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Presents clearly defined guidelines This guide describes the practical application of FAOs
for sustainable production Save and Grow model of sustainable crop production
in developing countries. intensification to the worlds key food security crops:
maize, rice and wheat. With examples from Africa, Asia
Sanjay Rajaram and Latin America, it shows how ecosystem-based farming
World Food Prizewinner, 2014
systems are helping smallholder farmers to boost cereal yields,
strengthen their livelihoods, reduce pressure
Timely and important. on the environment, and build resilience to climate change.
Provides excellent examples The guide will be a valuable reference for policymakers
and makes principles very clear. and development practitioners during the global transition
to sustainable food and agriculture.
Jules Pretty
University of Essex (UK)
FAO
Save and Grow
in practice
maize rice wheat
A GUIDE TO SUSTAINABLE CEREAL PRODUCTION
References 99
Abbreviations 120
Glossary (inside back cover)
iv Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Acknowledgements
This book was produced under the University of Agricultural Sciences), Ivan
direction of William Murray, Deputy Ortiz-Monasterio (CIMMYT), Mark
Director of FAOs Plant Production Peoples (CSIRO, Australia), B.M. Prasanna
and Protection Division. Guidance was (CIMMYT), Jules Pretty (University of
provided by Clayton Campanhola, FAO Essex, UK), Sanjay Rajaram (World Food
Strategic Programme Leader, Sustainable Prize, 2014), Idupulapati Rao (CIAT), Bharat
Agriculture, and by a Technical Sharma (IWMI), Norman Uphoff (Cornell
Consultation on Save and Grow: Maize, University, USA), Stephen Waddington (ex-
Rice and Wheat, held at FAO Headquarters CIMMYT), Dennis Wichelns (California
in Rome on 15-17 December 2014. State University, USA)
L
et us imagine a different world in the year 2030 a better world
for our children and their children. Hunger and poverty have
been eliminated. Food systems are productive and sustainable.
Our societies are inclusive, our cities are safe, there is decent
employment for all workers, and gender equality has finally been attained.
That vision of 2030 is embodied in the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), the blueprint for world development recently adopted by the
United Nations. Achieving those goals will depend crucially on progress
in agriculture. Most of the worlds hungry and extremely poor live in
rural areas, and include millions of smallholder farmers who are bearing
the brunt of todays major global changes: widening economic inequality,
relentless degradation of the ecosystems on which food production
depends, and the quickening pace of climate change, which threatens crop
yields worldwide.
Achieving the SDGs requires a transition to a more productive,
inclusive and sustainable agriculture one that strengthens rural
livelihoods and ensures food security for all, while reducing agricultures
demands on natural resources and building resilience to climate change.
Save and Grow has proven itself in farmers fields. The challenge now
is to upscale the approach in national programmes. That will require a
revitalized global partnership for development and major increases in
investment in agriculture. With such commitment, Save and Grow will
help us meet the SDGs. It will increase cereal production, keep ecosystems
healthy, strengthen resilience to climate change, and progressively
improve land and soil quality. By raising the productivity and incomes
of smallholders, it will promote the inclusive economic growth needed
to free millions of rural people from abject poverty. Linking smallholder
production to well-designed social protection programmes will ensure
food security and nutrition for the most vulnerable and help eradicate
hunger and malnutrition forever.
Humanity has the knowledge, the technologies and the sense of
common purpose needed to transform the vision of a hunger-free world
into reality. There is no time to lose.
B y 2050, world annual demand for maize, rice and wheat is expected to
reach some 3.3billion tonnes, or 800million tonnes more than 2014s
record combined harvest. Much of the increase in production will need to
come from existing farmland. But one-third of that land is degraded, and
farmers share of water is under growing pressure from other sectors.
Climate change could have catastrophic effects on wheat yields and
reduce maize yields in Africa by 20percent. In Asia, rising sea levels
threaten rice production in major river deltas. The potential for increases
in cereal production is further constrained by stagnating yields and
diminishing returns to high-input production systems.
Business as usual will affect disproportionately the developing worlds
500million small-scale family farmers, as well as low-income urban
populations. As climate change in Asia pushes wheat into less productive
rainfed areas, consumers will face steep food price increases. Population
growth could deepen Africas dependence on imported rice. Rising
demand for maize and declining productivity could triple the developing
worlds maize imports by 2050.
Sustainably increasing the productivity of existing farmland is the
best option for averting large increases in food prices, improving rural
economies and farmers livelihoods, and reducing the number of people
at risk from hunger and malnutrition. The Save and Grow model of crop
production intensification, proposed by Fao, aims at increasing both
yields and nutritional quality, while reducing costs to farmers and the
environment.
This guide explains Save and Grow concepts and practices, presents
examples of their practical application in the production of maize, rice and
wheat, and outlines the policies, institutions, technologies and capacity-
building needed to upscale lessons learned in national and regional
programmes.
viii Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
U sing Save and Grow, cereal growers, in often difficult farming condi-
tions, have increased production and improved their livelihoods
and income, while conserving natural resources and building resilience
to climate change. But the adoption rate of sustainable practices is still
relatively low, and much more needs to be done if agriculture is to deliver
Save and Grows full benefits.
The transition to sustainable crop production intensification requires
fundamental changes in the governance of food and agriculture. Making
those changes depends on a realistic assessment of the full costs of making
the necessary transitions. It also requires the careful adaptation of sustain-
able farming practices and technologies to site-specific conditions.
An enabling policy, legal and institutional environment should strike
the right balance between private, public and civil society initiatives, and
ensure accountability, equity, transparency and the rule of law. Faos vision
of sustainable food and agriculture can guide the framing of national
policies, strategies and programmes aimed at facilitating the transition to
cereal production intensification that is highly productive, economically
viable, environmentally sound, and based on equity and social justice.
Key challenges for policymakers, therefore, include facilitating the
transition to Save and Grow within broader structural transformations;
making policies that support farmer adoption of sustainable production
systems; focusing investment in agriculture on the provision of public
goods and encouraging farmer investment in sustainable crop production;
establishing and protecting producers rights to resources; promoting
fairer and more efficient markets and value chains; increasing support to
long-term agricultural research and development; promoting technologi-
cal innovations adapted to smallholder needs; revitalizing agricultural
education and training; strengthening formal and informal seed systems;
and increasing collaboration with international organizations, instruments
and mechanisms.
Chapter 1
W
ith a combined annual harvest of some 2.5billion tonnes,
maize, rice and wheat are the worlds most widely culti-
vated crops and the foundation of world food security.
Every day, humanity consumes millions of tonnes of
those cereals in an almost endless variety of familiar
forms from steaming bowls of rice and plates of maize porridge to bread,
tortillas, tamales, naan, chapatis, pasta, pizza, pies and pastries. Millions of
tonnes more reach us by an indirect route, having been fed first to cattle,
pigs and poultry that produce much of the worlds meat, milk and eggs1, 2.
Together, maize, rice and wheat are the single most important item in
the human diet, accounting for an estimated 42.5percent of the worlds food
calorie supply. Globally, their contribution to our supply of protein around
37percent is a close second to that of fish and livestock products. Wheat
alone supplies more protein than the sum of poultry, pig and bovine meat.
Maize, rice and wheat even supply 6percent of the fat in our diets.
The three cereals are critical to food security in developing regions. In
Southern Africa, they make up half the calorie supply. In Western Asia, wheat
supplies around 40percent of protein. In South Asia, wheat and rice account
for half of all calories and protein and 9percent of fat. In every developing
region except Latin America, cereals provide people with more protein than
meat, fish, milk and eggs combined.
Even in North America and Western Europe, where animal products
make up almost two-thirds of the protein supply, wheat still represents
more than 20percent. Indirectly, cereals account for much more: in the
United States of America, around 40percent of the domestic maize supply
equivalent to some 130million tonnes in 2014 is fed to livestock2, 3.
Cereals have come to dominate human nutrition since the first farmers
began to cultivate them before the dawn of history. In fact, the agricultural
revolution and everything that followed in short, the world we live in
have their origins in a curious and enduring bond first established some
10000years ago between communities of hunter-gatherers and abundant
wild grasses of the Poaceae family. Among the first grasses to be sown and
harvested, in the Middle East, were the Triticum species that gave rise, over
a period of 2500years, to bread wheat4.
What the harvested grains offered hunter-gatherers was a concentrated
source of energy, protein and other nutrients that could be easily stored.
The same discovery was made in East Asia and West Africa, where the rice
species Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima were domesticated from wild
progenitors between 9000 and 3000years ago5, 6. Todays 2500commercial
maize varieties have their origins about 7000years ago, in Mesoamerica, in
a grass of the genus Zea called teosinte4.
4 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
< 0.5 0.5-2.5 2.5-4.5 4.5-6.5 6.5-8.5 > 8.5 PRODUCTION IN TONNES PER HECTARE
< 0.5 0.5-2 2-3.5 3.5-5 5-6.5 > 6.5 PRODUCTION IN TONNES PER HECTARE
< 0.5 0.5-1.5 1.5-2.5 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.5 > 4.5 PRODUCTION IN TONNES PER HECTARE
150 Population
Number
of undernourished*
100
Source: Adapted
50 from Figure 38, p.11816
Prevalence (%) and Table 1, p.824
of undernourishment*
0
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2014
Some critics say the Green Revolution benefited mainly those farmers
who had better-endowed land and easier access to inputs and markets, and
failed to reach the majority of small-scale, resource-poor farmers38. They
point out the blinding paradox: that three-quarters of the worlds poor and
hungry live in rural areas and are employed mainly in agriculture and food
production39, 40, 41.
Another criticism of the Green Revolution model of intensive agri-
culture is that its heavy costs to the environment were charged to future
generations. No agencies were created to collect compensation and invest
it in environmental rehabilitation. If farmgate prices reflected the full cost
of production with agriculture effectively paying for the environmental
damage it caused food prices would not have remained so low for so long15.
One thing is clear: despite the steady reduction in the proportion of
undernourished in the world population, current food and agriculture
systems have failed to provide everyone with the food they need for an active
and healthy life. The absolute number of chronically undernourished in the
world today is only 20percent less than it was half a century ago24.
Meanwhile, an estimated 2billion people suffer from micronutrient mal-
nutrition as a result of vitamin and mineral deficiencies in their diets. Yield
increases obtained with the massive use of mineral fertilizer, which provides
mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, have coincided with a decline
in the nutritional content of cereals42, and even of vegetable crops43, 44.
Among low-income rural households especially, monotonous diets high
in starchy staples are the norm, and adequate amounts of micronutrient-rich
foods, such as meat, dairy products, pulses, fruit and vegetables, are generally
unavailable. Fifty years of intensive production of maize, rice and wheat
may have improved the supply of dietary energy, but have not brought
commensurate improvements to overall human nutrition45.
The Green Revolution model of crop production intensification was the
right answer to the food crisis that faced humanity in the 1960s. But the world
has now entered the post-Green Revolution era.
Figure 1.2 Projected declines in cereal yields owing to climate extreme weather events and loss of
change in 2050, without adaptation (%)* biodiversity63. A recent study of climate
Sub-
change impacts on agriculture found
North Africa/ Southeast Saharan that, without adaptation by farmers,
Brazil China Middle East Asia Africa USA
0 global crop yields in 2050 would be 6.9
percent below estimated yields without
climate change; cereal yields would
-2.5
be lower by as much as 10 percent in
both developed and developing regions
-5 |Figure1.2|64.
Because maize is mainly a rain-
fed crop, higher rainfall variability
-7.5 Coarse grains will increase losses to drought and
Rice flooding in sub-Saharan Africa and
-10
Wheat Asia65, 66. Negative impacts will be felt
most in areas where degraded soils
no longer have the capacity to buffer
* Relative to baseline values in 2050 without climate change; average result of crops against drought and heat stress55.
three general circulation models Climate change is expected to reduce
Source: Adapted from Figure 2, p.464
maize yields by increasing the incidence,
severity and distribution of fungal diseases, which also threaten food safety67.
