are improvising ways to boost women in leadership roles. Even though many African

leaderships have pledge their fully support for women in the quest for leadership role. Not much

has been done about it, the narration predicts that about one third of the women have ascertain

that they are not too sure and have not come across anything that proves the point that

government and traditional leaders keen on meeting the goals of women in the community as

shown.

Table 4.10 Strategies to encourage women in leadership

Frequency Percentage (%)

Government should 14 11.7
formulate policies that will
be in favour of women

Making more leadership 22 18.3

attractive for women than for
men

Spending enough resources 20 16.7

to educate women
Effective implementation and 64 53.3
enforcement of human right
laws

Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

32
The table revealed that the best and most efficient way to encourage women in leaders roles is to

effectively implement and enforce human right laws. This point was supported by 64 of the

respondents representing 53.3%. Another group of 22 respondents representing 18.3% also

pointed out that the suitable strategy that can lure women into leadership roles in the community

is by making more leadership position attractive to women than to men. In addition to that, 20 of

the respondents representing 16.75 stated that they will prefer that the government spends more

resources to educate women with the remaining 14 respondents representing 11.7% preferring

government to formulate policies that will favour women. Over the past years, women are being

faced with gender stereotype and discrimination in terms of occupying leadership roles that

notion that has swept the feet of the public is the challenge that women face unique challenges

asserting and developing leadership styles. It has therefore being pointed in the findings that

strict implementation and enforcement of human right laws as well as enshrining policies that

will favour women are the best way to improve and promote women in leadership.

Table 4.11 Workplace policies and Organizational policies linked towards Leadership

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 32 26.7
No 14 11.7

Somehow 74 61.6
Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

More than half of the total respondents 74(61.6%) seem not to be aware whether work place

policies and organizational policies favour women to go for leadership positions. About 14 of the

respondents representing 11.7% were not in agreement that work place policies and

33
organizational positions are geared towards women in leadership. However, 32 of the

respondents representing 26.7% stated with affirmative that work place policies are fair towards

women in leadership positions

Table 4.12 Facets of women in leadership

Frequency Percentage (%)

Well Educated 62 51.7
History of wealth family 20 16.7
background

Pursuit of higher level in life 20 16.7

Attitude (Confidence) 18 15.0
Total 120 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2016

About 62 of the respondents representing 51.7 pointed out that the attribute of women in

leadership are women who are well educated, 20 of the respondents representing 16.7% stated

that the attribute of women in leadership position are women who come from history of wealth

family background at the same time another 20 respondents representing 16.7% attributed it to

women who are determined to pursuit higher level in life. The remaining 18 respondents

representing 15% also stated that this attributed comes from people who are much confident. The

narration of the findings reveals that there is inadequate information to determine whether

workplace polices and organizational policies are made to protect the interest of women.

Education plays a major in todays leadership style. This has made education been a major

34
prerequisite to attain certain positions society. However, this criterion also applies to women

since it acts as an orientation and foundation to nurture one as a leader.

Objective 3: Socio-culture practices adopted by people living at LEKMA

Table 4.13 Socio-cultural factors that hinders women

Frequency Percentage (%)

Family Role 40 33.3
Education 48 40
Ethnicity 28 23.3
Others 6 3.3
Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016

Many studies have identified quite a number of factors that hinder women in taking up

leadership positions. The most detrimental factor that hinders women from leadership position is

because of education. That is according to 48 of the respondents representing 40% of the

sampled population. Next, another 40 respondents representing 33.3% explained that they were

hindered by family roles to take up leadership roles. 28 of the respondents representing 23.3%

stated that they were hindered by their ethnicity whilst the remaining respondents representing

3.3% stated that they were impeded by other factors. The narration of the findings reveals that

family responsibilities is an important factor that hinders women from leadership role and that is

somehow related to statement by Bianci et al (2000) that womens domestic responsibilities

exceed mens by 2:1.

Table 4.14 Balance between leadership position and family responsibility

Frequency Percentage (%)

35
 Yes 32 26.7
No 26 21.7
I dont know 62 51.7
Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

About half of the respondents 62(51.7%) pointed out that they were not aware their community

and organization encourage the balance between leadership position and family responsibility. 26

of the respondents representing 21.7% pointed out that the community does not encourage a

balance between leadership position and family responsibility. The remaining respondents

representing 26.7% stated the community and organization encourage a balance between

leadership position and family responsibility.