Rice productivity in the tropics is forecast to decline. Todays high-yielding
rice varieties are intolerant to major abiotic stresses that are likely to be
-
aggravated by climate change, such as higher temperatures, drought and
salinity. Rising sea levels and increased frequency of storms will pose a
particular threat to rice-based systems in coastal regions68. Since river deltas
in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Viet Nam have been responsible for half of rice
production increases over the past 25years, a serious loss of their production
capacity would cause a major world food security crisis69.
Increased frequency of short-term high temperatures could have
catastrophic effects on wheat yields. Wheat lands in South and Western Asia
and North Africa are projected to suffer the most from heat stress and water
scarcity, and from upsurges of insect pests and soil-borne pathogens. In South
Asia, the Indo-Gangetic Plains are currently a favourable mega-environment
for wheat; by 2050, more than half of the total area may suffer from heat
stress and higher rates of fungal diseases. Climate change could also reduce
the nutritional content of wheat22, 70.
Growing pressure to reduce agricultures own significant contribution to
climate change will also affect cereal production. Climate change adaptation
and mitigation will require cereal growers to limit the expansion of farmland,
use less mineral fertilizer, and reduce methane emissions from rice fields by
using less water37.
Chapter 1Cereals and us: time to renew an ancient bond 13
Rice
100 Wheat Scenario: Higher
agricultural productivity
Maize
80
2010 2050
It is time to renew the bond between humanity and cereals. The Food
and Agriculture Organization believes that Save and Grow is the way
forward indeed, the only viable option for increasing maize, rice and
wheat production sustainably. Chapter 2 of this book describes Save and
Grow farming system components, practices and technologies, and reviews
progress in their adoption by smallholder cereal growers in developing
countries. Chapter 3 presents examples of integrated Save and Grow farming
systems, in practice, from across the developing world. Chapter4 concludes
with an outline of the policy and institutional frameworks, and the innova-
tions in technologies, education and capacity-building, needed to upscale
the lessons learned in national and regional programmes.
Chapter 2
Toward sustainable
cereal production
Farming systems need to be reconfigured worldwide
for sustainable intensification. Cereal growers
have begun that transition by adopting
key Save and Grow practices
Chapter 2 Toward sustainable cereal production 19
S
ave and Grow farming systems increase crop productivity and diver-
sify food production, while simultaneously restoring and enhancing
natural capital and ecosystem services. They do so by achieving
higher rates of efficiency in the use of farm inputs including
water, nutrients, energy and labour and strengthening resilience
to abiotic, biotic and economic stresses, and to climate change.
Sustainable intensification, through Save and Grow, offers a range of
productivity, socio-economic and environmental benefits to smallholder
farmers and to society at large, including: high and stable production and
profitability; higher farmer income and improved rural livelihoods; increased
availability and consumption of the diverse range of foods necessary for a
healthy diet; adaptation and reduced vulnerability to climate change and
other shocks; enhanced ecosystem functioning and services; and reductions
in agricultures greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprint1.
Moreover, Save and Grow will contribute to the global transition to
sustainable food and agriculture one that ensures world food security,
provides economic and social opportunities, and protects and enhances the
ecosystem services upon which agriculture depends2.
Save and Grow farming systems are based on five complementary
components and their related practices1:
Conservation agriculture (ca), through minimal soil disturbance, the
use of surface mulches and crop rotation, and the integrated production
of crops, trees and animals;
Healthy soil, through integrated soil nutrition management, which
enhances crop growth, bolsters stress tolerance and promotes higher
input-use efficiency;
Improved crops and varieties adapted to smallholder farming systems,
with high yield potential, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and
higher nutritional quality;
Efficient water management that obtains more crop per drop, improves
labour and energy-use efficiency, and helps reduce agricultural water
pollution; and
Integrated pest management (ipm) based on good farming practices,
more resistant varieties, natural enemies, and judicious use of relatively
safer pesticides when necessary.
For this publication, Fao conducted an extensive review of progress in
the adoption of sustainable, resource-conserving practices by smallholder
producers of maize, rice and wheat in the developing world. The review
confirmed recent findings that, over the past two decades, some of the most
significant steps in the transition to sustainable intensification have been
taken by smallholders in developing countries3.
20 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
This chapter describes each of the Save and Grow farming system
components and their related practices, and provides examples of their
successful application by smallholder cereal producers. However, the indi-
vidual components and practices should be seen only as the building blocks
for the sustainable production of the three crops. While each contributes to
sustainability, the maximum benefits will only be realized when all of the
components, described below, are integrated fully in Save and Grow farming
systems (see Chapter 3).
Conservation agriculture
S ave and Grow incorporates the three core practices of conservation
agriculture (ca), an approach that has been adopted on some 155million
ha of farmland worldwide4.
First, farmers avoid or limit mechanical disturbance of the soil. Excessive
land preparation with ploughs, harrows and hoes buries the soils protective
cover, kills soil biota, causes the rapid decomposition of organic matter,
depletes soil fertility and degrades soil structure. Second, cover crops or
mulches are retained permanently on the soil surface to reduce erosion,
increase water infiltration, conserve soil moisture, suppress weeds and
encourage the proliferation of soil biota that promote soil health and crop
performance. Third, farmers maintain crop nutrient supply, reduce pest and
disease loads and bolster overall system stability by growing a wider range
of plant species and varieties in associations and rotations, and where
appropriate by integrating forestry, animal husbandry and aquaculture in
their production systems1.
By improving soil health, reducing pest and pathogen pressure, reducing
erosion, increasing the availability of water and nutrients, and increasing soil
carbon storage, conservation agriculture enhances crop resilience to higher
temperatures, drought and flooding, enhances ecosystem services, and helps
to mitigate climate change. It also lowers production costs through savings
on machinery, labour, fossil fuel, irrigation, mineral fertilizer and pesticide.
However, conservation agriculture is not a one-size-fits-all approach the
methods used to realize its key practices vary according to crops and local
conditions5-9.
Over the past two decades, tillage has been significantly reduced, and
in some cases eliminated altogether, across large areas used for wheat
and maize production. On the Indo-Gangetic Plains, wheat farmers using
zero- and minimum tillage have reaped the benefits of higher grain yields and
enhanced conservation of soil and water. Zero-tillage is considered the most
successful resource-conserving technology on the plains10, 11 (see Chapter 3,
p.58). As well as increasing average yields by 7percent, it has saved farmers
Chapter 2 Toward sustainable cereal production 21
up to 30days of labour and Us$52 in land preparation costs perhectare, Figure 2.1 Net return from wheat
and increased their average net incomes by Us$97perha |Figure 2.1|12. cultivation under zero-tillage
In Morocco, where intensive agriculture with deep tillage and soil and conventional tillage,
inversion caused rapid soil degradation and loss of fertility, conservation Haryana, India (US$/ha)
agriculture systems for wheat production are now found across a range
of field conditions, resulting in improved grain yields and input-factor 500 Zero-tillage
Conventional
productivity. Zero-tillage is practised for other winter crops, rotations tillage
with pulses and oilseed crops, and field crops under irrigation13. 400
The success of zero-, or reduced, tillage in maize production is
exemplified by the widespread adoption of direct-seeding, mulch-based 300
cropping systems in Latin America. Areas permanently established
under this system have increased in recent decades, reaching more 200
than 50percent of the total cropped area in Brazil, Paraguay and
Argentina4,14. In sub-Saharan Africa, maize systems under conservation 100
agriculture retain more soil moisture during seasonal dry spells and
are more productive than systems based on conventional tillage using 0
2009 2010 2011
ploughs, harrows and hoes15.
Much of tropical Asias rice will continue to be produced in the wet Source: Adapted from Table 5, p.1312
season, when soil is too saturated for other staple crops. However, the
traditional practice in Asia of transplanting rice into puddled soil is labour-,
water-, and energy-intensive. In rice-wheat systems, it also delays the planting
of wheat, and damages soil structure. With the decreasing availability of
labour and water, many farmers in irrigated rice systems are shifting to
the dry-seeding of rice with zero-tillage, which eliminates soil puddling.
Numerous studies have shown that, compared with production in puddled
fields, dry-seeding uses 33percent less irrigation water and lowers production
costs by as much as Us$125perha16.
Adoption of dry-seeding of rice remains highly variable in Asia, but
adoption rates were found to exceed more than 50percent of farmers in one
area of northeast India17. Efforts to promote conservation agriculture in rice
in India are drawing on new technologies, developed in the region, for land
levelling, weed control and drill-seeding, which places fertilizer and rice
seed at optimal depth16.
In Save and Grow farming systems, cereals are regarded not as monocul-
tures but as components of crop rotations and of mixed farming. Smallholder
farmers in highly stressed environments have traditionally rotated crop and
forage tree species, and have integrated crop and livestock production, in
order to reduce the risk of crop failure. On larger scales, diversification makes
farming systems more resilient by limiting losses to specific biotic or abiotic
stresses that affect genetically uniform monocultures18.
22 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Healthy soil
S oil health is defined as the capacity of soil to function as a living system
that sustains plant and animal productivity, maintains or enhances water
and air quality, and promotes plant and animal health38. In Save and Grow,
soil health is essential to the efficient use by plants of natural and external
production inputs. It bolsters crops resilience to the abiotic and biotic stresses
that will be accentuated by climate change.
For agricultural soils to be considered healthy, soil biota must be managed
in ways that allow the soil to support sound root development and plant
growth, and to offer most of the ecosystem services that it would provide in
its natural state. Excessive, intensive cultivation destroys soil structure by
24 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
grain yields from 1.5 tonnes to 2.3 tonnes per ha, equal to the improvement
obtained with mineral fertilizer46.
With climate change, tolerance to heat and drought will become a very
important trait in cereals, especially in the tropics60. The Cimmyt-led
Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project has developed varieties, including
hybrids, which out-yield commercial varieties by
25percent under specific drought conditions. Some Figure 2.5 Grain yields of elite wheat cultivars
are also heat-tolerant, producing yields 27percent by planting date, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, India
higher than commercial varieties61. Heat-tolerant (t/ha)
wheat, based on germplasm held at Cimmyt and
the International Centre for Agricultural Research 7.0
in the Dry Areas (Icarda), has been released in
6.5
several countries. A Cimmyt-sponsored wheat
improvement network is exploring the develop- 6.0
ment of high-yielding wheat varieties that can cope
with Kazakhstans increasingly hot summers (see 5.5 Variety 1
Chapter3, p.75).
Cultivars that are high-yielding in a shorter 5.0
growing season reduce exposure to late season heat 4.5 Variety 2
stress and have been instrumental in the develop-
ment of rotations for all three cereals. In South Asia, 4.0
the planting of earlier maturing rice varieties in the
monsoon season has allowed earlier planting of 3.5 Variety 3
subsequent wheat, maize and other dry season crops.
3.0
Breeders are also identifying wheat cultivars that are 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22
suited to earlier planting |Figure 2.5|62. Oct Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Dec
In Bangladesh, the cultivation of high-yielding Source: Adapted from Figure 16, p.2362
hybrid maize as a dry season crop has proved to
28 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
To develop varieties suitable for Save and Grow farming systems, plant
breeders need access to the widest possible sources of desirable traits, which
are found in cereal collections in genebanks, in landraces in farmers fields
and in wild crop relatives. More intense characterization of cereal genetic
resources is needed in order to identify traits suitable for ecosystem-based
agriculture and to integrate them in crop breeding72. For example, wheat
Chapter 2 Toward sustainable cereal production 29
landraces can provide important traits for tolerance to drought Figure 2.6 Main barriers to smallholder
and heat, such as higher biomass, which would greatly improve adoption of drought tolerant maize
the cereals adaptation to climate change worldwide73. in Ethiopia*
Another emerging thrust in breeding is improving the
components of cereal-based intercropping systems. Recent
research has provided a better understanding of interactions 11%
between crop genotypes and species, including mechanisms Other
for pest and disease avoidance. With breeding that combines 10%
Seed price
the traits of different plants to improve overall performance,
intercropping could bolster the long-term sustainability of food 46%
production under low inputs in many parts of the world 74, 75 . 25% Unavailability
of seed
Lack
Interest is also growing in the genetic improvement of the of resources
nutritional quality of cereal plant residues. After the maize
grain harvest, smallholder farmers in Central America and 8%
sub-Saharan Africa commonly use most of the plant leaves Lack of
infor-
and stalks to feed livestock. Studies in Mexico suggest that mation
germplasm collections hold vast untapped potential for
improving the feed value of maize stover, which would allow * Results of farm household survey
farmers to retain more residues in the field as soil cover76. Source: Adapted from Fisher, M., Abate, T.,
Combining practices such as conservation agriculture Lunduka, R., Asnake, W., Alemayehu, Y. & Madulu, R.
2015. Drought tolerant maize for farmer adaptation
with improved cultivars that make more efficient use of water to drought in sub-Saharan Africa: Determinants of
and nutrients would enhance the overall productivity and adoption in eastern and southern Africa. Climate
change. DOI 10.1007/s10584-015-1459-2. Figure 2.
profitability of most cropping systems. Varieties with higher
fertilizer-use efficiency could help to reduce losses of fertilizer nutrients from
fields, currently estimated at up 50percent of applied nitrogen and 45percent
of phosphorus77, 78.
hybrids and, in the process, generate resources for further r&d80. In 2014, the
Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project facilitated production and delivery
of about 40000tonnes of improved maize seed in partnership with some
110private and public seed companies, ngos and farmer organizations81.
As wheat is a self-pollinated crop, seed saved from previous harvests
continues to dominate, and varietal replacement rates are low, particularly
in rainfed and remote areas. To increase access to improved varieties,
Icarda has helped national partners to fast-track the testing and release
of rust-resistant varieties. Accelerated seed multiplication and large-scale
production, in collaboration with country programmes and farmer groups,
helped deliver to cereal growers 80000tonnes of certified seed82.
Community seed banks and networks complement formal seed systems
by conserving and improving seed from a variety of sources, including
farmer-to-farmer exchanges and local markets. Community-based breeding
and multiplication of cereal varieties that are competitive in yield and well
adapted to local conditions give smallholder farmers access to a wider range
of planting material than is normally available, contributing to both food
security and the conservation of agrobiodiversity. Farmers varieties also
provide base materials for formal crop improvement programmes some
community seed banks have been established in partnership with plant
breeding institutes83.
In West Africa, where varietal development is slow, a women farmers
organization specializes in the production of foundation and certified seed
of aromatic rice varieties grown in the Senegal River Valley52. Maize seed
production and delivery have been accelerated through community-based
seed producers in Nepal84 and in Timor-Leste85.
Figure 2.7 Water-use efficiency of irrigated Water-use efficiency in irrigation is commonly 50percent
chickpeas intercropped with maize, or less. Applying the optimal amount of water required for
Madhya Pradesh, India (kg/ha per mm) a specific crop or variety, combined with good management
practices, has the greatest potential to enhance water-use
efficiency94.
On raised beds
10 with furrow irrigation A recent study estimated average rice output on the Indo-
On flat land Gangetic Plains at 0.7kg of grain for every cubic metre of
irrigation water used. However, in the Indian state of Punjab,
8
with appropriate irrigation and drainage infrastructure and
good management practices, water productivity averaged
6 1.5kg per cubic metre95.
Raised-bed planting with furrow irrigation, which feeds
4 water to the soil between two rows of crops, significantly
increases soil porosity, carbon content and infiltration rates,
2
thereby improving the water-use efficiency of wheat and
other crops64. The benefits of raised beds may be further
enhanced when they are not tilled. In Egypt, Icarda and
0
2003 2004 2005 2006
national institutes have promoted raised beds as part of an
integrated production system in the Nile Delta. After the
Source: Adapted from Table 7, p.46998 introduction of seed drills and improved crop management,
wheat yields increased overall by 25percent and water-use
efficiency by more than 50percent96.
In Pakistan, farmers reported maize yield increases of from 30 to
50percent on untilled raised beds with furrow irrigation, compared to
irrigated flat land97. In India, the system allowed farmers to raise productivity
per unit of land by intercropping maize with chickpeas, pigeon peas and
soybeans |Figure 2.7|98.
To increase the efficiency of water use in irrigated rice production, farmers
are using a variety of Save and Grow techniques. On an estimated 4million
ha of irrigated land in South Asia, farmers have adopted laser-assisted
precision land levelling, which compared to traditional levelling of fields
with wooden boards leads to water savings and productivity increases of
16percent12, 43.
Other water-saving technologies for irrigated rice include peripheral
bunding, which improves rainwater use and reduces dependence on canal
water supplies, dry-seeding with zero-tillage, alternate wetting and drying
(AWD), intermittent irrigation and early transplanting of seedlings16, 99.
In West Africa, where most rice is grown on slopes and valley bottoms
without adequate irrigation and drainage, AfricaRice is promoting a low-cost
smart valleys development approach that uses simple earthen structures
such as bunds, along with basic irrigation and drainage infrastructure.
Chapter 2 Toward sustainable cereal production 33
Besides increasing resilience to drought, bunding and land levelling Figure 2.8 Irrigation water applied
reduce the risk of applied fertilizer being washed away by heavy in transplanted and direct seeded
rain100, 101. rice production systems (mm)*
Average yields are between 3.5 and 4tonnes perha, which has led
to improvements in farmers incomes. The smart valleys approach,
which was developed and validated with the full participation of
farmers in Benin and Togo, has been incorporated into Benins 1200
national strategy for inland valley development52.
In Asia, alternate wetting and drying, in which a rice field can 1000
be left unwatered for up 10days, has reduced water needs by 15 to
30percent, with no loss in yield102. Suitable for lowland rice areas 800
with reliable water supplies, AWD reduces spending on fuel for
pumping water; it also lowers methane emissions from rice fields by 600
up to 70percent103. The practice has been integrated into national
programmes in Bangladesh, Myanmar, the Philippines and Viet Nam.
400
With optimum implementation, AWD could allow a shift in some
areas from a single rice crop to double cropping52.
System of Rice Intensification practices reduce water consump- 200
tion, perhectare, to almost half that of flooded rice fields by allowing
dry periods between irrigations and lowering considerably the level 0
of flooding (see Chapter 3, p.44). Transplanted Direct Direct
seedlings seeding seeding
In many areas, the practice of transplanting rice seedlings into On puddled soil on raised
beds
puddled soil has been replaced by direct-seeding seeds may be
broadcast on wet or puddled fields, or drill-seeded with no prior * Derived from 44 country studies
tillage. Compared with transplanting, direct-seeding produces similar Source: Adapted from Table 8, p.33916
yields while reducing irrigation water applications by up to one-third
|Figure2.8|16.
Another practice, suitable for dry season rice production, is aerobic rice,
which is grown in dry soil with irrigation applied only as necessary. Tested
and adopted by farmers in the Philippines and northern China, the technol-
ogy uses varieties adapted to well drained, non-puddled and non-saturated
soils in rainfed and water-scarce areas104.
With good management, aerobic rice yields can be around 75 to
80percent of those obtained from flooded rice, but using 50 to 70percent
less water. Labour requirements are also lower52. On black soils in India,
the pre-monsoon dry-seeding of rice through surface mulch has provided
a profitable alternative for farmers whose normal practice has been to leave
the land fallow62.
34 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
I nsect pests, diseases and weeds cause substantial losses in the range
of 20 to 50percent in the maize, rice and wheat fields of smallholder
farmers105. They can also lead to reduced grain quality and to post-harvest
losses from infestation and spoilage. In the case of weeds, manual control
is one of the most time-consuming tasks faced by smallholders, and a job
usually carried out by women.
The first line of defence against pests and diseases is a healthy agro-
ecosystem. Save and Grow uses integrated pest management (ipm), a
problem-avoiding crop protection strategy that draws on and enhances
the biological processes and crop-associated biodiversity that underpin crop
production. The approach was developed in response to the widespread
over-use of pesticides, which reduces populations of pests natural enemies,
leads to outbreaks of secondary pests, creates pesticide resistance, and
increases the risks to both people and the environment. A recent study found
that at least 50percent of the pesticide used is simply not needed in most
agro-ecosystems106.
In ipm programmes, farmers are trained to base their pest management
decisions on an economic threshold, which establishes an acceptable level of
damage below which the cost of control measures is not compensated by any
increase in productivity. The basic strategy is to foresee and avoid problems
and, if they are unavoidable, to detect them early enough so that they can
be controlled by natural means, with smaller quantities of relatively safer
pesticides being used only as a last resort1.
controls. Rice-fish farmers apply up to 68percent less pesticide Figure 2.9 Adoption of integrated
perhectare than farmers producing rice alone (see Chapter3, pest management in rice-growing area
p.68). of An Giang Province, Viet Nam
Studies throughout Asia have highlighted the advantages (% of total area)
of conducting training in ipm through farmer field schools, a 100
form of adult education that encourages rice growers to tailor 90
ipm practices to diverse and changing ecological conditions.
80
Farmers attending field schools typically reduce insecticide
applications perseason from three to one, and report a 70
As the above review has shown, cereal growers worldwide have increased
their productivity through the application of one or more of the Save and
Grow farming system components, such as conservation agriculture, the use
of improved varieties, better soil health management, increased water-use
efficiency and integrated pest management. Many have made their produc-
tion systems more resilient by diversifying crops and integrating crop, forestry
and animal production. In the following Chapter3, we present 11 examples
of Save and Grow in practice cereal farming systems that have integrated
all or most of the Save and Grow components and recommendations.
Chapter 3
Farming systems
that save and grow
What does sustainable crop production
intensification look like? These examples,
drawn from developing countries
around the world, describe Save and Grow
farming systems in practice
38 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
2
Key points Rice, Asia. Higher yields
from healthy plants
1
in healthy soil. From
Maize/livestock, East widely-spaced plants in
Africa. Push-pull fights aerated soil, the System of Rice
maize pests, boosts milk Intensification has produced
production. A novel system yields double those of flooded
of integrated pest management rice fields. Its focus on soil health
harnesses chemical interactions improves the rice plants access
between two local to nutrients, while its reduced
plants to destroy irrigation needs help cut methane
maize stem borers emissions. The systems higher
and impede the labour requirements could be
growth of Striga lowered with technological
weed. As well as innovation. Page44
providing year-
round soil cover,
the system produces high quality
fodder, making push-pull the
basis for sustainable, low-input
5
crop/livestock production.
Page40
Maize/livestock, Latin
4
America. Nutrient pumps
feed cattle, nourish
maize. A key component
3
Wheat/legumes,
worldwide. The extra of sustainable maize-livestock
Maize/forestry, Central benefits of legumes systems is Brachiaria pasture,
America. More maize, before wheat. Legume which prevents soil compaction
less erosion on tropical residues add to soil up to 300kg and is more nourishing than native
hillsides. The slash-and- of nitrogen per savanna grasses. Zero-tillage
mulch system grows maize and hectare. As a result, systems that use the grass
beans on untilled soil enriched wheat grown after produce up to three cereal crops
with tree prunings. It builds soil legumes produces a year. Relay cropping Brachiaria
nutrient stocks, reduces the time higher grain with maize makes optimal use of
needed for land yields, with higher land resources and reduces land
preparation and protein content. degradation. Page55
weeding, and In addition, some
produces yields legumes secrete acids that
double those make phosphorus more readily
of traditional available to the wheats roots,
shifting and a gas that improves the
cultivation. plants overall development.
Many slash-and-mulch farmers Page52
have diversified production into
home gardens and livestock.