Table 4.15 Negative effect of socio-cultural factors on leadership

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 52 43.3
No 22 18.3
I dont know 46 38.3
Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

36
The unfolding mystery from the table reveals that 52 of the respondents representing 43.3%

pointed out that they are not too sure whether socio-cultural factors gave a negative effect on

women leadership. 46 of the respondents representing 38.3% also stated that they are fully aware

that socio-cultural factors have negative effect on women leadership whilst the remaining 22

respondents representing 18.3% stated socio-cultural factors do not have negative effect on

women in leadership. Traditional and persistent barriers have been shown to hinder the active

pursuit of women to obtain positions of leadership (i.e. Bartol et al., 2003; Hoyt, 2005; Powell et

al., 2002). Historical facts make it clear that despite their strengths, contributions and

demonstrated leadership abilities, it has never been easy for Ghanaian women to ascend to

formal political power

Table 4.16 Women treated on par with men

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 42 35.0

No 78 65.0

Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

78 of the respondents representing 65% stated that women are not treated on par with men in the

community in terms of occupying leadership role in the community whilst the remaining

37
respondents representing 35% explained that they are positive that women are treated on par with

women in the society. Even though many have agitated that women be treated equally with men.

Not much have being done about it. The narration of the findings points out that more than half

of the respondents insist that women are not treated equally in terms of occupying leadership role

in the community.

Table 4.17 Reason for Discrimination

Frequency Percent
Women are discriminated in the
community 10 12.8

Women cannot combine leadership

roles together with family 46 60.0
responsibilities

The environment makes it

unfriendly for women to go for 20 25.6
leadership positions

Other factors 2 2.6

Total 78 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2016

Out of the 78 respondents who said NO in table 4.16, 46 of them representing 60% stated that

the reason why women are not treated equally with men is due to that fact that women cannot

combine leadership roles together with family responsibilities. Another reason stated by 20 of the

respondents representing 25.6%, the environment makes it unfriendly for women to go for

leadership positions that is why they are not treated on par with men. Women are discriminated

in the community and other factors such as unawareness of the importance of leadership were

supplementary factors with percentage of 12.8% and 2.6% respectively.

38
Objective 4: Suggestions and recommendations that can be put in place to bridge the

inequality

Table 4.18 Gap between men and women

Percentage
Frequency (%)
Educating women on the importance of leadership
14 11.7

Abolishing negative cultural practices in existence

46 38.3

Involving more women in decision making and

leadership role 60 50.0

Total 120 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2016

The persistence of gender stereotype call for remarkable solution to bridge the gap between men

and women especially in societies dominated by socio-cultural practices, as a result about 60 of

the respondents representing 50% of the sampled population recommended the involvement of

more women in decision making and leadership role. The other 46 of the respondents

representing 38.3% also recommended the abolishing of negative cultural practices and lastly the

remaining 14 respondents representing 11.7% emphasized the need to educate more women for

leadership.

Table 4.19 Ways of attracting women closer to leadership positions

Frequency Percentage (%)

The media should encourage and 10 8.3
talk to women to take up
leadership roles

39
 NGO's and other organizations 44 36.7
should organize seminars on
leadership for women

Our educational and religious 60 50.0

organizations should encourage
women to overcome fear to take
up leadership positions in
schools and churches

Government should formulate 6 5.0

policies that will favour and
encourage women to go for
positions
Total 120 100
Source: Field Survey, 2016
The role of men in leadership has always be criticized by many humanitarians since little room is

made to accommodate women in such positions. However, 60 of the respondents representing

50% suggested that educational and religious organizations should encourage women to

overcome their fear and take up leadership positions in schools and churches. This was enhanced

their ability and leadership skills to take up greater positions as they move on in life. 44 of the

respondents representing 36.7% also pointed out that NGOs and other organizations should

make organizing of seminars for women their priority so as to motivate and encourage them.

Again, 10 of the respondents representing 8.3% also stated that the media can also encourage

women telecasting TV shows and programmes that tend to empower to take up leadership roles.

Lastly, 6 of the respondents representing 5% placed the task on the government. According to

this women, government must adopt and implement policies that seek to benefit women by

making more leadership roles available for women.

40
Table 4.20 Strategies that can help enroll women in leadership role.

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 106 88.3
No 2 1.7
Somehow 12 10
Total 120 100

Source: Field Survey, 2016

106 respondents representing 88.3% suggested that when the above strategies are implemented

women can take up leadership role in the community. Another group of 12 respondents

representing 10% stated that they were not too sure whether the improvised strategies can allow

women to take up leadership roles. Quite an insignificant number of respondents representing

1.7% stated that the above strategies will not give women power to take up the leadership roles

in the community.