Page48
See the Glossary on the inside back cover for terms used in this chapter
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 39
8 Rice/aquaculture, Asia.
7
A richer harvest
from paddy fields. A
Maize/legumes, one-hectare paddy can
worldwide. Traditional yield up to 9tonnes of rice and
system makes more 750kg of fish a year. Fish raised
productive use of land. in rice fields improve family diets
Rotation, intercropping and and provide a natural source
relay cropping of legumes of plant nutrients and pest
6
with maize lead to higher land control. Thanks to higher rice
productivity, making maize- yields, fish sales and savings
Rice/wheat, Indo-
legume systems especially on agrochemicals, the income
Gangetic Plains.
suitable for smallholders. from rice-fish farming is up to
Conservation agriculture
Legume rotation can increase 400percent more than that from
the key to food security.
maize yields rice monoculture. Page68
In South Asias breadbasket,
by 25 percent.
farmers practise zero-tillage
Maize
to reduce costs and grow more
intercropped
wheat. Alternate wetting and
with legumes
drying of rice fields helps cut
under
water consumption by up to
conservation
50percent. Yields of both cereals
agriculture
improve after laser-assisted
11
produces 33percent more
land-levelling. Farmers save
grain than monocropping.
on fertilizer with needs-based Rice/maize, Asia.
Page64
nitrogen management and use High-yielding
10
legumes to suppress weeds. hybrids help adapt
Page58 to climate change. By
Wheat, Central
growing maize instead of rice in
Asia. Farmers
the dry season, farmers reduce
stop ploughing on
9
pressure on groundwater and
Kazakhstani steppe.
double their profits. Many have
Maize/forestry, Southern Kazakhstan is one of the worlds
increased their incomes further
Africa. Where trees and leading adopters of conservation
by intercropping
shrubs cost less than agriculture. Direct-seeded,
maize with
fertilizer. Leguminous untilled land produces higher
vegetables.
shrubs and trees are an integral wheat yields than ploughed land,
Maize farmers
part of maize production systems and carries lower production
trained in
in Zambia and Malawi. Over two costs. Rotating wheat with
resource-
years, they increase levels of other crops generates extra
conserving crop
soil nitrogen by as income and leaves residues that
management
much as 250kg per conserve soil moisture and block
use less mineral
hectare, which helps the germination of weed seeds.
fertilizer and
quadruple maize Page75
obtain yields twice the national
output. The maize/ average. Page79
forestry system is
resilient to drought
and more profitable
than growing maize
with fertilizer. Page71
40 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
S
tem borers and the parasitic weed Striga, a parasitic plant that attaches
Striga are the bane of maize fields itself to the roots of cereal crops and
in Africa. The larvae of an indig- siphons off water and nutrients, grows
enous moth, stem borers eat into the on some 40percent of sub-Saharan
succulent stalks of maize and devour Africas arable land. In western Kenya,
them from within, causing crop losses it infests as much as 76percent of
of from 20 to 80percent. Ministries of land planted to maize and sorghum,
agriculture often recommend the use causing annual losses valued at more
of synthetic pesticide to control stem than Us$40million. Sometimes, Striga
borers, but most smallholder farmers infestations can lead to complete crop
Maize producing cannot afford it1. failure. Control of Striga is extremely
areas of East Africa Top 5 maize difficult, as each plant
FAO/IIASA GAEZ producers, 2013 produces thousands of
(million tonnes) tiny seeds that can remain
OMAN
Ethiopia 6.67 viable in the soil for many
Kenya 3.39 years. As farmers abandon
R
ERITREA Uganda 2.75
SUDAN heavily infested areas to
CHAD Burundi 0.16
Rwanda 0.67
cultivate new land, Striga
DJIBOUTI Source: FAOSTAT follows them1.
In 1993, the International
CENTRAL SOUTH ETHIOPIA Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecol-
AFRICAN REP. SUDAN ogy (Icipe), in Nairobi, began working
MEROON SOMALIA
with the Kenya Agricultural Research
> 8. 5
DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF RWANDA to find affordable, environmentally
6. 5 -
THE CONGO
BURUNDI friendly ways of controlling stem bor-
.5
GE
RA
PR
OF TANZANIA
VE
4.
OD
I ON .5
IN O
TO 2.5 W
NNE .5 controls the borers by harnessing
S 2
P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5-
complex chemical interactions among
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 41
700
With
push-pull
600
Without
push-pull
500
400
300
200
100 Labour
0
Costs Total gross Net income
revenue
Source: Adapted from Table 1, p.61
nial crops that provide year-round soil five percent of those farmers said their
cover, which helps retain soil moisture, yields were three to four times higher
improves soil structure, prevents ero- than before. Some were harvesting
sion, and makes the agro-ecosystem 5tonnes of maize perha from fields
more resilient to drought and other that had previously produced less
extreme weather events. Since it is a than 1tonne3. In Kisii district, the
leguminous plant, Desmodium also income of push-pull maize farmers,
fixes nitrogen in the soil and makes it perhectare, was three times that of
available to the maize crop. their neighbours |Figure3.1|1.
Beginning in 1997, Icipe and its Almost half of the push-pull farmers
partners introduced the push-pull had adapted the system to allow for
system to maize and sorghum the intercropping of maize with beans
farmers in Kenya and east- and other grain legumes, such as
ern Uganda, using farmer groundnuts, soybeans and cowpeas,
teachers to help them spread and vegetables such as kale. Inte-
the word. By 2010, more than grating beans in the system does
The voracious maize stem 25000farmers around Lake not reduce Desmodiums effect on
borer causes crop losses
of up to 80 percent Victoria had adopted it. An Striga and stem borers3.
impact assessment conducted
in 24villages found that 19per- As well as helping farmers to
cent of farmers had adopted increase food production, the
push-pull primarily to control Napier grass used in the system
pests, especially Striga, and to has boosted the supply of feed
increase crop productivity. Seventy- for livestock. In fact, the Icipe
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 43
in healthy soil
Rice farmers are adopting crop, soil and water management practices
which, together, produce more rice and income using less water,
less fertilizer and less seed
T
raditionally, rice has been tinuously flooded with 5 to 15cm of
cultivated in most of Asia as water until the crop matures2, 3.
follows: fields are first flooded That system has enabled the cultiva-
then ploughed to create soft, muddy tion of rice for millennia at low, but
soil often overlying a dense, compacted relatively stable yields4. When the
layer that restricts downward loss of Green Revolution introduced high-
water1. Rice seedlings 20 to 60days old yielding varieties, mineral fertilizer
are then transplanted to the fields in and chemical pest control, perhectare
clumps of two to four plants, randomly productivity in many Asian rice fields
distributed or in narrowly spaced rows. doubled in the space of 20years5.
Rice producing areas To suppress weeds, the paddy is con- A set of crop, soil and water manage-
of Southeast Asia Top 5 rice ment practices known as
FAO/IIASA GAEZ producers, 2013 the System of Rice Intensi-
(million tonnes)
fication (Sri) takes a strik-
Indonesia 71.3 ingly different approach.
Viet Nam 44.0
Seedlings 8 to 15days old
Thailand 38.8
LAO Myanmar 28.0
are transplanted singly,
PDR
MYANMAR
Philippines 18.4 often in grid patterns with
THAILAND VIET NAM PHILIPPINES Source: FAOSTAT spacing of 25x25cm be-
CAMBODIA tween plants. To promote moist, but
aerated, soil conditions, intermittent
BRUNEI
DARUSSALAM
irrigation is followed by dry periods of
M A L A Y S I A 3 to 6days. Weeding is done at regular
> 6. 5
SINGAPORE
intervals, and compost, farmyard ma-
nure and green manure are preferred
.5
3. 5
VE
OD
CT harvest3, 6.
DA
U
2-3
IN O
TO W
NNE 2 Madagascar in the 1980s, numerous
S P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5-
trials have shown that the system out-
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 45
O
n the steep hillsides of south- Without trees to anchor the depleted
western Honduras, traditional soil, erosion has increased, reducing
slash-and-burn cultivation of the quality of water and its availability
maize, beans and other food crops to downstream users. As agricultural
has led to widespread deforestation productivity declines, rates of rural
and environmental degradation. Many poverty and malnutrition have risen1, 2.
farmers have abandoned the age-old Recognizing that slash-and-burn
practice of allowing cleared fields to cultivation was unsustainable, farmers
lie fallow long enough for tree cover to in the Honduran department of Lem-
grow back and for the soil to recover. pira developed a low-cost, resource-
BELIZE JAMAICA
HONDURAS
GUATEMALA
> 8. 5
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA
8. 5
PANAMA
COSTA RICA
6. 5 -
.5
GE
5-6
RA
PR
VE
4.
OD
CT
DA
U
I ON .5
-4
RL
IN O
TO 2.5 W
NNE
S 2.5
P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5-
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 49
1 1
Slash
and burn
0.5 0.5 Slash
and burn
0 0
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Source: Adapted from Table 3.4, p.482
seven years of fallow. In contrast, slash- 88percent in areas where the system The system is seen
and-burn yields begin to decline from was promoted2. as suitable for
the second year of cropping |Figure3.3|. In Nicaragua, where farmers learned sub-humid hillside
In slash-and-burn agriculture, the about slash-and-mulch from visiting areas across the
nitrogen content of the soil decreases Honduran farmers, maize yields at tropics
over time, but it increases significantly validation sites were more than double
on Qsmas plots. By measuring meth- those under slash-and-burn, while
ane and nitrous oxide emissions and profitability increased by 83percent.
carbon stocks sequestered in the soil As a result, by 2010 more than half
and trees, Ciat also found that the of the farmers in one Nicaraguan
global warming potential of Qsmas is community had adopted Qsmas.
only a quarter that of slash-and-burn Nicaraguas Institute of Agricultural
agriculture2. Technology is now promoting the
The maize production system has system4.
spread to other regions of Honduras
and to El Salvador, Guatemala and The Quezungual Slash-and-Mulch
Nicaragua, where farmers have often Agroforestry System is seen as an
adapted its basic practices progres- alternative to slash-and-burn agri-
sive pruning, permanent soil cover, culture for sub-humid hillside areas
minimal soil disturbance and efficient of the tropics3. It is estimated that in
use of mineral fertilizer to local 18countries of Africa, Asia and Latin
conditions3. America there is a 50percent prob-
In trials in Guatemala, maize yields ability of finding similar conditions
rose by 11 to 25percent in soils en- to Qsmas test sites, with the largest
riched with the prunings of Gliricidia areas in Brazil, El Salvador and the
sepium trees. Adoption rates reached Democratic Republic of the Congo4.
52 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
of legumes-before-wheat
Other crops
Grain and forage legumes
G
rowing legumes can be a very and phyto-estrogens2 and can be sold
good investment in its own right. to generate income. Forage legumes,
Since they derive 70 to 80percent such as alfalfa, can be used on the farm
of their nitrogen needs from the atmo- to feed livestock.
sphere, through biological nitrogen When grown before wheat, legumes
fixation in their root nodules, grain produce another significant benefit
and forage legumes generally do not nitrogen in legume residues reduces
require nitrogen fertilizer to achieve the need to apply nitrogen fertilizer
optimum yields1. Grain legumes, such to the wheat crop3. It is estimated that
as lentils, are high in protein, dietary globally, some 190million ha of grain
Wheat and legume* fibre, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants legumes contribute around 5 to
producing areas 7million tonnes of nitrogen to soils4.
of Western Europe Thanks to that natural fertilization,
FAO/IIASA GAEZ
Wheat Legumes
wheat grown after legumes produces
> 2.5 t/ha > 50 kg/ha higher grain yields and has higher
protein content than wheat grown
NORWAY after another wheat crop5.
SWEDEN The high productivity of wheat-
UNITED DENMARK
LATVIA
LITHUANIA
legume rotations has long been rec-
KINGDOM
NETHERLANDS
ognized by wheat farmers, and for as
IRELAND
POLAND Top 5 wheat far back as 2000years ago
BELGIUM
GERMANY CZECH REP.
producers, in Western Asia and North
SLOVAKIA 2013
FRANCE AUSTRIA HUNGARY (million tonnes)
Africa. Typical rainfed wheat-
SWITZERLAND
ROMANIA France 38.61
based rotations include grain
Germany 25.01 legumes, such as chickpeas,
SPAIN ALBANIA United lentils and faba beans, and
ITALY Kingdom 11.92
PORTUGAL the forage legumes vetch,
Belgium 1.80
GREECE Austria 1.59
berseem clover and Medicago
Source: FAOSTAT species6-8.
Choosing the right legume for a
* Includes beans, specific wheat farming system is ex-
chickpeas, cowpeas,
dry peas, pigeon peas
tremely important, as different legume
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 53
species and varieties growing in the Figure 3.4 Yields of bread wheat
same location can differ significantly grown as a second crop following
in dry matter production, nitrogen selected precursors, Bale Region,
fixation and accumulation, and residue Ethiopia (t/ha)
quality. Residual nitrogen values from
1.5
grain legumes vary greatly, but can
cover between 20 and 40percent of
wheats nitrogen needs3. While grain
legumes can add to the soil from 30 1
to 40kg of nitrogen perha, legumes
grown as green manure crops or as
forage for livestock build up nitrogen 0.5
much faster, and can fix as much as
300kg of nitrogen perha9.
0
Legumes enhance wheats uptake of Emmer Bread Barley Field Fallow
wheat wheat pea
other nutrients. Wheat grown after Precursors
legumes tends to have a healthier After a crop of field peas,
Source: Adapted from Table 4, p.14017
root system than wheat-after-wheat, wheat yields improve
significantly
making it better able to use other avail- owing to the lack of sufficient moisture
able nutrients. The roots of chickpeas to sustain reliable production of rain-
and pigeon peas secrete organic acids fed summer crops. However, with the
which can mobilize fixed forms of soil development of early maturing legume
phosphorus and make it more readily varieties, farmers can now replace
available5. long fallows with legume crops, which
Legumes also release hydrogen gas make more productive use of land11, 12.
into the soil, at rates of up to 5000li- Growing food legumes in summer not
tres perha perday. A by-product of only helps enhance soil fertility and
nitrogen fixation, hydrogen is oxidized water-use efficiency, but boosts yields
by soil microbes surrounding the root of the subsequent wheat crop13.
system of the plant, leading to changes In the highlands of Ethiopia, pulses
in the soil biology that improve the are grown in rotation with cereals,
development of the wheat plant1,5. or as intercrops, to spread the risks
Deep-rooting legumes such as pigeon of drought and to improve soil fer-
peas, lablab and velvet beans help build tility14-16. In the Bale region, wheat
soil structure and biopores, which after field peas significantly out-yields
improve drainage and aeration10. wheat-wheat and wheat-barley rota-
Wheat sown in the autumn and tions |Figure3.4|17. A faba bean-wheat
followed by a summer fallow is the rotation system resulted in wheat yield
predominant production system in dry increases of up to 77percent while
areas. In the Middle East and North reducing the need for nitrogen fertil-
Africa, fields are commonly left fallow izer18. In the Islamic Republic of Iran,
54 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
nourish maize
Meat, milk, forage, rice, millet,
sorghum
L
ivestock production is particularly infiltration and stifles root growth. It
important in smallholder farming also has the ability to convert residual
systems on the savanna grasslands soil phosphorus into organic, readily
of Latin America. However, output available forms for a subsequent maize
per animal unit in tropical areas is crop2.
far below that achieved in temperate Recent Ciat research has identified
regions. A major constraint Top 5 maize another special characteristic
is the quantity and quality of producers, 2013 of Brachiaria: a chemical
(million tonnes)
forage, a key feed source in mechanism found in the Maize producing
ruminant systems. Overgraz- Brazil 80.54 roots of one Brachiaria species areas of South
Argentina 32.12
ing, farming practices that Paraguay 4.12 inhibits emissions from the America
FAO/IIASA GAEZ
deplete soil nutrients, and a Venezuela
lack of forage species that are (Bolivarian
Republic of) 2.25
better adapted to biotic and Colombia 1.77 VENEZUELA GUYANA
SURINAME
abiotic stresses all contribute Source: FAOSTAT COLOMBIA French Guiana (Fr.)
to low productivity. Improving ECUADOR Savanna
pasture forage quality and productiv-
BRAZIL
ity would help to boost production of
meat and milk1.
Many livestock farmers in Latin
PERU
America have adopted a sustainable BOLIVIA
livestock production system that in-
tegrates forages with cereals. A key
> 8. 5
PARAGUAY
component of the system is Brachiaria,
CHILE
a grass native to sub-Saharan Africa,
8. 5
URUGUAY
stands heavy grazing and is relatively
.5
GE
ARGENTINA
free from pests and diseases.
5-6
RA
PR
VE
CT
DA
U
I ON .5
IN O
TO 2.5 W
soil structure, and helps prevent soil NNE
S PE 2 . 5
R HECT 0.5-
compaction, which reduces rainwater ARE < 0.5
56 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Figure 3.5 Levels of beef productivity on traditional and declining productivity and reduced
Brachiaria pastures (kg/ha/yr) profitability in traditional livestock
180
production systems1, 7, 8.
Brachiaria
160 Traditional Where natural ecosystems have
140 been replaced by intensive soybean
120 monoculture, much of the soil is com-
100 pacted and susceptible to erosion from
80
heavy rainfall. Under those conditions,
60
40
traditional techniques of soil erosion
20 control, such as contour planting, have
0 proved to be ineffective9.
Mexico Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica In response, many farmers have
Source: Adapted from Table 15 adopted zero-tillage systems, which
increase soil cover and bring other
soil of nitrous oxide, which is derived environmental benefits. In the early
mainly from mineral fertilizer and is 1990s, less than 10percent of the Cer-
one of the most potent of the green- rados was under zero-tillage; by 1996,
house gases causing climate change3. it had risen to 33percent. Including
The versatile grass is now grown on expansion of the harvested area, the
an estimated 80million ha of land in total area under zero-tillage in the
Latin America4. While the adaptation Cerrados increased 17times over10.
of Brachiaria to low-fertility soils has It has been estimated that around
led to its use for extensive, low-input 50percent of the total cropped area in
pastures, it is also suitable for inten- Brazil is under direct-seeding, mulch-
sively managed pastures1. based cropping (dmc) systems, which
In Mexico and Central America, usually support three crops a year, all
the productivity of animals feeding on under continuous direct-seeding 11.
Brachiaria pastures is up to 60percent In the Cerrados, more than 4million
higher than those feeding on native ha are cultivated using diversified
vegetation |Figure 3.5|. The value of dmc systems, which have replaced
the additional production has been inefficient, tillage-based soybean
estimated at Us$1billion a year5. In monoculture. A typical sequence is
Following Brazil, annual economic benefits have maize (or rice), followed by another
intensive soybean been put at Us$4billion6. cereal, such as millet or sorghum, or
monoculture, the grass Eleusine, intercropped with
soils are left Rotation of annual crops with grazed a forage species such as Brachiaria11, 12.
compacted and pasture is increasing in the Cerrados The forages function as nutrient
susceptible to eco-region of Brazil, where beef cattle pumps, producing large amounts of
erosion are a major source of income for many biomass in the dry season that can
farmers. Years of poor herd manage- be grazed or used as green manure.
ment, overgrazing and lack of adequate Combining maize and Brachiaria at
soil nutrient replacement have led to the end of the rainy season taps soil
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 57
Conservation agriculture
irrigated
Main cereals Rice, wheat
S
tretching 2.25million sq km system that produces rice during the
across South Asia, from Bangla- summer monsoon, and wheat during
desh, through India and Nepal the short winter. Today, that rice-wheat
to Pakistan, the Indo-Gangetic Plains system covers around 13.5million ha
are both the rice bowl and breadbasket and produces annually an estimated
of 1.8billion people1, 2. Over the past 80million tonnes of rice and 70mil-
30years, thanks mainly to Top 5 rice and lion tonnes of wheat3, 4.
Green Revolution improved wheat producers, In the most productive part
varieties and technology 2013 (million tonnes) of the plains the northwest-
Rice and wheat packages, farmers there have India 252.71 MONGOLIA ern Indian states of Punjab,
producing areas developed a crop rotation Bangladesh 52.76 Haryana and western Uttar
of South Asia Pakistan 34.03 Pradesh the expansion of
FAO/IIASA GAEZ
Islamic the rice-wheat area and yield
Rep. of Iran 16.54
Nepal 6.23
increases of 3percent a year
Source: FAOSTAT allowed India to boost wheat
CHINA production from 20million
tonnes in 1970 to 65million tonnes
PAKISTAN by 1995. Around that time, however,
NEPAL
BHUTAN rice and wheat productivity began to
stagnate, with yields between 30 and
70percent below their potential. The
MYANMAR decline was blamed on soil fatigue
INDIA BANGLADESH caused by decades of intensive cultiva-
tion, a continuous drop in input-use ef-
ficiency, the depletion of groundwater,
and rising temperatures5, 6.
In response, the Rice-Wheat Con-
PR
CT
AT
.
>3 W national agricultural research systems
U
I ON
5
HE
SRI LANKA
IN
TO I C E+ and the Cgiar, launched a concerted
NNE R
S PE . 5
R HECT > 3
AT
effort in 1995 to promote resource-
ARE > 3.5
WHE conserving technologies for cereal
RICE
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 59
The Indo-Gangetic
production. The technologies included result in a late rice harvest, which Plains rice-wheat system
zero-tillage, laser-assisted levelling in turn postpones the sowing of the produces 150 million
tonnes of cereals a year
of land, retention of crop residues, subsequent wheat crop well past the
permanent bed planting, dry-seeding optimal planting date. Precious time is
of rice and surface-seeding of wheat3. also lost owing to the farmers practice
In India and Pakistan, the rate of thoroughly ploughing the harvested
of adoption of many of those tech- rice fields, which are often seriously
nologies has been exponential1, 5. In compacted by repeated puddling and
Haryana state, for example, the wheat the weight of combine harvesters1, 6.
area under zero-tillage rose from In many areas, the planting date of
nil to 300000ha between 1997 and wheat has now been brought forward
2002. In India as a whole, zero- and by direct-seeding sowing is done af-
reduced-tillage for wheat production ter the rice harvest with no prior tillage
was practised on an estimated 1.6mil- operations6, 8. Seed and fertilizer are
lion ha by 20057. placed at appropriate spacing and soil
depths, with minimal soil disturbance,
A major constraint to wheat productiv- using locally manufactured, tractor-
ity, on the eastern plains, is late sowing. mounted seed drills1.
Rice transplanting starts in July but Zero-tillage contributes to higher
often continues until late August, wheat yields, in the range of 6 to
owing to the uncertainty of rains, the 10percent, because it allows for timely
high cost of pumping groundwater, sowing, leads to a better crop stand,
and labour shortages. Those delays and generates big savings on tractor
60 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Indus
Running parallel to the Brahmaputra of growing wheat on raised beds in-
Himalayan mountains, the NEPAL
Indo-Gangetic Plains are
PAKISTAN
clude reduced waterlogging, reduced
the breadbasket and rice Ganges
seed rates, and more room for precise
bowl of 1.8 billion people
fertilizer placement, mechanical weed-
INDIA BANGLADESH ing, intercropping and relay planting of
Indo-Gangetic
Plains mungbeans12.