41
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the conclusion and the recommendation of the result of the analysis. The

chapter also access how far the objectives of the research have being achieved.

5.2 Summary

The study saw many of the respondents aged between 20 to 30 years with about 56.7% of the

sampled population been single. The women of the community were educated since all the

respondents who took part in the study had a level of education. The residents have had a long

stay at the community with about 90% spanning from more than 2 years. The LEKMA

community had a lot of women being impeded by factors such as overburden of domestic

responsibilities and lack of confidence hindering them from indulging in leadership roles.

Women in leadership was something that was unpopular among the people of the community as

a result most of the respondents were sceptical. About 50% of the respondents have not attain

any leadership role in their life with 18.3% of them being oblivious about the importance of

leadership role. Lack of confidence and lack of adequate education was seen as the reason why

these women were not tasked any leadership role. The women were not also certain about

government and traditional leaders involvement in supporting women in the community. In

other to elucidate the situation, the best measures that were suggested by most of the respondents

42
were effective implementation and enforcement of human right laws, making more leadership

attractive for women than for men and spending enough resources to educate women. The

women believed that one of the attributes of women in power was that those women were well

educated and those who could not make it to such positions were limited by factors such as

education and family. LEKMA according to the respondents had lots of women who do not

believe there is balance between leadership role and family responsibilities and those who

believe these were reckoned as a few. The residents were quick to point that the negative effect

of socio-cultural practices did affect women in leadership. With its effect, women were therefore

not treated on par with men in the community, this is because women cannot combine leadership

roles together with family responsibilities and the environment makes it unfriendly for women to

go for leadership positions. However, this act could be offset when negative cultural practices are

abolished and also the involvement of more women in decision making and leadership role.

It was suggested during the findings that the ways by which women can be attracted to

leadership positions was if our educational and religious organizations encourage women to

overcome fear to take up leadership positions in schools and churches as well as NGO's and

other organizations organizing seminars that will give women adequate access to mentors and

support networks for women. This according to about 88.3% of the respondent was the far

forward.

5.2 Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study the following conclusion was drawn:

The factors that hinders women from inhabiting leadership roles at LEKMA.

43
The study was able to identify that participation of women into leadership roles have been

attributed to several factors and constraints. This factors were identified as overburden of

domestic responsibilities and lack of confidence. Mediocrity was found to be the prevailing

character of the women and the feel of being inconspicuous have prompted men to dominate

such positions bringing about imbalance in the community. It can be concluded that, if men alone

are seen to be making decisions and taking leadership roles, then girls and boys, women and men

can be led into believing that women have no legitimate place in such decision-making.

Strategies that can be put in place to encourage women to take up leadership positions

Publications across many urbans and rural communities shows that the government is doing

more to ensure that more women are given leadership roles in the community but little has

however being done about. The study was quick note that most of the women were unaware of

contributions by the government and other organizations to involve women in decision making

not to talk of leadership positions. The strategies that was support by a significant number of

women was effective implementation and enforcement of human right laws, making more

leadership attractive for women than for men and spending enough resources to educate women.

The socio-culture practices adopted by people living at LEKMA

Socio-cultural practices have drastic effect of women living in Africa and has brought about lot

of inequality among men and women. It is concluded that women are not only kept away from

higher leadership positions, but are seen as limited in handling managerial positions which has

resulted in women being inconspicuous and being allowed to be dominated by men. Culture has

it that the role of women is to do house chorus as well as take care of the family hence women

who tend to neglect such duties are declared irresponsible sometimes critised by the masses.

44
Family role and education were linked to the socio-cultural practices of the occupants of the

municipality.

Suggestions and recommendations that can be put in place to bridge the inequality gap among

men and women in society

The women made some remarkable suggestions and contributions that was geared towards

improving the perception of women and enlightening them on the need to have a positive attitude

towards the leadership positions and decision making in the community. According to them,

abolishing negative cultural practices in existence and involving more women in decision

making and leadership role was the most efficient way to tackle the problem.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the conclusion, the following recommendation was made

Firstly, there was a need for the women in the community to take much interest in

knowing what goes around them since they are part of the community and nothing is going to

change around them unless they make the decision to pursue and overcome socio-cultural factors

that deprives them the opportunity to take charge.