On the western Indo-Gangetic
plains, the adoption of zero-tillage in
operations, time and fuel |Figure3.6|9. wheat production has reduced farm-
Farmers also save an estimated Us$50 ers costs perhectare by 20percent
to Us$70perha on water6, 10. In some and increased net income by 28per-
areas, irrigation water productivity has cent, while reducing greenhouse gas
improved by as much as 65percent emissions13.
above that obtained under conven- On the eastern plains, where
tional practices2. drainage is poor, some farmers now
Water productivity improves even broadcast or drum-seed pre-soaked
Dry-seeding of rice
more when wheat is planted on zero- wheat seeds, without tillage. This
reduces water use, tilled raised beds6. Irrigating alternate surface-seeding is a low-cost technol-
energy costs and labour
requirements furrows between the beds saves water ogy particularly suited to smallholder
and also allows the use of more saline farmers, who lack the resources for
water salt accumulates on the sides land preparation; it allows them to
grow wheat in fields that would other-
wise remain fallow6, 11. Although yields
are no higher than those of wheat
broadcast on conventionally-tilled
land, there is an income gain thanks
to savings on tillage costs14.
During crop growth, various ap- Figure 3.6 Economics of zero-tillage and conventional tillage
proaches are being promoted to help in wheat production, Haryana, India (per ha)
farmers increase rice output with the Tractor operations Time (hours) Fuel (litres)
same amount of water, or use less
water without reducing yields. One 1 1.6 6
Village surveys conducted across the from 2003 to 2007 in Punjab state,
plains in 2009 found that one in three for example, wheat productivity has
farm households had adopted at least increased steadily, and average output
one resource-conserving technology, exceeded 5tonnes perha in 201219. In
with the highest rates of almost 2014, Indias overall wheat production
50percent in the northwest. Farmers reached a record 96million tonnes4.
learned about the technologies from
a variety of sources, including other Much more needs to be done to achieve
farmers and equipment manufactur- a full transition to the sustainable
ers, and most had integrated them into intensification of cereal production
their traditional crop management on the Indo-Gangetic Plains, but the
practices. In northwest India, zero- potential rewards are enormous. To
tillage seed drills were the most com- date, zero-tillage has been adopted
mon item of agricultural machinery mainly for the wheat component of the
after tractors18. Their high adoption rice-wheat system. Applied to rice, it
rate was made possible by the ready would lead to further, urgently needed,
availability of seed drills developed by reductions in the use of irrigation
the private sector, with strong support water7. Numerous trials of zero-till,
from state and local governments7. dry-seeded rice have shown that pud-
The impact of Save and Grow prac- dling is not essential for high yields12.
tices and technologies is reflected in Several strategies have been pro-
recent increases in wheat produc- posed to increase the uptake of dry-
tion in India. Following poor yields
Zero-tillage in action:
the Happy Seeder drills
wheat seeds through
heavy loads of rice
crop residues
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 63
seeding in rice production, including straw after the harvest, which leads to
intercropping with Sesbania, which serious air pollution19. To discourage
reduces weed infestations and boosts burning-off, and encourage mulch-
yields in unpuddled rice fields 9. based zero-tillage, the Governments
However, the large-scale adoption of of Punjab and Haryana states are
dry-seeding is held back by lack of now upscaling a new technology, the
farmer access to suitable equipment. A Happy Seeder, which can drill wheat
recent study in northeast India found seed through heavy loads of rice resi-
that 57percent of farmers practised dues21, 22.
dry-seeding in 2012. However, since Accelerated uptake of resource-
only 10percent of farmers owned conserving technologies also depends
drill-seeders, most relied on service on improvements in policy support, Crop
providers. Many farmers were un- technical knowledge, infrastructure diversification
able to carry out dry-seeding because and access to input and output mar- offers
demand for services exceeded the kets. Needed is a systems approach, smallholder
supply20. rather than commodity-centric tech- farmers higher
A decisive shift to conservation agri- nologies which make intensive, and income earning
culture practices in rice particularly unsustainable, use of labour, water and opportunities
the retention of crop residues would energy. A convergence among proven
create positive synergies in production technologies and practices would har-
of the two cereals. While many farm- ness the full benefits of conservation
ers have adopted the drill-seeding of agriculture23.
wheat into residues of the preceding
rice crop, most continue to burn rice Finally, it may be time for farmers on
the Indo-Gangetic Plains to further
diversify production, away from just
rice and wheat. Diversification from
cereal monocropping to other high-
value crops would reduce biotic and
abiotic pressures on the system and
conserve soil and water6,24. Crop
diversification also offers smallholder
farmers higher income opportunities7.
In the northwest, sugar cane, mung-
beans, mint, maize and potatoes are
now cultivated as part of rotations in
the rice-wheat system. On the eastern
plains, where winters are shorter, there
is a growing trend towards replacing
wheat entirely with potato and maize,
which offer higher economic returns1.
64 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Pigeon peas, cowpeas, groundnuts and jack beans are familiar sights
in farmers maize fields. The high productivity of maize-legume
systems make them especially suitable for smallholders
M
aize-legume systems come in with maize being planted in the same
three basic configurations. field after the legume harvest.
One is intercropping, in which Such systems are common through-
maize and legumes are planted simul- out the developing world. Commonly
taneously in the same or alternating planted legumes include beans, pigeon
rows. Another approach is relay crop- peas, cowpeas, groundnuts and soy-
ping, where maize and legumes are bean, which are grown mainly for
planted on different dates and grow food, and non-edible legumes, such
together for at least a part of their life as velvet beans and jack beans, which
MOROCCO cycle. Maize and legumes may also be
ALGERIA are used as feed for livestock. All fix
grown as monocultures in rotation, nitrogen in the soil and are useful
LIBYA
Maize and legume* as sources of residues that can be
Western producing areas
ahara
retained on the soil surface as mulch.
of West Africa
FAO/IIASA GAEZ
Maize-bean intercropping is a tradi-
tional practice among smallholder
MAURITANIA farmers in Latin America, especially
MALI NIGER Top 5 maize in the land-scarce highlands.
AL producers, In Peru, practically all beans,
2013
CHAD
(million tonnes)
and in Ecuador about 80per-
cent, are planted along with
U BURKINA Nigeria 10.40
FASO BENIN Ghana 1.76
maize. In areas of Central
GUINEA
CTE Burkina America where land is lim-
D'IVOIRE
GHANA
Faso 1.71
CENTRAL
ited and rainfall low, maize is
Mali 1.50
LIBERIA
NIGERIA
AFRICAN REP. often intercropped with field
TOGO Benin 1.35
Source: FAOSTAT
beans1, 2.
CAMEROON
When maize and beans are
EQUATORIAL
GUINEA
intercropped, their yields are generally
CONGO lower than those of maize or beans
GABON grown in monoculture. Studies have
Maize Legumes DEMOCRATIC
* Includes beans, > 0.5 t/ha > 50 kg/ha foundOFthat maize yielded 5.3tonnes
REPUBLIC
THE CONGO
chickpeas, cowpeas,
dry peas, pigeon peas
perha when monocropped, 5.2tonnes
ANGOLA
(Cabinda)
ANGOLA
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 65
Maize monocrop
3 Maize monocrop
with CA
Maize with CA and
2
legume rotation
0
Ethiopia Malawi Mozambique
Strong-stalk maize
varieties support greater
While the benefits of maize-legume have very high carbon sequestration weights of climbing
systems are well known, smallholder potential, climate change mitigation beans
farmers who rely on food crops for funding may be available to encourage
household food security especially in smallholder adoption.
Africa are often reluctant to occupy Maize and legume varieties that
their fields with non-edible legumes produce high yields in monoculture
for half or a full year, regardless of the generally also have high yields when
long-term benefits16. Adoption of these intercropped. However, differences
systems in Africa is also constrained in the suitability of certain varieties
by dysfunctional markets for rotational for maize-legume systems have been
crops, the unavailability of seed and observed. Breeding efforts should
the farmers perception of risk17. exploit productive interactions, such
Governments may invest in the as strong-stalk maize that supports
development of smallholder maize- higher weights of beans. Generally,
legume systems as a means of ensuring maize-legume systems also exhibit
food security, improving farmer in- considerable site specificity. Therefore,
comes and improving soil health. Since the system and its variations require
non-edible legumes such as velvet bean extensive validation in farmers fields.
68 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
A
field of rice in standing water energy- and nutrient-rich foods. The
is more than a crop it is an traditional rice-fish agro-ecosystem
ecosystem teeming with life, supplied micronutrients, proteins and
including ducks, fish, frogs, shrimp, essential fatty acids that are especially
snails and dozens of other aquatic important in the diets of pregnant
organisms. For thousands of years, rice women and young children1.
farmers have harvested that wealth of During the 1960s and 1970s, tradi-
aquatic biodiversity to provide their tional farming systems that combined
households with a wide variety of rice production with aquaculture
Ricefield began to disappear, as
Rice producing aquaculture policies favouring the
production, 2010
areas of Asia (tonnes) cultivation of modern
FAO/IIASA GAEZ
China 1 200 000
high-yielding rice
Indonesia 92 000 varieties and a cor-
Thailand 21 000* responding increase in
Philippines 150 the use of agrochemi-
DPR
Nepal 45 cals transformed
* Data for 2008
CHINA REP. OF
KOREA
Source: FAO, 2012. The Asian agriculture. As
state of world fisheries and
KOREA JAPAN aquaculture 2012. Rome. the social and environ-
PAKISTAN
NEPAL
BHUTAN mental consequences have become
INDIA more apparent, there is renewed inter-
BANGLADESH LAO
PDR est in raising fish in rice fields2, 3.
> 6. 5
MYANMAR THAILAND VIET NAM PHILIPPINES There are two main rice-fish pro-
CAMBODIA
duction systems. The most common is
.5
DARUSSALAM
MALAYSIA
SINGAPORE are raised in the same field at the same
time; rotational culture, where the
GE
-5
RA
PR
INDONESIA
3. 5
CT
DA
U
2-3
IN O
TO W short-stem and traditional long-stem
NNE 2
S P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5- rice varieties can be cultivated, as can
almost all the important freshwater
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 69
A one-hectare paddy
yields up to 750 kg
of fish and 9 tonnes
of rice a year
Figure 3.8 Economics of sales and savings on fertilizer and health food for urban consumers4.
rice-fish farming and pesticide lead to returns higher than The resurgence in rice-fish farming
rice monoculture, those of rice monoculture |Figure3.8|2. is being actively promoted by the
Indonesia (US$/ha) Profit margins may be more than Government of Indonesia, which re-
Production 400percent higher for rice farmers cently launched a one-million hectare
costs culturing high-value aquatic species6. rice-fish programme7.
Raising fish in rice fields also has While there is compelling evidence
500
community health benefits. Fish feed of the social, economic and environ-
on the vectors of serious diseases, mental benefits of aquaculture in rice
0 particularly mosquitoes that carry farming systems, its rate of adoption
Gross malaria. Field surveys in China found remains low outside of China. Else-
income
2000 that the density of mosquito larvae where in Asia, the area under rice-
in rice-fish fields was only a third of fish production is only slightly more
1500 that found in rice monocultures. In than 1percent of the total irrigated
one area of Indonesia, the prevalence rice area. Interestingly, the rice-fish
Fish
1000 of malaria fell from 16.5percent to farming area is proportionally largest
Rice almost zero after fish production was outside Asia, in Madagascar, at nearly
500
integrated into rice fields2. 12percent2.
There are many reasons for the mar-
Combining rice and aquaculture also ginality of rice-fish farming, including
0
makes more efficient use of water. lack of awareness of its benefits, the
Net from Table
Source: Adapted
However, rice-fish farming requires availability of low-cost pesticides
15, p.502returns
about 26percent more water than and smallholder farmers limited
1000 rice monoculture2. In areas where access to credit for investment
water supplies are limited, the in fish production2. Overcoming
500 introduction of rice-fish sys- those barriers is difficult because
tems is not, therefore, rec- multi-sectoral policymaking is
0 ommended. However, Fao involved.
Rice Rice+ has estimated that almost Rice-fish farming needs to be
mono- fish
crop 90percent of the worlds rice championed by agricultural
is planted in environments policymakers and agronomists
that are suitable for the culture who recognize the benefits of
of fish and other aquatic organisms6. integrating aquaculture and
In China, aquaculture in rice fields rice, and can deliver that
has increased steadily over the last message to rice-growing
two decades, and production reached communities. Just as agri-
1.2 million tonnes of fish and other cultural development strat-
aquatic animals in 20106. New op- egies once promoted large-scale
portunities for diversifying production rice monoculture, they can now help
are opening up in Indonesia, where to realize the potential of intensive,
the tutut snail, a traditional item in but sustainable, rice-fish production
rural diets, is becoming a sought-after systems.
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 71
F
ood security in Malawi and Zam- In Malawi, a drought in 20042005
bia depends on maize production. caused average maize yields to drop
However, in both countries, yields to just 0.76tonnes perha, and five
average a low 1.2tonnes perha. Only million Malawians, nearly 40percent
about one in four smallholder farmers of the population, needed food aid1.
in Zambia and one in five in Malawi One of the main obstacles farmers
grow enough maize to sell in markets. face in increasing maize production is
Since maize production is almost low soil fertility. Many maize farmers
BURKINA
entirely rainfed, the crop is highly vul- can neither afford mineral fertilizer
FASO
GUINEA nerable to fluctuations
BENIN
in rainfall and nor obtain sufficient amountsDJIBOUTI
of or-
NE
temperatures,
GHANA and that
NIGERIA
vulnerability is ganic fertilizer,
SOUTH
such as animal
ETHIOPIA
ma-
likely to increase as climate changes. nure. Decades
CTE
CENTRAL SUDANof intensive cultivation
LIBERIA CAMEROON AFRICAN REP.
D'IVOIRE TOGO
SOMALIA Top 5 maize
Maize producing areas
EQUATORIAL GUINEA UGANDA producers, 2013
of Southern Africa CONGO (million tonnes)
SAO TOME AND
FAO/IIASA PRINCIPE
GAEZ DEMOCRATIC RWANDA South Africa 12.37
REPUBLIC OF
THE CONGO BURUNDI United
Republic
UNITED REP. of Tanzania 5.36
OF TANZANIA
Malawi 3.64
Zambia 2.53
ANGOLA Mozambique 1.63
MALAWI
Source: FAOSTAT
ZAMBIA
MOZAMBIQUE
> 8. 5
ZIMBABWE
NAMIBIA
BOTSWANA
8. 5
6. 5 -
SWAZILAND
.5
GE
SOUTH
5-6
RA
LESOTHO
PR
AFRICA
VE
4.
OD
CT
DA
U
I ON .5
-4
RL
O
IN
TO 2.5 W
NNE
2.5
S P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5-
72 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
on Kazakhstani steppe
Other crops
Oats, buckwheat, sorghum,
oilseeds, legumes
Zero-tillage, soil cover and crop rotation would help many countries
to reverse land degradation and produce more food. Kazakhstans
wheat growers are already well advanced in the transition to full
conservation agriculture
I
n the spring of 2012, as farmers Wheat producing
across the semi-arid steppes of areas of Central Asia
northern Kazakhstan were sowing FAO/IIASA GAEZ
> 4. 5
TAJIKISTAN
to less than 10million tonnes2.
CHINA
Some farmers, however, did not lose AFGHANISTAN
4. 5
their crops. They were among the ISLAMIC
REP.OF
3. 5 -
growing number of Kazakhstani wheat IRAN
PAKISTAN
growers who have fully adopted con-
5
GE
-3.
RA
PR
VE
OD
CT
DA
zero-tillage, retention of crop residues
U
I ON 5
-2.
IN INDIA
1. 5 RL
W
O
on the soil surface and crop rotation1. TO
NNE
S 1 .5
Those practices have increased levels P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5-
of soil organic carbon and improved
soil structure in their fields, allowing Top 5 wheat
producers, 2013
better infiltration and conservation Around 2million of Kazakhstans (million tonnes)
of moisture captured from melting 19million ha of crop land are under Kazakhstan 13.94
winter snow3. As a result, some farm- full conservation agriculture. On Uzbekistan 6.84
ers in Kostanay province achieved 9.3million ha, farmers have adopted Afghanistan 5.16
yields in 2012 of 2tonnes perhectare, minimal tillage, which uses narrow Turkmenistan 1.25
almost double the national average of chisel ploughs at shallow depths Tajikistan 0.92
Source: FAOSTAT
recent years1. |Figure3.10|4,5. The widespread adop-
tion of conservation agriculture in
76 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Figure 3.10 Changes northern Kazakhstans wheat belt has are striving to increase production
in crop area under been driven by necessity. While the while reducing costs9. However, the
different tillage country has vast land resources for approach has also been taken up
technologies in wheat production, and is one of the on small to medium-sized farms, a
Kazakhstan worlds leading producers and export- category which, in sparsely popu-
(million ha) ers of high-quality wheat and flour6, lated Kazakhstan, ranges from 500 to
14 the crop relies entirely on precipitation 2500ha10. The adoption rate has been
12 and is, therefore, very vulnerable to the particularly high on farms with rich
Minimal loss of soil moisture1. black soils, where high returns provide
10 tillage
Wheat farmers began reducing till- the capital needed for investment in ca
8
Conventional age in the 1960s to cope with high machinery7.
6 tillage losses of soil to wind erosion. By the In zero-tilled areas, weeds are often
4 end of the twentieth century, minimal controlled with herbicides11. However,
Zero tillage
2 tillage was a common practice. In many farmers have found that combin-
0 2000, Cimmyt and Fao, together with ing zero-tillage with permanent soil
2007 2008 2011 2012 2014
Kazakhstani scientists and farmers, cover also helps to suppress weeds.
Source: Adapted from Table
2, p.4 4 launched a programme to introduce Without tillage, the natural store of
conservation agriculture in rainfed weed seeds in the soil diminishes
areas, and raised-bed planting of wheat over time, and decomposing residues
under irrigation in the south of the release humic acids, which block the
country7. seeds germination. While zero-tillage
Trials in the north showed zero- usually requires increased use of herbi-
tilled land produced wheat yields cides in the first few years of adoption,
25percent higher than ploughed land, after four or five years the incidence of
while labour costs were reduced by weeds and herbicide use decreases
40percent and fuel costs by 70per- considerably5.
cent. The trials also demonstrated the Another advantage of retaining crop
advantages of growing oats in summer residues in northern Kazakhstan is
instead of leaving land fallow. With that it increases the availability of
an oat crop, the total grain output water to the wheat crop. Annual pre-
from the same area of land increased cipitation ranges from 250 to 350mm,
by 37percent, while soil erosion was and winter snow accounts for around
much reduced7. 40percent of it; when the snow is
blown away by wind, the soil surface is
Today, Kazakhstan ranks among the left bare and dry. Retaining the stubble
worlds leading adopters of zero-tillage. of the previous wheat crop traps the
The area of land that is no longer snow which, when the weather warms,
ploughed at all rose from nil in 2000 to melts into the soil. That has two ben-
1.4million ha by 20088. That increase efits: more moisture is available along
is attributed to very high adoption the soil profile and erosion is reduced
rates on large farming enterprises of or even eliminated. On-farm research
more than 50000ha, where managers has found that the use of residues to
Chapter 3 Farming systems that save and grow 77
Kazakhstan is one of
capture snow, along with zero-tillage, The adoption of conservation agri- the worlds leading
producers and exporters
can increase yields by 58percent9. culture in Kazakhstan has enabled an of high-quality wheat
and flour
Progress in the adoption of the third increase in annual wheat production of
pillar of ca, diverse crop rotations, almost 2million tonnes, sufficient to
which would increase land productiv- feed some 5million people10. Further
ity and help farmers to better manage increases will be possible with the
wheat pests and diseases, has been development of high-yielding wheat
slower. The vegetation period on the varieties better suited to zero-tillage
northern steppes in summer is short, and the norths harsh winters and
with a high frequency of dry years12. increasingly hot summers. That op-
Zero-tillage and
However, areas of traditional sum- tion is being explored through a pro- crop residues
mer fallows are declining, as farmers gramme with Cimmyt, which crosses that capture
take advantage of available and in Mexico local Kazakhstani wheat winter snow
sometimes abundant rainfall to grow varieties with Mexican, Canadian and can increase
oats, sunflower and canola7. Studies US cultivars4. wheat yields by
have shown the high potential of other 58percent
rotational crops, including field peas, Conservation agriculture is considered
lentils, buckwheat and flax13. highly suitable for all of Central Asias
A three-year study found that for- major cropping systems, from north
age sorghum sown late in May and Kazakhstans wheat belt down to
harvested in August provided not only the irrigated wheat, rice and cotton
fodder for sale or silage, but also left a fields of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
durable post-harvest stubble that was By reducing erosion and building
very effective in trapping that precious healthy soils, it would help combat the
winter snow9. desertification and land degradation
78 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
to climate change
Other crops/products
Vegetables, potatoes,
legumes, meat, eggs
Many rice farmers have switched to growing maize in the dry season,
using hybrids that reduce water consumption and generate higher
incomes. Close-up: Bangladesh
T
raditionally, many Asian rice Maize producing
farmers have maintained year- areas of Asia
round production by growing FAO/IIASA GAEZ MONGOLIA
> 8. 5
water for continuous rice cultivation1. SRI LANKA
BRUNEI
DARUSSALAM
At last count, rice-maize systems MALAYSIA
8. 5
SINGAPORE
were practised on more than 3.3mil-
6. 5 -
lion ha of land in Asia, with the largest INDONESIA
.5
GE
LESTE
5-6
RA
(1.5million ha), India (0.5million) and
PR
VE
OD
4.
CT
Nepal (0.4million). Recent expansion
DA
U
I ON .5
-4
RL
IN O
of the area under rice-maize rotation TO
NNE 2.5 W
has been most rapid in Bangladesh, S 2 .5 AUSTRALIA
P ER H
ECTARE < 0.5 0.5-
where farmers began growing maize
to sell as feed to the countrys boom- cool Rabi season, which runs from Top 5 maize
ing poultry industry. Between 2000 November to April, after the harvest- producers, 2013
(million tonnes)
and 2013, maize production increased ing of the rice crop grown during
from just 10000tonnes to 2.2million the July-December Aman monsoon China 217.7
India 23.3
tonnes, and the harvested area from season. While Rabi maize is generally Indonesia 18.5
5000ha to 320000ha1, 2. cultivated as a sole crop, many farm- Philippines 7.4
ers have begun to intercrop it with Viet Nam 5.2
Maize grows well in Bangladeshs potatoes and with early maturing Source: FAOSTAT
fertile alluvial soils and yields there vegetables, such as red amaranth,
are among the highest in the region. spinach, radish, coriander and French
The crop is sown at the start of the beans. Peas are also intercropped with
80 Save and Grow in practice: maize rice wheat
Figure 3.11 Economics of dry season rice, wheat and more than 3000litres for
wheat and hybrid maize production the same amount of rice. By reducing
in Bangladesh (000 Taka/ha) the extraction of groundwater for
irrigation, maize production also helps
80 reduce arsenic contamination of the
Rice soil, a severe problem in many areas
70 Wheat of Bangladesh3.
60 Hybrid maize Farmers and agronomists in Bangla-
50 desh have noted that grain yields tend
to decline in fields where maize has
40
been cultivated as a dry season crop
30 for five or more years. To ensure the
20 sustainability of rice-maize systems,
farmers need to carefully time the
10
planting and harvesting of each crop,
0 improve their soil and water manage-
Production cost Gross return Gross margin
ment practices, and use quality seed3.