Secondly, women have to change their attitudes that they are less than men when it comes

to participating decision making levels especially in vying for leadership positions. There is also

a need to encourage behaviour change among men with regard to accepting women in leadership

positions thus encouraging women towards realizing their leadership capability regardless their

gender.

Thirdly, the government and traditional leaders must design programmes that will raise

the level of knowledge and understanding of women rights and potentials in leadership whiles

45
taking the necessary steps to ensure that whatever policies that have been implemented are

carried out.

Furthermore, a move by NGOS and governmental bodies to ensure that women are

guided and given the necessary resources in other to achieve the highest educational level is one

sure way to increase the number of women in leadership position.

Lastly, further investigation must be conducted so as to determine the extent at which

inequality gap is affecting the development and environmental wellbeing of women in the

community. This study will allows us to identify the damage it has caused the community

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 APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RESPONDENTS

This questionnaire is aimed at providing a better understanding on The effect of socio-culture on

women in leadership roles at LEKMA. Your responses will be held in the strictest confidence.

Please answer every question. Some questions may look like the others, but each one is different.

52
There is no right or wrong answer. If you are not sure how to answer a question, just give the

best answer you can.

1. Age Below 20 [ ] 20-30 [ ]

31-40 [ ] 41-50 [ ] 51 and above [ ]

2. Marital Status Single [ ] Married [ ]

3. Educational Background Secondary [ ] Polytechnic [ ] University

Degree [ ] Post Graduate [ ] Professional Qualification [ ]

4. Duration of stay at LEKMA Less than a year [ ] Between 2 to 5 years [ ]

Between 6 to 10 years [ ] Above 10 years [ ]

5. Which of the following are the factors that tend to restrict women from leadership roles?
Negative attitude from men [ ] Overburden of domestic responsibilities [ ]
Lack of adequate education [ ] Lack of enabling environment [ ]
Lack of attitude (confidence) by women themselves [ ]
6. Are women allowed to via for leadership roles in your community?
Yes [ ] Somehow [ ] No [ ]
7. Have you ever been nominated in a leadership role in your community?
Yes [ ] Somehow [ ] No [ ]
8. Which is the following can be term as a factor that limit the role of women in leadership

position?
Due to my gender [ ] Due to religious factors [ ] Lack of confidence [ ]
Lack of adequate education [ ] Others [ ]
9. Does the government and traditional leaders play a role in the promotion of women in

leadership role?
Yes [ ] Somehow [ ] No [ ]
10. What do you think in your opinion are the strategies and recommendations to help curb

the situation?
Government should formulate policies that will be in favour of women [ ]
Making more leadership attractive for women than for men [ ]
Spending enough resources to educate women [ ]
Effective implementation and enforcement of human right laws [ ]
11. Do you think that there are policies in place that tend to favour women in leadership role

at your workplace?
Yes [ ] Somehow [ ] No [ ]
12. What are the attributes of women in leadership roles?
Well Educated [ ] History of wealth family background [ ]

53
 Pursuit of higher level in life [ ] Attitude (Confidence) [ ]
13. What are the some of the social cultural factors that hinder women in leadership

positions?
Family Role [ ] Education [ ] Ethnicity [ ]
Others [ ]
14. Are women in leadership position able to balance between leadership position and

family responsibilities?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I dont know [ ]
15. Does the negative effect of socio-cultural practices affect women in leadership positions?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I dont know [ ]
16. Are women treated on par with men in your community?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
17. What are the reasons why women are discriminated against in society in terms of

leadership roles?
Women are discriminated in the community [ ]
Women cannot combine leadership roles together with family responsibilities [ ]
The environment makes it unfriendly for women to go for leadership positions [ ]
Other factors [ ]
18. What measure can be implemented to bridge the gap between men and women in

society?
Educating women on the importance of leadership [ ]
Abolishing negative cultural practices in existence [ ]
Involving more women in decision making and leadership role [ ]
19. What are the ways by which leadership positions can become attracted to women in

society?
The media should encourage and talk to women to take up leadership roles [ ]
NGO's and other organizations should organize seminars on leadership for women
[ ]
Our educational and religious organizations should encourage women to overcome fear to

take up leadership positions in schools and churches [ ]

Government should formulate policies that will favour and encourage women to go for

positions [ ]
20. Will women be liable to take leadership roles when the above strategies are strictly

implemented?
Yes [ ] No [ ] Somehow [ ]

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