Source: Adapted from Table 2, p.413
rice without tillage. In northwest Ban- earlier. However, those rice varieties
gladesh, farmers using these seeders produce lower yields, and farmers are
obtained rice yields similar to those of generally unwilling to sacrifice the
transplanted rice, but using less water production of their main food crop.
and labour, and were able to harvest The Bangladesh Rice Research Insti-
the crop two weeks earlier3. tute is, therefore, developing higher-
A study in Bangladesh compared yielding, shorter duration Aman rice
yields and profitability under plough- varieties. The future of sustainable
ing and zero-tillage. With permanent rice-maize farming in South Asia also
bed planting of maize, the combined hinges on the development of high-
productivity of rice and maize was yielding maize hybrids that mature
13.8tonnes perha, compared to quickly and tolerate both waterlogging
12.5tonnes on tilled land. The an- and drought3.
nual costs of rice-maize production on Maize farming in Bangladesh is
permanent beds was Us$1532perha, still new territory for many farmers,
compared with US$1684under con- and it will take time for them to fully
ventional tillage4. integrate it into cropping systems that
optimize production and improve
Hybrid maize requires large amounts soil health. Critical to the rapid and
Farmer training of nitrogen to produce high yields. But widespread adoption of sustainable
is critical to Bangladeshs reserves of natural gas, maize production is the training of
the rapid and
which is used to produce urea fertil- farmers in the precise timing of sowing
widespread
izer, are finite and non-renewable. One and more effective management of
adoption of
promising solution to soil nutrient irrigation and mineral fertilizer6, 7.
sustainable maize
production depletion is the application of poultry Domestic maize production has
manure, which is becoming abundant reduced Bangladeshs dependence on
Bangladeshs poultry sector now imports. The shift to maize has also
produces about 1.6million tonnes of provided farmers with a means of
manure every year3. diversifying their income and their
Good maize yields have been diets. Many farmers do not sell their
obtained by replacing with poultry entire maize harvest they feed some
manure 25percent of the mineral to their own poultry and sell eggs
fertilizer normally applied. Soil nitro- and meat at local markets. Increas-
gen can also be partially replenished ingly, maize is being consumed as
by growing legumes, such as mung- food, not just fed to poultry. As the
beans, after the maize harvest3. In price of wheat flour has increased,
tropical monsoon climates, a summer many families are mixing maize flour
mungbean crop also mops up residual into their chapatis8.
nitrogen and prevents nitrate pollution
of aquifers5.
Planting short duration rice varieties
would allow farmers to plant maize
Chapter 4
T
he profiles of Save and Grow in practice, presented in Chapter3,
have demonstrated how integrated, resource-conserving farming
systems, when adapted to specific agro-ecological and socio-
economic contexts, generate significant social, economic and
environmental benefits. Smallholder farmers have increased
cereal production and productivity and improved their livelihoods and
income, while conserving natural resources, enhancing ecosystem services,
and adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change. Save and Grow
farming systems are often most effective under difficult farming conditions
of water scarcity, soil nutrient depletion and climate extremes.
Sustainable crop production intensification, through Save and Grow, must
now be scaled up, as a matter of urgency, in order to face the unprecedented
confluence of pressures that threatens the worlds environment, socio-
economic development and long-term food security.
The private sector has also been a key facilitator of more sustainable and
productive farming in some countries. In India, local factories manufacture
zero-tillage seed drills and private contractors provide laser-assisted land
levelling services. In Kazakhstan, conservation agriculture equipment, such
as tractor-drawn seed drills, is readily available from dealers in agricultural
machinery. Public-private partnerships are improving the seed supply in
Brazil, China and India.
The adoption of Save and Grow will have positive impacts on the environ-
ment that should be recognized and rewarded. Payments for environmental
services in agriculture are still relatively new, but considerable work has been
done on the topic in recent years. For example, China is linking resource-
conserving farming systems to funding for climate change mitigation. With
Faos support, Viet Nam is developing funding strategies that would provide
payment for environmental services13.
Through institutional procurement programmes, governments can
improve the food and nutrition security of vulnerable groups, and integrate
smallholders into markets as suppliers. Thanks to management training,
bulk purchases of inputs and collective marketing, some smallholder farmers
organizations in Kenya are able to compete with larger enterprises in tenders
for the supply of maize to the World Food Programme18. Well-designed social
protection programmes can stimulate smallholder food production, creating
a win-win situation for both consumers and producers19, 20. For example,
Brazil purchased in 2013 some 270000tonnes of food, from 95000family
farmers, for free distribution to food insecure people and the countrys social
assistance network21.
Policies may also need to address labour shortages in rural areas. Lifting
people out of poverty through agriculture also requires increased returns to
labour, not just higher yields. It is unlikely that farmers will adopt Save and
Grow practices if they do not provide returns that are competitive with those
in other sectors. A successful transition to Save and Grow will depend on
technologies and policies that strengthen the environmental, economic and
social pillars of sustainability, reduce risk and save labour13.
Countries may also need to review their current programmes of support
to agriculture with a view to eliminating perverse subsidies that encourage
harmful practices such as overuse of fertilizer, pesticide and water, and
deforestation that leads to further loss of biodiversity and provide instead
incentives for the adoption of sustainable practices.
practices, and provide civil society organizations with benchmarks that they
can use in their work on behalf of rural communities.
Other useful guidelines include Principles for responsible investment in
agriculture and food systems22, also developed by the Committee on World
Food Security, and Principles for responsible agricultural investment that
respects rights, livelihoods and resources25, developed in 2009 by Fao, the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (Ifad), the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (Unctad) and the World Bank.
Access to and sustainable use of biodiversity is also essential to Save and
Grow. Farmers need access not only to a range of species for diversification
of their farming systems, but also to improved genetic resources within
species, in order to produce more with less and meet the challenges of climate
change. Countries should strengthen their programmes for the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity, join international instruments such as
the Convention on Biodiversity, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (It-Pgrfa) and the Commission on
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, and collaborate closely with
the Cgiar centres.
leaf colour charts to help time mineral fertilizer applications, and electronic
sensors that detect plant nitrogen deficits and nutrient levels in cereal
residues. Before being recommended, however, proposed innovations should
be assessed for their likely social, economic and environmental impacts.
There is no single blueprint for Save and Grow and its ecosystem-based
approach to crop production intensification. No magic seeds or technologies
exist that will improve the social, economic and environmental performance
of cereal production across all landscapes, in all regions. Save and Grow
represents a major shift from a homogenous model of crop production
to knowledge-intensive, often location-specific, farming systems. That is
why its application requires time, increased support to farmers and firm
commitment to strengthening national programmes9, 10.
The widespread adoption of Save and Grow requires concerted action
at all levels, with the active participation of governments, international
organizations, civil society and the private sector. The challenge is enormous,
but so, too, will be the rewards. Save and Grow will help drive the global
transition to sustainable food and agriculture, and help to build the hunger-
free world we all want.
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Abbreviations
BISA Borlaug Institute for South ha hectare IWMI International Water
Asia GAEZ Global Agroecological Zones Management Institute
CA conservation agriculture IAEA International Atomic Energy NERICA New Rice for Africa
CGIAR Consultative Group for Agency NGO non-governmental
International Agricultural ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural organization
Research Research OECD Organisation for Economic
CIAT International Center for ICARDA International Centre for Cooperation and
Tropical Agriculture Agricultural Research in the Development
CIMMYT International Maize and Dry Areas QSMAS Quezungual Slash-and-
Wheat Improvement Center ICIPE International Centre of Insect Mulch Agroforestry System
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific Physiology and Ecology R&D research and development
and Industrial Research ICRISAT International Crops Research SOC soil organic carbon
Organisation Institute for the Semi-Arid SSNM site-specific nutrient
CSO civil society organization Tropics management
DMC direct seeding, mulch-based IFAD International Fund for SRI System of Rice
cropping Agricultural Development Intensification
EMBRAPA Brazilian Agricultural IIASA International Institute for t tonne
Research Corporation Applied Systems Analysis
UNCTAD United Nations Conference
FAO Food and Agriculture IPM Integrated pest management on Trade and Development
Organization of the United IRRI International Rice Research
Nations USA United States of America
Institute
Glossary
Abiotic stress. Negative effect of Flooded (or paddy) rice. Pulse. Grain legume (e.g. lentil)
non-living factors (e.g. extreme Rice grown on land that is harvested for its dry seed
temperatures) flooded before puddling, then Puddling (rice). The tilling of
Biological nitrogen fixation. continuously flooded until crop flooded soil in order to create a
Conversion of atmospheric maturity muddy layer before seedlings are
nitrogen (e.g. by bacteria in Forage legume. Grassy or tree transplanted
legume root nodules) into plant- legume that provides leaves and Raised beds. Soil formed into
usable form stems for grazing or use in silage. beds approximately 50 cm to 2.5
Biomass. Biological material Grain legume. Legume (e.g. beans) m wide, of any length and from 15
derived from living organisms, that produces seeds used as food cm in height
usually not used for food or feed Green manure. A crop (e.g. grass) Relay cropping. Planting a second
Biotic stress. Negative effect of that produces residues that crop in a field before the first has
living factors (e.g. insects) serve as mulch been harvested
Conservation agriculture (CA). Intercropping. Growing two or Save and Grow. FAOs model of
Farming approach that protects more crops in the same field at sustainable crop production
soil structure, composition and the same time intensification
biodiversity through minimal soil Integrated pest management Soil organic matter. All organic
disturbance, permanent surface (IPM). Strategy that promotes materials found in soil
cover and crop rotation pest control with minimal use of Soil structure. The arrangement
Cover crop. Crop grown during chemicals of individual particles of sand,
fallow periods to protect soil, Laser-assisted land levelling. silt and clay in soil
recycle nutrients and control Eliminating undulations on
weeds Sustainable intensification.
the soil surface using a laser Maximization of primary
Crop residues. Plant parts transmitter and a receiver production per unit of input
remaining after a crop has been mounted on a tractor with a without compromising the ability
harvested levelling blade of the system to sustain its
Crop rotation. Alternating species Legume. Plant of the Fabaceae (or productive capacity
or families of crops in the same Leguminosae) family Sustainable crop production
field Mulch. Layer of organic material intensification. Ecosystem-
Direct-seeding. Sowing seed (e.g. crop residues) used to cover based farming that produces
without prior ploughing or hoeing the soil in order to conserve more from the same area of
of the seedbed moisture, suppress weeds and land while conserving natural
Drill-seeding. Sowing seed in recycle soil nutrients resources and enhancing
rows at optimal distance and Mineral fertilizer. Fertilizer made ecosystem services
depth, using a seed drill through chemical and industrial Seed-drill. Machine used in
Dry-seeding. Sowing seed into processes conservation agriculture to
dry soil Monocropping (or position seeds at equal distances
monoculture). Cultivation and proper depth, and cover them
Ecosystem services. Benefits with soil
from ecosystems that sustain of a single crop on the same
life land, year after year, using Water productivity. The amount
agrochemicals to control pests or value of product over volume
Fallow (also fallow rotation). and fertilize soil or value of water depleted or
Stage in crop rotation in which diverted
the land is deliberately not used Nitrous oxide. Major greenhouse
to grow a crop gas produced mainly in Water-use efficiency. The
agricultural soils and linked ratio of water used by plant
Farmer field school. Group to excessive use of mineral metabolism to water lost to the
learning of ecosystem- fertilizer atmosphere
based practices that reduce
pesticide use and improve the Permanent raised beds. Raised Zero-tillage. The conservation
sustainability of crop yields beds that are drill-seeded agriculture practice of drill-
through a mulch of crop residues seeding with no prior tillage
SAVE AND GROW IN PRACTICE MAIZE RICE AND WHEAT
Presents clearly defined guidelines This guide describes the practical application of FAOs
for sustainable production Save and Grow model of sustainable crop production
in developing countries. intensification to the worlds key food security crops:
maize, rice and wheat. With examples from Africa, Asia
Sanjay Rajaram and Latin America, it shows how ecosystem-based farming
World Food Prizewinner, 2014
systems are helping smallholder farmers to boost cereal yields,
strengthen their livelihoods, reduce pressure
Timely and important. on the environment, and build resilience to climate change.
Provides excellent examples The guide will be a valuable reference for policymakers
and makes principles very clear. and development practitioners during the global transition
to sustainable food and agriculture.
Jules Pretty
University of Essex (UK)
FAO